https://bou.de/u/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=Xu+Jing2China Studies Wiki - User contributions [en]2026-04-04T12:22:12ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.35.14https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_trans&diff=11946120201228 trans2020-12-28T00:43:44Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Yao Jia 姚佳 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
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A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
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Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.<br />
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通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。<br />
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据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br />
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''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br />
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我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br />
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''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br />
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''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br />
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br />
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The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br />
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A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br />
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“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br />
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”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br />
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Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay.<br />
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'''散文潮就像一面镜子，反映出了日渐显著的个体性、公众场合的参与度和现代中国社会令人眼花缭乱的种种特质'''<br />
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对散文进行全面审视，并分析其内在本质，要求我们在中华人民共和国、台湾、香港和美国的各大书店、图书馆开展广泛研究，获取散文集或涉及散文主题的二次文献等可用资源。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 00:35, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br />
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Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br />
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我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br />
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分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br />
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The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br />
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2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br />
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3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
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1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。<br />
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2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。<br />
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3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br />
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1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
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如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br />
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1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br />
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1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
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3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br />
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Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br />
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2、社会政治 在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。 在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。<br />
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3，个人 在香港 关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。<br />
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在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
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政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 <br />
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政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br />
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非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. <br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br />
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上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br />
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Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br />
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Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br />
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Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br />
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Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br />
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Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br />
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Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br />
<br />
Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br />
<br />
''吴漠汀''<br />
<br />
在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
'''1. The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
<br />
由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。 现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
<br />
Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
<br />
“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。<br />
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。<br />
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
<br />
地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。<br />
<br />
对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br />
<br />
除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays. <br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br />
<br />
This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces". <br />
<br />
Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
<br />
'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''<br />
<br />
在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。<br />
<br />
更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展<br />
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。<br />
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
<br />
文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。<br />
<br />
感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
<br />
- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
<br />
为什么论文像小说一样丰富？<br />
<br />
让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：<br />
<br />
-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现 ）。 对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响， 并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。 这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
<br />
- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
<br />
-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br />
<br />
- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
<br />
-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br />
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br />
<br />
3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br />
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br />
<br />
3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置<br />
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br />
<br />
Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
<br />
在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br />
<br />
关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br />
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br />
<br />
I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br />
<br />
We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
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'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br />
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How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br />
<br />
下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br />
<br />
5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br />
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br />
<br />
“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br />
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br />
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
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During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br />
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荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
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历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br />
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历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
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历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
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Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br />
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考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
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Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br />
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目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br />
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br />
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前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br />
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Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
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但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
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新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
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理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
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'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
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To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). <br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
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This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
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然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br />
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以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。 这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。 后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).<br />
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例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br />
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The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
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I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br />
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除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
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Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br />
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20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br />
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考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br />
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一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
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I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br />
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''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br />
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In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays". <br />
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In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br />
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“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br />
<br />
为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br />
<br />
"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown." <br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br />
<br />
Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br />
<br />
见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.<br />
<br />
参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br />
<br />
On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br />
因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.<br />
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br />
<br />
His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br />
<br />
''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。<br />
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br />
<br />
他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br />
<br />
'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br />
<br />
- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br />
<br />
- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br />
<br />
- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br />
<br />
-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br />
<br />
- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers"). <br />
<br />
- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br />
<br />
- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br />
<br />
- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br />
<br />
- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''". <br />
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br />
<br />
- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br />
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br />
<br />
Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br />
<br />
Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br />
<br />
- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br />
<br />
- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br />
<br />
- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br />
<br />
'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br />
<br />
吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br />
<br />
红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br />
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多元一体<br />
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'''Key words'''<br />
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Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
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“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）<br />
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多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br />
<br />
To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br />
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However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br />
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==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
'''2. Compatibility<br />
'''<br />
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br />
<br />
First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.<br />
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'''2. 兼容性<br />
'''<br />
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？<br />
<br />
首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br />
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'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br />
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There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br />
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然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br />
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'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br />
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《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br />
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'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br />
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According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br />
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小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。<br />
<br />
The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br />
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《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br />
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虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br />
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'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br />
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Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br />
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此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。<br />
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“5. 成熟和异化”<br />
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抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br />
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然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br />
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曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br />
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).<br />
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德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br />
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'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br />
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Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br />
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与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br />
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According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br />
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The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br />
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In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br />
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Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br />
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在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br />
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在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。<br />
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"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。<br />
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在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”<br />
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情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.<br />
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《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。 在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。<br />
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玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br />
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A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br />
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封建社会和奴隶<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br />
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另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br />
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2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
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2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br />
<br />
Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br />
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8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br />
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亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br />
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亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br />
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In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br />
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尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br />
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在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br />
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在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br />
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One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br />
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9. “非二进制小说”<br />
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可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
“非二元”小说<br />
<br />
一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br />
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br />
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Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br />
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10.红楼梦中的异邦文化<br />
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br />
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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宗教服饰带有不同宗教的特点，在描述一种宗教服饰时，我们也能体味不同宗教传统的玩味结合。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，同时也要展现出小说的众多主题和社会层次。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，以及贾宝玉消失的时候，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:43, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br />
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'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
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Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br />
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Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br />
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Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br />
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Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br />
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Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br />
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Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br />
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A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br />
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Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
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Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br />
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Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br />
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本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
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算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br />
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这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br />
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虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br />
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研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br />
<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br />
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br />
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The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br />
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“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br />
<br />
当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"<br />
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br />
<br />
当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.<br />
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这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br />
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br />
<br />
本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br />
<br />
虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br />
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The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br />
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但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br />
<br />
交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br />
<br />
传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br />
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br />
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机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br />
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'''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br />
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1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br />
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2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br />
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3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br />
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4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
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5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br />
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6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br />
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br />
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"两种类型的交际行为"<br />
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1.<br />
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br />
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2.<br />
上网行为(浏览网站)<br />
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3.<br />
消费者行为(购买)<br />
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4.<br />
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
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5.<br />
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br />
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6.<br />
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br />
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8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br />
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9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br />
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7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）<br />
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8.社交互动，包括 友谊，性关系<br />
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9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
'''3 Types of analysis'''<br />
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1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br />
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2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br />
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3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br />
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4.Mobility profile/pattern<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br />
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6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br />
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5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
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6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
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6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br />
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8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br />
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9.Secrets (like adultery)<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br />
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1.the human switches from active to passive<br />
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2.the human switches from subject to object<br />
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3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br />
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4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br />
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5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br />
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4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br />
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1.人从主动到被动的转换<br />
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2.人从主体到客体的转换<br />
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3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br />
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4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br />
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5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br />
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7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br />
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8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br />
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9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br />
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6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br />
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7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br />
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8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br />
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9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br />
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'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br />
'''<br />
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1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br />
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2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br />
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到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br />
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'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br />
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1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br />
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2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br />
<br />
4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br />
<br />
5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br />
<br />
6.Identity theft<br />
<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
<br />
4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br />
<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
'''6 Consequences'''<br />
<br />
1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6.后果<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br />
<br />
3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br />
<br />
4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br />
<br />
5.Polarization of Society<br />
<br />
6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br />
<br />
7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会的两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br />
<br />
9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br />
'''<br />
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br />
<br />
1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br />
<br />
2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模拟迫近的未来<br />
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br />
<br />
Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br />
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''8 结论与展望''' <br />
<br />
数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br />
<br />
尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br />
<br />
'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br />
'''<br />
'''<br />
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br />
'''<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br />
<br />
人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br />
<br />
人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
'''9 Outlook'''<br />
<br />
We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br />
<br />
'''References<br />
'''<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br />
<br />
Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br />
<br />
Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br />
<br />
Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br />
<br />
Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br />
<br />
Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br />
<br />
Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br />
<br />
Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br />
<br />
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br />
<br />
Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br />
<br />
Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br />
<br />
Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br />
<br />
Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br />
<br />
https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br />
<br />
Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br />
<br />
Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).<br />
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br />
<br />
Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br />
<br />
Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br />
<br />
Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br />
<br />
Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
'''Bio'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br />
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.<br />
<br />
个人简历<br />
<br />
自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201228_trans&diff=11945920201228 trans2020-12-28T00:25:19Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Xu Jing 许晶 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
<br />
A third example, where an author shows another face in his essays is Zhu Ziqing. He is known as the author of the most often reprinted story-like Chinese essay "''Back View''" (Beiying), a standard school text. The success of this essay lies in the fact, that it applies to filial pity. From the reported fare-well scene with his father at the train station, he learned that his father loved him and that he had grown-up too now. <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
This self-reflective essay helped Zhu to find himself through the observation of the other (here his father). The 2nd often printed essay is also from Zhu. Parallelistic and repetitive structures are the driving factor in the atmospherical nebulous lyrical landscape desription "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing supposedly opposed all political engagement and, wrote about unspectacular things. In Taiwan he became a type of substitute for the categorically refused state writer of the People’s Republic, Lu Xun, mainly because of Zhu’s supposed political independence.<br />
<br />
通过他人的观察（这里主要指朱自清的父亲），这篇自我反省式的文章帮助朱自清认清了自己。经常出版的第二版本也来自朱自清。“荷塘月色”中描述的天空星云，抒情般的景色是通过平行结构和重复结构中展现出来的，这种风格使西方读者很容易辨别。<br />
<br />
据称朱自清反对一切政治参与，只写不引人注意的事情。在台湾，主要因为朱自清的所谓政治独立，他因而代替了明确反对民国的作家鲁迅。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 14:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
I would like to show with three examples that Zhu had absolutely clear political ideas: He had taken part in the demonstration March 18, 1926, which ended in a massacre. Zhu described this in ''"Report On the Massacre of the Government''"[ (Zhizhengfu da tusha ji).].<br />
<br />
''Shots were still being fired, and the entrance of the east gate was packed with people. [...] Pushing and shoving, we climbed over them with great effort. We must have lost our senses then, not seeing, to our shame, the grotesqueness of our action. ''<br />
<br />
我想用三个例子说明，朱自清有绝对明确的政治思想。1926年3月18日，他参加了示威游行，这场游行最终以屠杀告终。朱自清在《执政府大屠杀记》中对此进行了描述。<br />
<br />
''这时枪声未歇，东门口拥塞得几乎水泄不通。[...] 我们便推推搡搡，拥挤着，挣扎着，从他们身上踏上去。那时理性真失了作用，竟恬然不以为怪似的。'' --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:39, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
''[...]I was still walking on top of the people. No one dared to miss a single step, filing through the gate that divided safety from danger, one that would give us life or take our lives away. [...] My efforts finally brought me down to the ground, sealing my fate as I rolled down from the human pile. [...] I learned later that some of the people by the gate were dead, killed by the pistol squad firing from the other side of the gate. When I recall stepping over dead bodies, I cannot help but tremble with fear. [...]''<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
From this experience, Zhu addresses directly the repsonsible political leaders:<br />
<br />
''Duan Qirui, you must think about it! [...] How could we explain this to the world? [...] Granted, Duan Qirui and others could commit such atrocities without a thought; but how could we, the people of China, face the world with such a shameless government? [...] We, [...], must ask, „So many were killed—what should we do?“''<br />
经过这次经验，朱直接给负责相关部门的政府官员写信道：“段祺瑞，你好好想一想！[…]我们要怎么跟世界人民解释？[…]当然了，段祺瑞和其他士兵不用想都会承认这次的暴行；但是，我们，作为中华人民共和国，怎么能以这样一种无耻的政府面对世界？，[…]我们，[…]必须要问，这么多人牺牲了，我们应该做什么？”--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In contrast, Lu Xun has portrayed the same massacre with sighing undertone and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his "''Ways to die''"[ (Si fa).] - in which he finds "to be shot" the best method to die. The supposedly less politically engaged Zhu shows here more engagement.<br />
<br />
The essay "''Facing the New China''"[ (Xin Zhongguo zai wang zhong).] is Zhu's political manifest: He asks for democracy, enlightenment and an increase of the education level.<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
''China has to be born again through democratization. [...] The people should express their own will, concentrate on their own strength. Every level of administration should build up on the expressed will and strength of the people and struggle for the majority and its greatest happiness. This means that the people govern, the people own, the people enjoy.''<br />
<br />
A few weeks before his death, he demanded in the speech ''"Today's duty of the Intellectuals''"[ (Zhishifenzi jintian de renwu).] the participation of the intellectual in the struggle for a better society.<br />
<br />
“中国必须通过民主化重生。[...]人们应该表达自己的意志，集中自己的力量。各级行政机关都应该建立在人民的意志和力量的基础之上，并且为大多数人及其最大化的幸福而奋斗。也就是民治，民有，民享。”<br />
<br />
”中国必须用过民主化重生。[...]人们应当表达他们自身的意志，集中力量。各级政府都应建立在人民意志和力量基础之上，并为大部分人民及其最大幸福而奋斗。也就是民治、民有、民享。”--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在他去世的几周前，他在 “知识分子今天的职责”的演讲中要求知识分子参与建设更好的社会。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:31, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
With only a handful of essays I have demonstrated, that the picture of these three authors changes substantially, if we read carefully also their less known essayistic work. Imagine now how the picture of 20th century Chinese literature might change, if the literary histories and anthologies would not only tell the history of drama, fiction and poetry, but would also grant the essay its proper place. The following part of my paper are results of my monograph on the 20th century Chinese essay.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The essay boom as a mirror reflecting growing individuality, participation in the public sphere, and the giddy-paced character of modern Chinese society'''<br />
<br />
Acquiring an overview of the essay and assessing its essence has required extensive research in bookstores and libraries, in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and the United States for available resources in the form of essay book collections as well as secondary literature dealing with the essay. <br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
I built a database for a statistical analysis to rank more than 5000 essays and 1400 essayists. It turned out that out of the top 60 most famous Chinese essays only 14 had been translated into English so far. The forthcoming collection of Tam King-fai adds 4 and my own one the remaining 42.<br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report[ (baogao wenxue) (Klaschka 1998).].<br />
<br />
我建立了一个用于统计分析的数据库，对5000余篇散文和1400名散文家进行排名。事实证明，迄今为止，在中国最著名的60篇论文中，只有14篇被翻译成英文。 谭景辉即将出版的散文选集另有新翻译的4篇，我自己则翻译余下的42篇。<br />
<br />
分析表明，自1979年以来，总体上来说，散文发表有所增加，在“文化大革命”之后还出现了两次热潮，在1990年达到了新的高度。首次增加出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，此后便被报告文学所取代（Klaschka 1998）。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 04:41, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous essay bookseries[ sanwen congshu 散文叢書.].<br />
<br />
The reason for the increase in essay production, which we can date right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in the sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for the survey. There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
1, The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts, as Hall has put it: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ (Hall 1984:xiii).].<br />
<br />
2, The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands. <br />
<br />
3, A revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
1，当前中国社会的快节奏需要分篇和短篇文本。正如霍尔所言，：“ ......我们生活在博览会时代。” [（Hall 1984：xiii）]。<br />
<br />
2，对于正在增强的个人意识来说，散文是主观表达的最直接形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接。<br />
<br />
3，通过散文讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复兴，就像1920年代/ 30年代那样。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
If we look carefully at essay collections not only published in the United States, but also in Hong Kong, Taiwan and the People’s Republic, we find the following three reasons for the under- and overestimation of single essayists or essays which correspond to regional differences:<br />
<br />
1, EXOTIC In the United States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
<br />
如果我们仔细观察在美国出版的，以及在香港、台湾和中华人民共和国出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们低估和高估了回应地域差异的单个散文家或散文: <br />
<br />
1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，完全不知名的作者和老牌作家拥有一样多的空间。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果我们细细研读在美国出版的，以及在中国香港、台湾和大陆出版的散文集，我们会发现以下三个原因导致人们因地域差异而低估或高估了某些散文家或散文: <br />
<br />
1、异国情调 在美国，散文往往是根据西方人的口味来选择的，名不见经传的作者和著名的作家拥有同样多的市场。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
2, SOCIO-POLITICAL In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, as the mentioned survey proofs, he ranks 12th among modern authors there. Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
3, PERSONAL Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by his disciple Huang Weiliang in favor for Yu.[ (see Lin Yaode 1989:50).]<br />
<br />
Having named reasons for the essay boom and for the support for and the suppression of different actors in the cultural field of the essay, I would like to finish my paper by naming a few trends of the essay as they appear at the eve of the century.<br />
<br />
2、社会政治 在台湾，鲁迅被禁锢了很久，但如今，如上述调查证明，他在台湾现代作家中排名第12位。 在中华人民共和国，王蒙因其政治职务而被高估。<br />
<br />
3，个人 在香港 关于余光中的文学被他的弟子黄伟良检查和删节，他是赞成余光中的。（见林耀德1989：50）。<br />
<br />
在列举了一些关于论文热潮以及在论文文化领域中对不同行为者的支持和压制的原因之后，我想通过列举几世纪前夕出现的一些论文趋势来结束我的论文。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:51, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consumer-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
<br />
政治散文的主题从1907年兴起的启蒙教育散文转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影）都在讨论最佳社会制度，于是有关政治问题的主题复兴，但20世纪90年代时，主题又变成了非政治性，更加哲学道德的主题范畴，那会，散文家们首先对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 <br />
<br />
政治类散文的局部发展从1907年兴起的启蒙教育类转变为20世纪20-30年代的日常政治散文，又进一步于20世纪40年代转变为反日宣传，于20世纪50-60年代发展为意识形态宣传。然而到了20世纪80年代，（文学和电影中）对于最佳社会制度的探讨使得政治话题再次变得火热。但20世纪90年代时，写作主题又转向非政治性，以及更加哲学道德的范畴，那会，散文家们首先会对照大众的消费导向来定义角色。除了声称“艺术倾注的”文章外，在中国，这类散文似乎是保留了教育主张的唯一体裁。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("''On dreams''"[ "Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928.]) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 ("''My own garden''"[ 9.1923.], "''The Fly''"[ 1924.], "''Reading on the Toilet''"[ 1936.]), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the newly encountered world of mass consumerism.<br />
<br />
非政治类文章的局部发展始于朱自清以及周作人1917年开始写的每日随想（朱自清1928年发表的散文《说梦》；周作人1923年发表的《自己的园地》、1924年发表的《苍蝇》、1936年发表的《入厕读书》）。自1927年的修正，政治类文章成为主流，直到20世纪30年代末期，非政治类文章因为抗日战争的爆发完全消失。直到20世纪70年代，人民生活回归正常，非政治类文章才重新现世，由于消失太久，日常琐事成为当时热门的写作话题。20世纪90年代，由于政治话题热度的下降以及进入新时代为迎合广大群众而开发新话题的需要，非政治类文章又迎来一次高潮。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
In the end of this century not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. Among the upper list places of the political essay after 1949 there are critical essays. For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A sign for the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation for customers (former: "readers"). Following the emotional essays of Zhu Ziqing who rank 1st and 2nd, ''nostalgia'' is the element of emotional identification in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Zhou Zuoren, which ranks 3rd[ In Jia Pingwa's "Moon traces", which ranks 11, and in Ba Jin's "''Paradise for Birds''", which ranks 19]. Therefore one can state, that moving essays form the top.<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature took the form of 'engaged literature'. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics in daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. In the later half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of individuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. <br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only remiscent element left is the patriotism.[ ''Trends like the use of ordinary language'', which one finds in novels since 1993 (''Jia Pingwa'', Feidu; ''Gu Cheng'', Yingger) and New Borderlessness since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable ''object d'art''.]<br />
<br />
上个世纪90年代，80年代的政论文随笔文化逐渐隐没了，唯一剩下留有想象空间的元素就是爱国主义。[“比如使用普通语言的趋势”，这是从1993年以来在小说中发现的（“贾平凹”） 费杜，古格，英格）以及自1995年以来，《新无边际》都无法在论文写作中得到证明，我们之所以没有找到后现代小说意义上的后现代散文，是因为文章的直接性：随笔作为一种体裁，是作者和读者之间的对话，而不是想要引起不同解释的原因或可能依赖于特殊形式或内容甚至是按顺序引用前现代特征的艺术品，这使它成为一个与众不同的“艺术品”。]--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 13:06, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''References''' [partly mentioned with German translation] （不用翻）<br />
<br />
Vera Schwarcz 1996, Vera Schwarcz, "The pain of sorrow: public uses of personal grief in modern China", in Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Winter 1996)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1982, Ba Jin: "Yi feng huixin 一封回信" (Ein Antwortbrief (26.10.1982)), in: Bing zhong ji 病中集 (Auf dem Krankenlager), Hongkong 香港 1984(?) (Series Suixiang lu 隨想錄 (Thoughts) Bd 4), 147 pp.<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1982a, Ba Jin: "Yi pian xuwen 一篇序文" (Ein Vorwort) [dated 1982.9/10], in: Ba Jin: Auf dem Krankenlager 1984<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1956, Ba Jin 巴金: "Duli sikao 獨立思考" (Unabhängig denken), in: Li Jisheng 李濟生, Li Xiaolin 李小林 (Hgg.): Ba Jin liushi nian wenxuan (1927 - 1986), Suixiang lu, zagan, sanwen, xuba, yanjiang, shuxin 巴金六十年文選（１９２７－１９８６）隨想錄·雜感·散文·序跋· 演講·書信 (Ba Jin. Werkauswahl aus 60 Jahren (1927 - 1986), Gedanken, vermischte Gefühle, Essays, Vor- und Nachworte, Reden, Briefe), Shanghai 上海: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe 上海文藝出版社 (Literatur- und Kunstverlag Shanghai), 1986.12, S. 461 - 462 [Datiert auf 1956.]<br />
<br />
Ba Jin 1962, "Zuojia de yongqi yu zerenxin 作家的勇氣與責任心" (Mut und Verantwortungsbewußtsein der Schrifsteller) 1962; der Essay von Zhou Zuoren 周作人: "Wenxue tan 文學談" (Über Literatur), in: Tan long ji 談龍集 (Über Drachen. Sammlung), Shanghai 上海: Kaiming shudian 開明書店 (Kaiming Buchladen) 1927.12, Nachdruck: Hongkong 香港: Shiyong shuju 使用書局 (Praxisverlag) 1972.1, 310 S., S. 165 - 167<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1919, Zhou Zuoren, "Zuxian chongbai 1919 (Ancestor Worship)," in Early Essays, op.cit., pp. 78<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1920: Zhou Zuoren 周作人, Xin wenxue de yaoqiu 新文學的要求" (The demand of the New Literature) [lecture], in Beiping shaonian xuehui 北平少年學會 (Beiping youth conference) 1920.1.6, in: Zhang Ruoying 長若英: Xin wenxue yundong shi ziliao 新文學運動史資料 (Material on the history of the New Literature movement), Shanghai 上海: Guangming shuju 光明書局 (Guangming bookstore) (1934.9) ²1936.9, 291-296<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1923, Zhou Zuoren: Yanzhicao ba (Preface to Yu Pingbo's Yanzhicao), in: Yongri ji (Book of Eternal Day), Shanghai: Beixin shuju 1929, 180-181<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1929, Zhou Zuoren: Ertong de shu (The books of children), in: Chenbao fukan (1923.8.17)<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren yuanliu, Zhou Zuoren: Zhongguo xin wenxue de yuanliu (Sources of New Chinese Literature), p 71<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren 1932, Zhou Zuoren: Lun baguwen 1932, in: Kanyun ji p. 148<br />
<br />
Source: NEAAS annual meeting 10/09/1999 New Haven (Yale University)<br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Modern Chinese Literature and the Essay Genre: A New Perspective'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
In this paper, I will not recount the contents and propose interpretations of any essays, nor will I outline the main topics or styles of essaywriting in China, but I would like to take the opportunity to reflect a little bit on the phenomenon of the genre itself and discuss some conclusions and hypotheses with the attentive and critical audience which can be found at only a few places on earth, EALC at Harvard definitely being one of them.<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：以新视角》<br />
<br />
''吴漠汀''<br />
<br />
在本文中,我将不再赘述任何文章的内容和提出的观点,我也不会列出其主要主题或风格,但是我想借此机会,反映一些现象本身的类型，并与包括哈佛大学学生在内的观众对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:16, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
《中国现代文学与散文体裁：新视角》<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
本文将不再赘述或解释任何文章的内容，也不会列出中国散文的主要主题或风格。我想借此机会，反思体裁现象，同乐于助人、至关重要且世间少有的读者，包括哈佛大学东亚语言和文化学院的学生，对一些结论和假设进行探讨。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:28, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
'''1. The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. In my paper I will ask, if the picture of literature can remain unchanged, if we take into consideration also the essay. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90, McDougall 1998);<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
<br />
二十世纪文选和选集里的文学史的叙述对于整个中国文学来说是不完整的：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:09, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
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20世纪选集所讲述的文学历史叙事，描绘了一幅不完整的中国文学图景:：散文题材是缺失的。 在我的论文里我将要探寻是否文学整个文学框架依旧保持不变，是否把散文体裁考虑进去。 作为一种具有优势的体裁它已经被忽视了很久了。（马古烈 1949，施寒薇 1990）或者被省略（约翰·麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90，杜博妮 1998）；--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:30, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''1.未知体裁'''<br />
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20世纪的选集和文集所讲述的文学史叙事，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景。散文的体裁是缺乏的。在我的论文中将要探讨如果我们把散文也考虑进去，文学的图景是否可以保持不变。长期以来，这一文体作为一种优秀的文体被忽视（马古利耶斯1949年，施密特-格林策1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年，麦克杜格尔1998年）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
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由于自民国初年五四运动确立的总叙事之后，对小说文学的重视和写作的白话化，因而它的系列小说，就一直受到重视。 现代选本会让读者相信诗歌、小说、戏剧这三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Excursion: Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
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Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with xiaoshuo (fiction), sanwen (non-fictional prose)), lyrics (shige) and drama (xiqu). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term "wu yunwen" which corresponds to the term "epic" in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet. The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
在抒情诗中，读者被鼓励去感受当下的感觉，并且常常是诗人的忏悔式的感觉。戏剧直接在独白或对话中回忆起一个自足的动作，以这种方式释放了读者/观众重新创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是一种超脱的、非虚构的、自由形式的主观表现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 02:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在抒情诗中，鼓励读者感受诗人当下的感觉，且这种感觉常常是诗人的忏悔。戏剧直接以独白或对话的方式回忆一个自足的动作，并通过这种方式释放了读者/观众再创造的想象力。散文作为史诗的一种体裁，是以自由的形式进行的一种分离的非虚构的主观表现。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:11, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
"Essay", Chinese mostly ''sanwen'', is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Freedom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
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“散文”，中文主要是“散文”，是一个较短的、独立的非虚构散文文本的体裁术语，作者试图从主观的角度调解个人对一个对象或问题的体验。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。资源由散文家自主掌握，主题在更大的背景下被看到，甚至可以幽默地呈现。文章在形式和内容上的自由是必不可少的。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 13:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“散文”是一种体裁术语，在汉语中也叫做“sanwen”，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，散文创作者可以从主观的角度，将个人的经验调和到事物或问题上。它试图从不同的方面进行联想，不是作为日常使用的文本，而是用艺术或教育要求的语言手段，然而是以一种容易理解的形式。文章素材由散文家自主掌握，主题可以置于更大的背景之下，甚至可以一种幽默的方式呈现。散文的形式和内容都是自由的。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“随笔”，中文名多为“散文”，是一种体裁术语，指篇幅较短、自成一体的非虚构散文文本，作者试图从主观视角来调和个人对对象或问题的经验。<br />
散文试图从不同的方面进行联想，它不是作为日常使用的文本，而是作为艺术或教育要求的语言方式，虽然如此，还是以一种可理解的方式呈现。<br />
资源由随笔作家独享，话题可以在更大的背景下展出，甚至可以幽默地呈现。形式和内容的自由对这篇随笔至关重要。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 14:38, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, a subcategorization in numerous small entities, like Zheng Mingli does with the essay, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems. All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
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地域差异对散文的影响似乎不如对已确立的文体如短篇小说、小说的影响大，也远不如对诗歌的影响大。除散文外的其他文体被视为国际文体。我认为中西方散文也属于相同的国际文体，跨文化的相互作用也许可以在形式和内容上证明这一假设。<br />
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对于文章而言，比起短篇故事，小说等已存的体裁，区域差异似乎不那么重要，对于诗歌而言，区域差异更不重要。所有这些其他的体裁都被看作国际体裁。中国和西方的文章都属于同一国际体裁，这一假设也许可以通过形式和内容上的跨文化相互关系来证明。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay.<br />
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在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。今天我们在刊物上看到的中国散文，已经具备了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文类别的第二个暗示。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 07:58, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在21世纪，世界上的国家趋向于走到一起，而文化则主要取决于现代化水平。正如我们从现今报纸里面看到的那样，中国散文采用了西方散文的形式和内容，而且其目标群体与西方散文相当。这是中国现代散文开始趋同于国际散文体裁的第二个标志。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:27, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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21世纪，世界在共同成长，文化主要由现代化程度决定。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，在形式和内容上都与西方散文相似，其目标群体也与之相似。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文的第二个暗示。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:44, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在21世纪，世界共同发展，文化主要决定于现代化的水平。我们今天在报纸上看到的中国散文，已经呈现出西方散文的形式与内容，并且其目标群体也与西方散文不相上下。这是中国现代散文属于国际散文体裁的第二个迹象。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:17, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 1992 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay).<br />
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尽管人们普遍接受用短小故事来翻译短篇小说，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系并不如西方散文与其中国同类文章密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹于1992年 13:269-272 论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆于1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管人们普遍接受用“短小故事”来翻译“短篇小说”，但两者的关系不如西方的散文和中国的对应定义密切。这个定义是我从5000多篇中国现代散文样本中发展出来的，也符合国际上对散文的特殊理解（继博尔兹1992年13:269-272论西方散文的发展；布特莱姆1989年论西方散文的理论）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:01, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 15:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it "Chinese"? In the occidental essay the form seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework.<br />
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除了首先由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文有独特本土的特征。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？和中文散文相比，西方散文的文章形式似乎是更重要的分类标准。在中国，甚至有些文章内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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除了最初由周作人表达出来的社会全球化趋势，号召采用英语散文风格，中文散文具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何形成其特有文化，其中文性又由何组成？与中文散文相比，西方散文的形式分类标准似乎更重要。在中国，有些文章甚至是内容相似，但形式和类别大相径庭。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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除了周作人提倡采用英语散文风格所体现的全球化社会趋势外，中文散文还具有独特的本土特色。中文散文如何在文化上定义，其中国性又是什么？在西方文章中，形式似乎是比中国文章更重要的区分标准。在中国，甚至包括那些只有类似内容，却跨越了形式上的属相框架的文本。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 11:05, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
This can be shown with Zheng Mingli, who subcategorises the "unfinished diary" or the "unfinished letter". Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Zheng Mingli: "essay in diary form" and "essay in letter form"), they are accepted as essays. <br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''The Chinese understanding of the genre is tendencially broader'''<br />
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This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén'' "non-rhythmic prose", which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning "short literary essay pieces". <br />
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Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
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'''中国人对这类体裁的理解区域广泛'''<br />
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在中国，这种对随笔的广泛认识可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文中所具有的“无韵散文”的内涵，“无韵散文”原本指所有的非虚构散文。从更广泛的意义来讲，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但是，我只讨论“散文”的狭义意义，指的是“短篇文学随笔片段”。<br />
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更进一步的差异是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、谚语使用等文体特征。<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''The Chinese essay is booming again in the 1980s and 1990s'''<br />
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Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'').[ Klaschka 1998.] The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文叢書 (essay bookseries).<br />
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20世纪80年代和90年代中国散文再次蓬勃发展<br />
研究表明，1979年以后散文发表量普遍增加，在“文革”之后出现了两个高峰期。<br />
散文出版量在1990年达到了一个新的高度。第一次增长出现在20世纪20年代和30年代，但是在此之后，散文的角色因为报告这一体裁(报告文学)而黯然失色。(Klaschka 1998。)在1920/30年代和1980/90年代，散文的繁荣在一定程度上得益于新杂志的出现，这些杂志是当代散文家发表文章的阵地，其大多属于散文丛书。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 14:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
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Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging xiangtu literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
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文化革命结束后，散文产量的增加导致需求积压，1980至1982年间，共有印刷了一百万册的散文集，这仅计算了我为调查收集的130本“代表性”书籍的样本中包含的藏书。<br />
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感谢一些年长的中国编者的作品，自20世纪70年代以来，整个散文文化是由杂志和报纸汇编而成的，并以大量选集的形式出版。这种文学繁荣堪比无题乡图文学的文化热，它是在台湾自我认同和独立运动的背景下兴起的。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''2. Why is the essay as abundant as fiction?'''<br />
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Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
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- The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political zawen of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection "Modern Chinese Literary Thought" 1996. The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
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为什么论文像小说一样丰富？<br />
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让我列举几个原因，为什么这篇论文实际上与它的散文兄弟，小说以及抒情姐妹，诗歌一样丰富，以及为什么必须如此重视它：<br />
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-这篇文章在整个历史上都对中国社会产生了直接的影响（从清末到五四期间的改革思想，包括文学理论作品和鲁迅的日常政治杂文，直到今天大多以论文形式呈现 ）。 对文学反思和理论的影响在1996年的“中国现代文学思想”合集中显示。随笔类型，其直接语言，与生活之间的联系（例如，其在适应文化大革命中的作用）的影响， 并通过报纸直接接触个人读者。 这种影响大于小说或诗歌的间接影响。 这首诗是从社会生活，政治问题和时间参照中退缩的一种体裁。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 15:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of novel and opera in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
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- The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌依赖于形象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
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-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。个人主义在随笔中表现得比在诗歌中更直接，但在内容和形式上都有局限性。短文的短暂性体现在短文的形式上，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 13:48, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗歌升华情感。但诗歌也依赖于意象和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“散文”却能给事物命名，反映千变万化的生活。现代主体性就是以“散文”为工具建构的。<br />
<br />
- 随笔也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的发展趋势。个人主义在随笔中的表现比在诗歌中更直接，因为诗歌在内容和形式上对此有所限制。随笔的短暂性体现在随笔的形式上，人们可以在上班路上的地铁里阅读，而在地铁里读诗，可能就没有那么随性的享受。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:55, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
胡适认为“诗”在现代化的过程中是最重要的，因为诗会升华情感。但诗歌也依赖意向和语言节奏。梁启超强调小说和戏曲在社会变迁中的作用。但“三文”却能命名事物，它反映生活千变万化。现代主体性是以“三文”为工具来建构的。<br />
<br />
-散文也比诗歌和小说更能反映社会的趋势。由于散文的内容和形式上受限，它比诗歌更能直接表达个人主义。散文很短，所以花时间少，可以在上班路上的地铁里读，但在地铁里读诗可能就不能那么随性的享受了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 12:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lifes, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
[[Media:Example.ogg]]==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
- The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his ''zawen''), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang lu'' derived).<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报纸是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他主张审查制度，作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，他以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:54, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“随笔”的产量超过了“小说”的产量：从19世纪70年代开始，中国的报纸就在《申报》、《时报》等杂志上发表。梁启超认为报纸既自由又权威：他认为报社是控制政府的机构；另一方面，他主张审查制度，报纸作为20世纪初的一个大众媒体，以连载的形式呈现一两个虚构的故事，但却发明了散文专栏，如“扎根”（鲁迅从中发展了他的“札文”）、“随笔”或“随想”（巴金的《随想录》就是从中衍生出来的）。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
'''3. Let us assign the essay its proper place'''<br />
The consequence which must be driven from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay.<br />
<br />
3.让我们为散文指定其适当的位置，<br />
由此得出的结论是:让我们为散文指定其适当的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，论文写作有所增加，但对这一现象的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间才出现。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。<br />
<br />
3.让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置<br />
从上面提出的论文的价值与价值之间的对比,由此得出的结论是:让我们给作文赋予它应有的位置!我将描述发现这篇文章的开始。尽管从1979年开始，散文写作有所增加，但有关这一现象的出现的第一次理论反思却花了10年时间。又过了10年，中国研究的国际学者才意识到这一现象。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。另外90年代的两次会议也没有趋于国际学术研究的动向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 12:54, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这首先集中在鲁迅等单个作家的散文作品上。除此之外，20世纪90年代的两次会议也没有转向国际学术研究的方向。直到1995年，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（比如1995年Kubin的《关于梁漱溟》；Woesler的《关于王蒙》；Mansberg的《关于刘再复》[未发表]）或探讨某个群体的散文（1996年瓦格纳的《关于新月派》）。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998) and for the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996).<br />
<br />
Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones.<br />
<br />
在不早于上个世纪90年代下半叶之时，出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。<br />
<br />
关于中国大陆，台湾地区和西方的散文评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
上世纪90年代后半期以前, 出现了使用西方语言学方法撰写的中国散文史（Woesler 1998），并且散文首次作为与小说和诗歌同等的体裁被纳入西方文学选集。 （《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》 1995，《现代中国文学思想读本》 1996）。中国大陆，台湾和西方对散文的评价，存在地区差异：在美国，人们通常根据西方人的喜好来选择散文，给予完全不知名的作家与知名作家同等的篇幅。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th. If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode 1989:50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation.<br />
在台湾,鲁迅很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 12:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在台湾,鲁迅的作品很早就被禁了,但今天,在我的调查里,上世纪90年代中国散文家作品印刷量最大的时候,鲁迅排在了第16位。 如果只考虑现代作家,甚至排在了第12位。 香港关于余光中文学的评论,被黄伟良第一次看中(见林耀德1989:50),王蒙因政治职务在中华人民共和国被高估。<br />
<br />
然而,要获得西译中最重要的中国散文,还需要一个参考文献。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:39, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai, Woesler) or already published (Pollard 1999). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. This year, scholars will meet on a first international conference on the essay (Achern, Germany August 25-26). In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
'''4. Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature'''<br />
<br />
I will give a few hints, what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Prusek and Anderson.<br />
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We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the ''yuanyang hudie pai'' played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In the following, I will name three aspects (chronologically sorted by past, modern and contemporary time) to hold the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
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'''5. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned'''<br />
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How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay are both in China and the West notes written on the margins of books, they are letters and travel notes.<br />
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下面，我将从三个方面(在时间顺序上按过去、现代、当代排序)来论述对散文的考量将改写中国文学史，改变我们目前对它的认识这一论点。<br />
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5. 古典和前现代散文记录了中国哲学，其早期的主体性，仍然是对中国本土传统的质疑。<br />
中国散文在历史上要如何定位，它是如何产生的，它的共有背景是什么？一般来说，中国和西方的散文都是起源于写在书本空白处的笔记，是书信和游记。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality und subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference this far for the term ''sanwen'' that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatels, is limited.) (''Helin yulu''). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge.<br />
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“詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。”罗大京提到的另一个骂名，是形式上的：与具有高度艺术性和长达一个世纪传统的诗歌写作相比，散文中直接的、白话文式的语言在他看来并不那么有价值。<br />
在西方，16世纪晚期出现了一种真正的“散文写作艺术”，作为一种传播重组知识的媒介。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:50, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“诗騷妙天下，而散文颇觉瑣碎局促。”罗大经提出的另一个责难，是形式上的。在他看来，与高度艺术化的百年诗词写作传统相比，散文直接的、白话文式的语言没有什么价值。<br />
在西方，真正的 “散文写作艺术 ”是在16世纪末作为重组知识的一种媒介出现的。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 04:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The reorganization originated from the observations of Kopernikus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Age.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of sǎn 散 as (to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. <br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises. They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
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During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written at the paper margins originated the ''biji'' µ§°O (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming Dynasty.<br />
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荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形，它们是哲学教学论文的早期形式。其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
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历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 02:25, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，这些散文中传授的普遍定理不仅有引用经典著作，还首次借鉴其个人经历。这种个体性在当代的散文中仍有保留。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文通过一些子类别得以呈现，如明朝盛行的在书页边上写的读书注释，它就是源于笔记。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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荀子的哲学论著是后世散文的雏形。其作品是哲学论教散文的早期形式，其中的一般定理不仅来自于经典著作的引用，而且第一次从他的个人经验中得出。个性仍是现今散文的主要特点。<br />
<br />
历朝历代，散文在某些子类中进一步得以表现，如从写在纸边的读书笔记产生了明朝盛行的偶记。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:20, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as a genre of its own originated in China not before the Qing ²M dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
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Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences.<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文的一个纽带。散见的笔记包含了私人的历史记录，轶事，交谈和个人沉思。然而，尽管当时的散文选集众多，但将视散文作为一种文体的意识，清朝之前并没有出现。<br />
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考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们在旧社会时，对短篇故事和小说的看法不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的困惑和经历。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 04:15, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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边缘主义是中西早期散文传统的一个纽带。偶尔的笔记可以包含私人的历史笔记，轶事，交流和沉思。然而，尽管当时中国散文选集有很多，一直到清朝之后我们才将散文视作一种文体意识。<br />
考虑到当时的社会历史背景，人们对旧社会的看法与短篇小说和小说不同：散文更接近现实生活，因为它们表达了个人的问题和经历。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Until now, the Chinese pre-''Hongloumeng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
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Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the "Eight legged essay" as as appealing and intoxicating as the "pleasure of doing opium.'' (Zhou 1932:148).<br />
<br />
目前为止，中国红楼梦前的个体文学还只是通过诗中的间接语言与我们对话。通过重拾散文，我们可以知晓不同观点和社会历史状况等文学创作的丰富源泉。<br />
现代散文之前的文学并不限于形式上受限制的八股文，一方面鲁迅本人也有一些散文是用八股文写成的，但另一方面他又把八股文当作古代社会的代名词。周作人把 "八股文 "的语言节奏看作是 "做鸦片的快感 "一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 08:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
直到现在，中国前“红楼梦”的个体文学只能通过诗歌的间接语言与我们对话。重新发掘这些散文，我们可以拥有丰富的观点来源，社会历史图片等。<br />
<br />
前现代散文文学不仅仅包括它最为人所知的例子，正式的、有限制性的“八卦文”。鲁迅自己的一些文章就是用“八卦文”写的，但是在另一方面又把它当作古代社会的同义词。周作人认为《八股文》的语言节奏就像“吸鸦片的快感”一样令人陶醉。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 09:07, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, Zhou Yuanliu:71).<br />
<br />
Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''Wenyi zai dao'' (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
<br />
<br />
但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
<br />
新儒家强调''文''（散文）是传播''道''的最重要工具：''文以载道''（文以载道）。如果我们从文体的角度来重新解读这句话，我们可以说，当时的散文已经被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:01, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但他认为这也是隐含在现代著作中的''洋包谷''（西化包谷）和''党行包谷''（借用吴稚晖、周远流的说法：71）的一种普遍的文体。<br />
<br />
理学强调“文”（散文）是传播“道”的最重要工具：“文以载道”。（以文学为载体的方式）。如果我们从体裁的角度来重新解读这一措辞，可以说，散文已成为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 00:53, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xīn wéntǐ'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
<br />
'''6. The essay as the medium of modernity, the questioning of the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
<br />
To solve first of all the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Lin Shu: ''Irving'' 1907, ''Addison'' 1911). <br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations. First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only. A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
<br />
This is older than the ones referred to in the ''Large Chinese Dictionary'' of Morohashi (Morohashi undated) and in the ''Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language'' 1966.<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Průšek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
<br />
然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:57, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，对于本土论文写作传统的价值以及西方对其的影响，学者们争论不休。有些人承认西方的影响在我们今天所理解的中国散文中起了关键作用:王斌1992，范培松1993;对西方总的影响参考。还有一些学者认为，西方的影响被高估了——Denton 1996表明，中国缺乏理解西方文学理论的理论背景，并建议我们首先从其民族传统来理解这篇文章。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:07, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1933, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1934]. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition:<br />
<br />
以五四运动传奇作者为例可以看出个人观点对历史事实的叙述的影响有多大。 这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。 后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:19, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
以五四运动传奇作家为例可以看出个人观点对史实叙述的影响有多大。这些作者把英文散文视为中国散文之父：周作人（1921年），鲁迅（1933年）以及后来的无政府主义者吴志辉（1934年）。后来，其中一些作者改变了主意，通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证明来支持他们自己的论文理论：--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:14, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
for example, Lu Xun with his theory "'Zhǎnkāi' shuō yǔ 'méngyá' lùn “展開”說與“萌芽”論"" (Theory of "Starting" and "Blossoming") came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin dynasty (265 - 420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the ''biji'' (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his "Gonganpài yu Yīngguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合成”論" (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the English Essay).<br />
<br />
例如，鲁迅以其“开始”与“绽放”的理论，将晋代散文的战斗性和批判性视为中国散文的“父”，周作人则先是英文散文（1921年）出发，之后是明朝“笔记”（随心记录），尽管他仍试图在公干派与英国小品合成论中中融入英文文章。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 14:09, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Wang Zengqi regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays (Wang Zengqi 1993). The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
When Zhou Zuoren showed that only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge it was again possible to write about a candy seller (1924), he was critizised as "paralyzing" (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943). When he wrote a piece on the "Fly", he was reproached with dealing with subjects of minor importance. Reproaches like this lie in the very nature of the genre, since ''marginalism'' is substantial to the essay. The mentioned formal reproach of Luo Dajing can be found again in the 1990s, Hong Kong students critisized the literary style as it appears in Ba Jins "Thoughts" (Suixiang lu) as too direct and too less artful. But this perspective does not recognize the very nature of the essay, which is a very individual expression of an author's thoughts and not bound to tradition, and therefore much more free also in content.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
The essay - from its very nature free and independant - almost disappeared in the time of the Cultural Revolution and - except for the ideologically influenced essays - had a hard struggle between Yan'an and the loss of moral legitimacy by the leadership in 1989.<br />
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The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is "a genre of self-reflection". Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
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I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays. I mention only Zhou Zuoren. His ideas connected him spiritually to his contemporary collegues in Europe, Japan and America, but these where ideas for which China turned out to be not yet ready. At that time, China had taken a road which led away from progress, wealth, freedom and spiritual enlightenment. The consequences have yet to be overcome.<br />
<br />
除开关注作家的小说和诗歌之外，如果我们对他们的散文有所涉猎，就会发现他们不仅对文学整体的理解发生了变化，单个作者的观点也发生了变化。仅就周作人来说，他的思想在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的同伴们联系在一起，但是这些设想在中国行不通。当时的中国走的是一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路，这一现状还并没有得到改变。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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如果我们考虑到散文，不仅文学作为一个整体的理解会改变，而且如果我们不仅看到他们的小说或诗歌，而且看到他们的散文，单个作者的观点也会改变。我只提周作人,他的想法在精神上把他和他在欧洲、日本和美国的当代同事联系在一起，但这些想法在中国还中国行不通。那时，中国已经走上了一条远离进步、财富、自由和精神启蒙的道路。其后果还有待克服。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 14:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
In 1927, Chinese literature has taken the form of 'engaged literature'. The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educational claim with the exception of essays which claim to be "art pourt l'art".<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing ("Shuo meng 說夢" On dreams in: Zhu Ziqing 1928) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (My own garden 9.1923, "The Fly" 1924, "Reading on the Toilet" 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda. This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. <br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
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Taking into account of a genre shifts the whole perspective on literature, taking into account the essayistic works of an author shifts also the view of the author. I will name only one author as an example for a modern essayist: Zhou Zuoren.<br />
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20世纪90年代，20、30年代民国时期的文本和当代的文本一样也经常被重印。显然，我们可得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的那些政治宣传文只能留存在特殊的政治文章选集当中，到了21世纪初，就不再有作者去写这类文章，也不会有中国读者去看这类文章了。<br />
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考虑到整个体裁对整个文学角度的转变，以及散文作品反映出的作者观点的变化，我只举一位现代散文家的例子：周作人。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:47, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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20世纪90年代，20-30年代民国时期的文章仍然和当代的同类文章一样经常被重印。显然，我们可以得出一个结论：20世纪50年代的政治宣传类散文只保存在专门的政治散文集中，到21世纪初，不再有人去写，也不再有人读这类文章了。<br />
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一种文学体裁会转变整个文学的视角，一位作家的散文作品，同样也会转变对这个作家的看法。我只以一位现代散文家为例：周作人。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
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I mentioned already his theoretical contribution to the Chinese essayism, but still, his essays have been neglected until the 1980s. The reason does not lie in literary quality, but in political valuing. The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that the theoretical May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a "traitor". Publishing in the Japanese sponsored magazines ''Reminiscences'',* and ''Chinese Literature'', he was blamed together with Zhu Pu and Yuan Xi of collaboration. An unanswered question is, why another author, who published there, Zhang Ailing, was never reproached with collaboratorship. The difference between all of them is that Zhang Ailing tried to avoid political committments, whereas Zhou felt guilty, Zhu justified it and Yuan simply accepted it.<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
''The 'mainstream' writers took an affirmative approach in their writing, whereas the other writers formed a minority. The individual authors did not necessarily belong to either one of these groups throughout their life, but may have moved between them. Since the essay is a medium which enables the individual to express thoughts directly, the writers chosen for this paper can be classified according to their position.''<br />
<br />
''Yu Guangzhong's essay'' "The wolves are coming" ''shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting.''<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In his small literary pieces, Zhou tried to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday life out of the subjective experience of his private space. The major contribution of Zhou Zuoren is, that he set the turning point in Chinese essay writing with his call for writing short literary pieces (''Meiwen'' 1921). <br />
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In foreign literature there is the so-called ''lunwen'' 論文 (treatise), which is roughly divided into two groups: the reflecting ones, piping 批評 (critical), are scientific articles. The others are ''jishu'' 記述 (descriptive) and ''yishuxing'' 藝術性 (artistic), they are also called ''meiwen'' 美文 (aesthetic essay). Within these texts, one can distinguish between ''xushi'' 敘事 (narrative) and ''shuqing'' 抒情 (lyric). But there are also mixed texts. [...] I hope that the aesthetical essay is encouraged to come back, and will open up a new field for the New Literature. Wouldn’t that be wonderful?<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
With these words from the essay "''The aesthetic essay''" this new vernacular form was defined. This starting point founded a whole new tradition of essay writing in China. Contemporary writers called this piece the "king of essays". <br />
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In order to bring this new form to his compatriots, he tried to find similiarities with the ''xiaopinwen'' of the Ming dynasty. He further discussed these thoughts in his essay theory. In his own essays, he profited a lot from ancient ''suibi''. Later he further developed his literary theory towards an up and down of two trends. In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" (Zhou 1923). He promoted the ''baguwen'' and the independance of literature from politics and effected the literary scene and the development towards a modern Chinese society especially between 1917 and 1938.<br />
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“美学散文”中的这些词语定义了这种新的白话形式。这个起点在中国建立了一种新的散文写作传统。当代作家称此作品为“散文之王”。<br />
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为了将这种新形式带给他的同胞，他试图找到其与明朝“小品文”的相似之处。他在散文理论中进一步讨论了这些思想。 他自己的散文也从古代的“随笔”中受益匪浅。后来，他将文学理论朝着上下两种趋势进一步发展。在现代化社会中，他呼吁解放妇女、“将儿童看作具有外在和内在生命的完整主体”以及“让儿童成为儿童文学的本质”（Zhou 1923）。他提倡“八股文”和文学脱离政治的独立性，这对文学界产生了影响，并推动了中国向近代社会尤其是1917年至1938年的发展。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:48, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With this theoretical foundation and his own vo'luÉminous essayistic work, Zhou Zuoren through the example of his own form of short literary pieces within this genre, fought at that stage of the development of his literary theory like Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque 130 years ago in France for the idea "l'art pour l'art" , for individuality and independance of the writer, for disinterested literature. The jugdment, that Zhou was an apolitical author cannot be proved with his essays. Instead, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance (Zhou 1929:180-181). <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
In fact he saw himself as ‘patriotic underground fighter’ and looked at the collaboration with the Japanese puppet regime as a forced one, following his attempted assasination, through which his driver had lost his life. His own concept of essay writing served less the needs of the building of a nation-state and comes closer to the ideal of the individual. <br />
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"I don't really know why, but I am feeling as if I am born into a dark age. I admit, that our forests are not inhabited by dragons, tigers and wolves, but shapeless "monsters" and "goblins" are still creeping around and try to swallow our souls. [...] What alarms me most, is the absence of freedom in this prison, into which we writers have been thrown." <br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Confronting tradition and progress in the essay "''Ancestor Worship''", he is in favor of the latter, since past could only become present through changes (Zhou 1919:7-8). <br />
<br />
Benjamin Henri Constant de Rebecque (1767 - 1830) war französischer Romanschriftsteller und liberaler Politiker, der neben der Freiheit der Kunst nach der Französischen Revolution die Einführung der konstitutionellen Monarchie nach englischem Vorbild forderte.<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
Siehe ''Journal'' (10.2.1804). Die "Kunst um der Kunst willen" propagierte die Zweckfreiheit der Kunst. Im Gegensatz dazu versteht sich die engagierte Literatur. Die Parallele zwischen Zhou Zuorens Literaturverständnis und dem Konzept "Kunst um der Kunst willen" zieht auch Wolff: ''Chou Tso-jen'' 1971, S. 84.<br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: ''Der Ursprung der neuen chinesischen Literatur'' 1934, S. 95 - 98; vgl. auch Chen Zizhan: ''Vorträge zur chinesischen Literaturgeschichte'' 1937, Bd 3, pp. 416 - 422, besonders S. 422. Hinweis in: H. Martin: "''Liang Qichao on Poetry Reform''" 1996, Bd 1, S. 213.<br />
<br />
见“期刊”（102.4804 年）。“艺术之艺术”宣传了艺术目的自由。相比之下，承诺的文学是可以理解的。周作人对文学的理解与“艺术之艺术”概念之间的相似之处也吸引了沃尔夫：“周作人”，1971 年 84.<br />
<br />
参见周作人：“中国新文学的起源”，1934 年，第 95-98 页；另见陈子赞：“中国文学史讲座”，1937 年，第 3 卷，第 416-422 页，特别是 p422。注：H。马丁：“梁启超诗歌改革”，1996 年，第 1 卷，p213--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:55, 27 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 13:57, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Regarding Zhou Zuoren, I want to correct the official assessment of the People’s Republic, that his work would have experienced a caesura in 1938. In order to explain his opposition of the propaganda to build up national heroes about 1937 and his collaboration from 1939, it has been said officially, that his thoughts had "duoluo 墮落" (degenerated) at that time (Zhu Jinshun 1990:59). In fact, this caesura, namely the change in the style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xianshi'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment) is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest through the Guomindang (1945).<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Therefore not the Japanese suppressors are responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots'. <br />
<br />
On the basis of the stigma of the 'traitor', he has been undervalued until now. That his work in the 1990s is almost as often published as Lu Xun's and Zhu Ziqing's shows that his texts finally experience a more positive literaric evaluation through the audience, which now must be registered also by scholars.<br />
因此，不是日本的压制者对这位伟大作家的退缩负责，而是他的中国同胞的退缩.<br />
根据“叛徒”的污名，他一直被低估。他在1990年代的著作几乎与鲁迅和朱自清的著作一样频繁地出版，这表明他的著作最终在听众中得到了更为积极的文学评价，现在也必须由学者进行注册.<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Another example of a misread Zhou Zuoren is his short essay on "''The Fly''", where he describes his changing attitude towards flies, which he had played with as child but later disgusted when he learned about their danger of passing on diseases. ”''The fly''” shows Zhou Zuoren’s strength to describe details and make them a real topic by recalling memories on them or describing a change of perspective on them. Zhou summarized the philosophical wisdom he learnt from this, that people did not judge on things objectively, but were likely to praise or damn things. <br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
The official reading re¬proaches Zhou that he "saw only the fly and not the cosmos" , a quotation of the young Zhou about a position he himself clearly opposed.<br />
<br />
His ability to chat about the more pleasent things in life is displayed in his essay ”Birds’ twitter”. In ”''Peking cakes and sweet-meat''” and in ”''Wild vegetable of my home region''”, Zhou Zuoren shows his ability to make the reader feel at home at a region, where he feels at home himself, by describing the customs and special regional food. <br />
<br />
Siehe Zhou Zuoren: "Cangying 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: ''Chenbao fujuan'' 晨报副镌 (Beilage zur Morgenpost) (1924.7.13). Eine Zu¬sammenfassung des Inhalts findet sich in: Yu Daxiang (Hg.): ''Auswahllexikon chinesischer Essays mit Inhaltsangaben und Analysen'' 1993.<br />
<br />
''Siehe Vollständige chinesische Anthologie der Wissenschaften - Bd Chinesische Literatur'' 1988, Bd 2, S. 1300. Dies spielt auf den Essay "''Cangying'' 蒼蠅" (Die Stubenfliege), in: Zhou Zuoren: ''Zhi Tang. Sammlung'' 1933 an.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
官方的解读指责他“只看到了渺小，而没有看到伟大”，这是对年轻的周作人的引用，他自己明确反对该立场。<br />
他谈论生活中更愉快的事情，在他推特的文章“鸟”中得到了展示。在“北京蛋糕和甜食”与“我家乡的野菜”中，周作人通过描述风俗和特殊的地区食物，展示了他让读者感到宾至如归的能力。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:37, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
His piece ”''Bitter rain''” shows the atmosphere, for what his essays had been labelled ”bitter tea”: There remains a taste in one’s mouth after reading. If you compare Lu Xun’s ”''On tea drinking''” (Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326) with Zhou Zuoren’s essay with the same title, you see the difference of ”short and to the point” and ”eloquent and well-read”. ”''First love''” is more hilarious. The essay ”''Three different ways to die''” shows that Zhou Zuoren can compete with his elder brother in sarcasm. Lu Xun's essay on the same subject, the massacre on March 18, 1926, was a sight.<br />
<br />
他的作品《苦雨》展现出了这种氛围，因此他的文章被称为“苦茶”：阅读完之后能感到余味悠长。如果你对比鲁迅和周作人的《论饮茶》(Yang/Yang 1961 3:325-326)，你可以看到“短小精辟”和“雄辩易读”的区别。《初恋》是最欢乐的作品。文章《三种不同的死法》表明周作人在讽刺小说方面足以与他的哥哥抗衡。鲁迅的同题作文《1926年3月18日的大屠杀》让人眼前一亮。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 12:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
Zhou asks for the ”best” way to die and favors the short and painless one. In ”''On alcohol''” and ”''The awning bunk boat''” Zhou Zuoren continues the tradition of late Ming ''biji''.<br />
<br />
'''7. The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
''What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.''<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a consciously “corrected” truth.<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (Wang Meng: "''Anxiang'' 安详" (Serene) 1992, "''Zuohao ni ziji de shi'' 做好你自己的事" (First make your own things in a good way) 1994). <br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive ("''Shanxi opera''", Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world ("''The nightmare''", Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary trends of literature, which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文虽是一种新的主观主义，其目标是摆脱当代的矛盾，但是通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到当代文学的趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:30, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些散文主要发表在报刊和杂志上，在瞬息万变、匿名、疏离和消费导向的大众文化社会中广为人们阅读。<br />
20世纪80年代和90年代的其他散文是一种新的个人主义，其目标是远离当代的矛盾，但通过创造一个积极的世界（“秦腔”，贾平凹，1984)或消极的世界(“噩梦”，思羽，1995)来迎合观众。<br />
从这篇文章中，我们可以看到文学的时代趋势，这也是20世纪90年代这种文学体裁增加的原因:--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 14:44, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
- The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall 1984:xiii); <br />
<br />
- The increasing consciousness of indivi¬duality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjecti¬ve expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
- A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
- The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
- 当下中国社会的浮躁节奏，对转折性和短文的要求。"[...]我们生活在一个论述的时代"(Hall 1984:xiii)。<br />
<br />
- 越发增加的独立意识，对其而言，文章是最直接的主体表达形式，甚至比诗的格律和形式要求更直接。<br />
<br />
- 通过散文这一媒介讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复苏，就像20世纪20/30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
- 日常生活的平庸性通过成为文学话题而变得自觉，最常见的是日常生活的文体--散文。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:06, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
-当前中国社会节奏轻快，要求有趣味的短文：“[…]我们生活在一个博览会时代”（大厅1984:xiii）；<br />
<br />
-对于个人二元性意识的增强，散文是主体性表达的最直接形式，甚至比诗歌的韵律和形式要求更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章讨论社会政治问题的兴趣的复复苏，如同20世纪20年代或30年代的情况一样。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 12:59, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
- The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. <br />
<br />
- Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain.<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publis¬hing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: "readers"). <br />
<br />
- The criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China are the following: In the most often printed essay "''The Back View''", filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous "''The Moonlit Lotus Pond''", both written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader.<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in "''Wild vegetables of my home region''" by Wang Zengqi. Therefore one can state, that moving es¬says form the top.<br />
<br />
- ''In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in¬dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.''<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
''In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph'' China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war (''No''! 1996).<br />
<br />
- ''The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art.''<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
''Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Jia Pingwa, Feidu; Gu Cheng, Yingger) and'' New Borderlessness ''since'' 1995, ''cannot be pro-ven in the essaywriting. ''<br />
<br />
- Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being "''The Small Dog Baodi''", written by Ba Jin 1981, in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before ("''In memoriam of Xiao Shan II''", Ba Jin 1984).<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Der-Wei Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of Wang Zengqi's "''Rain in Kunming''" as well as for Jia Pingwa's "''Shanxi opera''". <br />
类似的还有想象怀旧的概念，正如王功权所说的沈从文作品中虚构的真实（王大卫·德维王1992），有助于解读汪曾祺的《昆明雨》，也有助于贾平凹的《山西剧》。<br />
<br />
- The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing fictional truth through the metaphor of his dog Baodi.<br />
施瓦茨在“隐喻话语”中所表达的“个人悲伤”概念，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他以“存在的真理”而闻名的，却通过他的狗“宝坻”的隐喻而获得更具说服力的虚构真相。<br />
<br />
Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
''Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay "The nightmare", where Si Yu appears as a de-constructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.''（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
And maybe for Xie Bingxins* reflections on her experience as one of the chosen voluntaries of the Wuhan military academy: She insisted to remain a lifelong "woman soldier" .（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
'''8. Discussion: Is the genre of the essay the form of literary expression in 21st century China?'''<br />
<br />
Regarding the future of the Chinese literature, we can only speculate. But out the risk of being wild and provocative, I would like to suggest some questions for considering the place of the essay in the field of Chinese literature and literary studies.<br />
<br />
- People have less time for actions like reading, and get used to reduced visualized information through the Internet. Will the brevity of the essay make it the ideal medium?<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
- If the Chinese people are rediscovering their individuality, will the essay allow them to express individual thoughts more directly?<br />
<br />
- Modern societies are characterized by TV culture, mass consumption, and the loss of consciousness of one's own tradition, often partly due to the American impact on national cultures. Is the essay less bound to the restrictions of tradition, especially compared to the poem and thus more adaptable to the modern phenomenon of mass consumption?<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
- The alienation and the anonymity of citylife worldwide, in China is combined with a loss of traditional values like ideology, family, solidarity etc. in favor of the concept of profit for oneself, - if this has produced a longing for new orientation, will it possibly be filled by morally guiding essays or nationalistic thinking?<br />
<br />
- 在中国，世界范围内城市生活的异化和互相不认识的现象与传统价值观如意识形态、家庭、团圆等的丧失结合在一起，有利于为自己谋利的观念，如果这已经产生了对新方向的渴望，这个领域能否被道德指导性文章或民族主义思想所填补呢？--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 11:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》与其他世界文学作品的相似性——推荐《红楼梦》列入世界记忆遗产名录<br />
<br />
'''Commonness between the Red Chamber Dreams and other World Literature Novels – Proposing the Red Chamber Dreams to the World Documentary Heritage List'''（修改）<br />
<br />
吴漠汀，湖南师范大学 Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
Source: Lecture at Harvard University, Cambridge, MA USA, 14.3.2000（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In every culture, readers associate the literature they know with new literature they read. So literature is always cumulative, it grows out of existing literature and can refer back to it. When Western readers read the Red Chamber Dreams, they foremost associate novels and other pieces of literature of their own cultural tradition with the Dreams. This has also influenced the first full translation into German.<br />
<br />
Cao Xueqin and even more his protagonist Jia Baoyu both are early humanists, universalists and world citizens. ''The Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide. <br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中生长出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，尤其是他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。（修改）<br />
<br />
在每一种文化中，读者都会把他们读到的新文学与已知文学联系起来，所以文学总是积累的，它从现有的文学中衍生出来，并以已有文学为参考。西方读者在阅读《红楼梦》时，首先会把《红楼梦》与自身文化传统中的小说和其他文学作品联系起来，这也影响了首次德语全译本。<br />
<br />
曹雪芹，甚至于他的主人公贾宝玉，都是早期的人文主义者，普世主义者和世界公民。《红楼梦》具有普世价值。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:09, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
''The Dream'' is a complex showroom of diverse aspects of Chinese cultures and is the embodiment and essence of Chinese cultures, but it has also a global impact, therefore it should be honoured as “World Documentary Heritage”.<br />
<br />
红楼梦》综合展示了中国的多元文化，是中国文化的集中体现和精华，同时在全球范围内产生影响，理应列入世界记忆遗产名录。（修改）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
<br />
“红楼梦”是一个多元的中国文化综合体，是中国文化的体现和精髓，但它也具有全球影响力，因此应该被授予“世界文献遗产”的荣誉。（修改<nowiki>Insert non-formatted text here</nowiki>）<br />
<br />
多元一体<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Western culture, reception tradition, German translation, Embodiment of Chinese cultures, global compatibility, World Documentary Heritage<br />
--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:29, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》是一个中国文化综合体，展示着中国文化的精髓的同时也极具全球影响力，理应被列入世界记忆遗产名录。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:00, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
'''1. Chinese Ethics'''<br />
<br />
To help the poor and disadvantaged belongs to the traditional core values of Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
When we sit in the Beijing Subway today, the loudspeaker announcement reminds us, that it is Chinese traditional ethics to give seats to the disadvantaged (老弱病残孕让座是中国传统道德). We know of Cao Xueqin, that he supported the poor and disadvantaged, and that he made kites for children.<br />
<br />
However, when we look closer at these “Chinese Ethics”, we discover, that they are claimed also in Indian Buddhism “karuna” and in the Christian tradition of “caritas” and in almost every civilization. Therefore, we might call these values “human ethics”.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
'''2. Compatibility<br />
'''<br />
Why do the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' function worldwide and have achieved world literature status even in their translations?<br />
<br />
First of all, the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are, like novels worldwide, a piece of entertainment literature. In comparison to the drama, in which every element is compulsory and plays its part in the overall structure, in the novel the line of action itself is simpler and not so important, most of the scenes or episodes are loosely put together and fit in the broader theme of the novel.<br />
<br />
'''2. 兼容性<br />
'''<br />
为什么《红楼梦》在世界范围内广泛流传，甚至在翻译领域中也取得了世界文学的地位？<br />
<br />
首先，《红楼梦》和世界小说一样，是一部娱乐文学。与戏剧中的每一个元素都是强制性的，在整体结构中起作用的戏剧相比，小说的行动路线本身更简单，也不那么重要，大部分场景或情节都松散地组合在一起，这和小说更广泛的主题相吻合。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 14:29, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
However, the lose arrangement of episodes of the ''Dreams'' comes from the tradition of almost unconnected episodes like in the ''Shuihuzhuan'' and is a step towards the greater coherence of the episodes, the aligning into a story line and the greater concentration on fewer protagonists. Therefore, the ''Dreams'' show clearly a step towards the Western tradition of novels, maybe because of growing Western influence in Qing dynasty.<br />
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'''3. Impact of translator’s native culture on the translation process'''<br />
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There are intercultural parallels between the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' and Western works of literature.<br />
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然而，《红楼梦》章回结构不连续来自于《水浒传》中几乎没有联系的章回的传统，这是朝着章回更连贯、与故事线一致以及更集中于较少主角的方向迈出的一步。因此，《红楼梦》明显向西方小说传统迈进了一步，可能是因为西方对清代的影响越来越大。<br />
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'''3.译者的本土文化对翻译过程的影响'''<br />
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《红楼梦》和西方文学作品之间有跨文化的相似之处。<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:54, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
These parallels are fundamental for the translation and were explicitly and implicitly fundamental for the German translator Martin Woesler during his translation and editorial work on the first full German translation. In the following, I will mention some of the Western novels and pieces of literature, which the Western reader of the ''Dreams'' will immediately think of.<br />
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'''4. The novel as embodiment of “Zeitgeist”'''<br />
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According to Georg Lukács’ ''Theory of the Novel'', while the Epos (like Homer’s ''Ilias'', which like the ''Dream'' reasons the stories in the divine realm) displayed a holistic world experience, a complete, self-contained culture, the novel displays, that the modern world has become infinitely large and has lost its homely quality.<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
The novel as a genre is no longer documenting just one culture, but represents, with the words of Walter Benjamin, the Organon of History. So the understanding of the novel changed with Lukacs to historical-philosophically. A novel is understood as typical for its historical era, the novel embodies the spirit of the epoch (Zeitgeist). <br />
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小说作为一种文学题材不再仅仅记录一种文化，而是用沃尔特·本杰明的话来代表历史的有机物。因此，卢卡奇对这部小说的理解从历史转向哲学。一部小说被理解为其历史时代的典型小说，这部小说会体现时代精神（时代精神）。<br />
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The ''Red Chamber Dreams'' are written in front of the background of the Manchu minority having taken over the power in formerly Han-shaped Ming-China (which was a multi-ethnic and crosscultural society) and families suffering the changing favor of changing emperors, with the Cao family being fostered by Kangxi and being persecuted by Yongzheng.<br />
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《红楼梦》是在满族统治原汉族掌管的明朝（当时是一个多民族、跨文化的社会）和贵族家庭遭受皇位更迭影响的背景下写成的，曹氏家族受到康熙的扶植和雍正的迫害。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:04, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
While the author in his time could not criticize the system and power of emperors, in the novel he came to terms with this life by seeking the guilt for the persecution in the growing decadence of the family (engaging in Daoism, leisure, poetry-writing, arts and music instead of learning for being able to earn a living) and in himself not fulfilling the expectations as the family heir. This description of decadence of a declining family reminds us of the novels of Tschechov (and e.g. in the ''Buddenbrooks'' by Mann, including the turn to arts and music).<br />
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虽然作者在他的时代无法批判皇帝的制度和权力，但在小说中，他通过家族的日益衰败（修行道教、休闲、写诗、艺术和音乐，而不是为了能够谋生而学习）和自己没有实现作为家族继承人的期望中寻找受迫害的罪责，来接受这种生活。这种对没落家庭颓废的描述，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虽然作者在他的时代无法批判帝制和皇权，但在小说中，他为家族的日益衰败（参加道教、娱乐、诗歌、艺术和音乐活动，而不是为了谋生而学习）和自己作为家族继承人没有实现家族期望感到自责，通过这样做，他也对这种生活做妥协。这种对没落家族颓废状况的描写，让我们想起了契诃夫的小说（如曼恩的《布登布鲁克》，包括对艺术和音乐的转向）--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 15:08, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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Moreover, with the detailed description of life on all social levels in early Qing Dynasty, the Dream appears as a documentary historical novel very much like Günter Grass’ The Tin Drum 1959.<br />
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'''5. Coming-of-age and Alienation'''<br />
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Abandoning the paradise-like garden in the Red Chamber Dreams is a symbol for leaving the protected childhood and arriving in the complex world of adults. With George Lukács theory of the novel, the protagonist starts to problematize the sense of his life, in the novel, the protagonist’s self permanently struggles with his environment.<br />
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此外，《红楼梦》对清初社会各阶层生活的详细描写，与君特·格拉斯的《铁皮鼓1959》非常相似，《铁皮鼓1959》是一部纪实历史小说。<br />
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“5. 成熟和异化”<br />
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抛弃《红楼梦》中天堂般的花园，是离开受保护的童年，进入复杂的成人世界的象征。随着乔治·卢卡奇的小说理论，主人公开始对他的生活感觉产生疑问，在小说中，主人公的自我一直与他的环境作斗争。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 16:23, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
However, Cao Xueqin’s message is not simply the one of “Paradise Lost”, instead he himself made the best out of his life. Although being less wealthy than when his family still enjoyed the favour of the emperor, there was a payroll system and a social net intact in Early Qing China, where he received enough income to be independent from his rich relatives, to be selective on accepting jobs, to live a relaxed life in a small house in the nature, spending time with his family and friends, follow his own interests, like reading, writing and drinking wine, making kites for the children and thinking of the disadvantaged.<br />
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然而，曹雪芹的信息不仅是“失乐园”的信息，而是他本人的一生。 尽管不如他的家人仍然享有皇帝的宠爱时富裕，但清初中国有一个工资体系和一个完整的社会网络，在那里他获得了足够的收入以独立于自己的富裕亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作 在大自然的小房子里过着轻松的生活，与家人和朋友共度时光，遵循自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和喝酒，为孩子们放风筝和思考处境不利的人。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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然而，曹雪芹所传达的信息并不是简单的“失乐园”，相反，他把自己的生活过得很好。 虽然比起他的家族享受皇帝的宠爱，他过得没有那么富裕，但清初中国有一套薪俸制度和一张完整的社会网，他获得了足够的收入，可以独立于富贵亲戚，可以有选择性地接受工作，可以在大自然的小房子里过着悠闲的生活，可以与家人和朋友共度时光，可以追随自己的兴趣，例如读书，写作和饮酒，可以为孩子们做风筝，可以为弱势群体着想。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 11:27, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Cao Xueqin was fully aware of his time and China’s cultural achievements, he was familiar with the different levels of society, he was a detailed observer and skilful narrator. He may have conceptualized the ending of the novel as a discussion about the different personalities of the characters in the novel and therefore displaying his reflection about life and his psychological understanding of the diversity of human nature. He was able to grasp the “spirit of time” (Zeitgeist) and with his autobiographical experience create an eternal coming-of-age novel not just for his family, for the Qing-Chinese, for Chinese people, but for mankind.<br />
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曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就有充分的认识，他熟悉社会的方方面面，他观察细致，叙事娴熟。他能把小说的结尾构思为对小说中人物不同性格的探讨，从而体现出他对人生的思考和对人性多样性的理解。他能够把握 "时间精神"(Zeitgeist)，并以他的亲身经历为材料创造了一部成熟的绝世之作，这不仅是为他的家庭、为清人、为中国人，更是为全人类。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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曹雪芹充分了解自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就，熟悉社会的不同层次，是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。他可能将小说的结局概念化为对小说中人物不同性格的讨论，从而表现出他对生活的反思和对人性多样性的心理理解。他能够把握“时代精神”(时代精神)，并以他的自传体经历，为他的家庭，为清朝人，为中国人，为人类创造了一部永恒的成长小说。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 12:01, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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曹雪芹对自己所处的时代和中国的文化成就了如指掌，他熟悉社会的不同层面，他是一个细致的观察者和娴熟的叙述者。因此，他在小说中对人的不同个性的理解和对小说中人物性格的多样性进行了概念化的探讨。他能够把握“时代精神”，用他的自传体经历，不仅为他的家庭，为清朝的中国人，为中国人民，而且为人类，创作了一部永恒的成人小说。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 12:43, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
This tradition of Coming-of-age novels is also a European one, like enlightenment philosopher Voltaire’s novel ''Candide or Optimism''《老实人》shows at the very same time (1759) in Europe. Also Voltaire’s Candide has to leave the luxurious paradise of his childhood and strives for true love, but his main learning is more pessimistic, since Voltaire wrote the novel in opposition to Leibniz, who optimistically looked to China as “the best of all worlds”. Recent research findings show that China had a much larger influence on European enlightenment philosophers and we can be sure, that also Cao Xueqin was aware of some European literary traditions.<br />
这种成熟的传统小说也是一个欧洲人,像启蒙哲学家伏尔泰在欧洲同时间出版的的小说《老实人》(1759)。伏尔泰笔下的老实人不得不离开童年的奢华天堂，为追求真爱而奋斗，但他的主要学习内容却更为悲观，因为伏尔泰的小说与莱布尼茨截然相反，莱布尼茨乐观地认为中国是“所有世界中最好的”。最近的研究发现，中国对欧洲启蒙哲学家的影响要大得多，我们可以肯定，曹雪芹对欧洲的一些文学传统也有所了解。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Also the German readership is familiar with the chronological following of the life of the protagonist and his development, the fate of a family over generations, the German readership knows this type of novel as the “Education novel” or “Coming-of-age-novel”. In Germany, the genre of the coming-of-age novel has a long tradition and it is shaped more by single characters, who appear as teachers (Goethe: ''Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802).<br />
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德国读者对主人公的生平及其发展、家族世代的命运都很熟悉，德国读者把这种类型的小说称为“教育小说”或“成长小说”。在德国,关于成长小说的体裁有着悠久的传统,它的形状更由单个字符,它更多的是被塑造为教师的单个人物(歌德：'Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship''威廉·麦斯特的学徒岁月 1795-96, Novalis 诺瓦利斯: ''Heinrich von Ofterdingen''《海因利·封·歐福特丁根》1802)。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 14:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Wilhelm Meister, parallely to Jia Baoyu, is struggling with the traditional education, in ''Wilhelm Meister'' this is represented with the classics revived in Shakespeare’s dramas. Tradition can give orientation, but the personality of the protagonist needs to develop through emancipation is a wisdom, we can learn from all mentioned novels including the ''Dreams''. <br />
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'''6. Pornography and True Love, female rivals'''<br />
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Sexuality is a basic human need and has developed into different shapes in all cultures. The German audience is familiar with erotic topics from the Middle Ages, in which sexuality was stylized. In the “Schwänke” of the 15th century (Wittenwielers Ring), erotic scenes are described sexually explicit.<br />
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与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，这通过莎士比亚的经典戏剧得以体现。传统可以作为方向标，但主人公的个性需要通过解放才能发展，这是一种智慧，我们可以以上提过包括《梦》的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6.色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在不同文化中展现出不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是有固定程式的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:37, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与贾宝玉一样，威廉·迈斯特也在与传统教育作斗争，在《威廉·迈斯特》中，莎士比亚戏剧中复兴的经典作品代表了这一点。传统可以给予导向，但主人公的个性需要通过解放来发展是一种智慧，我们可以从包括《梦》在内的所有小说中学习。<br />
“6。色情与真爱，女性对手"<br />
性是人类的一种基本需求，在各种文化中形成了不同的形态。德国观众熟悉中世纪的情色话题，在这些话题中，性是程式化的。在15世纪的“Schwanke”(Wittenwielers Ring)中，情色场景被描述为露骨的性。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:37, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
In the barock literature of the 17th century even the physical act is described extensively. <br />
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According to „cumulativity“, every human being is a product of history and literature is based on previous literature, therefore the author of this pager thinks that this background has to be taken into account while translating.<br />
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The best study on ''qing'' passion in the Dreams is the one by Anthony Yu, who understood it as ''desire'' and as the central motif of the ''Dreams''. „The centrality of qing in shaping virtually every aspect of The Story of the Stone’s structure and meaning cannot be denied [...].“ (Anthony Yu 2001, 54).<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In the framework story of the Dreams, the narrator consciously takes a stand against low-action and stereotypical pornographic literature as well as against the widespread romance novels (with the classic roles of the beautiful, talented woman and the poor scholar who finally achieves a respected position and prosperity by passing a civil service exam).<br />
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In chapter 1 he says: ”of the true feelings of young people [...] nobody has reported about so far.”<br />
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Erotic scenes are described in a decent and associative way (“Game of clouds and rain”), while displaying another quality in its openness e.g. towards bisexuality.<br />
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在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地站在了反对低级动作和刻板色情文学的立场上，也站在了反对普遍存在的言情小说的立场上（以美丽的才女和通过公务员考试最终获得地位和财富的穷书生为经典角色）。<br />
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在第一章中，他说："年轻人的真情实感......至今无人报道"。<br />
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"情色场面以体面和联想的方式描述（"云和雨的游戏"），同时表现出另一种开放性，例如对双性恋的开放。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 12:35, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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在《梦》的框架故事中，叙述者有意识地反对低俗的动作和陈规定型的色情文学，反对流传甚广的浪漫小说（以美丽的才女和通过公务员制度最终获得受人尊敬的地位的穷困书生为经典角色）。<br />
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在第一章中，他说：“关于年轻人的真实感受，[……]到目前为止还没有人报道过。”<br />
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情色场景被描述成一个体面和联想的方式（“云和雨的游戏”），同时显示了另一个开放性的性质，例如对双性恋。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The ''Dreams'' narrate the story of unfortunate lovers. Unfortunate lovers also in the West have a literary tradition, they constitute an archetype, such as Hero and Leander, Pyramus and Thisbe, Tristan and Isolde, Flore and Blanscheflur as well as Troilus and Cressida, the latter being considered the model for Arthur Brookes, who wrote Romeo and Juliet in 1562 and thus directly influenced Shakespeare.<br />
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While Marián Galik saw as the central topic of both, the ''Dream'' and ''Faust'', the eternal feminine, which draws us on high, Gu Cheng called it the “eternal virgine”.<br />
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《梦》讲述了一对不幸的恋人的故事。 在西方，不幸恋人也有文学传统，即他们构成了一个原型，例如Hero和Leander，Pyramus和Thisbe，Tristan和Isolde，Flore和Blanscheflur以及Troilus和Cressida，后者被认为是Arthur Brookes的模型，他在1562年撰写了《罗密欧与朱丽叶》，从而直接影响了莎士比亚。<br />
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玛丽安·加利克（Mariann Galik）认为《梦》和《浮士德》都是吸引我们的永恒女性的中心主题，顾城则称其为“永恒的处女”。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 00:25, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
In Goethe’s coming-of-age novel ''Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre'', we find a similar motif of female rivals, in the Keller 凯勒 ''The Green Henry'' 《绿衣亨利》1855, the hero turns away from an emphatically sexually designed figure and turns to the 'real' woman. In Jane Austen’s ''Pride and Prejudice'' 1813 Elizabeth and Lin Daiyu are similar, e.g. they both strive for real love (Zhuang 2011).<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
'''7. Feudal society and slavery'''<br />
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A widespread interpretation is that Jia Baoyu’s equal treatment of family members and slaves would be a manifesto to free the slaves. I also do not share this interpretation, since Aristotle, when he demanded democracy, would exclude slaves from the right to vote. So we cannot use modern concepts to judge on the past. In my understanding, Jia Baoyu was not fighting inequality, but looked at the people as humans and individuals.<br />
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封建社会和奴隶<br />
一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶一视同仁，这将成为奴隶解放的宣言。我并不同意这个解释，因为亚里士多德的民主就排除了奴隶的投票权。所以，我们并不能用现代观念去评判过去。在我看来，贾宝玉并不是和不平等作斗争，而是把人视作群体和个人。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 09:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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一种普遍的解释是，贾宝玉对家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德，当他要求民主的时候，会排除奴隶的投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人看成是群体和个人。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 10:31, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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许多人认为，贾宝玉对家庭成员和仆人的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我也不同意这种看法。因为当亚里士多德要求民主时，奴隶并没有投票权。所以我们不能用现代的概念来判断过去发生的事。在我的理解中，贾宝玉并不是在与不平等作斗争，而是把人分为是群体和个人。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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人们普遍认为贾宝玉对待家庭成员和奴隶的平等对待是解放奴隶的宣言。我不同意这种解释，因为亚里士多德吁民主时，会将奴隶从投票权中剔除。所以我们不能用现代观点评判古人。我认为，贾宝玉并不是在为不平等而做斗争，而是将人区分为人或是个体。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 12:02, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Also the understanding of the servants as slaves does not match the description in the Dream, since some servants had servants themselves, the family took care after they left the Jia family to find a match for them and Jia Zheng refers to his daughter Yingchun as „yatou 丫头“, so it is inappropriate to translate this expression with slave. Therefore, the translator preferred “servant” over “slave” in the translation.<br />
<br />
另外，把仆人理解为奴隶也与《红楼梦》中所描述的不符，因为有些仆人自己也有仆人，他们离开贾家后，家人会照顾他们，为他们婚配，并且贾正把女儿迎春称为“丫头”，所以用奴隶来翻译这个词是不合适的。因此，译者在翻译中更倾向于“仆人”而不是“奴隶”。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:14, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
而且把仆人理解为奴隶与《红楼梦》中的描写不符，因为有些仆人自己还有仆人，贾府会在她们离府的时候为她们寻一门亲事，作为贾府对她们的照料；贾政也把自己的女儿迎春喊作 “丫头”， 所以把这些翻译成奴隶是不合适的。因此英文翻译中采用“servant”会比“slave”更为合适。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 10:08, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Mo Yan in his speech at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2009, when China was the guest of honor, draws the (similarly) parallel between the ''Dream'' and Goethe’s ''Sorrows of the Young Werther'', that both expressed the wish to abandon feudal society. My own impression is that both do not express this wish, but that this is a later concept and interpretation and we should not apply this to judge the past.<br />
<br />
2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，他在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的印象是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，而我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:36, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
2009年，莫言代表中国作为主宾国参加法兰克福书展时，在演讲中把《梦》和歌德的《少年维特之哀》画上了约等号，表达了抛弃封建社会的愿望。我自己的感觉是，两者都没有表达这个愿望，但这是后来的概念和解释，我们不应该以此来判断过去。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:43, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
'''8. Tragedy of all tragedies'''<br />
<br />
Aristotle explained in ''On the Tragedy'' (Poetics VI), that tragedies move people more than comedies because they “imitate [mimēsis] an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude” (Aristotle 1971, 51), This high esteem of the tragedy in Europe is partly ascribed to the loss of Aristotle’s work ''On the Comedy''.<br />
<br />
8.所有悲剧的悲剧成分<br />
<br />
亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释说，悲剧使人们比喜剧更能吸引人，因为他们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整和有程度的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。 欧洲的悲剧部分归因于亚里斯多德作品《喜剧》的丢失。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 10:16, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.所有悲剧含有的悲剧成分<br />
<br />
亚里士多德在《悲剧论》（诗学VI）中解释道，悲剧之所以比戏剧更加动人，是因为它们“模仿（mimēsis）一种严肃、完整且具有一定规模的行动”（Aristotle 1971，51）。悲剧在欧洲拥有崇高地位部分归因于亚里士多德的作品《论喜剧》的失传。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 12:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
While Europe has the Hamlet as its tragedy of all tragedies, the lack of tragic literature in Chinese literary tradition has long been lamented. Wang Guowei sees the Dream as "tragedy of all tragedies". To Wang Guowei the suffering of Faust and Jia Baoyu is central in the novels. However, many scholars contest that Faustianism is central for Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
In 18th century Europe, we saw a new development in the genre of the drama, to establish a “bourgeois tragedy”.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
尽管欧洲将“哈姆雷特”作为悲剧的悲剧，但长期以来中国传统文学中缺乏悲剧文学的现象一直令人遗憾。王国伟把“梦”看作“一切悲剧的悲剧”。对王国伟来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的核心。然而，许多学者认为，浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br />
<br />
在 18 世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:40, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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欧洲悲剧中以《哈姆雷特》为悲剧，而中国文学传统中悲剧文学的缺失，长期以来被人们所惋惜。王国维认为《梦》是“所有悲剧中的悲剧”。对王国维来说，浮士德和贾宝玉的苦难是小说的中心。然而，许多学者认为浮士德主义是中国文化的核心。<br />
<br />
在18世纪的欧洲，我们看到了戏剧体裁的新发展，确立了“资产阶级悲剧”。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 15:36, 27 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It developed as an emancipatory movement in the 18th century in London, Paris and Germany, and demonstrated that tragedy was not reserved to rulers, but was also imagineable for lower noblemen and ordinary citizens. The ''Dream'' at the same time as the bourgeois tragedy in Europe shows a tragic story of a mid-level noble family which loses its titles and privileges.<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
'''9. “Non-Binary” Novels'''<br />
<br />
One of the things attracting Western readers is the adorable but mysterious protagonist Jia Baoyu. With his open bisexual orientation and his interest in his mates regardless of their social status, he appears “modern” or at least displaced in time. His struggle with traditional learning makes him appear sympathetic, his long states of rapture out of the world give him both the aura of a timeless character and of mystery.<br />
<br />
9. “非二进制小说”<br />
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可爱而神秘的主角贾宝玉是吸引西方读者的其中一点。由于他开放的双性恋倾向以及对同伴的兴趣，无论他们的社会地位如何，他彰显“现代”气质或至少不属于那个时代。 他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他与世隔绝的漫长状态使他既具有永恒的品格又具有神秘感。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:17, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
“非二元”小说<br />
<br />
一个吸引西方读者的东西是可爱而神秘的主人公贾宝玉。由于他开放的双性恋倾向和他对伴侣的兴趣，不管他们的社会地位如何，他显得“现代”或至少在时间上流离失所。他与传统学习的斗争使他显得富有同情心，他从世界上长期的狂喜给了他永恒的性格和神秘的气息。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 13:43, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
With the bisexual orientation of the Dreams’ protagonist, the novel appears non-binary.<br />
According to Karl-Heinz Pohl, binaries are just superficial, ultimately decisive is the ''Heart Sutra''. Today, the novel is listed among the genre of non-binary literature (see e.g. the bibliographical list on https://www.goodreads.com/list/tag/non-binary), in which contrasts are dissolved deconstructivistically. <br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
'''10. Foreign Cultures in the Red Chamber Dreams'''<br />
<br />
Foreign Cultures frequently appear in the Dreams in all kinds of varieties, like exoticism with the many objects in the household and presented to the household as novelties, especially the blond girl of the same age as Baoyu referred to in person (combining different origins and cultures, including European, Japanese, Chinese) or several times on paintings, one time shown with wings as an angel.<br />
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10.红楼梦中的异邦文化<br />
红楼梦中经常出现各种各样的异邦文化元素，例如许多贾府物品带有异国情调，并以新奇用品的形式呈现给贾府，尤其是提到的与宝玉同龄的金发女孩（结合了不同的来历和文化，包括欧洲，日本，中国），金发女孩也多次在绘画中出现，其中一次是为有翅膀的天使的形象。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
The playful combination of different traditions we can see also when a religious dress is described, which carries characteristics of different religions. Similarly, the Daoist monk and the Confucian priest appear together. Cao Xueqin wanted to show the richness and diversity, also with the many topics and societal levels of the novel. Even a variety of Christian motifs can be found, like when Jia Baoyu is not recognized by his father in chapter 120 and when he disappears, all parallel to Jesus Christ.<br />
我们在描述宗教服饰时也能见识不同传统的玩味结合，它带有不同宗教的特点。同样，道士和儒士也可一起出现。曹雪芹想表现出小说的丰富性和多样性，这也与小说的诸多题材和社会层面有关。在书中甚至可以找到各种基督教的主题，比如第120章贾宝玉不被父亲认可，贾宝玉消失，这些都与耶稣基督平行。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:10, 28 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
The variety of cultures is paralleled with the variety of elements of different dynasties, which makes it timeless and therefore even more a masterpiece of Chinese art and a masterpiece of human art. Therefore I would like to nominate the Red Chamber Dreams as “World Documentary Heritage”. <br />
<br />
'''References'''（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
Anthony, C. Yu. (2001). ''Rereading the Stone: Desire and the Making of Fiction in Dream of the Red Chamber''. Princeton University Press.<br />
<br />
Aristotle. (1971). ''Poetics''. Trans. S. H. Butcher. Ed. Hazard Adams. Critical Theory since Plato. ew York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 48-66.<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin, ed., Cao Xueqin, Gao E et al. (2016). ''Der Traum der Roten Kammer oder Die Geschichte vom Stein'' [''Red Chamber Dreams or The Story of the Stone''], Peking: Foreign Languages Press, ISBN 9787119094120, 4813 pages, 6 vols., hardcover, transl. by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler; Chinese-German bilingual edition<br />
<br />
Woesler, Martin. (2011). “Being Explicit About the Implicit – John Minford’s Translation of the last Forty Chapters of The Story of the Stone with a Field Study on two Sexually Arousing Scenes”. ''Hong lou meng xue kan'' 6: 274-289<br />
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Woesler, Martin. (2010). “ ’To Amuse the Beaux and Belles’ The Early Western Reception of the Hongloumeng”. ''Journal of Sino-Western Communications'' 2 (2010.12) 2:81-107<br />
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Zhuang, Xiuhua. (2011). Self, Ideal and Salvation: A Comparative Study of Jane Austen’s Elizabeth and Cao Xueqin’s Lin Daiyu. ''Journal of Language Teaching and Research'', Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 420-423, March 2011. Fulltext: http://www.academypublication.com/issues/past/jltr/vol02/02/19.pdf.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
'''Virtual Communication Between Machines with the Human as Their Object<br />
'''<br />
<br />
A new stage of multimodal communication after oral, written, printed, electronic and machine-human communication<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new media epoch of “virtual communication” (communication 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.). <br />
<br />
Algorithms do not only listen to oral or read written human communication (between humans or between humans and bots), but they analyze multimodal communication (including likes, behaviour, surfing habits, mobility profile, values, dreams, aims, beliefs etc.), compare them with Big Data (e.g. cloud data) and base decisions of manipulation on a prediction of behavior according to a personality profile and correlations.<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 12:34, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
本文认为，“虚拟传播”(5.0传播版本)是一个全新的媒体时代，在这个时代，人工智能(由人类初始化)已经接管世界，人类成为分析和操纵的对象(如顾客、选民等)。<br />
<br />
算法不仅听人类口头或书面沟通(在人类之间或人类和机器人之间),但他们分析多通道通信(包括喜欢、行为、上网习惯,流动剖面,价值观,梦想,目标,信念等),比较他们与大数据(例如云数据)和基础操作的预测行为的决策根据个性特征和相关性。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:47, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
These algorithms target not only the explicit communications, but the emotions and thoughts of humans too and predict future behavior, therefore allowing simulations of reality. Mightier algorithms have also taken over decision-making roles in societies where they: replace human court decisions, fine tune just-in-time and on-demand production, censor chatrooms etc. Sets of algorithms help to manage smart cities and a whole society. <br />
<br />
这些算法不仅针对明确的交流，也针对人类的情绪和思想，并预测未来的行为，因此允许模拟现实。更强大的算法也在社会中占据了决策角色：取代人类法庭的判决，及时微调和按需制作，审查聊天室等。一套算法有助于管理智慧城市和整个社会。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 10:34, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
----<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
Although the human is still part of the communication, especially as the analyzed object and the target of the manipulation, the human is often unaware of the virtual communication and a passive receiver of the machine’s decisions, while the main actors in the virtual communication are machines.<br />
<br />
<br />
虽然人仍然是通信的一部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人往往没有意识到虚拟通信和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟通信的主要参与者是机器。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:55, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管人类仍然是交流活动的一个组成部分，特别是作为被分析的对象和操纵的目标，但是人类往往没有意识到，自己是虚拟沟通和机器决策的被动接受者，而虚拟沟通的主导者是机器。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:11, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虽然人仍然是构成通信的一部分，尤其是作为分析对象和操纵目标，但人往往没有意识到人们在虚拟通信中扮演机器决策的被动接受者，而机器才是主要参与者。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 15:42, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
Research describes these forms of virtual communication, finds evidence in social management systems and credit systems (in Germany, we have the “Schufa”, in the USA there are big players in credit history, which leads to credit-orientation and gamification of human life) or customized (fake) news filter bubbles and in customized consumption offers (Amazon, Facebook, Google, Netflix) and analyzes benefits, including security enhancements through such virtual communication.<br />
<br />
研究对这些形式的虚拟沟通进行了描述，在社会管理系统、信用系统（定制的（虚假）新闻筛选泡沫）和定制的消费商（亚马逊、脸书、谷歌、网飞）里面找到了证据（德国有“Schufa”，美国则因为信用史有重大人物而使得社会信用至上并日趋游戏化），并对益处加以分析，这些益处包含通过这类虚拟沟通提升安全。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 09:20, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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研究描述了这些虚拟通信的形式，在社会管理系统和信用系统中找到证据（在德国，我们有 "Schufa"，在美国有信用记录的大玩家，这导致了信用导向和人类生活的游戏化）或定制化（假）新闻过滤气泡，以及在定制化的消费优惠中（亚马逊，Facebook，谷歌，Netflix），并分析了好处，包括通过这种虚拟通信增强安全性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 13:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
But research also has the duty to warn of abuse or harmful developments and to raise ethical questions. Exoskeletal ethics, imposed by gamifications like credit systems, especially need to be valued against intrinsic ethics.<br />
<br />
'''Introduction'''<br />
<br />
In this paper dealing with machine to machine communication, I skip the machines assisting humans to make their life more convenient (ranging from “The milk is out, please add the usual amount of milk to the delivery list,” to “The old lady has not left her bed this morning, I’ll better call the doctor”).<br />
<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展发出警告，同时要对引起的伦理问题也要承担责任。特别是信用体系游戏化所造成的外骨骼伦理问题更需要得到重视，要反对内在的伦理问题。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
本论文在涉及机器与机器之间的交流时，我不考虑那些帮助人类让生活更便捷的机器（从“牛奶没了，请在送货单上加平常剂量的牛奶”到“老太太今早卧床不起，我最好叫医生吧”）。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 12:10, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但研究也有责任对滥用或有害的发展提出警告，并提出伦理问题。特别是信用体系等游戏化所强加的外骨骼伦理，更需要对照内在伦理加以重视。<br />
<br />
引言<br />
<br />
在本文中涉及机器与机器之间的交流，我跳过了机器协助人类提高生活便利的内容（从 "牛奶没了，请把平时的牛奶量加到送货单上"，到 "老太太今天早上还没下床，我还是叫医生吧"。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:40, 26 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
Instead, I deal with communication like: “Let’s create a user personality profile and compare it with Big Data to learn how I can best catch this user’s attention and make him/her vote for presidential candidate A or B.”; “Let’s check this users’ mouse movements and compare it with Big Data to get a correlation to estimate if (and if “yes” when) he will get Parkinson, to decide whether or not to deny him the loan or health insurance.”<br />
实际上，本人研究涉及的方面如下：比如，“让我们创建一名用户的个性化主界面，并将其与大数据进行比对，学习如何最好的吸引该用户的注意，让他/她投票给总统候选人甲或乙。”“让我们检查这名用户鼠标的运动轨迹，通过与大数据进行比对，建立关联，来估计他是否会得帕金森。如果他患有帕金森疾病，我们会决定是否需要对他的贷款或医疗保险的申请予以拒绝。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:41, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
“Let’s check this users sexual orientation, religious beliefs, fears, secrets like adultery etc. to blackmail him to get ransom money for my programmer.”; or even “Let’s use this user’s location to aim the killer drone.”<br />
<br />
The current neoliberal system with Amazon, Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Google, Netflix etc. provides incentives to collect as much user data as possible and to abuse user data for manipulation, which creates huge profits.<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、诸如通奸之类的秘密去勒索他为我的程序员去获取赎金”。或者甚至“使用用户的位置瞄准杀手无人机。”<br />
<br />
当前具有亚马逊、脸谱网、瓦茨艾普、照片墙、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义系统激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 06:04, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"让我们查一查这个用户的性取向、宗教信仰、恐惧、通奸等秘密，以勒索他为我的程序员获取赎金。"；甚至"利用这个用户的位置来瞄准杀手无人机。"<br />
目前亚马逊、脸书、WhatsApp、Instagram、谷歌、奈飞等的新自由主义体系，为收集尽可能多的用户数据，并滥用用户数据，从而创造了巨大的利润。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:39, 25 December 2020 (UTC)Yang chenting<br />
<br />
“让我们检查该用户的性取向、宗教信仰、惧怕的事物、诸如通奸之类的秘密，从而勒索他让我的程序员获取赎金”。更有甚时，“让我们使用用户的位置让攻击机瞄准他。”<br />
<br />
当前亚马逊、脸书、联络电话、Instagram、谷歌、网飞等的新自由主义的系统软件，激励人们尽可能多地收集用户信息，并滥用用户信息进行操纵，从而创造可观利益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:53, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
Very much like the financial crisis, which was caused by the unregulated use of derivatives, this is a systemic development, which currently follows a path to enslave the human race under the control of algorithms for the benefit of tech companies. The enslavement has already begun, as we can see from the world wide addiction to social media, from the growing mass of conspiracy theorists and from the polarization of the USA over Trump or the polarization of Great Britain over the Brexit.<br />
<br />
这与因不受监管地使用衍生品导致的金融危机非常相似。这是一个系统性的发展，它目前走的是一条用算法控制奴役人们，为科技公司谋利的道路。从全世界对社交媒体的沉迷，从越来越多的阴谋论者，从美国对特朗普的两极分化或英国对英国脱欧的两极分化，我们都可以看出，奴役已经开始。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:07, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
'''1 History of Media Epochs'''<br />
<br />
Luhmann and Baecker described the development of communication from orality (media epoch 1.0) to script (2.0), through print (3.0) and finally to digital communication (4.0). In all these stages, technology played only an assisting role. <br />
<br />
This paper argues, that there is a fundamentally new stage of “virtual communication” (media epoch 5.0), in which artificial intelligence (initialized by humans) has taken over and humans have become the object of analysis and manipulation (as customers, voters etc.).<br />
<br />
卢曼和贝克尔描述了从口头（媒体时代1.0）到文字（2.0）的通讯发展，再到印刷（3.0）数字通讯（4.0）<br />
在所有这些阶段中，科技都只起到了协助作用。<br />
<br />
本文认为，从根本上来说，“虚拟沟通”处于新阶段（媒体时代5.0），其中人工智能（由人类初始化）已被接管，人类已成为分析和操纵的对象（如顾客，选民等）--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 14:56, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
While Luhmann would still summarize this under digital communication, I see a full new quality here, and have therefore coined the term “communication 5.0” or “virtual communication” for it. In Luhmann’s view, the computer consists out of the “surface” of the machine (the visible interfaces like screen, keyboard, mouse) and the “depth” of the machine (the invisible, often incomprehensive inside).<br />
<br />
虽然卢曼仍然会在数字通信中总结这一点，但我在这里看到了一个全新的品质，因此创造了术语“通信5.0”或“虚拟通信”。在卢曼看来，计算机是由机器的“表面”(屏幕、键盘、鼠标等可见界面)和机器的“内里”(看不见的、内部不全面的部分)组成的。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 08:41, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
However, we are almost constantly producing data, with our chats and geotracked movements, with our addiction to social media, our carrying of cell phones and more and more smart devices at all times, and we are therefore an object of analysis by algorithms.<br />
<br />
The traditional setting of a communicative act blurs: The machine can directly communicate with the human (there the Turing test marks a threshold), and, after a certain complexity, it can hide its machine nature.<br />
<br />
但是，我们几乎一直在通过聊天和地理位置追踪运动，不断沉迷于社交媒体，携带手机以及越来越多的智能设备来生成数据，因此，我们一直是通过算法进行分析的对象。<br />
<br />
交流行为的传统设置变得模糊：机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标记了阈值），并且在经过一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏机器的本质。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 11:49, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，我们几乎在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和地理追踪的动作，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们随时携带手机和越来越多的智能设备，因而成为算法分析的对象。<br />
<br />
传统的交流行为的设定模糊了。机器可以直接与人类交流（图灵测试标志着一个门槛），在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:03, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，我们几乎是在不断地产生数据，我们的聊天和追踪移动，我们对社交媒体的沉迷，我们无时无刻都带着手机和越来越多的智能设备，因此我们是算法分析的对象。<br />
传统的交流行为设定是模糊的:机器可以直接与人类交流(图灵测试在这里标记了一个阈值)，并且在一定的复杂性之后，它可以隐藏自己的机器本质。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
The machine can also indirectly communicate with the human by simply analyzing humans’ verbal communication, non-verbal multimodal communication, behavior, personality etc. and interacting with the human with, or without, revealing its existence. A human, growing up in a filter bubble and believing in conspiracy theories is one such example: The human has been manipulated by social media and news which prefer lies over truth.<br />
<br />
机器还可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言的多模态交流、行为、个性等，并与人类进行交互，从而间接地与人类进行交流，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤器泡沫中成长并相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子：人们被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 08:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
机器也可以通过简单地分析人类的语言交流、非语言多模态交流、行为、个性等与人类进行交流，或者间接地与人类进行互动，从而揭示人类的存在。一个在过滤气泡中长大、相信阴谋论的人就是这样一个例子:这个人一直被社会媒体和新闻操纵，而这些媒体和新闻更喜欢谎言而不是真相。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:45, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
Without even noticing that there was an interaction taking place between the human and the machine, the human has lost his/her independence to the machine.<br />
<br />
'''2 Types of communicative acts'''<br />
<br />
1.Texts (oral and written comments/chat texts/blogs/emails)<br />
<br />
2.Surf behavior (websites visited)<br />
<br />
3.Consumer behavior (purchases)<br />
<br />
4.Likes (see OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
<br />
5.Duration/Attention (see UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.habits/repetitiveness/occurrences (is an element of analysis in different AI apps/tools)<br />
甚至没有注意到人与机器之间发生的互动，人已经失去了他/她对机器的独立性。<br />
<br />
"两种类型的交际行为"<br />
<br />
1.<br />
文本(口头和书面评论/聊天文本/博客/电子邮件)<br />
<br />
2.<br />
上网行为(浏览网站)<br />
<br />
3.<br />
消费者行为(购买)<br />
<br />
4.<br />
喜欢(参见OCEAN, UEBA)<br />
<br />
5.<br />
持续时间/关注(见UEBA)<br />
<br />
6.<br />
习惯/重复/出现(是不同AI应用/工具的分析元素)--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 10:46, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
7.Unconscious, often unique data allowing identification (way of writing, mouse movements pattern, see Raj Kannan 2020)<br />
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8.social interaction incl. friendships, sexual relationships<br />
<br />
9.mobility behavior/pattern (e.g. immediate environment – e.g. unconsciously recording the inside of houses while playing “Pokemon Go”), travel: Travel Behavior (Yu Cui et al. 2018)<br />
<br />
<br />
7，无意识且通常唯一的数据可以识别（书写方式，鼠标移动方式，请参见Raj Kannan 2020）<br />
<br />
8.社交互动，包括 友谊，性关系<br />
<br />
9.出行行为/模式（例如周围环境-例如在玩``口袋妖怪Go''时不自觉地记录房屋内部），旅行：出行行为（于翠等人，2018年）--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:24, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
'''3 Types of analysis'''<br />
<br />
1.General (User and Entity Behavior Analytics UEBA: AI-assisted cybersecurity tools like by Gartner, Inc.)<br />
<br />
2.True identity (e.g.: mouse movements, face recognition, find real name) (Verschuere 2016)<br />
<br />
3.Personality profile: Big Five Personality Inventory: Openness to Experience, Consciousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism “OCEAN” (Golbeck 2011), by only analyzing the users' likes, Facebook can generate personality profiles (AI-Demand 2020)<br />
<br />
4.Mobility profile/pattern<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
5.Health situation (health apps, ai supported disease research, see Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.Job situation/job market (Talent Search People 2020 analyzes the job market, and classifies 4 different AI systems: 1. systems that think like humans, 2. systems that act like humans, 3. systems that think rationally, and 4.) systems that act rationally.)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.就业形势/就业市场（2020年《人才搜索人》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:33, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
5.健康状况（由疾病研究提供AI支持的健康应用程序，见 Daley 2020)<br />
<br />
6.就业形势/就业市场（《人才搜索人 2020》分析了就业市场，并将人工智能系统分为四类：1.像人类一样思考的系统。2.像人类一样行动的系。3.理性思考的系统。4.理性行动的系统。）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:58, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
7.Financial credit-worthiness: E.g. German Schufa company uses AI in addition to human expertise for evaluations, see Banken-Technologie 2020. Banken-Technologie 2020. Schufa’s attempt to gain access to customers’ bank account transfer information was discussed in the news.<br />
<br />
8.Consumer Behavior: e.g. the "clickworker" company analyses and optimizes customers' searches in respect to a client company's goals/products with the help of AI (clickworker 2019)<br />
<br />
9.Secrets (like adultery)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
'''4 Unique quality of media epoch 5.0'''[ I have coined the terms “media epoch 5.0” and “virtual communication” I have developed it from concepts like „Industry 4.0“ in Germany and the four media epochs Luhmann and Baecker developed (by Baecker called 1.0 … 4.0). There are several authors speculating about the media epoch 4.0, like Ray Kurzweil. The Age of Intelligent Machines. 1990.]<br />
<br />
1.the human switches from active to passive<br />
<br />
2.the human switches from subject to object<br />
<br />
3.the human becomes addicted to social media, which enhances depression (Van Den Eijnden et al. 2016, Jasso-Medrano et al. 2018, Shensa et al. 2017)<br />
<br />
4.the human switches from puppeteer, or entity with seemingly free will, to puppet<br />
<br />
5.nature of the internet turns from freedom to surveillance<br />
<br />
4.媒介5.0时代的独特品质 [我创造了 "媒介5.0时代"和 "虚拟通信 "这两个词，它们是从德国的“工业4.0”以及卢曼和贝克提出的媒介4.0时代（贝克称之为1.0...4.0）等概念发展而来的。一些作者揣测媒介4.0时代这个词的含义，比如1990年出版的雷-库兹韦尔的《灵魂机器时代》]<br />
<br />
1.人从主动到被动的转换<br />
<br />
2.人从主体到客体的转换<br />
<br />
3.人沉迷于社交媒体，提高了患抑郁症的风险<br />
<br />
4.人从木偶操纵者或看似拥有自由意志的实体到木偶人的转换<br />
<br />
5.互联网的性质从自由到监测的转换--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 01:25, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
6.direct communication turns into indirect communication (humans may not be aware of this communication/analysis)<br />
<br />
7.explicit communication (voice, words) turns into implicit communication (preferences/thoughts/dreams/wishes/ values (first experiments with brain scanners in worker hats have started in Shanghai and Peking))<br />
<br />
8.man-man communication turns to man-machine communication (phone bot) to machine-machine<br />
<br />
9.4.0 was from centralization to decentralization, 5.0 is partial centralization and partial decentralization, but also concentration<br />
<br />
6，直接交流变成间接交流（人们自己可能没有意识到这种交流/分析）。<br />
<br />
7，明确的交流（声音，文字）变成隐性的交流（偏好/想法/梦想/愿望/价值观（上海和北京已开始在工人的帽子上使用脑扫描仪进行首次实验））。<br />
<br />
8，人与人之间的通信变成了人与机器之间的通信（电话机器人）再到机器与机器之间的通信。<br />
<br />
9.4.0是从集中到分散，5.0是部分集中和部分分散，也有集中。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:52, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
So far, mass media has been considered one-way. The interaction and processing of data of millions of individual users seemed simply too much work. In the age of virtual communication, the media epoch 5.0, mass media is individualized and interactive and therefore even more influential.<br />
<br />
'''5 Types of manipulation (consciously or unconsciously, sometimes half-consciously)<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.Priming by unconscious advertisements: Influencing consumer decisions<br />
<br />
2.Filter bubbles => supports conspiracy theories, influences judgments<br />
<br />
到目前为止，大众媒体一直被认为是单一的。数百万个人用户数据的交互和处理似乎太费力。在虚拟传播时代，即媒体时代5.0，大众传媒是个性化和互动的，因此更具影响力。<br />
<br />
'''5 种操纵类型（有意识或无意识，有时是半意识的）'''<br />
<br />
1.无意识广告发布：影响消费者决策<br />
<br />
2.过滤泡沫=>支持阴谋论，影响判断--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:08, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
3.Nature of social media: lies spread 6 times faster than truth. (Vosoughi et al. 2018).<br />
<br />
4.Change of political attitude: Case Cambridge Analytica: Helped minority to win election by manipulating young people of majority not to vote (Do so: Don’t vote campaign, Oddleifson 2020); Trump election and Brexit were won by manipulation<br />
<br />
5.Use of private information/dependencies to obtain advantages (blackmailing for money or for conducting crimes etc.)<br />
<br />
6.Identity theft<br />
<br />
<br />
3.社交媒体的本质：谎言的传播速度比真理快 6 倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
<br />
4.改变政治态度：案例剑桥分析：通过操纵多数年轻人不投票帮助少数民族赢得选举 （这样做：不要投票竞选。奥德利夫森 2020年）；特朗普选举和英国脱欧通过操纵获胜<br />
<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖关系获取好处（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 05:18, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.社交媒体的性质：谎言传播速度是真相的6倍。（Vosoughi等人，2018年）。<br />
4.政治态度的改变：剑桥分析案例：通过操纵大多数年轻人不投票帮助少数人赢得选举（Do Do Do:Do not vote campaign，Oddleifson 2020）；特朗普选举和脱欧是通过操纵赢得的<br />
5.利用私人信息/依赖性获取利益（勒索钱财或犯罪等）<br />
6.身份盗窃--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
'''6 Consequences'''<br />
<br />
1.Virtual Communication is mostly “hidden”, the human is mostly unaware of it, but may endure the consequences (policeman may detain suspect simply because the face recognition glass recognizes a pedestrian passing by and assesses him/her as “dangerous”; loan is declined; insurance company declines to accept new customer)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通讯大多是 "隐蔽 "的，人多半不知道，但可能会承受后果（警察可能仅仅因为人脸识别玻璃识别出路过的行人，并评估其为 "危险 "而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新的客户）--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 12:02, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
6.后果<br />
<br />
1.虚拟通信通常是“隐藏的”，人类大多数情况下是不知道的，但可能会承受后果（警察可能只是因为面部识别玻璃杯识别出行人经过并将他/她评估为“危险”而拘留嫌疑人；贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 12:05, 25 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''6.后果<br />
'''<br />
<br />
1.大多情况下，虚拟通信是“隐藏的”，人类也没有意识到这一点，但可能会承担由此带来的后果（警察可能会因为面部识别玻璃检测到行人通过，并将其评估为“危险人物”而将嫌疑犯拘留‘贷款被拒绝；保险公司拒绝接受新客户）。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:29, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
2.User becomes transparent (government can fight terrorism, any user can be blackmailed, jealous spouse can check on adultery) <br />
<br />
3.Less will to communicate and discuss (since positions are too far apart)<br />
<br />
4.Populists and populist views gain supporters<br />
<br />
5.Polarization of Society<br />
<br />
6.There is an incentive not to reveal how much one knows about the object, because the object then could question the legality, the system etc.<br />
<br />
7.Last resort, the thinking, is tackled: Machine interprets “real” attitudes, not lip-service words<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明化（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被拉黑，嫉妒的配偶可以查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.交流讨论意愿较弱（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会的两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对对象了解多少，因为对象就可能质疑合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后的手段—思维，已经被破解：机器解释的是 "真实 "的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 07:03, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
2.用户变得透明（政府可以反恐，任何用户都可以被勒索，嫉妒的配偶可以调查奸情）<br />
<br />
3.缺乏沟通和讨论的意愿（因为立场相差太远）<br />
<br />
4.民粹主义者和民粹主义观点获得支持者<br />
<br />
5.社会两极分化<br />
<br />
6.有动机不透露自己对客体了解多少，因为客体可能会质疑其合法性、制度等。<br />
<br />
7.最后一个办法是思考：机器解释的是“真实”的态度，而不是口头禅--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 11:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
8.The knowing ones (algorithms, hackers, controllers of algorithms) have power over the unknowing ones (victims)<br />
<br />
9.Exoskeleton ethics (like points/awards for measurable performances) reduce incentives to build inner ethics<br />
'''<br />
7 Simulation of the imminent future'''<br />
<br />
1.The imminent future behavior of a human can be predicted<br />
<br />
2.With many analyzed humans, the imminent future of reality can be predicted => simulation<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.有了许多被分析的人类，现实的即将到来的未来可以被预测=>模拟--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:00, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已知的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比未知im min的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模拟迫近的未来<br />
1.人类的迫近未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.在分析了许多人类后，我们便可预测现实的迫近未来=>模拟--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 06:22, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
8.已经知道的人（算法、黑客、算法的控制者）比不知道的人（受害者）更有力量<br />
9.外骨骼伦理（如可衡量绩效的积分/奖励）减少了建立内在道德的动机<br />
'''<br />
7模8拟即将到来的未来<br />
1.人类即将发生的未来行为是可以预测的<br />
2.通过大量分析人类，现实里马上到来的未来便可预测到=>模拟--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 13:32, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
Is this an Orwellian dystopia or reality? Some cases of the above listed phenomena have been documented. However, we are still at the beginning of “little” AI development (optimizing existing processes) and on the brink of a much more powerful development, that of “big” AI (rethinking whole industries, being able to reproduce and enhance itself). (cf. Euchner 2019). <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
'''8 Conclusion and Outlook'''<br />
<br />
Data has succeeded oil as the most valuable resource for today’s economy. Big Tech companies already use users’ data and make big profits with it while legislation is delayed and national boundaries (which do not exist for the Tech companies) are struggled over.<br />
Although input-legitimized liberal democracies and market economies, like that of the European Union, still protect privacy and data security, US- and China-based technology companies are already penetrating the European market.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''8 结论与展望''' <br />
<br />
数据已经取代石油成为当今经济中最有价值的资源。大型科技公司已经在使用用户的数据并从中牟取暴利，与此同时，立法被拖延，国界（不存在科技公司）正在为之苦苦挣扎。<br />
<br />
尽管像欧盟这样的以输入合法化的自由民主国家和市场经济，仍然保护着隐私和数据安全，但是中美两国的科技公司已经开始渗透欧洲市场。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:59, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
We need to raise awareness and guide the youth to be careful with screen time and what they share online. We need to avoid addiction to social media.<br />
<br />
'''The algorithms do not just check which film to suggest viewing next, they have started to invade the innermost sanctum of personality, our thoughts, dreams, wishes, visions, hopes, fears and secrets.<br />
'''<br />
'''<br />
The listed consequences document a fundamental change of paradigms: <br />
'''<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年注意屏幕时间和他们在网上分享的东西。我们需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的根本变化:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 01:38, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我们需要提高意识，引导青少年留意屏幕时间和网上分享，需要避免沉迷于社交媒体。<br />
<br />
'''算法不只是检查建议接下来看哪部电影，它们已经开始侵入人格、我们的思想、梦想、愿望、愿景、希望、恐惧和秘密的最深处的圣殿。'''<br />
<br />
所列出的后果证明了范式的基本变化:--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:11, 26 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
'''The cause-based decision-making by humans with established institutions like politicians, judges etc. is being replaced with correlation-based decision-making by algorithms which often serve the profit interests of tech companies or the political interests of election-manipulators.<br />
'''<br />
<br />
AI took the wrong development path, when it changed from serving humans to trying to manipulate humans for economic or political profit. When AI is used to educate citizens – like helping German customers to keep a clean credit history and a good credit score – then it changes the behavior of citizens to an exoskeletal ethic.<br />
<br />
人类通过建立政治、法官等制度所形成的原因导向的决策方法正在被算法形成的关联导向的决策方法所取代，算法通常为科技公司的利润利益或选举操纵者的政治利益服务。<br />
<br />
人工智能走上了错误的发展道路，它从为人类服务变成了试图为了经济或政治利益而操纵人类。当人工智能被用于教育公民——比如帮助德国客户保持干净的信用历史和良好的信用评分——它就会改变公民的行为，使其成为一种外骨骼伦理。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:42, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
However, animals with an exoskeleton reduce their inside muscles and develop a soft inside, making them totally incapable of living without the exoskeleton. An exoskeletal ethic, giving reward points, for example, for behavior which is deemed positive and subtracting points for behavior which is deemed negative, deprives the human of the natural learning and developing process, in a social environment, of his responsibility and inner ethical judgment. If you were to meet a human with exoskeletal ethics and one who has inner ethics, whom would you trust more? <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
If we want to avoid the consequences listed in point 6, the public needs to become aware of this and nations and supranational organizations need to define legislation to a) protect privacy and data security, and b) give the user the control over his/her data including the commercial use of it where they earn a share from the profit made with the usage of his/her data.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
'''9 Outlook'''<br />
<br />
We need to accept, that the development is irreversible. Every new technology has created fears. Important is, that we become aware of the developments and adjust where the development heads into the wrong direction. We need set the right framework and incentives that the new technology stays on track to serve humanity.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
New developments open new possibilities. We need to make sure that not only a few tech companies and terrorists use this powerful new technology to achieve their goals, but that the mass of smart device users emancipate themselves from addiction to and manipulation by technology and gain back their dignity, privacy and free will.<br />
<br />
'''References<br />
'''<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
AI-Demand. (2020). www.ai-demand.com/insights/data/big-data/big-data-and-facebook-the-heavenly-pair-that-isnt-quite-in-heaven/<br />
<br />
Baecker, Dirk. (2007). ''Studien zur nächsten Gesellschaft''. Frankfurt 2007<br />
<br />
Banken-Technologie. (2020). 26. Handelsblatt Jahrestagung. Banken-Technologie. „New Normal” in der Finanzwirtschaft: digital – intelligent – automatisiert – hybrid. 2. und 3.12.2020, Digital [Conference Announcement] https://veranstaltungen.handelsblatt.com/bankentechnologie/ki-machine-learning-finanzanalyse/ <br />
<br />
Booth, T. "Cambridge Analytica controversy must spur researchers to update data ethics." ''Nature'' 555.7698 (2018): 559-560.<br />
<br />
Clickworker. (2019). www.clickworker.com/2019/04/30/ai-for-ecommerce/<br />
<br />
Cui, Yu, Qing He, and Alireza Khani. (2018). Travel behavior classification: an approach with social network and deep learning. ''Transportation research record'', 2672(47), 68-80. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10109453 <br />
<br />
Daley, Sam. (2020). 32 Examples of AI in Healthcare that Will Make you Feel better about the Future (July 4, 2019, updated July 29, 2020). builtin.com/artificial-intelligence/artificial-intelligence-healthcare<br />
<br />
Euchner, Jim. (2019). Little ai, Big AI—Good AI, Bad AI. Terminology Management 62:3, 10-12. pdf: <br />
<br />
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/08956308.2019.1587280?needAccess=true<br />
<br />
Golbeck, Jennifer, Cristina Robles, and Karen Turner. (2011). "Predicting personality with social media." ''CHI'11 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems''. 2011. 253-262.<br />
<br />
Jasso-Medrano, José Luis, and Fuensanta Lopez-Rosales. (2018). "Measuring the relationship between social media use and addictive behavior and depression and suicide ideation among university students." Computers in Human Behavior 87: 183-191.<br />
<br />
Luhmann, Niklas. (1997). ''Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft''. 1997<br />
<br />
Oddleifson, Evan. 2020, The Effects of Modern Data Analytics in Electoral Politics: Cambridge Analytica’s Suppression of Voter Agency and the Implications for Global Politics, ''Political Sciences Undergraduate Review'' 5 (2020) 7, 1-7.<br />
<br />
https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/psur/index.php/psur/article/view/130/90/130-Article%20Text-642-1-10-20200401.pdf<br />
<br />
Raj Kannan, J., Sabitha, R., Karthik, S., & Shanthini, J. (2020). Mouse Movement Pattern Based Analysis of Customer Behavior (CBA-MMP) Using Cloud Data Analytics. ''Wireless Personal Communications'', OnlineFirst, 1-17.<br />
<br />
Ruan, Lotus, et al. "One App, Two Systems: How WeChat uses one censorship policy in China and another internationally." (2016).<br />
Shensa, Ariel, et al. (2017). "Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among US young adults: A nationally-representative study." ''Social Science & Medicine ''182: 150-157.<br />
<br />
Talent Search People. (2020). How Will Artificial Intelligence Affect the Job Market? www.talentsearchpeople.com/en/blog/494-how-will-artificial-intelligence-affect-the-job-market/.<br />
<br />
Van Den Eijnden, Regina JJM, Jeroen S. Lemmens, and Patti M. Valkenburg. (2016). "The social media disorder scale." ''Computers in Human Behavior ''61: 478-487.<br />
<br />
Verschuere, Bruno, and Bennett Kleinberg. "ID‐check: Online Concealed Information Test reveals true identity." ''Journal of forensic sciences'' 61 (2016): S237-S240.<br />
<br />
Vosoughi, Soroush, Deb Roy, and Sinan Aral. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science 359.6380: 1146-1151.. science.sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
'''Bio'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler, PhD, is Jean Monnet Chair in European Studies with Hunan Normal University since 2020. At its Foreign Studies College, he is Distinguished Professor of Chinese Studies, Translation Studies and Comparative Literature since 2019. Woesler was elected Academian of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts, Salzburg in 2019.<br />
Woesler has co-edited the books "China's Digital Dream", "Ethics of Information Society" and Springer has scheduled to publish the book "Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpretation" including his book chapter "Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids" in February 2021.<br />
<br />
个人简历<br />
<br />
自2020年起，吴漠汀（Martin Woesler）博士是湖南师范大学欧洲研究的讲座教授。自2019年来，他在湖师大外国语学院担任中国文化研究、翻译研究和比较文学的特聘教授。2019年，吴教授当选萨尔茨堡欧洲科学与艺术学院院士。吴教授曾与人合编《中国的数字梦想》、《信息社会伦理学》等书。施普林格（Springer）已计划于2021年2月出版《中国笔译与口译中的多种声音》一书，其中包括他的《数字与技术辅助的现代口译》一章。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 09:26, 27 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Woesler was a Senior Fellow of the German Science Foundation's (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) Research College "Media Cultures of Computer Simulations" 2019‐2020 and hosted a related workshop with Bertelsmann Foundation in 2020. Woesler is also a researcher with Witten/Herdecke University, Germany, investigating the impact of daily screen time of children and of young people on their health.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=118464History of Translation Studies 102020-12-21T13:06:00Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658,外国语言学及应用语言学 Foreign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing 英语笔译 202070080581==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of original language and target language, but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, have not been covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. <br />
<br />
During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also made a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, one needs to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. <br />
<br />
The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures.Similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language.<br />
<br />
In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
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Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.<br />
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From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis.That is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, in which verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. <br />
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Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
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===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
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For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator is not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which is direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
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Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, translators are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
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Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word, which makes it even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
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Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence in form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
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===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
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Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
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====Lexical equivalence====<br />
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Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with are going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, translators have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example,“Take care. Hope to see you soon.” is polite and emotional way to express our feelin .<br />
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Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , translators have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
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It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, translators have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to translator's mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, translators can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, translators have to consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
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====Syntax equivalence====<br />
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Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore,proper translation skills are needed to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes translators can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases they will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
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It is obvious that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, translators can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or free translation based on functional equivalence. In daily life, Chinese people often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus the sentence will be translated into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, it can be seen that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
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====Texual equivalence====<br />
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Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, translators need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but trasnslators have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
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In addition, translators need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, translators can figure out exactly his characteristics and reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
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The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
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====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
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Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. Translators will find different types of texts in the process of translation and must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
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Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
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In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.<br />
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Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
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In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
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Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. <br />
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According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, can the translation be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
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Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
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UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654 法语语言文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
The success of Hao Jingfang's science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", which won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016, could not have been achieved without the rigorous translation work of Ken Liu. The translation of this novel takes the response of the readers of the translated text as the starting point, preserving the meaning and style of the novel while effectively conveying Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of functional equivalence theory that "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". Nida's functional equivalence theory, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has had a profound influence on the translation studies of various literary genres in China. This paper examines the English translation of "Folding Beijing", analyzes Ken Liu's use of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory in his translation, and shows the value of functional equivalence theory for the translation of science fiction.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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In the science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", the future Beijing is overpopulated. To solve this crisis, it is transformed into a hierarchical Folding City. The Folding City is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours. The first space is occupied by the upper class of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; the second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; and the third space is occupied by the lower class, who have only eight hours of night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants to send his daughter to a good school, and in order to earn money, he ventures into the first, second and third spaces to deliver letters to others. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
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This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and many Chinese native words. The cultural differences between China and the West due to regional factors and customs are a major challenge for translation. The translator must not only consider the reader's understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local color in the work is not removed. The theory of functional equivalence suggests that translation should not be confined to form, and the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text in order to achieve equivalence of content and information.<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence theory has had a profound impact on China and has brought translators new and effective methods of translation guidance. We can see that Ken Liu is also trying to achieve balance and harmony between the translation and the original text when he translates science fiction novels. This paper analyzes the English translation of "Folding Beijing" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory and explores how translators achieve the closest equivalence to the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:11）<br />
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===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, explained dynamic equivalence translation in his influential book,''Toward a Science of Translating''. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, focusing on the equivalence of the reader's response, not just the equivalence of content and form.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
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In "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defines dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translated reader's reaction to the translation should be the same as the original reader's reaction.（Nida,2004:24）<br />
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Because dynamic equivalence was controversial in some respects, Nida replaced it with a more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment required to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. Since a functionally equivalent translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language message, the translator's achievement of functional equivalence follows three principles.In his book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did".(Nida 1993:118)<br />
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In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the response of the reader of the recipient language, and(3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defines the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory,namely from the form and content of the message to the reader's response. It differs from traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the readers of the original text, it can be regarded as functional equivalence of the target language. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s reaction to the translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
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===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
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====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
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Nida and Taber point out that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning will be discussed in this chapter at three levels: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these are the three levels of detailed analysis of lexicon, syntax, and discourse. According to the theory of functional equivalence, translation is not only about word-for-word equivalence, but also about discovering the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in translation of ''Folding Beijing'' from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.(Nida,2004:12)<br />
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=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
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In literary translation, it is always a challenge to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, and they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is the most appropriate. In the English translation of ''Folding Beijing'', there are many examples of how the translation can achieve functional equivalence with the original text at the lexical level, as follows: (Ding Juan, 2011:22)<br />
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Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
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"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
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Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）<br />
<br />
"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention and conveys what appears to be a bad temper.<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）<br />
<br />
"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The author did not literally translate “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is owing to the translator's own understanding of the text, he hopes readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to convey the original meaning.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
<br />
Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese.（Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, the use of conjunctions and relational words in English is very frequent. Secondly, English speakers focus on object consciousness and are accustomed to the order from small to large objects and from specific to general; in Chinese texts, there is usually a chronological order of time, space or cause and effect. Finally, English usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while Chinese tends to process information from the stale to the fresh in order to impress.（Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a appropriate form. The following are examples of how the English translation of ''Folding Beijing'' achieves functional equivalence with the original at the syntactic level:（Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
" 现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。'他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。'他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’" （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）<br />
<br />
"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this passage, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the translator have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains the meaning of "放开".<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015) <br />
<br />
In this passage, the text emphasizes "the past" twice. To achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order by placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences instead of using a subordinate clause like "...childhood that...".<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translation acceptable to the reader. In literary translation, the translator must pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in terms of discourse level. A dialogue from ''Folding Beijing'' and its English translation is selected below as an example of literary translation achieving functional equivalence at the discourse level:(Din Juan,2011:27）<br />
<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself." <br />
<br />
Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
<br />
"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.<br />
<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
Conversational conventions in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made in translating. The form of the dialogue is not exactly translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”is translated as "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", and the translator changes the action to "spoon", which is more in line with Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as the girl in the first space to spoon the dish to the old knife."推给老刀" is translated as "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", which adds some actions to make it more vivid.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
<br />
Each writer has his or her own writing style, which no one can imitate perfectly. In other words, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows linguistic characteristics, and the English translation shows the translator's attempt to achieve functional equivalence at the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form, the counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vibrant scenes, and enhance the effectiveness of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to "深渊", and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalent.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
It is a metaphorical sentence and words like "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated. They are translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
<br />
"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
This paragraph has a personification that "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks, and arms" and are "like the humblest of servants," and the use of rhetoric allows people to imagine the folding diagram of the city through the image of a person. By comparing the buildings to a herd of beasts, it shows its scale and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)<br />
<br />
"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle and he just use the word "monster".<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
<br />
The dialect reflects the local characteristics and is the author's own writing style. Sometimes this is a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator deals with this problem.（Din Juan,2011:33）<br />
<br />
For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the use of either rhetoric or dialect in literary works fully reflects the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, translators should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the way of expressing stylistic differences and find out the best way to compensate for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve the maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
<br />
Cultural differences between two languages are also issues that translators should be aware of in the translation process. People who are exposed to different cultures have different ways of thinking, values, social customs, etc. Translators need to understand both cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this point, translation plays a role in intercultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the reader so that the translation achieves cultural equivalence with the original text. This chapter will analyze the English translation of ''Folding Beijing'' from the perspectives of food culture, folk culture, and idiom culture to show how it achieves functional equivalence with the original text. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:47)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
<br />
The city described in ''Folding Beijing'' is the political and cultural center of China, a city with deep cultural accumulation. In the novel, there are many elements belonging to traditional Chinese food culture. This part will analyze how the translator managed to translate these cuisines into a successful counterpart.（Din Juan,2011:39）<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"炒面" is a famous traditional Chinese snack. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also gives the reader a more intuitive idea of what the dish is.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)<br />
<br />
"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
Here, foreignization method is used, and "白酒" is translated as "baijiu". The translator does not use words like "spirits", which retains Chinese cultural characteristics and achieves a communicative effect at the same time.<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The characteristic of this dish is that it is first boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in his translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", which is made with pork, and he hopes that readers of the English translation will see the image of this dish in their minds, just like the Chinese do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where friends and relatives share several dishes among themselves. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he uses the word "shared" and he adds the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)<br />
<br />
"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is one of the major characteristics of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word to make it easy for readers to understand.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan says that she hopes Lao Dao will help her keep her secret, so she wants to use money to give Lao Dao." 心意" means money, which is a Chinese euphemism when it is not convenient to give money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered it a euphemism, so the word "appreciation" was used.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）<br />
<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", which the translator translates as "ate heartily". Although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, it seems that English readers cannot achieve the same understanding and reaction as Chinese readers from the perspective of functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
And "（盘子）一片狼藉" is translated as "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" is translated as "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he kept the secret and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might be together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of ''Folding Beijing'' from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of ''Folding Beijing'' to the English reader.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functionally equivalent translation. Analyzing the English version of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture, we can see that linguistically, although Chinese and English are very different in logic and grammar, and there are many differences between Chinese and Western cultures, the translator still tries to keep the original content and find more suitable words in the translation.<br />
<br />
In some specific contents, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction novels, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang.(2015).Folding Beijing[J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang郝景芳.(2016).孤独深处[The Depth of Loneliness].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社[Nanjing:Jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing,LTD]：1-40<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(1993)Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：118<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(2001)Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A. & Taber.(2004) Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：12-24<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999).新编奈达论翻译[A new version of Nida's theory on translation].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation]<br />
<br />
Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009).翻译学概论[Introduction to translatology].南京：译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press]<br />
<br />
Zhao Dandan赵丹丹.(2011).浅论奈达的功能对等理论[Nida's theory of functional equivalence].湖北：文学教育[Hubei:Literature Education]<br />
<br />
Zhou Xingyang周兴阳.(2018).从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[Chinese Science Fiction Translation in the Perspective of Functional Equivalence-A case Study of Beijing Zhe Die and its English Version-Folding Beijing].新疆大学[Xinjiang University]<br />
<br />
Wang Guiyuan王桂圆.(2018)系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[A Study on The Translation of Folding Beijing from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics].安徽：海外英语[Anhui：Overseas English]<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni MTI英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<center>余妮 Yu Ni MTI 英语笔译 No.202070080620</center><br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. <br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
<br />
The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.<br />
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The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).<br />
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====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)<br />
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Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)<br />
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====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).<br />
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=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
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He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).<br />
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===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. <br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.<br />
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It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. <br />
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In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same. <br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.<br />
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In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
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======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
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(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
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In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
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(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. <br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. <br />
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An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).<br />
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======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012). <br />
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After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
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(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. <br />
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Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)<br />
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======Antithesis======<br />
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(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. <br />
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As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).<br />
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(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
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====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.<br />
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The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
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For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019). <br />
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One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
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Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
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Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
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Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
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Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
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Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
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Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
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Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
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Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
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Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 11:51, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation, 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen, 英美文学== <br />
<center>Han Wanzhen 韩宛真, 202020080603.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
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===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
<br />
===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. <br />
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The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)<br />
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The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicit, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)<br />
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Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. <br />
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Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
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The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understanding:the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
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The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
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The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
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In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)<br />
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===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
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There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)<br />
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Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
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===2. Literary Review===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
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===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
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The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. <br />
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At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
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Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
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It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
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===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===<br />
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Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
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With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
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First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
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On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
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===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
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Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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===3.1 Free Translation===<br />
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The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
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===3.2 Addition of Message===<br />
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Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
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===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===<br />
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As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
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The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. <br />
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Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)<br />
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The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
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*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-166.<br />
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*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
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*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
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*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
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*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.<br />
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* Mao Yueyue, Liu Fan. 毛新月, 刘帆. (2018). 释意理论指导下的会议口译中四字词语的翻译——以习近平总书记十九届中共中央政治局常委同中外记者见面会讲话为例. [Translation of four-letter words in conference interpretation under the guidance of interpretation theory - taking the speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the meeting between the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the 19th CPC Central Committee and Chinese and foreign journalists as an example]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](12): 230-231.<br />
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* Ouyang Changyi. 欧阳长怡. (2010). 论释意理论指导下的记者招待会口译策略及释意训练. [On Interpretation Strategies and Interpretation Training of Press Conference under the Guidance of Interpretation Theory]. 福建省外国语文学会.福建省外国语文学会2010年年会论文集. [Fujian Foreign Language Society. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference of Fujian Foreign Language Society]. 福建省外国语文学会: 福建省外国语文学会[Fujian Foreign Language Society: Fujian Foreign Language Society]<br />
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* Xiong Wen. 熊雯. (2014). 释意理论视阙下的口译过程研究. [A study of interpretation process under the view of interpretation theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](24): 154-155.<br />
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*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
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*Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe. 张杨,李灵哲. (2018). 释意理论指导下的翻译语义策略运用. [The use of translation semantic strategies under the guidance of interpretation theory]. ''佳木斯职业学院学报'' [Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10): 334-336.<br />
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='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
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<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures ==<br />
陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593 英语语言文学<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
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===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time, until they entered China along trade routes from Central Asia in the first century AD.<br />
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Buddhism is widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the similarity in form and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation(Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
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In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three periods. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposes that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposes to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang holds that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
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==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures in total, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “Transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, was a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He was the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignoring the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The dominant translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures.<br />
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On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore they can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
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=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
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====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he was also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
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“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
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==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He was one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translated 39 volumes. He was proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocated that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. <br />
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“Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of Indian Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25).<br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness.<br />
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Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived at Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops.With his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
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(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads) were usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China, translators could take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there were more Sanskrit texts, they had more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
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(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, and metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age was Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
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==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses. The number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators were mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also had a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who were proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work did not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty was more all-sided in organization. “According to records, the translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty had as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them were rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts were more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believed that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
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=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese was mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
<br />
In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
<br />
=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
<br />
By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223<br />
<br />
Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308<br />
<br />
Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.<br />
<br />
Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University <br />
<br />
Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.<br />
<br />
Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70. <br />
<br />
Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press<br />
<br />
Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.<br />
<br />
WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
<br />
Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
<br />
Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
<br />
He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
<br />
Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
<br />
Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
<br />
Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 05:11, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi ==<br />
<center>成于思 Cheng Yusi No.202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the chapter is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the chapter will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
André Lefevere; ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook''; Liu Miqing; ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''; “cultural turn”; John Dryden; translation principles<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔;《翻译，历史和文化论集》; 刘宓庆;《中西翻译思想对比研究》;文化转向;约翰·德莱登;翻译原则<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
This chapter presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, the chapter intends to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This chapter will be divided into three parts.<br />
<br />
In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. Dryden's comparison of a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
<br />
In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
<br />
In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
<br />
All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
<br />
===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
<br />
''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies. <br />
<br />
In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
<br />
In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii) <br />
<br />
Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)<br />
<br />
If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.<br />
<br />
The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements, which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)<br />
<br />
I enjoy reading this book because it brings those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others. <br />
<br />
I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47) <br />
<br />
In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "an author and a translator" to "a master and a slave" through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.(Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)<br />
<br />
Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracts an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)<br />
<br />
In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102) <br />
<br />
Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating poems in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
<br />
Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103) <br />
<br />
As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
<br />
Dryden proposes a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)<br />
<br />
It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. <br />
<br />
Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
<br />
However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compares a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)<br />
<br />
Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars, like Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014) <br />
<br />
A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works were with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)<br />
<br />
Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73) <br />
<br />
About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)<br />
<br />
===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2) <br />
<br />
In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
<br />
The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33) <br />
<br />
He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
<br />
The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)<br />
<br />
Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179) <br />
<br />
The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
<br />
However, he also recognizes that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School and New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
<br />
Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented", and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories which can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current superficial, assertive and rational views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)<br />
<br />
The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)<br />
<br />
Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)<br />
<br />
Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulated that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)<br />
<br />
Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987) <br />
<br />
In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation principles that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the feature of the tradition of Chinese translation changes from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)<br />
<br />
As such, the flourishing of translation is bound to be our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) <br />
<br />
The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51) <br />
<br />
The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
<br />
The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem.(Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate Chinese poems, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility, it expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
<br />
Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
<br />
Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argues that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provides a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)<br />
<br />
===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
===4.1 From the aspect of the content===<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
<br />
===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===<br />
<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters, which are concerned with the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. As to the longer essays, they are collected in the last chapter. <br />
<br />
Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includs the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps readers understanding translation principles.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have better understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of a translator to a slave. Then, it figures out the reasons of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
<br />
Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
===关键词===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
===Introuction===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.<br />
<br />
Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: <br />
<br />
(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. ) <br />
<br />
Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. <br />
<br />
The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)<br />
<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.<br />
<br />
Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. <br />
<br />
The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. <br />
<br />
These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. <br />
<br />
Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. <br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. <br />
<br />
The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. <br />
<br />
Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)<br />
<br />
===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)<br />
<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. <br />
<br />
The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. <br />
<br />
Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. <br />
<br />
This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).<br />
<br />
The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. <br />
<br />
The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
===Trends in Translation Theory Research===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. <br />
<br />
In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980.<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
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===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku,2011）<br />
<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku,2011）<br />
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==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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[Take Chinese and English for example ,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal, as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain, but in England ,a country with developed industry, people are no longer farming ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before, instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse ,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily, after the rain ,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
<br />
Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
<br />
===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
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1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
<br />
Example 1<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just in the south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
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Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou 苏州(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan 银川(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
<br />
For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
<br />
<br />
If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
<br />
Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
<br />
For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
<br />
3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
<br />
Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 11<br />
<br />
我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 12<br />
<br />
“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 13<br />
<br />
耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 14<br />
<br />
“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 15<br />
<br />
我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
===''' References '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* wenku.(2011).翻译中的归化异化."Domestication and Foreignization in Translation" .https://wenku.baidu.com/view/a63459ee81c758f5f61f67e0.html.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==<br />
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center><br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence on the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation was regarded as a linguistic phenomena before. But later, with the development of the translation theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science, especially linguistics, can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology at home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
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In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recording two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)<br />
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Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)<br />
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J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and regarded seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure. (J.A Catford , 1965)<br />
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Holmes published The Name and Nature of Translation Studies at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation, which directly promoted the construction of translation studies. ( James Holmes,1975)<br />
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In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from several aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing the translation practice. (Wolfram Wilss, 1982)<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is Discourse and the Translator (1990), which is the first book to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers. (Hatim & Mason,1990 )<br />
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Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believed that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
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Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies. (Mona Baker, 2006) <br />
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'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
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In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were using correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books would be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe. (Dong Qiusi, 1951)<br />
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In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the viewpoint that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
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In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published On Approaches to Translation Studies. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' the awareness of the subject of translation studies. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
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In the thesis An Overview of Western Translation Theory (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, translatology could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
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In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
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In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)<br />
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At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. ( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)<br />
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Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）<br />
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Subsequently, Lv published Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new perspective for the study of the construction of translation studies and promoted the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)<br />
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Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)<br />
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Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the development of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies. (Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
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Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012) <br />
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Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)<br />
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Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple approaches of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation. (Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020)<br />
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In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rising of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precedes translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. (Wang Yin,2017)<br />
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Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western translation studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward west, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation. (Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)<br />
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Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)<br />
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Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies of the researches. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)<br />
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From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the awareness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
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==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
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In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies. <br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
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"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often be confused. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definitions of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
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In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is also used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the rules of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995） <br />
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Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic, literature, philosophy etc. ( Kong Xiangli,2009)<br />
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'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
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Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline and to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
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Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translator appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei etc. (Yi Jing,2009)<br />
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The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated texts. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an independent discipline'''<br />
<br />
Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of an independent discipline and proposed a classification of the research field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a merely a technical activity. (Tan Zaixi, 1987 )<br />
<br />
Such a group of people also appeared the independence of translation in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, many famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
<br />
'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
<br />
Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies have shown a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018) <br />
<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its research field, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation by early linguists; second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )<br />
<br />
4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
<br />
As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists began to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology were linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 ) <br />
<br />
Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
<br />
These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their researches inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, their contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )<br />
<br />
4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
<br />
In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, systematic-functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )<br />
<br />
4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
<br />
Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists took Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regarded linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the assistance of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
<br />
Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
<br />
Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts that are "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has exerted a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
<br />
Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural context of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
<br />
For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the development of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics theory. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 <br />
<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
<br />
As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
<br />
Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and materials for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool and new research perspectives for translation studies and provides great convenience for translation studies. ( Liao Qiyi，2000)<br />
<br />
4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
<br />
In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The publication of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
<br />
4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
<br />
Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is quite similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, publishing cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
<br />
4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
<br />
Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good example. (Yang Zijian,1993)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study. Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
<br />
4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
<br />
Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be learned from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together. In the process of development, linguistics has absorbed the experience of many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., formed many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Linguistics has gone through several stages of development, and it has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics provided experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators should only take other disciplines for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely. ( (Liu Miqing, 1989))<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
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Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
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Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658,外国语言学及应用语言学 Foreign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics==<br />
<br />
<center>许晶Xu Jing 202020080658</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析翻译学科学习目前存在的问题，并提出相应的建议。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''=== <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies", is a basic statement of translation studies，which calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) <br />
<br />
Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, such as comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)<br />
<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation studies can examine the practices and context of translating texts that are specialist (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these knowledge enables students to apply their understanding of theories to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually includes the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills that are necessary elements solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. With the requirement of effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures in today's multicultural and multilingual society, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
<br />
As a science, Translation Studies always has its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. <br />
<br />
Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can have a good understanding about the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. It is necessary for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
Translation activities appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, and the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. <br />
<br />
The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared on the scene.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have been single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, as well as translation criticism, translation publishing, and translation management, etc.<br />
<br />
At that time, because a large number of people who master foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to improve foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under Foreign Language and Literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
<br />
2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, translation studies explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. <br />
<br />
At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the team to construct translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation in succession. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of “China Translator" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)<br />
<br />
Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge. Translation research ideas, methods, field and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)<br />
<br />
2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) <br />
<br />
In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Translation studies have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.<br />
<br />
There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers should help students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments that required by the language service market. Teachers can invite industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
<br />
==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. Translation discipline in China has entered a new stage now, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
<br />
3.1. Translation Education <br />
<br />
With the establishment of the autonomy of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the cultivation of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018）<br />
<br />
However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, so it is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction history of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, so systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to bluring and confusing educational goal of translation major. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation major teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them are lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
<br />
3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
<br />
The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. <br />
<br />
The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data shows that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
<br />
In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)<br />
<br />
3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
<br />
Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018) <br />
<br />
This kinds of teaching method that is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model ignore student autonomy, which will pay too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
<br />
3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
<br />
The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is inconsiderable.（Ou Yonghua 2019）<br />
<br />
Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, according to the actual situation of translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but do not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)<br />
<br />
3.2. Students<br />
<br />
The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, so it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
<br />
3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
<br />
Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. <br />
<br />
Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
<br />
3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
<br />
Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not gain sufficient background information.<br />
<br />
With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015) <br />
<br />
3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
<br />
At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless to some extent or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
<br />
==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved over time. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote Translation Studies in China.<br />
<br />
4.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
Translation education plays an important role in cultivating translation talents, and a good translation education system will provide a good environment for students to learn Translation Studies, so it is necessary to improve translation education system.<br />
<br />
4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
<br />
The teaching model is an important guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to innovate. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
<br />
The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching,which attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. It is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
<br />
4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
<br />
Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. <br />
<br />
Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019）<br />
<br />
Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
<br />
Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and to reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of landmark for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)<br />
<br />
The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
<br />
4.2. Students <br />
<br />
Translation talents play a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
<br />
4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future.Not only should they have a solid foundation in language ability, but also they should take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
<br />
A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students are urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
<br />
Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics and the skills and theories of translation，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. <br />
<br />
Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can take part in many social activities to experience different aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the objection of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Therefore, translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and professional knowledge. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. <br />
<br />
From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies are still not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, learn from the latest foreign translation theories, and combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 15:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
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Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
<br />
Chen Cheng.陈诚. (2020).高校英语翻译课程教学现状及改革研究.[ Research on the Teaching Status and Reform of College English Translation Course].淮南职业技术学院学报[''Journal of Huainan Vocational &Technology''] 97-98.<br />
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Chu Xizhi.褚喜之(2009).翻译理论在翻译教学中的重要性.[The Importance of Translation Theory in Translation Teaching].经济研究导刊[''Economic Research Guide'']237-238.<br />
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Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
<br />
Huang Youyi.黄友义.(2018).服务改革开放40年,翻译实践与翻译教育迎来转型发展的新时代.[Servicing Reform and Opening for 40 Years, Translation Practice and Translation Education Usher in a New Era of Transformation and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']5-8.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
<br />
Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
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Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
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Linlin.林琳.(2016).英语文学翻译学习现状及改善措施.[ The Status Quo and Improvement Measures of English Literature Translation Learning].西部素质教育[''Western China Quality Education''] 65.<br />
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Luo Feng.罗峰.(2011).从翻译学学科建设看翻译学在中国的发展.[On the Development of Translation Studies As A Discipline in China].琼州学院学报[''Journal of Qiongzhou University]''115-116.<br />
<br />
Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
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Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
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Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
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Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
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Xu Jun, Mu Lei. 许钧, 穆雷.(2009).中国翻译学研究30年 (1978 -2007).[30 years of Chinese Translation Studies (1978 -2007)].外国语[''Journal of Foreign Languages'']77-87.<br />
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Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
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Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan== <br />
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center><br />
<br />
<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
译者文化身份对翻译的影响<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.<br />
<br />
<br />
Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)<br />
<br />
There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.<br />
<br />
=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===<br />
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.<br />
<br />
Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.<br />
<br />
"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)<br />
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====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====<br />
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.<br />
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In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.<br />
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Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on domestication strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.<br />
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====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====<br />
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.<br />
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However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." <br />
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However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "The highest art can only be understood by a few", "Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades. ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) <br />
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As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12) <br />
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We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.<br />
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====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====<br />
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According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)<br />
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Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
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The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.<br />
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===The cultural identity of translators in translation===<br />
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.<br />
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====In terms of the original intention of translation====<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously<br />
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In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".<br />
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When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Irving Babbitt, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)<br />
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====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
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For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)<br />
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EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，<br />
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伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，<br />
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This man hath my consent to marry her．<br />
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是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的<br />
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Stand forth，Lysander．<br />
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走上前来，拉山德。<br />
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And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）<br />
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殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子 （朱生豪. 2013：9）<br />
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In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work. <br />
For example, his translation. <br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)<br />
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拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!<br />
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否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。<br />
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Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.<br />
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First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:<br />
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LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)<br />
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Translation of Liang Shiqiu:<br />
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赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，<br />
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否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。<br />
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HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool: <br />
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And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)<br />
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海 上学时她就是个狐狸精。<br />
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她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。<br />
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Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966) <br />
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Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature. <br />
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For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.<br />
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Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,<br />
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;<br />
There with fantastic garlands did she come,<br />
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,<br />
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.<br />
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:<br />
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds<br />
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,<br />
When down her weedy trophies and herself<br />
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;<br />
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;<br />
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one<br />
incapable of her own distress,<br />
Or like a creature native and indu’d<br />
Unto that element: but long it could not be<br />
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,<br />
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay<br />
To muddy death.<br />
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）<br />
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Liang’s version :<br />
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河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。 就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。 她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works. <br />
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For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion. <br />
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By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
Fu Wenhui付文慧．多重文化身份下之戴乃迭英译阐释［The Interpretation of Dai Naidian's English Translation under Multiple Cultural Identities］中国翻译[ Chinese Translation]，2011，32(6):16—20．<br />
<br />
Yan Xiaojiang严晓江． 梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.<br />
<br />
Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.<br />
<br />
Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128.. <br />
<br />
Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.<br />
<br />
Wu Delu.吴得禄.译者文化身份对翻译的影响[The influence of translators' cultural identity on translation].读书文摘[Reading Digest].2016(08):211.<br />
<br />
Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．<br />
<br />
Liu Shuang刘双．文化身份与跨文化传播[Cultural identity and cross-cultural communication]外语学刊[Journal of Foreign Languages]，2000(1):87—91．<br />
<br />
Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪.译者自序[Translator's Preface].文学界(专辑版)[Literature (album edition)].2010(09):36.<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚 四大喜剧 梁实秋译[The Four Great Comedies translated by Liang Shiqiu].北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press].2001<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚． 仲夏夜之梦 朱生豪译．[A Midsummer Night's Dream translated by Zhu Shenghao].上海:上海世界图书出版公司 [Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company],2013．<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋 文学与革命.偏见集[Literature and Revolution. The collection of prejudices].南京:正中书局[Nanjing: Zhengzhong Shuji].中华民国二十三年七月.<br />
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==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Toury's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Toury and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Toury also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
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The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Toury proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
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Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Toury describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
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In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Toury, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
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According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
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He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Toury, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Toury's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
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According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
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Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
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Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Toury, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Toury concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Toury believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Toury is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Toury has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
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According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
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Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In his study of descriptive translation, Toury emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Toury's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Toury's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
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In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
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The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
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Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
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The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
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Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Li Hongman 李红满. (2002). 论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J]. [On the Paradigm Shift in Contemporary Western Translation Studies]. 外语与翻译. [Foreign Languages and Translations]. <br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang 张美芳. (2000). 翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J]. [The Objectives and Structure of Translation Studies - A Review of Holmes' Vision of Translation Studies]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Toury Gideon. (2001). ''Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond''[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J]. [Translation Studies: From Specification to Description]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1996). A Skopos Theory of Translation[M]. Heidellburg:TEXT-con.<br />
<br />
Venuti Lawrence. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge.<br />
<br />
Snell-Homby Mary. (1995). Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M]. Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Hemans Theo (1985). ed.The manipulation of Literature[M]. London&Sydney:Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman, Liu Fang 韩子满, 刘芳. （2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J]. [Describe the achievements and shortcomings of translation studies]. 外语学刊. [Journal of Foreign Languages].<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M]. [New Horizons in Translation Studies]. 青岛:青岛出版社. [Qingdao:Qingdao Publishing House].<br />
<br />
==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==<br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655 亚非语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:=== <br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and helps the readers to understand deeply the status of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，使读者深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.<br />
<br />
===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）<br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) <br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.1 John MacFarlane====<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Firth====<br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) <br />
<br />
====2.3 James Holmes====<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）<br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54） <br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. <br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. Taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Polysystem Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem(多元体系派) is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies(翻译研究派). It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）<br />
<br />
====2.5 Gideon Toury<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. <br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.<br />
<br />
====2.6 Snell-Hornby<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. <br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97) <br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：<br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts. <br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)<br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) <br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory is undoubtedly meaningful and instructive, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) <br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36) <br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. <br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Conclusion=== <br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Reference===<br />
<br />
Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.<br />
<br />
J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.<br />
<br />
Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Snell-Hornby. (1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman 韩子满, Liu Fang 刘芳. (2005). 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive to the Descriptive Approach]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).<br />
<br />
Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. (2008). 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]<br />
<br />
Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2002). 多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).<br />
<br />
==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies== <br />
<br />
Translation Strategies <br />
<br />
===Abstract === <br />
<br />
Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.<br />
<br />
Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.<br />
<br />
This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers define them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical significance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)<br />
<br />
===Content===<br />
<br />
Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classifications from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classification is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classifications. It seems that clear-cut definitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype definitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)<br />
<br />
The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reflect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reflects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)<br />
<br />
The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp fiction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)<br />
<br />
Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the definitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few defining characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difficulty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).<br />
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or specific) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “specific activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle specific problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by specific techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classified by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
<br />
As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural filtering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
However, this is not consonant with the dictionary definitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is defined as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) defines translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will influence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identified the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identification, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal significant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can find out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) ==<br />
<br />
Darwish (2008) identifies four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70<br />
<br />
<br />
However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might influence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difficulty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Laffling(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.<br />
<br />
== The Comparison of Machine Translation and Human Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory---A Case Study of E-C Translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example - 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan 202020080630==<br />
<br />
<center>欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the Internet, international communication is expanding, and a lot of information needs to be translated. Due to the low efficiency of human translation, machine translation is indispensable today. However, due to the limitations of machine translation, the quality of machine translation is still worrying. Therefore, from the perspective of Skopos theory, this paper takes the E-C translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example to analyze the machine translation of Google translation and Baidu translation, and compare it with the translation of Song Zhaolin, so as to explore the characteristics of machine translation and human translation, try to discuss the irreplaceable nature of human translation, and discuss how to combine machine translation with human translation to improve the quality and efficiency of translation. This paper is divided into five parts: the first part introduces the background of the current translation environment; the second part introduces Skopos Theory and discusses the feasibility of Skopos Theory in analyzing machine translation and human translation; the third part introduces the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation and human translation, and discusses the relationship between them; the fourth part is a case study to see machine translation from the perspective of Skopos theory Compared with manual translation, it is concluded that machine translation and manual translation must be combined to improve the efficiency and quality of translation. The fifth part is a summary of this paper.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Skopos Theory, machine translation, human translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下机器翻译和人工翻译的对比---以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着全球化和互联网的迅速发展，国际的交流日益扩大，大量信息需要翻译。由于人工翻译效率低下，在越来越强调效率和质量的今天，机器翻译必不可少。然而，由于机器翻译的局限性，机器翻译的质量仍然堪忧。因此,本文以目的论视角, 以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例，分析谷歌翻译和百度翻译的机器译文, 与宋兆霖版本的中文译本对比，由此探析机器翻译与人工翻译的特点,尝试论述人工翻译的不可替代性, 并讨论如何将机器翻译与人工翻译结合提高翻译的质量和效率。本文分为五个部分，第一部分对当前翻译环境背景的介绍；第二部分对目的论进行简介，并讨论目的论用于分析机器翻译和人工翻译的可行性；第三部分介绍机器翻译和人工翻译的优缺点，并讨论他们之间的关系；第四部分进行案例分析，从目的论视角下看机器翻译与人工翻译的对比，得出提高翻译效率与质量必须将机器翻译与人工翻译相结合。第五部分对全文进行总结。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论 机器翻译 人工翻译 <br />
<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
With the development of globalization, the growth of Internet and artificial intelligence, machine translation becomes an indispensable choice in today’s society. Compared with human translation, machine translation has the advantages of efficiency. As the traditional translation method, human translation can guarantee the accuracy of the text. In this information era, many people are thinking whether human translation will be replaced by machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
In September 2016, Google released the neural network translation system, which greatly improved the quality of machine translation. In November, Baidu CEO Robin Li stated at the Wuzhen Summit of the 3rd World Internet Conference that Baidu's artificial intelligence product "automatic translation" will enter a practical state. Therefore, this paper will put the original text of Tale of Two Cities in two representative public machine translation engines at home and abroad, "Google" and "Baidu", to obtain the machine translation. Selecting texts from the famous classical novel ''A Tale of Two Cities'', and comparing machine translations and human translations based on this novel from the perspective of Skopos theory, this paper aims to investigate the relationship between human translation and machine translation and their developments in the future. (Hu Kaibao 2016, 10)<br />
<br />
=== 2. Overview of Skopos Theory ===<br />
In the 1970s, some eminent German translation theory scholars first proposed functional translation theory. Translation theorist Katharina Reiss divides text into three types: informative, expressive and operational. She suggested that according to different text types, different translation methods should be used for analysis, and different translation criticism standards should be adopted, that is, text types, language functions and translation strategies should be combined. In the translation process, it’s essential to focus on the functional characteristics of the target text. Her text type theory and translation criticism mode can be regarded as the beginning of functionalist Skopos theory. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
<br />
Hans Vermeer is Reiss's student. He further developed Reiss's theory and proposed Skopos theory. He believed that Skopos theory is based on the source text, and then may produce a series of purposeful and effective behaviors. The core of this theory is that "the purpose of translation determines translation strategies and method to achieve the expected purpose of translation" (Reiss & Vermeer 1984), and German scholars Justa Holz Manttari and Christian Nord further developed this theory which based on the theory of communication and behavior, and they proposed that translation theory is not a simple translation between words and sentences, but a kind of conscious behavior for the purpose of cultural communication. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Three Rules of Skopos Theory====<br />
The word “Skopos” is originated from the Greek language and means "purpose". Skopos theory refers to the process of translation is determined by the purpose of the translation, so the purpose rule is the highest one of translation. Generally speaking, skopos theory includes three principles: Skopos rule, coherence rule (intra-textual coherence) and fidelity rule (also known as "inter-textual coherence"). (Nord 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory believes that the important principle to be followed is the "purpose" rule, it is the core rule of Skopos Theory: the process of translation should be based on the realization of the communicative function in the target language culture, and the goal to be achieved determines the entire process of translation, that is, the method determines the result. Vermeer differentiated the purpose of translation. He believes that the purpose of translation should include three levels: the purpose of the translator; the purpose of communication; the purpose of specific translation strategies. In most cases, a translator has a certain purpose before translation, such as being entrusted by a translation company, market demand or the need to introduce a technology. In most cases, "purpose" refers to the communicative purpose of translation. Under the guidance of the purpose of communication, the translator can have more space to interpret and adjust the original text. (Nord 2001, 78)<br />
<br />
To achieve the communicative and interative function between the target text and the target receptor, the target text needs to conform to the linguistic coherence, and be understood and accepted by the readers in the context of the target language and culture. The principle of coherence means that the target text must conform to the intra-textual coherence, that is, the translation must be understood by the target reader and be meaningful in the culture of the target language and the communication environment in which the translation is used. “The principle of coherence requires that the information generated by the translator (target text) must be interpreted in a manner consistent with the context of the target reader.” (Shuttleworth 2004: 75) This means the translator should maximize the translation Semantic coherence and makes the translation understandable and acceptable to the target readers. The target text can help target readers understand and successfully exchange information.<br />
<br />
The fidelity rule refers to the inter-textual coherence between the original text and the target text, which requires "consistency between the target text and the original text" (Munday, 2010: 79). Therefore, in the translation process, the translator should not only be faithful to the original text, but also transfer the writing style and cultural factors existed in the source text. This principle requires translator to follow the purpose of translation.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, translators should follow three principles according to Skopos Theory: the Skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. Among these three rules in Skopos Theory, the skopos rule is the primary principle translators should adopt in the process of translation, and the coherence rule and the fidelity rule must follow the skopos rule. So in the case of translation practice, fidelity rule is subordinate to coherence rule, and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule. In a word, Skopos rule plays a decisive role in translation process, and it should be considered first in translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011, 20)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Application of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory is different from traditional theories which overemphasize the features of language rules. With regard to Skopos Theory, it requires that translators should not only consider the language but also take account of factors beyond texts and language like the purpose of translation. As for ''A Tale of Two Cities'', the purpose is to make the target reader feel the same as the source target reader. Since this is a literary text, the cultural factors and rhetorical methods used in the source texts should be reflected in the target text. In addition, the feeling of the target text reader should be taken into consideration in the process of translation. Therefore, the translation should conform to habits of the target language. But guided by Skopos Theory, the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation can be easily analyzed, so that a better solution can be founded between human translation and machine translation.<br />
<br />
===3. Machine Translation and Human Translation===<br />
Translation activities have a long history. As far as China is concerned, translation has a history of more than two thousand years. However, the translation tools have rarely changed, and the translations are always been done by "translators". With the development of science and technology and the acceleration of globalization, there is an increasing need for translation. Therefore， "machine" translation has emerged. High efficiency and low cost of machine translation make people think about whether machine translation will replace human translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of human translation====<br />
Human translation has both advantages and disadvantages. For example, human translation has the characteristics of flexibility, accuracy, high readability and humanization of language. At the same time, however, compared with machine translation, human translation is less efficient and easy to be influenced by translator's own cultural background and translation capacity so it is difficult to achieve rapid development. Before the advent of machine translation, all translation activities were done by human. Compared with machine, translators, as a bridge of cross-cultural communication, are more flexible. Translation itself is a complex activity. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
Professional translators who have certain cultural background knowledge can choose different translation methods and strategies according to the similarities and differences between the two languages and cultures, so it is more flexible and accurate. The flexibility of human language enables the translator to express the meaning of the original text in a more abundant language, and accurately handle the rhetorical devices in the original text. Therefore, the target text of human translation must be more readable than that of machine translation. Human translation has a long history, and people's research on translation has never stopped. Many excellent translators have emerged in the world and put forward various translation ideas and strategies. Translation has established a relatively mature and complete theory. With the rapid development of China's economy and the increasing number of foreign exchanges, the demand for translation is on the rise. At the same time, the time spent on translation needs to be shortened. Therefore, manual translation alone cannot meet the needs of the translation market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of machine translation====<br />
Machine translation refers to thefact that a language can be transferred into another language automatically with the help of machine. The idea of machine translation was firstly put forward by Weaver in his book Translation in 1949. Since the end of the 20th century, the development of the Internet and computer technology has provided more optional software and engines for machine translation. At the same time, the corpus has become richer and more complete, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
The current machine translation is based on the "Neural Machine Translation" (NMT) model of artificial intelligence. Currently, the popular web page machine translations include Youdao Translation, Baidu Translation, Google Translation and so on. Google is currently in a leading position in both voice translation and text translation. Google Translation is a service provided by Google to translate texts and web pages, providing instant translation between more than 100 languages. It can provide translations of words, sentences and web pages between any two languages it supports. The more human translation documents that can be analyzed for a particular language are, the higher the quality of the translation is. In addition, Google's web page translation is fast, especially free to use, so it has a considerable number of users in translation activities, especially students. Therefore, this paper will take Google Translation and Baidu Translation as an example to analyze the translation quality, which is representative in the market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, machine translation has the characteristics of high efficiency, low cost, accuracy of terminology translation, and great development potential. Machine translation is fast and efficient, for which human translation cannot match. Secondly, the price of machine translation is low, even free, which greatly reduces the economic cost and time cost for those who do not require high translation quality. In addition, compared to human translation, the huge corpus established by machine translation makes the translation of some terms, especially the latest scientific and technological terms, faster and more accurate. The accurate translation of these terms requires continuous learning by the translator, and learning requires a process, which has a certain test of the translator's learning ability and learning speed. At this point, human translation has uncertainty and lag. Finally, although the history of machine translation is short, it has achieved rapid development. With the advancement of science and technology and the development of society, the functions of machine translation will be more perfect and the quality of translation will be better. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
First of all, from a microscopic point of view, machine translation often has problems in the choice of word meaning, especially when there is one word with different meanings. It needs the translator to select the meaning based on the context, while machine translation cannot accurately choose the meaning of a word in combination with the context. What’s more, the word order of the translated sentence often does not conform to the word order and expression habits of the target language. From the aspect of tense, it is more accurate when translating English into Chinese, because words in English can directly change tense. However, there are sometimes problems such as no corresponding tenses when translating Chinese into English. From a macro point of view, machine translation does not have cultural sensitivity and is not accurate enough for the translation of some idioms and proverbs with strong cultural color. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Relationship between machine translation and human translation====<br />
Machine translation is based on human translation, and the establishment of corpus that machine translation relies on needs human participation. When translating technical terms, machine translation corpus and parallel text can greatly reduce the time when find and determine proper equivalent terms. However, the establishment of these corpora needs well-translated materials. The accuracy and usability of corpus are also affected by the quality of human translation. Therefore, they restrict and influence each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
There are more or less defects in the micro and macro aspects of machine translation. At the micro level, it mainly includes vocabulary, syntax, tense, and so on. However, at the macro level, it mainly includes text cohesion and cultural background. Therefore, human translation is essential. In addition, all machine translation inspection, modification, sorting and other work must also be carried out manually, so as to make the translation quality better and meet the requirements of communication. It can be seen that machine translation alone cannot meet the requirements of high quality translation. Translation activities cannot be separated from human participation. Therefore, with the development of machine translation, translation should be completed by both machine and human. The two are related, influenced with each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
===4. Case Study from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===<br />
A Tale of Two Cities is a long historical novel by British writer Charles Dickens, first published in 1859. The story is set in the French Revolution and has a touching plot. It is one of the world's literary classics. The twin cities refer to Paris and London. The story connects these two cities and tells the story of the Parisian doctor Manette. He was persecuted by the brothers of the Marquis St. Evremonde due to injustice and was detained in the Bastille prison for 18 years. After being released from prison, Mannette's daughter Lucie fell in love with the enemy's son Darney. Thus, in the whirlpool of the French Revolution, scenes of family grievances and hatred were staged grandly. Life and death, good and evil were blended in conflict and changed in an instant. On the guillotine, Carton calmly sacrificed his life for love. （Dickens 2016）<br />
<br />
A Tale of Two Cities has a rigorous structure and condensed language. Dickens's profound thinking on revolution and humanity and his breathtaking writing talent are fully demonstrated. This paper selects the most representative classic sentences in the text for comparative analysis of translation, studies whether neural network machine translation software can accurately translate classic literary works, and explores whether neural network machine translation will replace manual translation in the context of artificial intelligence. The human translation was by Zhaolin Song. Among the many translation versions in China, Song’s translation was regarded as the version which closes to the source text most. (Feng Baoyin 2018, 232)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Case Study from the perspective of Skopos Rule====<br />
In Vermeer’ opinion, the dominant rule for any translation should be the skopos rule, which means that a translation action is determined by its purposes. That is to say, the translation action should be in accordance with the target context and culture. The purposes of target text determine the translation strategies and methods used in translation process. A good translation should conform to the target culture and meet target audiences’ expectations. According to Nord, “Skopos of a particular translation task may require a ‘free’ or a ‘faithful’ translation, or anything between these two extremes, depending on the purpose for which the translation is needed”. Once the intended purposes are achieved, the translation will be considered as reasonable and proper. It is unnecessary for the translation to be equivalent to the source text. (Nord 1997, 102)<br />
<br />
Example 1: We were all going direct to heaven, we were all going direct the other way--in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
<br />
Google translation: 我们都直接去天堂，我们都直接去天堂- -简而言之，这一时期与目前的时期如此遥远，以至于它的一些最吵闹的当局坚持以最高的比较程度来接受它是好是坏。<br />
<br />
Baidu translation: 我们是所有的人都直接去天堂，我们都朝着另一个方向去——简而言之，这个时期和现在的时代非常相似，以至于一些最吵闹的权威坚持要接受它，不管是好是坏，只是在最高级的比较中。<br />
<br />
Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 我们大家都在直升天堂，我们大家都在直下地狱——简而言之，那个时代和当今这个时代是如此相似，因而一些吵嚷不休的权威们也坚持认为，不管它是好是坏，都只能用“ 最……”来评价它。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 20)<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
Since this is selected from a novel, the purpose of translation should be express the meaning and beauty of the source text. As for the Google translation, there was a mistake in translating "We were all going directly the other way". The translated meaning is totally different from the original. As to Baidu translation, it expressed the meaning of the original text, but the way it expressed the original meaning may confuse the target text reader. In regards to human translation, the translator of this edition adopts the combination of literal translation and free translation. In this way, the translation not only clearly expresses the original meaning, but also takes into account the literariness of the work, so that readers can feel the characteristics of the times more vividly<br />
<br />
====4.2 Case study from the perspective of coherence rule====<br />
Coherence rule is also called “intra-textual coherence”, which means that the translation should be acceptable and understandable for the target audiences and be meaningful in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received. In other words, the target text should conform to the target receivers’ situation, including their given knowledge, background culture and specific circumstances. (Nord 1997, 120)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 2: Questions, questions, questions! (Charles Dickens 2016, 56)<br />
<br />
Google Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
<br />
Baidu Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
<br />
Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 问题一个接一个地提出来！(Song Zhaolin 2005, 68)<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this sentence, the original text uses three "questions" in a row to enhance the tone. However, Google and Baidu Translation directly translated it into "问题，问题，问题！", which sounds too blunt to read. The target text translated by Google and Baidu cannot reflect the meaning of the original text. What's more, it makes it hard for target readers to get the meaning of the text. While the translator chose the free translation method to make the translation more natural and smooth. The translated text followed the coherence rule in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
Example 3: But just because he had a powerful enemy---an enemy with the power to send him to prison and to keep him there, hidden and forgotten, for eighteen years. (Charles Dickens 2016, 102)<br />
<br />
Google translation: 但是仅仅因为他有一个强大的敌人-一个有能力将他送进监狱并将其隐藏和遗忘在监狱里长达十八年的敌人。<br />
<br />
Baidu translation:只是因为他有一个强大的敌人，一个有能力把他送进监狱，把他关在那里，隐藏起来，被遗忘18年。<br />
<br />
Human translation(Song Zhaolin): 而只是因为他有一个强大的敌人-这个敌人拥有权势将他投进监狱，而且把他在那里与世隔绝、被人遗忘地关了18年。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 130)<br />
<br />
<br />
Analysis: In terms of grammar, English uses long sentences, which are connected by functional words, such as conjunctions, prepositions and relative words. Its syntactic structure is relatively complex and it is a hypotactic language. Chinese is a paratactic language. In the process of E-C translation, we often use disassembly syntax to translate a long and complex English sentence into several short and simple Chinese short sentences. From Google Translation, it directly translated the structure of the original text. The target text created by Google translation doesn't conform to target language structure. While the translation of Baidu almost in accordance with the target language structure. As to the human translation, not only was the structure, but also the meaning was perfectly expressed.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Case study from the perspective of fidelity rule====<br />
Fidelity rule is also named by Vermeer as “intertextual coherence”, which puts emphasis on the relationship between the source text and target text. Based on Skopos theory, fidelity rule requires that the target text should be in accordance with the source text, which means the information contained in the source text should be exactly conveyed by the target text under the translators’ efforts. (Nord 1997, 140)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 1: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
<br />
Google Translation: 那是最美好的时光，那是最糟糕的时光，那是智慧的时代，那是愚昧的时代，那是信仰的时代，那是轻信的时代，那是光明的季节， 是黑暗的季节，是希望的春天，是绝望的冬天，我们眼前的一切，眼前的一切。<br />
<br />
Baidu Translation: 那是最好的时代，最坏的时代，智慧的时代，愚昧的时代，信仰的时代，不信的时代，光明的季节，黑暗的季节，希望的春天，绝望的冬天，我们面前什么都有，面前什么都没有。 <br />
<br />
Human Translation (Zhaolin Song): : 那是最美好的时代，那是最糟糕的时代；那是个睿智的年月，那是个蒙昧的年月；那是信心百倍的时期，那是疑虑重重的时期；那是阳光普照的季节，那是黑暗笼罩的季节；那是充满希望的春天，那是让人绝望的冬天；我们面前无所不有，我们面前一无所有。（Song Zhaolin 2005, 20）<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is the classic opening paragraph in "A Tale of Two Cities", and it can be said to be very popular. On the whole, because of the simple structure of this paragraph, the two machine-translated translations all accurately express the content of the original text, but one shortcoming is that it is difficult for machine translation to express the unique beauty of rhythm of the original text.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the translation of commonly used machine translation software and human translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, we can conclude that for the translation of literary works, machine translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text, even equal to manual translation if there are only some simple expressions in the source texts. However, the quality of machine translation needs to be improved some sentences with complex sentence patterns and difficult grammatical structures. Therefore, the translation of literary works by machines still have a long way to go.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
The main purpose of this paper is to find a better solution between machine translation and human translation under the guidance of the Skopos Theory for optimizing weaknesses of machine translation platforms, which not only generates solutions to errors, but also improves the quality of machine translation. <br />
<br />
Theoretically, this paper applies Skopos Theory to guide human translation and machine translation of literary texts. Machine translation can be regarded as a basis of human translation, while those errors caused by machine translation can be improved manually after the completion of machine translation. Meanwhile, by employing appropriate translation methods and techniques, such as semantic conversion, amplification, omission and so on, human translation based on machine translation enormously solves errors in machine translation which further optimizes weaknesses of machine translation. Human translation process also becomes more efficient with the help of machine<br />
<br />
As for machine translation, firstly, machine translation platforms can’t replace translators on account of its incomplete corpus and limitations in transferring the cultural meaning. Secondly, errors at lexical level caused by defects of machine translation are much more than that at syntactical level. Lastly, machine translation platforms are restricted by contexts of language, situation and culture which lead to incorrect target text.<br />
<br />
In regard with human translation, from the perspective of Skopos theory, human translation is more understandable and readable to target readers than that of machine translation. It’s essential for the translator to know typical errors in machine translation, features of machine translation platforms and characteristics of the source text, which could fascinate the efficiency of translation. All in all, machine translation platforms enhance the efficiency of translating large amount of material and human translation provides a solution for machine translation of poor quality. Machine translation and human translation are complement to each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2016). A Tale of Two Cities. Macmillian.<br />
<br />
* Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2011). 中国译学大辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China] 上海外语教育出版社(leave a blank space)Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
* Feng Baoyin(leave a blank space)冯宝茵 (2018). 从读者反应论对比两个《双城记》译本 [A comparative study of two versions of a tale of two cities from the perspective of reader response theory]. 北方文学, Northern Literature (36):232.<br />
<br />
* Hu Kaibao & Li Yi胡开宝 & 李翼. (2016). 机器翻译特征及其与人工翻译关系的研究. [Research on the characteristics of machine translation and its relationship with human translation] 中国翻译 Chinese Translation (05),10-14. <br />
<br />
* Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
<br />
* Mark Shuttleworth (2004). Dictionary of Translation Studies. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 75.<br />
<br />
* Munday, J. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application. London: Routeledge. 78.<br />
<br />
* Reiss, K & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
* Song Zhaolin(leave a blank space)宋兆霖 (2005). 双城记 A Tale of Two Cities 中国戏剧出版社, China Drama Press.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=118461History of Translation Studies 102020-12-21T13:04:47Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658,外国语言学及应用语言学 */</p>
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<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing 英语笔译 202070080581==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of original language and target language, but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, have not been covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. <br />
<br />
During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also made a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, one needs to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. <br />
<br />
The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures.Similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language.<br />
<br />
In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis.That is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, in which verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator is not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which is direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, translators are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word, which makes it even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence in form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with are going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, translators have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example,“Take care. Hope to see you soon.” is polite and emotional way to express our feelin .<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , translators have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, translators have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to translator's mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, translators can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, translators have to consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore,proper translation skills are needed to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes translators can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases they will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
It is obvious that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, translators can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or free translation based on functional equivalence. In daily life, Chinese people often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus the sentence will be translated into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, it can be seen that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, translators need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but trasnslators have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, translators need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, translators can figure out exactly his characteristics and reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. Translators will find different types of texts in the process of translation and must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.<br />
<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. <br />
<br />
According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, can the translation be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:30, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654 法语语言文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
The success of Hao Jingfang's science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", which won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016, could not have been achieved without the rigorous translation work of Ken Liu. The translation of this novel takes the response of the readers of the translated text as the starting point, preserving the meaning and style of the novel while effectively conveying Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of functional equivalence theory that "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". Nida's functional equivalence theory, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has had a profound influence on the translation studies of various literary genres in China. This paper examines the English translation of "Folding Beijing", analyzes Ken Liu's use of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory in his translation, and shows the value of functional equivalence theory for the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", the future Beijing is overpopulated. To solve this crisis, it is transformed into a hierarchical Folding City. The Folding City is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours. The first space is occupied by the upper class of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; the second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; and the third space is occupied by the lower class, who have only eight hours of night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants to send his daughter to a good school, and in order to earn money, he ventures into the first, second and third spaces to deliver letters to others. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and many Chinese native words. The cultural differences between China and the West due to regional factors and customs are a major challenge for translation. The translator must not only consider the reader's understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local color in the work is not removed. The theory of functional equivalence suggests that translation should not be confined to form, and the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text in order to achieve equivalence of content and information.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory has had a profound impact on China and has brought translators new and effective methods of translation guidance. We can see that Ken Liu is also trying to achieve balance and harmony between the translation and the original text when he translates science fiction novels. This paper analyzes the English translation of "Folding Beijing" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory and explores how translators achieve the closest equivalence to the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:11）<br />
<br />
===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, explained dynamic equivalence translation in his influential book,''Toward a Science of Translating''. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, focusing on the equivalence of the reader's response, not just the equivalence of content and form.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
In "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defines dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translated reader's reaction to the translation should be the same as the original reader's reaction.（Nida,2004:24）<br />
<br />
Because dynamic equivalence was controversial in some respects, Nida replaced it with a more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment required to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. Since a functionally equivalent translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language message, the translator's achievement of functional equivalence follows three principles.In his book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did".(Nida 1993:118)<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the response of the reader of the recipient language, and(3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defines the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory,namely from the form and content of the message to the reader's response. It differs from traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the readers of the original text, it can be regarded as functional equivalence of the target language. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s reaction to the translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida and Taber point out that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning will be discussed in this chapter at three levels: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these are the three levels of detailed analysis of lexicon, syntax, and discourse. According to the theory of functional equivalence, translation is not only about word-for-word equivalence, but also about discovering the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in translation of ''Folding Beijing'' from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.(Nida,2004:12)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
In literary translation, it is always a challenge to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, and they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is the most appropriate. In the English translation of ''Folding Beijing'', there are many examples of how the translation can achieve functional equivalence with the original text at the lexical level, as follows: (Ding Juan, 2011:22)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
<br />
"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）<br />
<br />
"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention and conveys what appears to be a bad temper.<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）<br />
<br />
"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The author did not literally translate “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is owing to the translator's own understanding of the text, he hopes readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to convey the original meaning.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
<br />
Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese.（Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, the use of conjunctions and relational words in English is very frequent. Secondly, English speakers focus on object consciousness and are accustomed to the order from small to large objects and from specific to general; in Chinese texts, there is usually a chronological order of time, space or cause and effect. Finally, English usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while Chinese tends to process information from the stale to the fresh in order to impress.（Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a appropriate form. The following are examples of how the English translation of ''Folding Beijing'' achieves functional equivalence with the original at the syntactic level:（Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
" 现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。'他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。'他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’" （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）<br />
<br />
"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this passage, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the translator have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains the meaning of "放开".<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015) <br />
<br />
In this passage, the text emphasizes "the past" twice. To achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order by placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences instead of using a subordinate clause like "...childhood that...".<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translation acceptable to the reader. In literary translation, the translator must pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in terms of discourse level. A dialogue from ''Folding Beijing'' and its English translation is selected below as an example of literary translation achieving functional equivalence at the discourse level:(Din Juan,2011:27）<br />
<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself." <br />
<br />
Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
<br />
"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.<br />
<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
Conversational conventions in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made in translating. The form of the dialogue is not exactly translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”is translated as "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", and the translator changes the action to "spoon", which is more in line with Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as the girl in the first space to spoon the dish to the old knife."推给老刀" is translated as "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", which adds some actions to make it more vivid.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
<br />
Each writer has his or her own writing style, which no one can imitate perfectly. In other words, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows linguistic characteristics, and the English translation shows the translator's attempt to achieve functional equivalence at the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form, the counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vibrant scenes, and enhance the effectiveness of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to "深渊", and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalent.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
It is a metaphorical sentence and words like "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated. They are translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
<br />
"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
This paragraph has a personification that "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks, and arms" and are "like the humblest of servants," and the use of rhetoric allows people to imagine the folding diagram of the city through the image of a person. By comparing the buildings to a herd of beasts, it shows its scale and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)<br />
<br />
"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle and he just use the word "monster".<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
<br />
The dialect reflects the local characteristics and is the author's own writing style. Sometimes this is a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator deals with this problem.（Din Juan,2011:33）<br />
<br />
For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the use of either rhetoric or dialect in literary works fully reflects the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, translators should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the way of expressing stylistic differences and find out the best way to compensate for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve the maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
<br />
Cultural differences between two languages are also issues that translators should be aware of in the translation process. People who are exposed to different cultures have different ways of thinking, values, social customs, etc. Translators need to understand both cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this point, translation plays a role in intercultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the reader so that the translation achieves cultural equivalence with the original text. This chapter will analyze the English translation of ''Folding Beijing'' from the perspectives of food culture, folk culture, and idiom culture to show how it achieves functional equivalence with the original text. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:47)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
<br />
The city described in ''Folding Beijing'' is the political and cultural center of China, a city with deep cultural accumulation. In the novel, there are many elements belonging to traditional Chinese food culture. This part will analyze how the translator managed to translate these cuisines into a successful counterpart.（Din Juan,2011:39）<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"炒面" is a famous traditional Chinese snack. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also gives the reader a more intuitive idea of what the dish is.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)<br />
<br />
"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
Here, foreignization method is used, and "白酒" is translated as "baijiu". The translator does not use words like "spirits", which retains Chinese cultural characteristics and achieves a communicative effect at the same time.<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The characteristic of this dish is that it is first boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in his translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", which is made with pork, and he hopes that readers of the English translation will see the image of this dish in their minds, just like the Chinese do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where friends and relatives share several dishes among themselves. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he uses the word "shared" and he adds the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)<br />
<br />
"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is one of the major characteristics of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word to make it easy for readers to understand.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan says that she hopes Lao Dao will help her keep her secret, so she wants to use money to give Lao Dao." 心意" means money, which is a Chinese euphemism when it is not convenient to give money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered it a euphemism, so the word "appreciation" was used.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）<br />
<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", which the translator translates as "ate heartily". Although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, it seems that English readers cannot achieve the same understanding and reaction as Chinese readers from the perspective of functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
And "（盘子）一片狼藉" is translated as "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" is translated as "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he kept the secret and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might be together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of ''Folding Beijing'' from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of ''Folding Beijing'' to the English reader.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functionally equivalent translation. Analyzing the English version of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture, we can see that linguistically, although Chinese and English are very different in logic and grammar, and there are many differences between Chinese and Western cultures, the translator still tries to keep the original content and find more suitable words in the translation.<br />
<br />
In some specific contents, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction novels, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang.(2015).Folding Beijing[J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang郝景芳.(2016).孤独深处[The Depth of Loneliness].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社[Nanjing:Jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing,LTD]：1-40<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(1993)Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：118<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(2001)Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A. & Taber.(2004) Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：12-24<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999).新编奈达论翻译[A new version of Nida's theory on translation].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation]<br />
<br />
Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009).翻译学概论[Introduction to translatology].南京：译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press]<br />
<br />
Zhao Dandan赵丹丹.(2011).浅论奈达的功能对等理论[Nida's theory of functional equivalence].湖北：文学教育[Hubei:Literature Education]<br />
<br />
Zhou Xingyang周兴阳.(2018).从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[Chinese Science Fiction Translation in the Perspective of Functional Equivalence-A case Study of Beijing Zhe Die and its English Version-Folding Beijing].新疆大学[Xinjiang University]<br />
<br />
Wang Guiyuan王桂圆.(2018)系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[A Study on The Translation of Folding Beijing from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics].安徽：海外英语[Anhui：Overseas English]<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni MTI英语笔译 202070080620==<br />
<center>余妮 Yu Ni MTI 英语笔译 No.202070080620</center><br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. <br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
<br />
The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.<br />
<br />
The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).<br />
<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?<br />
<br />
In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)<br />
<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).<br />
<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.<br />
<br />
Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)<br />
<br />
Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)<br />
<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).<br />
<br />
Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
<br />
Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
<br />
From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).<br />
<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
<br />
He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).<br />
<br />
===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. <br />
<br />
Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.<br />
<br />
It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)<br />
<br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. <br />
<br />
In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.<br />
<br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
<br />
======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
<br />
(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
<br />
(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. <br />
<br />
An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012). <br />
<br />
After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
<br />
<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. <br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).<br />
<br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019). <br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
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Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
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Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
<br />
Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
<br />
Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
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Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
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Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
<br />
Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
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Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
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Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
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Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
<br />
Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
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Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
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<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation, 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen, 英美文学== <br />
<center>Han Wanzhen 韩宛真, 202020080603.</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
<br />
===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. <br />
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The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)<br />
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The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicit, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)<br />
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Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. <br />
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Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
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The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understanding:the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
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The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
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The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
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In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)<br />
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===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
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There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)<br />
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Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
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===2. Literary Review===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
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===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
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The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. <br />
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At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
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Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
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It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
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===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===<br />
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Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
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With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
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First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
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On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
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===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
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Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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===3.1 Free Translation===<br />
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The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
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===3.2 Addition of Message===<br />
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Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
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===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===<br />
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As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
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The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. <br />
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Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)<br />
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The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
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*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-166.<br />
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*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
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*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
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*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
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*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.<br />
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* Mao Yueyue, Liu Fan. 毛新月, 刘帆. (2018). 释意理论指导下的会议口译中四字词语的翻译——以习近平总书记十九届中共中央政治局常委同中外记者见面会讲话为例. [Translation of four-letter words in conference interpretation under the guidance of interpretation theory - taking the speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the meeting between the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the 19th CPC Central Committee and Chinese and foreign journalists as an example]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](12): 230-231.<br />
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* Ouyang Changyi. 欧阳长怡. (2010). 论释意理论指导下的记者招待会口译策略及释意训练. [On Interpretation Strategies and Interpretation Training of Press Conference under the Guidance of Interpretation Theory]. 福建省外国语文学会.福建省外国语文学会2010年年会论文集. [Fujian Foreign Language Society. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference of Fujian Foreign Language Society]. 福建省外国语文学会: 福建省外国语文学会[Fujian Foreign Language Society: Fujian Foreign Language Society]<br />
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* Xiong Wen. 熊雯. (2014). 释意理论视阙下的口译过程研究. [A study of interpretation process under the view of interpretation theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](24): 154-155.<br />
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*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
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*Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe. 张杨,李灵哲. (2018). 释意理论指导下的翻译语义策略运用. [The use of translation semantic strategies under the guidance of interpretation theory]. ''佳木斯职业学院学报'' [Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10): 334-336.<br />
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='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
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<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures ==<br />
陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593 英语语言文学<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
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===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time, until they entered China along trade routes from Central Asia in the first century AD.<br />
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Buddhism is widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the similarity in form and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation(Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
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In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three periods. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposes that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposes to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang holds that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
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==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures in total, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “Transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, was a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He was the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignoring the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The dominant translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures.<br />
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On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore they can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
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=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
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====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he was also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
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“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
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==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He was one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translated 39 volumes. He was proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocated that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. <br />
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“Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of Indian Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25).<br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness.<br />
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Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived at Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops.With his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
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(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads) were usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China, translators could take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there were more Sanskrit texts, they had more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
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(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, and metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age was Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
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==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses. The number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators were mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also had a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who were proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work did not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty was more all-sided in organization. “According to records, the translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty had as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them were rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts were more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believed that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
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=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese was mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
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Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.--[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 05:11, 21 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi ==<br />
<center>成于思 Cheng Yusi No.202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the chapter is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the chapter will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
André Lefevere; ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook''; Liu Miqing; ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''; “cultural turn”; John Dryden; translation principles<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔;《翻译，历史和文化论集》; 刘宓庆;《中西翻译思想对比研究》;文化转向;约翰·德莱登;翻译原则<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
This chapter presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, the chapter intends to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This chapter will be divided into three parts.<br />
<br />
In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. Dryden's comparison of a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
<br />
In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
<br />
In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
<br />
All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
<br />
===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
<br />
''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies. <br />
<br />
In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
<br />
In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii) <br />
<br />
Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)<br />
<br />
If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.<br />
<br />
The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements, which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)<br />
<br />
I enjoy reading this book because it brings those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others. <br />
<br />
I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47) <br />
<br />
In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "an author and a translator" to "a master and a slave" through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.(Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)<br />
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Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracts an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)<br />
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In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102) <br />
<br />
Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating poems in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
<br />
Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103) <br />
<br />
As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
<br />
Dryden proposes a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)<br />
<br />
It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. <br />
<br />
Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
<br />
However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compares a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)<br />
<br />
Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars, like Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014) <br />
<br />
A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works were with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)<br />
<br />
Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73) <br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)<br />
<br />
===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2) <br />
<br />
In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
<br />
The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33) <br />
<br />
He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
<br />
The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)<br />
<br />
Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179) <br />
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The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
<br />
However, he also recognizes that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School and New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
<br />
Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented", and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories which can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current superficial, assertive and rational views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)<br />
<br />
The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)<br />
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Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)<br />
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Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulated that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)<br />
<br />
Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987) <br />
<br />
In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation principles that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the feature of the tradition of Chinese translation changes from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)<br />
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As such, the flourishing of translation is bound to be our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) <br />
<br />
The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51) <br />
<br />
The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
<br />
The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem.(Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate Chinese poems, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility, it expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
<br />
Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
<br />
Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argues that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provides a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)<br />
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===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
===4.1 From the aspect of the content===<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
<br />
===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===<br />
<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters, which are concerned with the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. As to the longer essays, they are collected in the last chapter. <br />
<br />
Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includs the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps readers understanding translation principles.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have better understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of a translator to a slave. Then, it figures out the reasons of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
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Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
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Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
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Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
===关键词===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
===Introuction===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.<br />
<br />
Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: <br />
<br />
(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. ) <br />
<br />
Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. <br />
<br />
The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)<br />
<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.<br />
<br />
Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. <br />
<br />
The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. <br />
<br />
These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. <br />
<br />
Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. <br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. <br />
<br />
The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. <br />
<br />
Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)<br />
<br />
===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)<br />
<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. <br />
<br />
The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. <br />
<br />
Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. <br />
<br />
This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).<br />
<br />
The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. <br />
<br />
The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
===Trends in Translation Theory Research===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. <br />
<br />
In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
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[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
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[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
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[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
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[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
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[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
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[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
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[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
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==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
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===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
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On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.（Venuti，1995）<br />
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Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
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For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku,2011）<br />
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Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku,2011）<br />
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==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
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Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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[Take Chinese and English for example ,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal, as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain, but in England ,a country with developed industry, people are no longer farming ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before, instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse ,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily, after the rain ,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
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1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
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Example 1<br />
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路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
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To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 2<br />
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云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
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Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 3<br />
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花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just in the south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 4 <br />
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Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou 苏州(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan 银川(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
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With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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Example 7<br />
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番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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Example 10<br />
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Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
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Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 11<br />
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我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 12<br />
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“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 13<br />
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耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 14<br />
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“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
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"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 15<br />
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我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
===''' References '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* wenku.(2011).翻译中的归化异化."Domestication and Foreignization in Translation" .https://wenku.baidu.com/view/a63459ee81c758f5f61f67e0.html.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==<br />
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center><br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence on the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation was regarded as a linguistic phenomena before. But later, with the development of the translation theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science, especially linguistics, can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology at home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recording two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and regarded seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure. (J.A Catford , 1965)<br />
<br />
Holmes published The Name and Nature of Translation Studies at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation, which directly promoted the construction of translation studies. ( James Holmes,1975)<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from several aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing the translation practice. (Wolfram Wilss, 1982)<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is Discourse and the Translator (1990), which is the first book to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers. (Hatim & Mason,1990 )<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believed that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies. (Mona Baker, 2006) <br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
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In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were using correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books would be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe. (Dong Qiusi, 1951)<br />
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In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the viewpoint that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
<br />
In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published On Approaches to Translation Studies. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' the awareness of the subject of translation studies. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
<br />
In the thesis An Overview of Western Translation Theory (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, translatology could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. ( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）<br />
<br />
Subsequently, Lv published Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new perspective for the study of the construction of translation studies and promoted the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)<br />
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Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)<br />
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Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the development of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies. (Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012) <br />
<br />
Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)<br />
<br />
Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple approaches of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation. (Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020)<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rising of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precedes translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. (Wang Yin,2017)<br />
<br />
Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western translation studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward west, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation. (Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)<br />
<br />
Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies of the researches. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)<br />
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From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the awareness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies. <br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often be confused. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definitions of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is also used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the rules of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995） <br />
<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic, literature, philosophy etc. ( Kong Xiangli,2009)<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline and to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translator appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei etc. (Yi Jing,2009)<br />
<br />
The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated texts. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an independent discipline'''<br />
<br />
Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of an independent discipline and proposed a classification of the research field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a merely a technical activity. (Tan Zaixi, 1987 )<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared the independence of translation in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, many famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
<br />
'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
<br />
Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies have shown a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018) <br />
<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its research field, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation by early linguists; second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )<br />
<br />
4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
<br />
As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists began to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology were linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 ) <br />
<br />
Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
<br />
These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their researches inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, their contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )<br />
<br />
4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
<br />
In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, systematic-functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )<br />
<br />
4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
<br />
Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists took Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regarded linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the assistance of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
<br />
Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
<br />
Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts that are "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has exerted a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
<br />
Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural context of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
<br />
For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the development of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics theory. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 <br />
<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
<br />
As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
<br />
Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and materials for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool and new research perspectives for translation studies and provides great convenience for translation studies. ( Liao Qiyi，2000)<br />
<br />
4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
<br />
In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The publication of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
<br />
4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
<br />
Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is quite similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, publishing cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
<br />
4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
<br />
Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good example. (Yang Zijian,1993)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study. Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
<br />
4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
<br />
Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be learned from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together. In the process of development, linguistics has absorbed the experience of many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., formed many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Linguistics has gone through several stages of development, and it has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics provided experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators should only take other disciplines for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely. ( (Liu Miqing, 1989))<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
<br />
Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
<br />
Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
<br />
Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
<br />
Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
<br />
Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
<br />
Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
<br />
O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
<br />
Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
<br />
Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
<br />
Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658,外国语言学及应用语言学 Foreign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics==<br />
<br />
<center>许晶Xu Jing</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析翻译学科学习目前存在的问题，并提出相应的建议。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''=== <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies", is a basic statement of translation studies，which calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) <br />
<br />
Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, such as comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)<br />
<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation studies can examine the practices and context of translating texts that are specialist (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these knowledge enables students to apply their understanding of theories to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually includes the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills that are necessary elements solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. With the requirement of effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures in today's multicultural and multilingual society, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
<br />
As a science, Translation Studies always has its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. <br />
<br />
Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can have a good understanding about the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. It is necessary for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
Translation activities appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, and the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. <br />
<br />
The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared on the scene.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have been single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, as well as translation criticism, translation publishing, and translation management, etc.<br />
<br />
At that time, because a large number of people who master foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to improve foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under Foreign Language and Literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
<br />
2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, translation studies explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. <br />
<br />
At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the team to construct translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation in succession. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of “China Translator" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)<br />
<br />
Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge. Translation research ideas, methods, field and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)<br />
<br />
2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) <br />
<br />
In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Translation studies have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.<br />
<br />
There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers should help students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments that required by the language service market. Teachers can invite industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
<br />
==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. Translation discipline in China has entered a new stage now, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
<br />
3.1. Translation Education <br />
<br />
With the establishment of the autonomy of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the cultivation of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018）<br />
<br />
However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, so it is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction history of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, so systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to bluring and confusing educational goal of translation major. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation major teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them are lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
<br />
3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
<br />
The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. <br />
<br />
The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data shows that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
<br />
In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)<br />
<br />
3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
<br />
Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018) <br />
<br />
This kinds of teaching method that is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model ignore student autonomy, which will pay too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
<br />
3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
<br />
The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is inconsiderable.（Ou Yonghua 2019）<br />
<br />
Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, according to the actual situation of translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but do not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)<br />
<br />
3.2. Students<br />
<br />
The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, so it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
<br />
3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
<br />
Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. <br />
<br />
Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
<br />
3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
<br />
Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not gain sufficient background information.<br />
<br />
With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015) <br />
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3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
<br />
At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless to some extent or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
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==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved over time. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote Translation Studies in China.<br />
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4.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
Translation education plays an important role in cultivating translation talents, and a good translation education system will provide a good environment for students to learn Translation Studies, so it is necessary to improve translation education system.<br />
<br />
4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
<br />
The teaching model is an important guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to innovate. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
<br />
The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching,which attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. It is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
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4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
<br />
Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. <br />
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Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019）<br />
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Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
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4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
<br />
Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and to reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of landmark for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)<br />
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The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
<br />
4.2. Students <br />
<br />
Translation talents play a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
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4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future.Not only should they have a solid foundation in language ability, but also they should take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
<br />
A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students are urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
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4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
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Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics and the skills and theories of translation，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. <br />
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Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can take part in many social activities to experience different aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the objection of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Therefore, translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and professional knowledge. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. <br />
<br />
From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies are still not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, learn from the latest foreign translation theories, and combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 15:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
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Chu Xizhi.褚喜之(2009).翻译理论在翻译教学中的重要性.[The Importance of Translation Theory in Translation Teaching].经济研究导刊[''Economic Research Guide'']237-238.<br />
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Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
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Huang Youyi.黄友义.(2018).服务改革开放40年,翻译实践与翻译教育迎来转型发展的新时代.[Servicing Reform and Opening for 40 Years, Translation Practice and Translation Education Usher in a New Era of Transformation and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']5-8.<br />
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Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
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Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
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Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
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Linlin.林琳.(2016).英语文学翻译学习现状及改善措施.[ The Status Quo and Improvement Measures of English Literature Translation Learning].西部素质教育[''Western China Quality Education''] 65.<br />
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Luo Feng.罗峰.(2011).从翻译学学科建设看翻译学在中国的发展.[On the Development of Translation Studies As A Discipline in China].琼州学院学报[''Journal of Qiongzhou University]''115-116.<br />
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Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
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Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
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Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
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Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
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Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
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<br />
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<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan== <br />
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center><br />
<br />
<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays<br />
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===题目===<br />
译者文化身份对翻译的影响<br />
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===摘要===<br />
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
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Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.<br />
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Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)<br />
<br />
There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.<br />
<br />
=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===<br />
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.<br />
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Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.<br />
<br />
"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)<br />
<br />
====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====<br />
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.<br />
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In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.<br />
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Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on domestication strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.<br />
<br />
====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====<br />
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.<br />
<br />
However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." <br />
<br />
However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "The highest art can only be understood by a few", "Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades. ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) <br />
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As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12) <br />
<br />
We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.<br />
<br />
====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)<br />
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Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
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The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.<br />
<br />
===The cultural identity of translators in translation===<br />
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.<br />
<br />
====In terms of the original intention of translation====<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously<br />
<br />
In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".<br />
<br />
When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Irving Babbitt, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)<br />
<br />
====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.<br />
<br />
For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)<br />
<br />
EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，<br />
<br />
伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，<br />
<br />
This man hath my consent to marry her．<br />
<br />
是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的<br />
<br />
Stand forth，Lysander．<br />
<br />
走上前来，拉山德。<br />
<br />
And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）<br />
<br />
殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子 （朱生豪. 2013：9）<br />
<br />
In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work. <br />
For example, his translation. <br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)<br />
<br />
拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!<br />
<br />
否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.<br />
<br />
First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:<br />
<br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)<br />
<br />
Translation of Liang Shiqiu:<br />
<br />
赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，<br />
<br />
否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。<br />
<br />
HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool: <br />
<br />
And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)<br />
<br />
海 上学时她就是个狐狸精。<br />
<br />
她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。<br />
<br />
Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966) <br />
<br />
Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature. <br />
<br />
For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.<br />
<br />
Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,<br />
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;<br />
There with fantastic garlands did she come,<br />
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,<br />
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.<br />
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:<br />
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds<br />
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,<br />
When down her weedy trophies and herself<br />
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;<br />
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;<br />
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one<br />
incapable of her own distress,<br />
Or like a creature native and indu’d<br />
Unto that element: but long it could not be<br />
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,<br />
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay<br />
To muddy death.<br />
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）<br />
<br />
Liang’s version :<br />
<br />
河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。 就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。 她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works. <br />
<br />
For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion. <br />
<br />
By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Fu Wenhui付文慧．多重文化身份下之戴乃迭英译阐释［The Interpretation of Dai Naidian's English Translation under Multiple Cultural Identities］中国翻译[ Chinese Translation]，2011，32(6):16—20．<br />
<br />
Yan Xiaojiang严晓江． 梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.<br />
<br />
Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.<br />
<br />
Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128.. <br />
<br />
Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.<br />
<br />
Wu Delu.吴得禄.译者文化身份对翻译的影响[The influence of translators' cultural identity on translation].读书文摘[Reading Digest].2016(08):211.<br />
<br />
Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．<br />
<br />
Liu Shuang刘双．文化身份与跨文化传播[Cultural identity and cross-cultural communication]外语学刊[Journal of Foreign Languages]，2000(1):87—91．<br />
<br />
Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪.译者自序[Translator's Preface].文学界(专辑版)[Literature (album edition)].2010(09):36.<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚 四大喜剧 梁实秋译[The Four Great Comedies translated by Liang Shiqiu].北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press].2001<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚． 仲夏夜之梦 朱生豪译．[A Midsummer Night's Dream translated by Zhu Shenghao].上海:上海世界图书出版公司 [Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company],2013．<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋 文学与革命.偏见集[Literature and Revolution. The collection of prejudices].南京:正中书局[Nanjing: Zhengzhong Shuji].中华民国二十三年七月.<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Toury's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Toury and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Toury also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Toury proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Toury describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Toury's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Toury concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Toury believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Toury is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Toury has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Toury emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Toury's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Toury's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Li Hongman 李红满. (2002). 论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J]. [On the Paradigm Shift in Contemporary Western Translation Studies]. 外语与翻译. [Foreign Languages and Translations]. <br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang 张美芳. (2000). 翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J]. [The Objectives and Structure of Translation Studies - A Review of Holmes' Vision of Translation Studies]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Toury Gideon. (2001). ''Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond''[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J]. [Translation Studies: From Specification to Description]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1996). A Skopos Theory of Translation[M]. Heidellburg:TEXT-con.<br />
<br />
Venuti Lawrence. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge.<br />
<br />
Snell-Homby Mary. (1995). Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M]. Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Hemans Theo (1985). ed.The manipulation of Literature[M]. London&Sydney:Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman, Liu Fang 韩子满, 刘芳. （2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J]. [Describe the achievements and shortcomings of translation studies]. 外语学刊. [Journal of Foreign Languages].<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M]. [New Horizons in Translation Studies]. 青岛:青岛出版社. [Qingdao:Qingdao Publishing House].<br />
<br />
==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==<br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655 亚非语言文学</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:=== <br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and helps the readers to understand deeply the status of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，使读者深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.<br />
<br />
===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）<br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) <br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.1 John MacFarlane====<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Firth====<br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) <br />
<br />
====2.3 James Holmes====<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）<br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54） <br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. <br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. Taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Polysystem Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem(多元体系派) is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies(翻译研究派). It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）<br />
<br />
====2.5 Gideon Toury<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. <br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.<br />
<br />
====2.6 Snell-Hornby<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. <br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97) <br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：<br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts. <br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)<br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) <br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory is undoubtedly meaningful and instructive, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) <br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36) <br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. <br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Conclusion=== <br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Reference===<br />
<br />
Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.<br />
<br />
J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.<br />
<br />
Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Snell-Hornby. (1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman 韩子满, Liu Fang 刘芳. (2005). 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive to the Descriptive Approach]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).<br />
<br />
Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. (2008). 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]<br />
<br />
Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰. (2002). 多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).<br />
<br />
==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies== <br />
<br />
Translation Strategies <br />
<br />
===Abstract === <br />
<br />
Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.<br />
<br />
Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.<br />
<br />
This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers define them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical significance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)<br />
<br />
===Content===<br />
<br />
Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classifications from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classification is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classifications. It seems that clear-cut definitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype definitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)<br />
<br />
The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reflect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reflects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)<br />
<br />
The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp fiction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)<br />
<br />
Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the definitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few defining characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difficulty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).<br />
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or specific) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “specific activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle specific problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by specific techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classified by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
<br />
As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural filtering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
However, this is not consonant with the dictionary definitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is defined as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) defines translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will influence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identified the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identification, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal significant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can find out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) ==<br />
<br />
Darwish (2008) identifies four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70<br />
<br />
<br />
However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might influence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difficulty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Laffling(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.<br />
<br />
== The Comparison of Machine Translation and Human Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory---A Case Study of E-C Translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example - 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan 202020080630==<br />
<br />
<center>欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the rapid development of globalization and the Internet, international communication is expanding, and a lot of information needs to be translated. Due to the low efficiency of human translation, machine translation is indispensable today. However, due to the limitations of machine translation, the quality of machine translation is still worrying. Therefore, from the perspective of Skopos theory, this paper takes the E-C translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example to analyze the machine translation of Google translation and Baidu translation, and compare it with the translation of Song Zhaolin, so as to explore the characteristics of machine translation and human translation, try to discuss the irreplaceable nature of human translation, and discuss how to combine machine translation with human translation to improve the quality and efficiency of translation. This paper is divided into five parts: the first part introduces the background of the current translation environment; the second part introduces Skopos Theory and discusses the feasibility of Skopos Theory in analyzing machine translation and human translation; the third part introduces the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation and human translation, and discusses the relationship between them; the fourth part is a case study to see machine translation from the perspective of Skopos theory Compared with manual translation, it is concluded that machine translation and manual translation must be combined to improve the efficiency and quality of translation. The fifth part is a summary of this paper.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Skopos Theory, machine translation, human translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下机器翻译和人工翻译的对比---以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着全球化和互联网的迅速发展，国际的交流日益扩大，大量信息需要翻译。由于人工翻译效率低下，在越来越强调效率和质量的今天，机器翻译必不可少。然而，由于机器翻译的局限性，机器翻译的质量仍然堪忧。因此,本文以目的论视角, 以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例，分析谷歌翻译和百度翻译的机器译文, 与宋兆霖版本的中文译本对比，由此探析机器翻译与人工翻译的特点,尝试论述人工翻译的不可替代性, 并讨论如何将机器翻译与人工翻译结合提高翻译的质量和效率。本文分为五个部分，第一部分对当前翻译环境背景的介绍；第二部分对目的论进行简介，并讨论目的论用于分析机器翻译和人工翻译的可行性；第三部分介绍机器翻译和人工翻译的优缺点，并讨论他们之间的关系；第四部分进行案例分析，从目的论视角下看机器翻译与人工翻译的对比，得出提高翻译效率与质量必须将机器翻译与人工翻译相结合。第五部分对全文进行总结。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论 机器翻译 人工翻译 <br />
<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
With the development of globalization, the growth of Internet and artificial intelligence, machine translation becomes an indispensable choice in today’s society. Compared with human translation, machine translation has the advantages of efficiency. As the traditional translation method, human translation can guarantee the accuracy of the text. In this information era, many people are thinking whether human translation will be replaced by machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
In September 2016, Google released the neural network translation system, which greatly improved the quality of machine translation. In November, Baidu CEO Robin Li stated at the Wuzhen Summit of the 3rd World Internet Conference that Baidu's artificial intelligence product "automatic translation" will enter a practical state. Therefore, this paper will put the original text of Tale of Two Cities in two representative public machine translation engines at home and abroad, "Google" and "Baidu", to obtain the machine translation. Selecting texts from the famous classical novel ''A Tale of Two Cities'', and comparing machine translations and human translations based on this novel from the perspective of Skopos theory, this paper aims to investigate the relationship between human translation and machine translation and their developments in the future. (Hu Kaibao 2016, 10)<br />
<br />
=== 2. Overview of Skopos Theory ===<br />
In the 1970s, some eminent German translation theory scholars first proposed functional translation theory. Translation theorist Katharina Reiss divides text into three types: informative, expressive and operational. She suggested that according to different text types, different translation methods should be used for analysis, and different translation criticism standards should be adopted, that is, text types, language functions and translation strategies should be combined. In the translation process, it’s essential to focus on the functional characteristics of the target text. Her text type theory and translation criticism mode can be regarded as the beginning of functionalist Skopos theory. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
<br />
Hans Vermeer is Reiss's student. He further developed Reiss's theory and proposed Skopos theory. He believed that Skopos theory is based on the source text, and then may produce a series of purposeful and effective behaviors. The core of this theory is that "the purpose of translation determines translation strategies and method to achieve the expected purpose of translation" (Reiss & Vermeer 1984), and German scholars Justa Holz Manttari and Christian Nord further developed this theory which based on the theory of communication and behavior, and they proposed that translation theory is not a simple translation between words and sentences, but a kind of conscious behavior for the purpose of cultural communication. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Three Rules of Skopos Theory====<br />
The word “Skopos” is originated from the Greek language and means "purpose". Skopos theory refers to the process of translation is determined by the purpose of the translation, so the purpose rule is the highest one of translation. Generally speaking, skopos theory includes three principles: Skopos rule, coherence rule (intra-textual coherence) and fidelity rule (also known as "inter-textual coherence"). (Nord 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory believes that the important principle to be followed is the "purpose" rule, it is the core rule of Skopos Theory: the process of translation should be based on the realization of the communicative function in the target language culture, and the goal to be achieved determines the entire process of translation, that is, the method determines the result. Vermeer differentiated the purpose of translation. He believes that the purpose of translation should include three levels: the purpose of the translator; the purpose of communication; the purpose of specific translation strategies. In most cases, a translator has a certain purpose before translation, such as being entrusted by a translation company, market demand or the need to introduce a technology. In most cases, "purpose" refers to the communicative purpose of translation. Under the guidance of the purpose of communication, the translator can have more space to interpret and adjust the original text. (Nord 2001, 78)<br />
<br />
To achieve the communicative and interative function between the target text and the target receptor, the target text needs to conform to the linguistic coherence, and be understood and accepted by the readers in the context of the target language and culture. The principle of coherence means that the target text must conform to the intra-textual coherence, that is, the translation must be understood by the target reader and be meaningful in the culture of the target language and the communication environment in which the translation is used. “The principle of coherence requires that the information generated by the translator (target text) must be interpreted in a manner consistent with the context of the target reader.” (Shuttleworth 2004: 75) This means the translator should maximize the translation Semantic coherence and makes the translation understandable and acceptable to the target readers. The target text can help target readers understand and successfully exchange information.<br />
<br />
The fidelity rule refers to the inter-textual coherence between the original text and the target text, which requires "consistency between the target text and the original text" (Munday, 2010: 79). Therefore, in the translation process, the translator should not only be faithful to the original text, but also transfer the writing style and cultural factors existed in the source text. This principle requires translator to follow the purpose of translation.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, translators should follow three principles according to Skopos Theory: the Skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. Among these three rules in Skopos Theory, the skopos rule is the primary principle translators should adopt in the process of translation, and the coherence rule and the fidelity rule must follow the skopos rule. So in the case of translation practice, fidelity rule is subordinate to coherence rule, and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule. In a word, Skopos rule plays a decisive role in translation process, and it should be considered first in translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011, 20)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Application of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory is different from traditional theories which overemphasize the features of language rules. With regard to Skopos Theory, it requires that translators should not only consider the language but also take account of factors beyond texts and language like the purpose of translation. As for ''A Tale of Two Cities'', the purpose is to make the target reader feel the same as the source target reader. Since this is a literary text, the cultural factors and rhetorical methods used in the source texts should be reflected in the target text. In addition, the feeling of the target text reader should be taken into consideration in the process of translation. Therefore, the translation should conform to habits of the target language. But guided by Skopos Theory, the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation can be easily analyzed, so that a better solution can be founded between human translation and machine translation.<br />
<br />
===3. Machine Translation and Human Translation===<br />
Translation activities have a long history. As far as China is concerned, translation has a history of more than two thousand years. However, the translation tools have rarely changed, and the translations are always been done by "translators". With the development of science and technology and the acceleration of globalization, there is an increasing need for translation. Therefore， "machine" translation has emerged. High efficiency and low cost of machine translation make people think about whether machine translation will replace human translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
====3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of human translation====<br />
Human translation has both advantages and disadvantages. For example, human translation has the characteristics of flexibility, accuracy, high readability and humanization of language. At the same time, however, compared with machine translation, human translation is less efficient and easy to be influenced by translator's own cultural background and translation capacity so it is difficult to achieve rapid development. Before the advent of machine translation, all translation activities were done by human. Compared with machine, translators, as a bridge of cross-cultural communication, are more flexible. Translation itself is a complex activity. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
Professional translators who have certain cultural background knowledge can choose different translation methods and strategies according to the similarities and differences between the two languages and cultures, so it is more flexible and accurate. The flexibility of human language enables the translator to express the meaning of the original text in a more abundant language, and accurately handle the rhetorical devices in the original text. Therefore, the target text of human translation must be more readable than that of machine translation. Human translation has a long history, and people's research on translation has never stopped. Many excellent translators have emerged in the world and put forward various translation ideas and strategies. Translation has established a relatively mature and complete theory. With the rapid development of China's economy and the increasing number of foreign exchanges, the demand for translation is on the rise. At the same time, the time spent on translation needs to be shortened. Therefore, manual translation alone cannot meet the needs of the translation market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
====3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of machine translation====<br />
Machine translation refers to thefact that a language can be transferred into another language automatically with the help of machine. The idea of machine translation was firstly put forward by Weaver in his book Translation in 1949. Since the end of the 20th century, the development of the Internet and computer technology has provided more optional software and engines for machine translation. At the same time, the corpus has become richer and more complete, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
The current machine translation is based on the "Neural Machine Translation" (NMT) model of artificial intelligence. Currently, the popular web page machine translations include Youdao Translation, Baidu Translation, Google Translation and so on. Google is currently in a leading position in both voice translation and text translation. Google Translation is a service provided by Google to translate texts and web pages, providing instant translation between more than 100 languages. It can provide translations of words, sentences and web pages between any two languages it supports. The more human translation documents that can be analyzed for a particular language are, the higher the quality of the translation is. In addition, Google's web page translation is fast, especially free to use, so it has a considerable number of users in translation activities, especially students. Therefore, this paper will take Google Translation and Baidu Translation as an example to analyze the translation quality, which is representative in the market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, machine translation has the characteristics of high efficiency, low cost, accuracy of terminology translation, and great development potential. Machine translation is fast and efficient, for which human translation cannot match. Secondly, the price of machine translation is low, even free, which greatly reduces the economic cost and time cost for those who do not require high translation quality. In addition, compared to human translation, the huge corpus established by machine translation makes the translation of some terms, especially the latest scientific and technological terms, faster and more accurate. The accurate translation of these terms requires continuous learning by the translator, and learning requires a process, which has a certain test of the translator's learning ability and learning speed. At this point, human translation has uncertainty and lag. Finally, although the history of machine translation is short, it has achieved rapid development. With the advancement of science and technology and the development of society, the functions of machine translation will be more perfect and the quality of translation will be better. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
First of all, from a microscopic point of view, machine translation often has problems in the choice of word meaning, especially when there is one word with different meanings. It needs the translator to select the meaning based on the context, while machine translation cannot accurately choose the meaning of a word in combination with the context. What’s more, the word order of the translated sentence often does not conform to the word order and expression habits of the target language. From the aspect of tense, it is more accurate when translating English into Chinese, because words in English can directly change tense. However, there are sometimes problems such as no corresponding tenses when translating Chinese into English. From a macro point of view, machine translation does not have cultural sensitivity and is not accurate enough for the translation of some idioms and proverbs with strong cultural color. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
====3.3 Relationship between machine translation and human translation====<br />
Machine translation is based on human translation, and the establishment of corpus that machine translation relies on needs human participation. When translating technical terms, machine translation corpus and parallel text can greatly reduce the time when find and determine proper equivalent terms. However, the establishment of these corpora needs well-translated materials. The accuracy and usability of corpus are also affected by the quality of human translation. Therefore, they restrict and influence each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
There are more or less defects in the micro and macro aspects of machine translation. At the micro level, it mainly includes vocabulary, syntax, tense, and so on. However, at the macro level, it mainly includes text cohesion and cultural background. Therefore, human translation is essential. In addition, all machine translation inspection, modification, sorting and other work must also be carried out manually, so as to make the translation quality better and meet the requirements of communication. It can be seen that machine translation alone cannot meet the requirements of high quality translation. Translation activities cannot be separated from human participation. Therefore, with the development of machine translation, translation should be completed by both machine and human. The two are related, influenced with each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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===4. Case Study from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===<br />
A Tale of Two Cities is a long historical novel by British writer Charles Dickens, first published in 1859. The story is set in the French Revolution and has a touching plot. It is one of the world's literary classics. The twin cities refer to Paris and London. The story connects these two cities and tells the story of the Parisian doctor Manette. He was persecuted by the brothers of the Marquis St. Evremonde due to injustice and was detained in the Bastille prison for 18 years. After being released from prison, Mannette's daughter Lucie fell in love with the enemy's son Darney. Thus, in the whirlpool of the French Revolution, scenes of family grievances and hatred were staged grandly. Life and death, good and evil were blended in conflict and changed in an instant. On the guillotine, Carton calmly sacrificed his life for love. （Dickens 2016）<br />
<br />
A Tale of Two Cities has a rigorous structure and condensed language. Dickens's profound thinking on revolution and humanity and his breathtaking writing talent are fully demonstrated. This paper selects the most representative classic sentences in the text for comparative analysis of translation, studies whether neural network machine translation software can accurately translate classic literary works, and explores whether neural network machine translation will replace manual translation in the context of artificial intelligence. The human translation was by Zhaolin Song. Among the many translation versions in China, Song’s translation was regarded as the version which closes to the source text most. (Feng Baoyin 2018, 232)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Case Study from the perspective of Skopos Rule====<br />
In Vermeer’ opinion, the dominant rule for any translation should be the skopos rule, which means that a translation action is determined by its purposes. That is to say, the translation action should be in accordance with the target context and culture. The purposes of target text determine the translation strategies and methods used in translation process. A good translation should conform to the target culture and meet target audiences’ expectations. According to Nord, “Skopos of a particular translation task may require a ‘free’ or a ‘faithful’ translation, or anything between these two extremes, depending on the purpose for which the translation is needed”. Once the intended purposes are achieved, the translation will be considered as reasonable and proper. It is unnecessary for the translation to be equivalent to the source text. (Nord 1997, 102)<br />
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Example 1: We were all going direct to heaven, we were all going direct the other way--in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
<br />
Google translation: 我们都直接去天堂，我们都直接去天堂- -简而言之，这一时期与目前的时期如此遥远，以至于它的一些最吵闹的当局坚持以最高的比较程度来接受它是好是坏。<br />
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Baidu translation: 我们是所有的人都直接去天堂，我们都朝着另一个方向去——简而言之，这个时期和现在的时代非常相似，以至于一些最吵闹的权威坚持要接受它，不管是好是坏，只是在最高级的比较中。<br />
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Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 我们大家都在直升天堂，我们大家都在直下地狱——简而言之，那个时代和当今这个时代是如此相似，因而一些吵嚷不休的权威们也坚持认为，不管它是好是坏，都只能用“ 最……”来评价它。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 20)<br />
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Analysis: <br />
Since this is selected from a novel, the purpose of translation should be express the meaning and beauty of the source text. As for the Google translation, there was a mistake in translating "We were all going directly the other way". The translated meaning is totally different from the original. As to Baidu translation, it expressed the meaning of the original text, but the way it expressed the original meaning may confuse the target text reader. In regards to human translation, the translator of this edition adopts the combination of literal translation and free translation. In this way, the translation not only clearly expresses the original meaning, but also takes into account the literariness of the work, so that readers can feel the characteristics of the times more vividly<br />
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====4.2 Case study from the perspective of coherence rule====<br />
Coherence rule is also called “intra-textual coherence”, which means that the translation should be acceptable and understandable for the target audiences and be meaningful in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received. In other words, the target text should conform to the target receivers’ situation, including their given knowledge, background culture and specific circumstances. (Nord 1997, 120)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 2: Questions, questions, questions! (Charles Dickens 2016, 56)<br />
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Google Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
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Baidu Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
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Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 问题一个接一个地提出来！(Song Zhaolin 2005, 68)<br />
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Analysis: In this sentence, the original text uses three "questions" in a row to enhance the tone. However, Google and Baidu Translation directly translated it into "问题，问题，问题！", which sounds too blunt to read. The target text translated by Google and Baidu cannot reflect the meaning of the original text. What's more, it makes it hard for target readers to get the meaning of the text. While the translator chose the free translation method to make the translation more natural and smooth. The translated text followed the coherence rule in the process of translation.<br />
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Example 3: But just because he had a powerful enemy---an enemy with the power to send him to prison and to keep him there, hidden and forgotten, for eighteen years. (Charles Dickens 2016, 102)<br />
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Google translation: 但是仅仅因为他有一个强大的敌人-一个有能力将他送进监狱并将其隐藏和遗忘在监狱里长达十八年的敌人。<br />
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Baidu translation:只是因为他有一个强大的敌人，一个有能力把他送进监狱，把他关在那里，隐藏起来，被遗忘18年。<br />
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Human translation(Song Zhaolin): 而只是因为他有一个强大的敌人-这个敌人拥有权势将他投进监狱，而且把他在那里与世隔绝、被人遗忘地关了18年。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 130)<br />
<br />
<br />
Analysis: In terms of grammar, English uses long sentences, which are connected by functional words, such as conjunctions, prepositions and relative words. Its syntactic structure is relatively complex and it is a hypotactic language. Chinese is a paratactic language. In the process of E-C translation, we often use disassembly syntax to translate a long and complex English sentence into several short and simple Chinese short sentences. From Google Translation, it directly translated the structure of the original text. The target text created by Google translation doesn't conform to target language structure. While the translation of Baidu almost in accordance with the target language structure. As to the human translation, not only was the structure, but also the meaning was perfectly expressed.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Case study from the perspective of fidelity rule====<br />
Fidelity rule is also named by Vermeer as “intertextual coherence”, which puts emphasis on the relationship between the source text and target text. Based on Skopos theory, fidelity rule requires that the target text should be in accordance with the source text, which means the information contained in the source text should be exactly conveyed by the target text under the translators’ efforts. (Nord 1997, 140)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 1: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
<br />
Google Translation: 那是最美好的时光，那是最糟糕的时光，那是智慧的时代，那是愚昧的时代，那是信仰的时代，那是轻信的时代，那是光明的季节， 是黑暗的季节，是希望的春天，是绝望的冬天，我们眼前的一切，眼前的一切。<br />
<br />
Baidu Translation: 那是最好的时代，最坏的时代，智慧的时代，愚昧的时代，信仰的时代，不信的时代，光明的季节，黑暗的季节，希望的春天，绝望的冬天，我们面前什么都有，面前什么都没有。 <br />
<br />
Human Translation (Zhaolin Song): : 那是最美好的时代，那是最糟糕的时代；那是个睿智的年月，那是个蒙昧的年月；那是信心百倍的时期，那是疑虑重重的时期；那是阳光普照的季节，那是黑暗笼罩的季节；那是充满希望的春天，那是让人绝望的冬天；我们面前无所不有，我们面前一无所有。（Song Zhaolin 2005, 20）<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is the classic opening paragraph in "A Tale of Two Cities", and it can be said to be very popular. On the whole, because of the simple structure of this paragraph, the two machine-translated translations all accurately express the content of the original text, but one shortcoming is that it is difficult for machine translation to express the unique beauty of rhythm of the original text.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the translation of commonly used machine translation software and human translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, we can conclude that for the translation of literary works, machine translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text, even equal to manual translation if there are only some simple expressions in the source texts. However, the quality of machine translation needs to be improved some sentences with complex sentence patterns and difficult grammatical structures. Therefore, the translation of literary works by machines still have a long way to go.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
The main purpose of this paper is to find a better solution between machine translation and human translation under the guidance of the Skopos Theory for optimizing weaknesses of machine translation platforms, which not only generates solutions to errors, but also improves the quality of machine translation. <br />
<br />
Theoretically, this paper applies Skopos Theory to guide human translation and machine translation of literary texts. Machine translation can be regarded as a basis of human translation, while those errors caused by machine translation can be improved manually after the completion of machine translation. Meanwhile, by employing appropriate translation methods and techniques, such as semantic conversion, amplification, omission and so on, human translation based on machine translation enormously solves errors in machine translation which further optimizes weaknesses of machine translation. Human translation process also becomes more efficient with the help of machine<br />
<br />
As for machine translation, firstly, machine translation platforms can’t replace translators on account of its incomplete corpus and limitations in transferring the cultural meaning. Secondly, errors at lexical level caused by defects of machine translation are much more than that at syntactical level. Lastly, machine translation platforms are restricted by contexts of language, situation and culture which lead to incorrect target text.<br />
<br />
In regard with human translation, from the perspective of Skopos theory, human translation is more understandable and readable to target readers than that of machine translation. It’s essential for the translator to know typical errors in machine translation, features of machine translation platforms and characteristics of the source text, which could fascinate the efficiency of translation. All in all, machine translation platforms enhance the efficiency of translating large amount of material and human translation provides a solution for machine translation of poor quality. Machine translation and human translation are complement to each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2016). A Tale of Two Cities. Macmillian.<br />
<br />
* Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2011). 中国译学大辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China] 上海外语教育出版社(leave a blank space)Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
* Feng Baoyin(leave a blank space)冯宝茵 (2018). 从读者反应论对比两个《双城记》译本 [A comparative study of two versions of a tale of two cities from the perspective of reader response theory]. 北方文学, Northern Literature (36):232.<br />
<br />
* Hu Kaibao & Li Yi胡开宝 & 李翼. (2016). 机器翻译特征及其与人工翻译关系的研究. [Research on the characteristics of machine translation and its relationship with human translation] 中国翻译 Chinese Translation (05),10-14. <br />
<br />
* Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
<br />
* Mark Shuttleworth (2004). Dictionary of Translation Studies. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 75.<br />
<br />
* Munday, J. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application. London: Routeledge. 78.<br />
<br />
* Reiss, K & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
* Song Zhaolin(leave a blank space)宋兆霖 (2005). 双城记 A Tale of Two Cities 中国戏剧出版社, China Drama Press.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=116881History of Translation Studies 102020-12-20T15:32:28Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658 */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing 英语笔译 202070080581==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of original language and target language, but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, have not been covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. <br />
<br />
During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also made a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, one needs to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. <br />
<br />
The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures.Similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language.<br />
<br />
In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis.That is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, in which verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator is not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which is direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, translators are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word, which makes it even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence in form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with are going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, translators have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example,“Take care. Hope to see you soon.” is polite and emotional way to express our feelin .<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , translators have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, translators have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to translator's mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, translators can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, translators have to consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore,proper translation skills are needed to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes translators can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases they will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
It is obvious that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, translators can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or free translation based on functional equivalence. In daily life, Chinese people often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus the sentence will be translated into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, it can be seen that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, translators need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but trasnslators have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, translators need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, translators can figure out exactly his characteristics and reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. Translators will find different types of texts in the process of translation and must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.<br />
<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. <br />
<br />
According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, can the translation be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654 法语语言文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
The success of Hao Jingfang's science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", which won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016, could not have been achieved without the rigorous translation work of Ken Liu. The translation of this novel takes the response of the readers of the translated text as the starting point, preserving the meaning and style of the novel while effectively conveying Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of functional equivalence theory that "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". Nida's functional equivalence theory, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has had a profound influence on the translation studies of various literary genres in China. This paper examines the English translation of "Folding Beijing", analyzes Ken Liu's use of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory in his translation, and shows the value of functional equivalence theory for the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", the future Beijing is overpopulated. To solve this crisis, it is transformed into a hierarchical Folding City. The Folding City is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours. The first space is occupied by the upper class of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; the second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; and the third space is occupied by the lower class, who have only eight hours of night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants to send his daughter to a good school, and in order to earn money, he ventures into the first, second and third spaces to deliver letters to others. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and many Chinese native words. The cultural differences between China and the West due to regional factors and customs are a major challenge for translation. The translator must not only consider the reader's understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local color in the work is not removed. The theory of functional equivalence suggests that translation should not be confined to form, and the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text in order to achieve equivalence of content and information.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory has had a profound impact on China and has brought translators new and effective methods of translation guidance. We can see that Ken Liu is also trying to achieve balance and harmony between the translation and the original text when he translates science fiction novels. This paper analyzes the English translation of "Folding Beijing" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory and explores how translators achieve the closest equivalence to the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:11）<br />
<br />
===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, explained dynamic equivalence translation in his influential book,''Toward a Science of Translating''. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, focusing on the equivalence of the reader's response, not just the equivalence of content and form.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
In "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defines dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translated reader's reaction to the translation should be the same as the original reader's reaction.（Nida,2004:24）<br />
<br />
Because dynamic equivalence was controversial in some respects, Nida replaced it with a more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment required to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. Since a functionally equivalent translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language message, the translator's achievement of functional equivalence follows three principles.In his book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did".(Nida 1993:118)<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the response of the reader of the recipient language, and(3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defines the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory,namely from the form and content of the message to the reader's response. It differs from traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the readers of the original text, it can be regarded as functional equivalence of the target language. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s reaction to the translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida and Taber point out that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning will be discussed in this chapter at three levels: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these are the three levels of detailed analysis of lexicon, syntax, and discourse. According to the theory of functional equivalence, translation is not only about word-for-word equivalence, but also about discovering the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in translation of ''Folding Beijing'' from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.(Nida,2004:12)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:（Din Juan,2011:22）<br />
<br />
In literary translation, it is always a challenge to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, and they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is the most appropriate. In the English translation of Beijing Folding, there are many examples of how the translation can achieve functional equivalence with the original at the lexical level, as follows: (Ding Juan, 2011:22)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
<br />
"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）<br />
<br />
"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", In this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention and conveys what appears to be a bad temper. --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）<br />
<br />
"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to show the original meaning.<br />
<br />
The author did not literally translate “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is owing to the translator's own understanding of the text, he hopes readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to convey the original meaning.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
<br />
Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
Syntax, as a rule, refers to the study of how to construct sentences correctly with the words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the readers. Translators should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.（Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
The differences between English and Chinese grammar are mainly reflected in three aspects. First, the use of conjunctions and relational words in English is very frequent. Secondly, English speakers focus on object consciousness and are accustomed to the order from small to large objects and from specific to general; in Chinese texts, there is usually a chronological order of time, space or cause and effect. Finally, English usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while Chinese tends to process information from the stale to the fresh in order to impress (Ding Juan, 2011: 24).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original, we must not only translate the meaning of the words, but also translate the syntactic structure into the appropriate form. The following are examples of how the English translation of Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence with the original at the syntactic level:（Din Juan,2011:24）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
" 现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。'他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。'他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’" （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）<br />
<br />
"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this passage, the translator clearly adjusted the word order, pushing what the same person said before the pause to the next sentence to fit the logic of the English reader." Selection should also be liberalized" ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the reader, so the reader adds to this sentence and translates it as "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", the translator perfectly explains the meaning of "放开".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015) <br />
<br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like "…childhood that…".<br />
<br />
In this passage, the text emphasizes "the past" twice. To achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order by placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences instead of using subordinate clause like"... childhood that...".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, such as "as if", "from where", "that", etc. This is because the syntax of the two languages is different.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.(Din Juan,2011:27）<br />
<br />
Nida argues that readers may have difficulty accepting an approximate formal translation due to the intricacies of the discourse structure and the preconceived knowledge of the original content. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a "rewriting" approach to make the translation acceptable to the reader. In literary translation, the translator must pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be comparable to the original text in terms of discourse level. A dialogue from Folding Beijing and its English translation is selected below as an example of literary translation achieving functional equivalence at the discourse level:(Ding Juan,2011:27)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself." <br />
<br />
Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
<br />
"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.<br />
<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
<br />
Conversational conventions in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made in translation. The form of the dialogue is not exactly translated from Chinese, but the understanding of the text is the same for the readers. For example, "夹了新上来的热菜" is translated as "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", and the translator changes the action to "spoon", which is more in line with Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as the girl in the first space to spoon the dish to the old knife."推给老刀" is translated as "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", which adds some actions to make it more vivid.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
<br />
Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Each writer has his or her own writing style, which no one can imitate perfectly. In other words, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows linguistic characteristics, and the English translation shows the translator's attempt to achieve functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
<br />
First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form, the counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vibrant scenes, and enhance the effectiveness of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to "深渊", and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalent.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated, only translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
<br />
It is a metaphorical sentence and words like "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated. They are translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
<br />
"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks and arms", and "like the humblest servants", the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
<br />
This paragraph has a personification that "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks, and arms" and are "like the humblest of servants," and the use of rhetoric allows people to imagine the folding diagram of the city through the image of a person. By comparing the buildings to a herd of beasts, it shows its scale and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)<br />
<br />
"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
<br />
In this sentence, "怪胎" is translated as "monster" and "born" conveys the same meaning, so the translator did not have any trouble.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
<br />
Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.（Din Juan,2011:33）<br />
<br />
The dialect reflects the local characteristics and is the author's own writing style. Sometimes this is a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator deals with this problem. (Dingjuan, 2011:33)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the use of either rhetoric or dialect in literary works fully reflects the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, translators should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the way of expressing stylistic differences and find out the best way to compensate for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve the maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:47）<br />
<br />
Cultural differences between two languages are also issues that translators should be aware of in the translation process. People who are exposed to different cultures have different ways of thinking, values, social customs, etc. Translators need to understand both cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this point, translation plays a role in intercultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the reader so that the translation achieves cultural equivalence with the original text. This chapter will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of food culture, folk culture, and idiom culture to show how it achieves functional equivalence with the original text. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:47)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
<br />
The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.（Din Juan,2011:39）<br />
<br />
The city described in Folding Beijing is the political and cultural center of China, a city with deep cultural accumulation. In the novel, there are many elements belonging to traditional Chinese food culture. This part will analyze how the translator managed to translate these cuisines into a successful counterpart.（Din Juan,2011:39）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"炒面"is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
<br />
"炒面" is a famous traditional Chinese snack. Translators translate it as "chow mein" instead of "Chinese chow mein". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means Chinese-style fried noodles with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also gives the reader a more intuitive idea of what the dish is.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)<br />
<br />
"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, "白酒" is translated into "baijiu" , the translator doesn't use the word like "spirits", it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
<br />
Here, foreignization method is used, and "白酒" is translated as "baijiu". The translator does not use words like "spirits", which retains Chinese cultural characteristics and achieves a communicative effect at the same time.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）<br />
<br />
The characteristic of this dish is that it is first boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator has captured this feature in his translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", which is made with pork, and he hopes that readers of the English translation will see the image of this dish in their minds, just like the Chinese do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique lifestyles, customs, behavior patterns, etc. in terms of vocabulary. The following will analyze the functional equivalence of translation in folk culture. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:52).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he uses the word "shared" and he adds the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where friends and relatives share several dishes among themselves. The purpose of the passage is to show the boy's poverty. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, where Westerners behave differently, so he uses the word "sharing" and adds the word "family style" to make it easier for the reader to understand this behavior.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)<br />
<br />
"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is one of the major characteristics of Chinese culture. People from the same hometown share similar living habits, upbringing and cultural background, so even strangers can get acquainted quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao are from the third dimension, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective." 管事儿" means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word to make it easy for readers to understand.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. "心意" means money, which is an euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In translation, the translator also considered an euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word "appreciation".<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan says that she hopes Lao Dao will help her keep her secret, so she wants to use money to give Lao Dao." 心意" means money, which is a Chinese euphemism when it is not convenient to give money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered it a euphemism, so the word "appreciation" was used.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the vast and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people use these idioms in their daily life and writing, but some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and it is important to pay attention to the differences between the two cultures when translating them.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", the translator translated it into "ate heartily", although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
The author uses many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", which the translator translates as "to eat in a heartbeat". Although the translation is easy to understand, without the image of a person eating very hungry, it seems that English readers cannot achieve the same understanding and reaction as Chinese readers from the perspective of functional equivalence.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And "（盘子）一片狼藉"translated into "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" translated into "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
<br />
And "(盘子)一片狼藉" is translated as "the plate is a mess", which is a description of a messy situation on the plate. And "the beauty of adulthood" is translated as "in that case, I am doing a good deed by keeping quiet", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe how Lao Dao felt that he kept the secret that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might be together in the future. The translator translated the phrase abstractly into the English translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）<br />
<br />
The English translation of Folding Beijing is analyzed from three aspects of meaning, style, and culture using this paper's functional equivalence theory, and it is concluded that the English translation meets the English readers' understanding of the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and reciprocal Chinese translation of Folding Beijing for English readers. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:56)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyze from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Folding Beijing" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western cultures, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functionally equivalent translation. Analyzing the English version of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture, we can see that linguistically, although Chinese and English are very different in logic and grammar, and there are many differences between Chinese and Western cultures, the translator still tries to keep the original content and find more suitable words in the translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）<br />
<br />
In some specific contents, the translators do not translate into exactly the same form, which is also in line with Nida's theory of functional equivalence, because Nida also suggests that translation should not be limited to form, and the translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's functional equivalence theory does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction novels, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang.(2015).Folding Beijing[J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang郝景芳.(2016).孤独深处[The Depth of Loneliness].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社[Nanjing:Jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing,LTD]：1-40<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(1993)Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：118<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(2001)Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A. & Taber.(2004) Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：12-24<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999).新编奈达论翻译[A new version of Nida's theory on translation].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation]<br />
<br />
Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009).翻译学概论[Introduction to translatology].南京：译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press]<br />
<br />
Zhao Dandan赵丹丹.(2011).浅论奈达的功能对等理论[Nida's theory of functional equivalence].湖北：文学教育[Hubei:Literature Education]<br />
<br />
Zhou Xingyang周兴阳.(2018).从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[Chinese Science Fiction Translation in the Perspective of Functional Equivalence-A case Study of Beijing Zhe Die and its English Version-Folding Beijing].新疆大学[Xinjiang University]<br />
<br />
Wang Guiyuan王桂圆.(2018)系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[A Study on The Translation of Folding Beijing from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics].安徽：海外英语[Anhui：Overseas English]<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
<center>余妮 Yu Ni No.202070080620</center><br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s version has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. <br />
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“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
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Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
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The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) which was co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable, for it has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. With the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
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The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The following chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author makes a conclusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.<br />
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In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, according to the nature of translation. He pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).<br />
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The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, we should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural reaction of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
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Firstly, we should create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully displays the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture concepts cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost not much snow in southern China all year round. Therefore, based on their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabularies. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Re-creation” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).<br />
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Oscar Wilde, born in Dublin, Ireland, is a “born for art” writer. He was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In this play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies, revealing the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)<br />
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Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared to previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
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Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections. Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
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He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was first published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, his translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest—Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. <br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.<br />
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“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but in different meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)<br />
<br />
It not only facilitated the needs of the audience but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience would be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
<br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same. <br />
<br />
In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language remain the same.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.<br />
<br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
<br />
“There are many allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
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(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
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(1) ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. <br />
<br />
(2) CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack. Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can still benefit from them. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’ s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).<br />
<br />
An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012). <br />
<br />
Paradox is a device favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed. Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
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(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. <br />
<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect. In example 4, what amused the audience was the conclusion contrary to the reasons.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With it, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the readers will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Antithesis======<br />
<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. <br />
<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators. Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty. Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than the source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in the target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.<br />
<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we may have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is the most popular one among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is the variety of rhetorical devices. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, too. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019). <br />
<br />
<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we can have a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”. In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce better translation. Even though we can gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
<br />
Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
<br />
Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
<br />
Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
<br />
Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
<br />
Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
<br />
Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen 202020080603== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
<br />
===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. <br />
<br />
The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)<br />
<br />
The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicit, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. <br />
<br />
Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understanding:the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)<br />
<br />
===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)<br />
<br />
Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
<br />
===2. Literary Review===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. <br />
<br />
At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
<br />
Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===<br />
<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
<br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
<br />
On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
<br />
===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
<br />
===3.1 Free Translation===<br />
<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
<br />
===3.2 Addition of Message===<br />
<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
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===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===<br />
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As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
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The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)<br />
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The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 15:27, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
<br />
*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-166.<br />
<br />
*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
<br />
*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
<br />
*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.<br />
<br />
* Mao Yueyue, Liu Fan. 毛新月, 刘帆. (2018). 释意理论指导下的会议口译中四字词语的翻译——以习近平总书记十九届中共中央政治局常委同中外记者见面会讲话为例. [Translation of four-letter words in conference interpretation under the guidance of interpretation theory - taking the speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the meeting between the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the 19th CPC Central Committee and Chinese and foreign journalists as an example]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](12): 230-231.<br />
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* Ouyang Changyi. 欧阳长怡. (2010). 论释意理论指导下的记者招待会口译策略及释意训练. [On Interpretation Strategies and Interpretation Training of Press Conference under the Guidance of Interpretation Theory]. 福建省外国语文学会.福建省外国语文学会2010年年会论文集. [Fujian Foreign Language Society. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference of Fujian Foreign Language Society]. 福建省外国语文学会: 福建省外国语文学会[Fujian Foreign Language Society: Fujian Foreign Language Society]<br />
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* Xiong Wen. 熊雯. (2014). 释意理论视阙下的口译过程研究. [A study of interpretation process under the view of interpretation theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](24): 154-155.<br />
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*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
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*Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe. 张杨,李灵哲. (2018). 释意理论指导下的翻译语义策略运用. [The use of translation semantic strategies under the guidance of interpretation theory]. ''佳木斯职业学院学报'' [Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10): 334-336.<br />
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='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
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<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
The “article” would better to be “paper” The “problem” would better to be “ disputation” or “controversy”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 09:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being.<br />
Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time, until they entered China along trade routes from Central Asia in the first century AD.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
Chnese—Chinese please keep your tense consistency. There should be some conjunctions to make it more logical.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
adhere strictly to — strictly adhere to; the form similarity— the similarity in form--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
three period —three periods. Please keep your tense consistency. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
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it was not so widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier that it is of great …into Chinese, hence translators of Buddhist scriptures Constantly emerge. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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He translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures in total. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
“Transliteration” “ the same as”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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Please keep the tense consistency. “while ignoring”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures.<br />
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“mainstream” —“dominant”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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“then can only…”—“they” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
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=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
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Buddhism believer is not “only”limited to--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
Please keep your tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The principle of “Five Losses…” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
“by private”—“privately”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. <br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25).<br />
India— Indian--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness.<br />
<br />
<br />
Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
“arrived”—“reached” “under his efforts”—“with his efforts” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
There is some overlaps “at the beginning” and “at the early days”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
<br />
(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
metaphysics— and metaphysics--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
There are many commas without conjunctions.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
The words with mystery? Can it be the words with the sense of mystery?--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
but also has — but also had --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
The —the translation workshop system please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
<br />
By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223<br />
<br />
Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308<br />
<br />
Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.<br />
<br />
Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University <br />
<br />
Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.<br />
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Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.<br />
<br />
Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70. <br />
<br />
Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press<br />
<br />
Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.<br />
<br />
WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
<br />
Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
<br />
Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
<br />
He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
<br />
Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
<br />
Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
<br />
Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
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==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi ==<br />
<center>成于思 Cheng Yusi No.202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究</center><br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
<br />
André Lefevere; ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook''; Liu Miqing; ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''; “cultural turn”; John Dryden; translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔;《翻译，历史和文化论集》; 刘宓庆;《中西翻译思想对比研究》;文化转向;约翰·德莱登;翻译原则<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
<br />
In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. Dryden's comparison of a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
<br />
===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
<br />
''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies. <br />
<br />
In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
<br />
In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii) <br />
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Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)<br />
<br />
If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.<br />
<br />
The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements, which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)<br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it brings those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others. <br />
<br />
I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47) <br />
<br />
In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "an author and a translator" to "a master and a slave" through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.(Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)<br />
<br />
Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracts an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)<br />
<br />
In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102) <br />
<br />
Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating poems in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
<br />
Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103) <br />
<br />
As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
<br />
Dryden proposes a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)<br />
<br />
It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. <br />
<br />
Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
<br />
However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compares a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)<br />
<br />
Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars, like Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014) <br />
<br />
A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works were with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)<br />
<br />
Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73) <br />
<br />
About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)<br />
<br />
===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2) <br />
<br />
In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
<br />
The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33) <br />
<br />
He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
<br />
The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)<br />
<br />
Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179) <br />
<br />
The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
<br />
However, he also recognizes that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School and New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
<br />
Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented", and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories which can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current superficial, assertive and rational views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)<br />
<br />
The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)<br />
<br />
Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)<br />
<br />
Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulated that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)<br />
<br />
Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987) <br />
<br />
In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation principles that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the feature of the tradition of Chinese translation changes from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)<br />
<br />
As such, the flourishing of translation is bound to be our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) <br />
<br />
The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51) <br />
<br />
The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
<br />
The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem.(Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate Chinese poems, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility, it expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
<br />
Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
<br />
Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argues that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provides a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)<br />
<br />
===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
===4.1 From the aspect of the content===<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
<br />
===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===<br />
<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters, which are concerned with the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. As to the longer essays, they are collected in the last chapter. <br />
<br />
Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includs the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps readers understanding translation principles.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have better understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of a translator to a slave. Then, it figures out the reasons of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
<br />
Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
===关键词===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
===Introuction===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.<br />
<br />
Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（quotation missing）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（paragraph too long）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: <br />
<br />
(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. ) <br />
<br />
Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. <br />
<br />
The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)<br />
<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.<br />
<br />
Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. <br />
<br />
The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. <br />
<br />
These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. <br />
<br />
Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. <br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. <br />
<br />
The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. <br />
<br />
Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)<br />
<br />
===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)<br />
<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. <br />
<br />
The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. <br />
<br />
Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. <br />
<br />
This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).<br />
<br />
The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. <br />
<br />
The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
===Trends in Translation Theory Research===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. <br />
<br />
In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980.<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
<br />
[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
<br />
Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
<br />
So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
<br />
Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
<br />
===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
<br />
1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
<br />
The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just in the south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
<br />
2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
<br />
Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
<br />
<br />
If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
<br />
Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
<br />
For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
<br />
3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
<br />
Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 11<br />
<br />
我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 12<br />
<br />
“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 13<br />
<br />
耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 14<br />
<br />
“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 15<br />
<br />
我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
===''' References '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 15:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==<br />
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center><br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence on the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation was regarded as a linguistic phenomena before. But later, with the development of the translation theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science, especially linguistics, can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology at home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recording two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and regarded seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure. (J.A Catford , 1965)<br />
<br />
Holmes published The Name and Nature of Translation Studies at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation, which directly promoted the construction of translation studies. ( James Holmes,1975)<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from several aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing the translation practice. (Wolfram Wilss, 1982)<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is Discourse and the Translator (1990), which is the first book to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers. (Hatim & Mason,1990 )<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believed that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies. (Mona Baker, 2006) <br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were using correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books would be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe. (Dong Qiusi, 1951)<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the viewpoint that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
<br />
In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published On Approaches to Translation Studies. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' the awareness of the subject of translation studies. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
<br />
In the thesis An Overview of Western Translation Theory (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, translatology could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. ( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）<br />
<br />
Subsequently, Lv published Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new perspective for the study of the construction of translation studies and promoted the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)<br />
<br />
Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the development of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies. (Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012) <br />
<br />
Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)<br />
<br />
Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple approaches of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation. (Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020)<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rising of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precedes translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. (Wang Yin,2017)<br />
<br />
Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western translation studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward west, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation. (Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)<br />
<br />
Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies of the researches. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the awareness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies. <br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often be confused. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definitions of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is also used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the rules of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995） <br />
<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic, literature, philosophy etc. ( Kong Xiangli,2009)<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline and to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translator appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei etc. (Yi Jing,2009)<br />
<br />
The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated texts. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an independent discipline'''<br />
<br />
Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of an independent discipline and proposed a classification of the research field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a merely a technical activity. (Tan Zaixi, 1987 )<br />
<br />
Such a group of people also appeared the independence of translation in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, many famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
<br />
'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
<br />
Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies have shown a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018) <br />
<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its research field, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation by early linguists; second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )<br />
<br />
4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
<br />
As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists began to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology were linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 ) <br />
<br />
Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
<br />
These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their researches inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, their contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )<br />
<br />
4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
<br />
In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, systematic-functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )<br />
<br />
4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
<br />
Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists took Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regarded linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the assistance of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
<br />
Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
<br />
Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts that are "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has exerted a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
<br />
Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural context of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
<br />
For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the development of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics theory. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 <br />
<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
<br />
As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
<br />
Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and materials for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool and new research perspectives for translation studies and provides great convenience for translation studies. ( Liao Qiyi，2000)<br />
<br />
4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
<br />
In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The publication of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
<br />
4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
<br />
Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is quite similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, publishing cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
<br />
4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
<br />
Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good example. (Yang Zijian,1993)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study. Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
<br />
4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
<br />
Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be learned from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together. In the process of development, linguistics has absorbed the experience of many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., formed many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Linguistics has gone through several stages of development, and it has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics provided experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators should only take other disciplines for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely. ( (Liu Miqing, 1989))<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
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Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
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Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
<br />
Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
<br />
Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
<br />
Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658,外国语言学及应用语言学==<br />
<br />
许晶 Xu Jing 202020080658 外国语言学及应用语言学<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析翻译学科学习目前存在的问题，并提出相应的建议。<br />
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==='''关键词'''=== <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies", is a basic statement of translation studies，which calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) <br />
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Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, such as comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)<br />
<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation studies can examine the practices and context of translating texts that are specialist (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these knowledge enables students to apply their understanding of theories to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually includes the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills that are necessary elements solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. With the requirement of effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures in today's multicultural and multilingual society, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
<br />
As a science, Translation Studies always has its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. <br />
<br />
Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can have a good understanding about the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. It is necessary for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
Translation activities appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, and the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. <br />
<br />
The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared on the scene.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have been single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, as well as translation criticism, translation publishing, and translation management, etc.<br />
<br />
At that time, because a large number of people who master foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to improve foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under Foreign Language and Literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
<br />
2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, translation studies explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. <br />
<br />
At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the team to construct translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation in succession. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of “China Translator" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)<br />
<br />
Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge. Translation research ideas, methods, field and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)<br />
<br />
2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) <br />
<br />
In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Translation studies have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.<br />
<br />
There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers should help students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments that required by the language service market. Teachers can invite industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
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==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. Translation discipline in China has entered a new stage now, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
<br />
3.1. Translation Education <br />
<br />
With the establishment of the autonomy of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the cultivation of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018）<br />
<br />
However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, so it is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction history of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, so systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to bluring and confusing educational goal of translation major. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation major teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them are lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
<br />
3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
<br />
The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. <br />
<br />
The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data shows that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
<br />
In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)<br />
<br />
3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
<br />
Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018) <br />
<br />
This kinds of teaching method that is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model ignore student autonomy, which will pay too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
<br />
3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
<br />
The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is inconsiderable.（Ou Yonghua 2019）<br />
<br />
Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, according to the actual situation of translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but do not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)<br />
<br />
3.2. Students<br />
<br />
The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, so it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
<br />
3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
<br />
Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. <br />
<br />
Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
<br />
3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
<br />
Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not gain sufficient background information.<br />
<br />
With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015) <br />
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3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
<br />
At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless to some extent or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
<br />
==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved over time. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote Translation Studies in China.<br />
<br />
4.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
Translation education plays an important role in cultivating translation talents, and a good translation education system will provide a good environment for students to learn Translation Studies, so it is necessary to improve translation education system.<br />
<br />
4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
<br />
The teaching model is an important guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to innovate. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
<br />
The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching,which attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. It is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
<br />
4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
<br />
Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. <br />
<br />
Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019）<br />
<br />
Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
<br />
Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and to reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of landmark for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)<br />
<br />
The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
<br />
4.2. Students <br />
<br />
Translation talents play a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
<br />
4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future.Not only should they have a solid foundation in language ability, but also they should take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
<br />
A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students are urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
<br />
Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics and the skills and theories of translation，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. <br />
<br />
Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can take part in many social activities to experience different aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the objection of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Therefore, translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and professional knowledge. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. <br />
<br />
From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies are still not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, learn from the latest foreign translation theories, and combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 15:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
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Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
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Chen Cheng.陈诚. (2020).高校英语翻译课程教学现状及改革研究.[ Research on the Teaching Status and Reform of College English Translation Course].淮南职业技术学院学报[''Journal of Huainan Vocational &Technology''] 97-98.<br />
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Chu Xizhi.褚喜之(2009).翻译理论在翻译教学中的重要性.[The Importance of Translation Theory in Translation Teaching].经济研究导刊[''Economic Research Guide'']237-238.<br />
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Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
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Huang Youyi.黄友义.(2018).服务改革开放40年,翻译实践与翻译教育迎来转型发展的新时代.[Servicing Reform and Opening for 40 Years, Translation Practice and Translation Education Usher in a New Era of Transformation and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']5-8.<br />
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Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
<br />
Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
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Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
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Linlin.林琳.(2016).英语文学翻译学习现状及改善措施.[ The Status Quo and Improvement Measures of English Literature Translation Learning].西部素质教育[''Western China Quality Education''] 65.<br />
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Luo Feng.罗峰.(2011).从翻译学学科建设看翻译学在中国的发展.[On the Development of Translation Studies As A Discipline in China].琼州学院学报[''Journal of Qiongzhou University]''115-116.<br />
<br />
Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
<br />
Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
<br />
Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei. 许钧, 穆雷.(2009).中国翻译学研究30年 (1978 -2007).[30 years of Chinese Translation Studies (1978 -2007)].外国语[''Journal of Foreign Languages'']77-87.<br />
<br />
Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
<br />
Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan== <br />
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center><br />
<br />
<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
译者文化身份对翻译的影响<br />
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===摘要===<br />
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translating a work is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important active role in both translating the content and interpreting it, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.<br />
<br />
Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)<br />
<br />
There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.<br />
<br />
=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===<br />
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.<br />
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Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.<br />
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(While your first quote here may be intended to explain to the reader where the concept of cultural identity came from, I suggest you explain the meaning of the concept proposed by the cited author.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)<br />
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====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====<br />
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.<br />
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In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.<br />
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Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on naturalization strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.<br />
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（Be clear about what exactly domestication or foreignization in your text means and who defines it. Use word “domestication” instead of “naturalization”in general.）--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====<br />
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.<br />
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However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." <br />
<br />
However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12) <br />
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We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese literary world. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.<br />
<br />
We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)<br />
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According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
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The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.<br />
(Here you used foreignization ,but above the paper,you use alienation,The specific concepts of context should be unified.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The cultural identity of translators in translation===<br />
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.<br />
(Here world literature is not very accurate, maybe you can say world translation)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====In terms of the original intention of translation====<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao himself said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much and so only that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's love for Shakespeare is so strong that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading Shakespeare, not eating it. <br />
<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu believes that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius is to appreciate literature, the general public to read are popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "the highest art only a few people can understand ......, literature and art is not the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Byrd Byrd, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)<br />
(Here maybe you want to say Irving Babbitt not Byrd, plz check it again)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "My aim in translating this book is, first, to maintain the charm of the original work to the greatest extent possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey faithfully the meaning and feelings of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha plays more attention to the performance function of drama.<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)<br />
<br />
EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，<br />
伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，<br />
<br />
This man hath my consent to marry her．<br />
是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的<br />
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Stand forth，Lysander．<br />
走上前来，拉山德。<br />
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And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）<br />
殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子 （朱生豪. 2013：9）<br />
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In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work. <br />
For example, his translation. <br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)<br />
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拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!<br />
否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。<br />
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Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.<br />
<br />
First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:<br />
<br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)<br />
<br />
Translation of Liang Shiqiu:<br />
<br />
赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，<br />
<br />
否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。<br />
<br />
HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool: <br />
<br />
And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)<br />
<br />
海 上学时她就是个狐狸精。<br />
<br />
她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。<br />
<br />
Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966) <br />
Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature. <br />
<br />
For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.<br />
<br />
Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,<br />
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;<br />
There with fantastic garlands did she come,<br />
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,<br />
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.<br />
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:<br />
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds<br />
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,<br />
When down her weedy trophies and herself<br />
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;<br />
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;<br />
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one<br />
incapable of her own distress,<br />
Or like a creature native and indu’d<br />
Unto that element: but long it could not be<br />
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,<br />
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay<br />
To muddy death.<br />
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）<br />
<br />
The translation of Liang Shiqiu：<br />
(You can say Liang’s version :)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。 就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。 她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works. <br />
<br />
For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion. <br />
<br />
By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Fu Wenhui付文慧．多重文化身份下之戴乃迭英译阐释［The Interpretation of Dai Naidian's English Translation under Multiple Cultural Identities］中国翻译[ Chinese Translation]，2011，32(6):16—20．<br />
<br />
Yan Xiaojiang严晓江． 梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.<br />
<br />
Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.<br />
<br />
Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128.. <br />
<br />
Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.<br />
<br />
Wu Delu.吴得禄.译者文化身份对翻译的影响[The influence of translators' cultural identity on translation].读书文摘[Reading Digest].2016(08):211.<br />
<br />
Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．<br />
<br />
Liu Shuang刘双．文化身份与跨文化传播[Cultural identity and cross-cultural communication]外语学刊[Journal of Foreign Languages]，2000(1):87—91．<br />
<br />
Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪.译者自序[Translator's Preface].文学界(专辑版)[Literature (album edition)].2010(09):36.<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚 四大喜剧 梁实秋译[The Four Great Comedies translated by Liang Shiqiu].北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press].2001<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚． 仲夏夜之梦 朱生豪译．[A Midsummer Night's Dream translated by Zhu Shenghao].上海:上海世界图书出版公司 [Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company],2013．<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋 文学与革命.偏见集[Literature and Revolution. The collection of prejudices].南京:正中书局[Nanjing: Zhengzhong Shuji].中华民国二十三年七月.<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Toury's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Toury and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Toury also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Toury proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Toury describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Toury's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Toury concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Toury believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Toury is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Toury has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Toury emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Toury's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Toury's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Li Hongman 李红满. (2002). 论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J]. [On the Paradigm Shift in Contemporary Western Translation Studies]. 外语与翻译. [Foreign Languages and Translations]. <br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang 张美芳. (2000). 翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J]. [The Objectives and Structure of Translation Studies - A Review of Holmes' Vision of Translation Studies]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Toury Gideon. (2001). ''Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond''[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J]. [Translation Studies: From Specification to Description]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1996). A Skopos Theory of Translation[M]. Heidellburg:TEXT-con.<br />
<br />
Venuti Lawrence. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge.<br />
<br />
Snell-Homby Mary. (1995). Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M]. Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Hemans Theo (1985). ed.The manipulation of Literature[M]. London&Sydney:Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman, Liu Fang 韩子满, 刘芳. （2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J]. [Describe the achievements and shortcomings of translation studies]. 外语学刊. [Journal of Foreign Languages].<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M]. [New Horizons in Translation Studies]. 青岛:青岛出版社. [Qingdao:Qingdao Publishing House].<br />
<br />
==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==<br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655</center><br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655 亚非语言文学</center>--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract:=== <br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and deeply understand the status of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and helps the readers to understand deeply the status of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。<br />
<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，并深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.<br />
<br />
===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities of translation, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives have contributed to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of tranlation experience. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the translation study has became more systematic. Some researchers regard translation study as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered as "misleading reader" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements on translation theories varied all the time. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation activities. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 John MacFarlane====<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the Durhram University Journal. In his thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation, just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that there are often different reading methods when reading the same work even at the same time.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translated version. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something that it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic. Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention translation field at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Firth====<br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) <br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and this concept has produced the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context. Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 James Holmes====<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54） <br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. <br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship among descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text. Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out. After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches." Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, you have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. Taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to "a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Polysystem Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundary between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Gideon Toury<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations who are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, thus makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published in his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description. From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. <br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)<br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications, which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have been often taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.6 Snell-Hornby<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. <br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined，presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)<br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types. Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97) <br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：<br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts. <br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited by the study of equivalence between texts. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation". In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion (translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) <br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "a wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)'' with Li Yeguang and others' translations, and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56) This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) <br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect yet. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36) <br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury believes clearly that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6) In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Conclusion=== <br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.<br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short. There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro-analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Reference===<br />
Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.<br />
<br />
J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.<br />
<br />
Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Snell-Hornby.(1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman 韩子满，Liu Fang 刘芳（2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001).翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive <br />
to the Descriptive Approach].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).<br />
<br />
Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]<br />
<br />
Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰.(2002).多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).<br />
<br />
==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies== <br />
<br />
Translation Strategies <br />
<br />
===Abstract === <br />
<br />
Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.<br />
<br />
Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.<br />
<br />
This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers define them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical significance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)<br />
<br />
===Content===<br />
<br />
Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classifications from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classification is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classifications. It seems that clear-cut definitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype definitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)<br />
<br />
The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reflect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reflects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)<br />
<br />
The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp fiction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)<br />
<br />
Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the definitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few defining characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difficulty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).<br />
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or specific) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “specific activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle specific problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by specific techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classified by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
<br />
As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural filtering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
However, this is not consonant with the dictionary definitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is defined as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) defines translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will influence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identified the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identification, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal significant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can find out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) ==<br />
<br />
Darwish (2008) identifies four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70<br />
<br />
<br />
However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might influence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difficulty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Laffling(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.<br />
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== The Comparison of Machine Translation and Human Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory---A Case Study of E-C Translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example - 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan 202020080630==<br />
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<center>欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Abstract (delete "Abstract here"):With the rapid development of globalization and (add "the" here) Internet, international communication is expanding, and a lot of information needs to be translated. Due to the low efficiency of human translation, machine translation is indispensable in (delete "in") today. However, due to the limitations of machine translation, the quality of machine translation is still worrying. Therefore, from the perspective of Skopos theory, this paper takes the E-C translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example to analyze the machine translation of Google translation and Baidu translation, and compare it with the translation of Song Zhaolin, so as to explore the characteristics of machine translation and human translation, try to discuss the irreplaceable nature of human translation, and discuss how to combine machine translation with human translation to improve the quality and efficiency of translation. This paper is divided into five parts: the first part introduces the background of the current translation environment; the second part introduces Skopos Theory and discusses the feasibility of Skopos Theory in analyzing machine translation and human translation; the third part introduces the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation and human translation, and discusses the relationship between them; the fourth part is a case study to see machine translation from the perspective of Skopos theory Compared with manual translation, it is concluded that machine translation and manual translation must be combined to improve the efficiency and quality of translation. The fifth part is a summary to (change "to" into "of") this paper.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaoliu<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Skopos Theory, machine translation, human translation<br />
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===题目===<br />
目的论视角下机器翻译和人工翻译的对比---以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着全球化和互联网的迅速发展，国际的交流日益扩大，大量信息需要翻译。由于人工翻译效率低下，在越来越强调效率和质量的今天，机器翻译必不可少。然而，由于机器翻译的局限性，机器翻译的质量仍然堪忧。因此,本文以目的论视角, 以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例，分析谷歌翻译和百度翻译的机器译文, 与宋兆霖版本的中文译本对比，由此探析机器翻译与人工翻译的特点,尝试论述人工翻译的不可替代性, 并讨论如何将机器翻译与人工翻译结合提高翻译的质量和效率。本文分为五个部分，第一部分对当前翻译环境背景的介绍；第二部分对目的论进行简介，并讨论目的论用于分析机器翻译和人工翻译的可行性；第三部分介绍机器翻译和人工翻译的优缺点，并讨论他们之间的关系；第四部分进行案例分析，从目的论视角下看机器翻译与人工翻译的对比，得出提高翻译效率与质量必须将机器翻译与人工翻译相结合。第五部分对全文进行总结。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
目的论 机器翻译 人工翻译 <br />
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===1. Introduction ===<br />
With the development of globalization, the growth of Internet and artificial intelligence, machine translation becomes an indispensable choice in today’s society. Compared with human translation, machine translation has the advantages of efficiency. As the traditional translation method, human translation can guarantee the accuracy of the text. In this information era, many people are thinking if（change "if" into "whether"）human translation will be replaced by machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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In September 2016, Google released the neural network translation system, which greatly improved the quality of machine translation. In November, Baidu CEO Robin Li stated at the Wuzhen Summit of the 3rd World Internet Conference that Baidu's artificial intelligence product "automatic translation" will enter a practical state. Therefore, this paper will put the original text of Tale of Two Cities in two representative public machine translation engines at home and abroad, "Google" and "Baidu", to obtain the machine translation. Selecting texts from the famous classical novel ''A Tale of Two Cities'', and comparing machine translations and human translations based on this novel from the perspective of Skopos theory. (change "." into ",") This (change "This" into "this") paper aims to investigate the relationship between human translation and machine translation and their developments in the future. (Hu Kaibao 2016, 10)--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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=== 2. Overview of Skopos Theory ===<br />
In the 1970s, some eminent German translation theory scholars first proposed functional translation theory. Translation theorist Katharina reiss divides text into three types: informative, expressive and operational. She suggested that according to different text types, different translation methods should be used for analysis, and different translation criticism standards should be adopted, that is, text types, language functions and translation strategies should be combined. In the translation process, it’s essential to focus on the functional characteristics of the target text. Her text type theory and translation criticism mode can be regarded as the beginning of functionalist Skopos theory. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
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Hans Vermeer is Reiss's student. He further developed Reiss's theory and proposed Skopos theory. He believed that Skopos theory is based on the source text, and then may produce a series of purposeful and effective behaviors. The core of this theory is that "the purpose of translation determines translation strategies and method to achieve the expected purpose of translation" (Reiss & Vermeer 1984), German scholars Justa Holz Manttari and Christian Nord further developed this theory which based on the theory of communication and behavior, he proposed that translation theory is not a simple translation between words and sentences, but a kind of conscious behavior for the purpose of cultural communication. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
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====2.1 Three Rules of Skopos Theory====<br />
The word “Skopos” is originated from the Greek language and means purpose. Skopos theory refers to the process of translation is determined by the purpose of the translation, so the purpose rule is the highest one of translation. Generally speaking, skopos theory includes three principles: Skopos rule, coherence rule (intra-textual coherence) and fidelity rule (also known as "inter-textual coherence"). (Nord 2001, 20)<br />
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Skopos theory believes that the important principle to be followed is the "purpose" rule, it is the core rule of Skopos Theory: the process of translation should be based on the realization of the communicative function in the target language culture, and the goal to be achieved determines the entire process of translation, that is, the method determines the result. Vermeer differentiated the purpose of translation. He believes that the purpose of translation should include three levels: the purpose of the translator; the purpose of communicative; the purpose of specific translation strategies.In most cases, any translator has a certain purpose before translation, such as being entrusted by a translation company, market demand or the need to introduce technology. In most cases, "purpose" refers to the communicative purpose of translation. Under the guidance of the purpose of communication, the translator can have more space to interpret and adjust the original text. (Nord 2001, 78)<br />
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To achieve the communicative and interative function between the target text and the target receptor, the target text needs to conform to the linguistic coherence, and be understood and accepted by the readers in the context of the target language and culture. The principle of coherence means that the target text must conform to the intra-textual coherence, that is, the translation must be understood by the target reader and meaningful in the culture of the target language and the communication environment in which the translation is used. “The principle of coherence requires that the information generated by the translator (target text) must be interpreted in a manner consistent with the context of the target reader.” (Shuttleworth 2004: 75) This means the translator should maximize the translation Semantic coherence and makes the translation understandable and acceptable to the target readers. The target text can help target readers understand and successfully exchange information.<br />
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The fidelity rule refers to the inter-textual coherence between the original text and the target text, which requires "consistency between the target text and the original text" (Munday, 2010: 79). Therefore, in the translation process, the translator should not only be faithful to the original text, but also transfer the writing style and cultural factors existed in the source text. This principle requires translator to follow the purpose of translation.<br />
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In the process of translation, translators should follow three principles according to Skopos Theory: the Skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. Among these three rules in Skopos Theory, the skopos rule is the primary principle translators should adopt in the process of translation, and the coherence rule and the fidelity rule must follow the skopos rule. So in the case of translation practice, fidelity rule is subordinate to coherence rule, and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule. In a word, Skopos rule plays a decisive role in translation process, which should be considered first in translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011, 20)<br />
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====2.3 Application of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory is different from traditional theories which overemphasize the features of language rules. With regard to Skopos Theory, it requires that translators should not only consider the language but also take account of factors beyond texts and language like the purpose of translation. As for ''A Tale of Two Cities'', the purpose is to make the target reader feel the same as the source target reader. Since this is a literary text, the cultural factors and rhetorical methods used in the source texts should be reflected on the target text. In addition, the feeling of the target text reader should be taken into consideration in the process of translation. Therefore, the translation should conform to habits of the target language. But guided by Skopos Theory, the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation can be easily analyzed, so that a better solution can be founded between human translation and machine translation. <br />
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===3. Machine Translation and Human Translation===<br />
Translation activities have a long history. As far as China is concerned, translation has a history of more than two thousand years. However, the translation tools have rarely changed, and the translations are always been done by "translators". With the development of science and technology and the acceleration of globalization, there is an increasing need for translation, and "machine" translation has emerged. The advantages of high efficiency and low cost of machine translation make people think about whether machine translation will replace human translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of human translation====<br />
Human translation has both advantages and disadvantages. For example, human translation has the characteristics of flexibility, accuracy, high readability and humanization of language. At the same time, however, compared with machine translation, human translation is less efficient and easy to be influenced by translator's own cultural background and translation capacity so it is difficult to achieve rapid development. Before the advent of machine translation, all translation activities were done by human. Compared with machine translation, translators, as a bridge of cross-cultural communication, are more flexible. Translation itself is a complex activity. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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Professional translators who have certain cultural background knowledge can choose different translation methods and strategies according to the similarities and differences between the two languages and cultures, so it is more flexible and accurate. The flexibility of human language enables the translator to express the meaning of the original text in a more abundant language, and accurately handle the rhetorical devices in the original text. Therefore, the target text of human translation must be more readable than machine translation. Human translation has a long history, and people's research on translation has never stopped. Many excellent translators have emerged in the world and put forward various translation ideas and strategies. Translation has established a relatively mature and complete theory. With the rapid development of China's economy and the increasing number of foreign exchanges, the demand for translation is on the rise. At the same time, the time spend on translation needs to be shortened. Therefore, manual translation alone cannot meet the needs of the translation market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of machine translation====<br />
Machine translation refers to a language can be transferred into another language automatically with the help of machine. The idea of machine translation was firstly put forward by Weaver in his book Translation in 1949(Weaver, 1955). Since the end of the 20th century, the development of the Internet and computer technology has provided more optional software and engines for machine translation. At the same time, the corpus has become richer and more complete, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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The current machine translation is based on the "Neural Machine Translation" (NMT) model of artificial intelligence. Currently, the popular web page machine translations include Youdao Translation, Baidu Translation, Google Translation and so on. Google is currently in a leading position in both voice translation and text translation. Google Translation is a service provided by Google to translate texts and web pages, providing instant translation between more than 100 languages. It can provide translations of words, sentences and web pages between any two languages it supports. The more human translation documents that can be analyzed for a particular language, the higher the quality of the translation. In addition, Google's web page translation is fast, especially free to use, so it has a considerable number of users in translation activities, especially among students. Therefore, this paper will take Google Translation and Baidu Translation as an example to analyze the translation quality, which is representative in the market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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Generally speaking, machine translation has the characteristics of high efficiency, low cost, accuracy of terminology translation, and great development potential. Machine translation is fast and efficient, which is unmatched by human translation. Secondly, the price of machine translation is low, even free, which greatly reduces the economic cost and time cost for those who do not require high translation quality. In addition, compared to human translation, the huge corpus established by machine translation makes the translation of some terms, especially the latest scientific and technological terms, faster and more accurate. The accurate translation of these terms requires continuous learning by the translator, and learning requires a process, which has a certain test of the translator's learning ability and learning speed. At this point, human translation has uncertainty and lag. Finally, although the history of machine translation is short, it has achieved rapid development. With the advancement of science and technology and the development of society, the functions of machine translation will be more perfect and the quality of translation will be better. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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First of all, from a microscopic point of view, machine translation often has problems in the choice of word meaning, especially when there is one word with different meaning. It needs the translator to select the meaning based on the context, while machine translation cannot accurately choose the meaning of a word in combination with the context. What’s more, the word order of the translated sentence often does not conform to the word order and expression habits of the target language. From the aspect of tense, it is more accurate when translating English into Chinese, because words in English can directly change tense. However, there are sometimes problems such as no corresponding tenses when translating Chinese into English. From a macro point of view, machine translation does not have cultural sensitivity and is not accurate enough for the translation of some idioms and proverbs with strong cultural color. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.3 Relationship between machine translation and human translation====<br />
Machine translation is based on human translation, and the establishment of corpus that machine translation relies on needs human participation. When translating technical terms, machine translation corpus and parallel text can greatly reduce the time when find and determine proper equivalent terms. However, the establishment of these corpora needs to rely on well translated materials. The accuracy and usability of corpus are also affected by the quality of human translation. Therefore, they restrict and influence each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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There are more or less defects in the micro and macro aspects of machine translation. At the micro level, it mainly includes vocabulary, syntax, tense, and so on. However, at the macro level, it mainly includes text cohesion and cultural background. Therefore, human translation is essential. In addition, all machine translation inspection, modification, sorting and other work must also be carried out manually, so as to make the translation quality better and meet the requirements of communication. It can be seen that machine translation alone cannot meet the requirements of high quality translation. Translation activities cannot be separated from human participation. Therefore, with the development of machine translation, translation should be completed by both machine and human. The two are related, influenced with each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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===4. Case Study from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===<br />
A Tale of Two Cities is a long historical novel by British writer Charles Dickens, first published in 1859. The story is set in the French Revolution and has a touching plot. It is one of the world's literary classics. The twin cities refer to Paris and London. The story connects these two cities and tells the story of the Parisian doctor Manette. He was persecuted by the brothers of the Marquis St. Evremonde due to injustice and was detained in the Bastille prison for 18 years. After being released from prison, Mannette's daughter Lucie fell in love with the enemy's son Darney. Thus, in the whirlpool of the French Revolution, scenes of family grievances and hatred were staged grandly. Life and death, good and evil are blended in conflict and changed in an instant. On the guillotine, Carton calmly sacrificed his life for love. （Dickens 2016）<br />
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A Tale of Two Cities has a rigorous structure and condensed language. Dickens's profound thinking on revolution and humanity and his breathtaking writing talent are fully demonstrated. This paper selects the most representative classic sentences in the text for comparative analysis of translation, studies whether neural network machine translation software can accurately translate classic literary works, and explores whether neural network machine translation replaces manual translation in the context of artificial intelligence. The human translation was by Zhaolin Song. Among the many translation versions in China, Song’s translation was regarded as the version which closes to the source text most. (Feng Baoyin 2018, 232)<br />
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====4.1 Case Study from the perspective of Skopos Rule====<br />
In Vermeer’ opinion, the dominant rule for any translation should be the skopos rule, which means that a translation action is determined by its purposes. That is to say, the translation action should be in accordance with the target context and culture. The purposes of target text determine the translation strategies and methods used in translation process. A good translation should conform to the target culture and target audiences’ expectations. According to Nord, “Skopos of a particular translation task may require a ‘free’ or a ‘faithful’ translation, or anything between these two extremes, depending on the purpose for which the translation is needed”. Once the intended purposes are achieved, the translation will be considered as reasonable and proper. It is unnecessary for the translation to be equivalent to the source text. (Nord 1997, 102 )<br />
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Example 1: We were all going direct to heaven, we were all going direct the other way--in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
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Google translation: 我们都直接去天堂，我们都直接去天堂- -简而言之，这一时期与目前的时期如此遥远，以至于它的一些最吵闹的当局坚持以最高的比较程度来接受它是好是坏。<br />
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Baidu translation: 我们是所有的人都直接去天堂，我们都朝着另一个方向去——简而言之，这个时期和现在的时代非常相似，以至于一些最吵闹的权威坚持要接受它，不管是好是坏，只是在最高级的比较中。<br />
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Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 我们大家都在直升天堂，我们大家都在直下地狱——简而言之，那个时代和当今这个时代是如此相似，因而一些吵嚷不休的权威们也坚持认为，不管它是好是坏，都只能用“ 最……”来评价它。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 20)<br />
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Analysis: <br />
Since this is selected from a novel, the purpose of translation should be express the meaning and beauty of the source text. According to the Google translation, it made a mistake in translating "We were all going directly the other way". The translated meaning is totally different from the original. As to Baidu translation, it expressed the meaning of the original text, while the expression way will confuse the target text reader. In regards to human translation, the translator of this edition adopts the combination of literal translation and free translation. In this way, the translation not only clearly expresses the original meaning, but also takes into account the literariness of the work, so that readers can feel the characteristics of the times more vividly.<br />
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====4.2 Case study from the perspective of coherence rule====<br />
Coherence rule is also called “intra-textual coherence”, which means that the translation should be acceptable and understandable for the target audiences and be meaningful in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received. In other words, the target text should conform to the target receivers’ situation, including their given knowledge, background culture and specific circumstances. (Nord 1997, 120)<br />
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Example 2: Questions, questions, questions! (Charles Dickens 2016, 56)<br />
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Google Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
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Baidu Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
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Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 问题一个接一个地提出来！(Song Zhaolin 2005, 68)<br />
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Analysis: In this sentence, the original text uses three "questions" in a row to enhance the tone. However, Google and Baidu Translation directly translated it to "问题，问题，问题！". It sounds too blunt to read. The target text translated by Google and Baidu cannot reflect the meaning of the original text. What's more, it makes target readers hard to get meaning of the text. While the translator chose the free translation method to make the translation more natural and smooth. The translated text followed the coherence rule in the process of translation.<br />
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Example 3: But just because he had a powerful enemy---an enemy with the power to send him to prison and to keep him there, hidden and forgotten, for eighteen years. (Charles Dickens 2016, 102)<br />
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Google translation: 但是仅仅因为他有一个强大的敌人-一个有能力将他送进监狱并将其隐藏和遗忘在监狱里长达十八年的敌人。<br />
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Baidu translation:只是因为他有一个强大的敌人，一个有能力把他送进监狱，把他关在那里，隐藏起来，被遗忘18年。<br />
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Human translation(Song Zhaolin): 而只是因为他有一个强大的敌人-这个敌人拥有权势将他投进监狱，而且把他在那里与世隔绝、被人遗忘地关了18年。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 130)<br />
<br />
<br />
Analysis: In terms of grammar, English uses long sentences, which are connected by functional words, such as conjunctions, prepositions and relative words. The syntactic structure is relatively complex and it is a hypotactic language. Chinese is a paratactic language. In the process of E-C translation, we often use disassembly syntax to translate a long and complex English sentence into several short and simple Chinese short sentences. From Google Translation, it directly translated the structure of the original text. The target text created by Google translation doesn't conform to target language structure. While the translation of Baidu almost in accordance with the target language structure. As to the human translation, not only was the structure, but also the meaning was perfectly expressed.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Case study from the perspective of fidelity rule====<br />
Fidelity rule is also named by Vermeer as “intertextual coherence”, which puts emphasis on the relationship between the source text and target text. Based on Skopos theory, fidelity rule requires that the target text should be in accordance with the source text, which means the information contained in the source text should be exactly conveyed by the target text under the translators’ efforts. (Nord 1997, 140)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 1: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
<br />
Google Translation: 那是最美好的时光，那是最糟糕的时光，那是智慧的时代，那是愚昧的时代，那是信仰的时代，那是轻信的时代，那是光明的季节， 是黑暗的季节，是希望的春天，是绝望的冬天，我们眼前的一切，眼前的一切。<br />
<br />
Baidu Translation: 那是最好的时代，最坏的时代，智慧的时代，愚昧的时代，信仰的时代，不信的时代，光明的季节，黑暗的季节，希望的春天，绝望的冬天，我们面前什么都有，面前什么都没有。 <br />
<br />
Human Translation (Zhaolin Song): : 那是最美好的时代，那是最糟糕的时代；那是个睿智的年月，那是个蒙昧的年月；那是信心百倍的时期，那是疑虑重重的时期；那是阳光普照的季节，那是黑暗笼罩的季节；那是充满希望的春天，那是让人绝望的冬天；我们面前无所不有，我们面前一无所有。（Song Zhaolin 2005, 20）<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is the classic opening paragraph in "A Tale of Two Cities", and it can be said to be very popular. On the whole, because of the simple structure of this paragraph, the three machine-translated translations all accurately express the content of the original text, but one shortcoming is that it is difficult for machine translation to express the unique beauty of rhythm of the original text.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the translation of commonly used machine translation software and human translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, we can conclude that for the translation of literary works, machine translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text, even equal to manual translation if it is some simple sentence expression. However, the quality of machine translation needs to be improved some sentences with complex sentence patterns and difficult grammatical structures. Therefore, the translation of literary works by machine translation still has a long way to go.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
The main purpose of this paper is to find a better solution between machine translation and human translation under the guidance of the Skopos Theory for optimizing weaknesses of machine translation platforms, which not only generates solutions to errors, but also improves the quality of machine translation. <br />
<br />
Theoretically, this paper applies Skopos Theory to guide human translation and machine translation of literary texts. Machine translation can be regarded as a basis of human translation, while those errors caused by machine translation can be improved manually after the completion of machine translation. Meanwhile, human translation by employing appropriate translation methods and techniques, such as semantic conversion, amplification, omission and so on, human translation based on machine translation enormously solves errors of machine translation which further optimizes weaknesses of machine translation. Human translation process also becomes more efficient with the help of machine. <br />
As for machine translation, firstly, machine translation platforms can’t replace translators on account of its incomplete corpus and limitations in transferring the cultural meaning. Secondly, errors at lexical level caused by defects of machine translation are much more than that at syntactical level in F396P Aircraft Tow Tractor Maintenance Instruction. Lastly, machine translation platforms are restricted to contexts of language, situation and culture which lead to incorrect target text. <br />
<br />
In regard with human translation, from the perspective of Skopos theory, human translation is more understandable and readable to target readers than that of machine translation. It’s essential for the translator to know typical errors in machine translation, features of chose machine translation platforms and characteristics of source text, which could fascinate the efficiency of translation. All in all, machine translation platforms enhance the efficiency of translating large amount of material and human translation provides a solution for machine translation of poor quality. Machine translation and human translation are complement to each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2016). A Tale of Two Cities. Macmillian.<br />
<br />
* Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2011). 中国译学大辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China] 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
* Feng Baoyin冯宝茵 (2018). 从读者反应论对比两个《双城记》译本 [A comparative study of two versions of a tale of two cities from the perspective of reader response theory]. 北方文学, Northern Literature (36):232.<br />
<br />
* Hu Kaibao & Li Yi胡开宝 & 李翼. (2016). 机器翻译特征及其与人工翻译关系的研究. [Research on the characteristics of machine translation and its relationship with human translation] 中国翻译 Chinese Translation (05),10-14. <br />
<br />
* Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
<br />
* Mark Shuttleworth (2004). Dictionary of Translation Studies. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 75.<br />
<br />
* Munday, J. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application. London: Routeledge. 78.<br />
<br />
* Reiss, K & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
* Song Zhaolin宋兆霖 (2005). 双城记 A Tale of Two Cities 中国戏剧出版社, China Drama Press.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=116869History of Translation Studies 102020-12-20T15:23:17Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 5.Conclusion */</p>
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='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing 英语笔译 202070080581==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of original language and target language, but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, have not been covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. <br />
<br />
During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also made a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, one needs to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. <br />
<br />
The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures.Similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language.<br />
<br />
In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis.That is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, in which verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator is not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which is direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, translators are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word, which makes it even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence in form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with are going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, translators have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example,“Take care. Hope to see you soon.” is polite and emotional way to express our feelin .<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , translators have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, translators have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to translator's mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, translators can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, translators have to consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore,proper translation skills are needed to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes translators can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases they will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
It is obvious that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, translators can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or free translation based on functional equivalence. In daily life, Chinese people often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus the sentence will be translated into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, it can be seen that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, translators need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but trasnslators have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, translators need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, translators can figure out exactly his characteristics and reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. Translators will find different types of texts in the process of translation and must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.<br />
<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. <br />
<br />
According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, can the translation be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654 法语语言文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
The success of Hao Jingfang's science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", which won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016, could not have been achieved without the rigorous translation work of Ken Liu. The translation of this novel takes the response of the readers of the translated text as the starting point, preserving the meaning and style of the novel while effectively conveying Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of functional equivalence theory that "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". Nida's functional equivalence theory, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has had a profound influence on the translation studies of various literary genres in China. This paper examines the English translation of "Folding Beijing", analyzes Ken Liu's use of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory in his translation, and shows the value of functional equivalence theory for the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", the future Beijing is overpopulated. To solve this crisis, it is transformed into a hierarchical Folding City. The Folding City is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours. The first space is occupied by the upper class of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; the second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; and the third space is occupied by the lower class, who have only eight hours of night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants to send his daughter to a good school, and in order to earn money, he ventures into the first, second and third spaces to deliver letters to others. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and many Chinese native words. The cultural differences between China and the West due to regional factors and customs are a major challenge for translation. The translator must not only consider the reader's understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local color in the work is not removed. The theory of functional equivalence suggests that translation should not be confined to form, and the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text in order to achieve equivalence of content and information.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory has had a profound impact on China and has brought translators new and effective methods of translation guidance. We can see that Ken Liu is also trying to achieve balance and harmony between the translation and the original text when he translates science fiction novels. This paper analyzes the English translation of "Folding Beijing" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory and explores how translators achieve the closest equivalence to the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:11）<br />
<br />
===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, explained dynamic equivalence translation in his influential book,''Toward a Science of Translating''. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, focusing on the equivalence of the reader's response, not just the equivalence of content and form.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
In "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defines dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translated reader's reaction to the translation should be the same as the original reader's reaction.（Nida,2004:24）<br />
<br />
Because dynamic equivalence was controversial in some respects, Nida replaced it with a more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment required to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. Since a functionally equivalent translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language message, the translator's achievement of functional equivalence follows three principles.In his book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did".(Nida 1993:118)<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the response of the reader of the recipient language, and(3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defines the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory,namely from the form and content of the message to the reader's response. It differs from traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the readers of the original text, it can be regarded as functional equivalence of the target language. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s reaction to the translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida and Taber point out that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning will be discussed in this chapter at three levels: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these are the three levels of detailed analysis of lexicon, syntax, and discourse. According to the theory of functional equivalence, translation is not only about word-for-word equivalence, but also about discovering the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in translation of ''Folding Beijing'' from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.(Nida,2004:12)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:（Din Juan,2011:22）<br />
<br />
In literary translation, it is always a challenge to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, and they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is the most appropriate. In the English translation of Beijing Folding, there are many examples of how the translation can achieve functional equivalence with the original at the lexical level, as follows: (Ding Juan, 2011:22)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
<br />
"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）<br />
<br />
"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", In this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention and conveys what appears to be a bad temper. --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）<br />
<br />
"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to show the original meaning.<br />
<br />
The author did not literally translate “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is owing to the translator's own understanding of the text, he hopes readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to convey the original meaning.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
<br />
Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
Syntax, as a rule, refers to the study of how to construct sentences correctly with the words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the readers. Translators should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.（Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
The differences between English and Chinese grammar are mainly reflected in three aspects. First, the use of conjunctions and relational words in English is very frequent. Secondly, English speakers focus on object consciousness and are accustomed to the order from small to large objects and from specific to general; in Chinese texts, there is usually a chronological order of time, space or cause and effect. Finally, English usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while Chinese tends to process information from the stale to the fresh in order to impress (Ding Juan, 2011: 24).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original, we must not only translate the meaning of the words, but also translate the syntactic structure into the appropriate form. The following are examples of how the English translation of Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence with the original at the syntactic level:（Din Juan,2011:24）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
" 现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。'他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。'他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’" （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）<br />
<br />
"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this passage, the translator clearly adjusted the word order, pushing what the same person said before the pause to the next sentence to fit the logic of the English reader." Selection should also be liberalized" ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the reader, so the reader adds to this sentence and translates it as "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", the translator perfectly explains the meaning of "放开".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015) <br />
<br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like "…childhood that…".<br />
<br />
In this passage, the text emphasizes "the past" twice. To achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order by placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences instead of using subordinate clause like"... childhood that...".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, such as "as if", "from where", "that", etc. This is because the syntax of the two languages is different.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.(Din Juan,2011:27）<br />
<br />
Nida argues that readers may have difficulty accepting an approximate formal translation due to the intricacies of the discourse structure and the preconceived knowledge of the original content. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a "rewriting" approach to make the translation acceptable to the reader. In literary translation, the translator must pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be comparable to the original text in terms of discourse level. A dialogue from Folding Beijing and its English translation is selected below as an example of literary translation achieving functional equivalence at the discourse level:(Ding Juan,2011:27)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself." <br />
<br />
Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
<br />
"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.<br />
<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
<br />
Conversational conventions in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made in translation. The form of the dialogue is not exactly translated from Chinese, but the understanding of the text is the same for the readers. For example, "夹了新上来的热菜" is translated as "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", and the translator changes the action to "spoon", which is more in line with Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as the girl in the first space to spoon the dish to the old knife."推给老刀" is translated as "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", which adds some actions to make it more vivid.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
<br />
Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Each writer has his or her own writing style, which no one can imitate perfectly. In other words, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows linguistic characteristics, and the English translation shows the translator's attempt to achieve functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
<br />
First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form, the counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vibrant scenes, and enhance the effectiveness of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to "深渊", and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalent.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated, only translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
<br />
It is a metaphorical sentence and words like "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated. They are translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
<br />
"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks and arms", and "like the humblest servants", the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
<br />
This paragraph has a personification that "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks, and arms" and are "like the humblest of servants," and the use of rhetoric allows people to imagine the folding diagram of the city through the image of a person. By comparing the buildings to a herd of beasts, it shows its scale and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)<br />
<br />
"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
<br />
In this sentence, "怪胎" is translated as "monster" and "born" conveys the same meaning, so the translator did not have any trouble.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
<br />
Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.（Din Juan,2011:33）<br />
<br />
The dialect reflects the local characteristics and is the author's own writing style. Sometimes this is a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator deals with this problem. (Dingjuan, 2011:33)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the use of either rhetoric or dialect in literary works fully reflects the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, translators should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the way of expressing stylistic differences and find out the best way to compensate for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve the maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:47）<br />
<br />
Cultural differences between two languages are also issues that translators should be aware of in the translation process. People who are exposed to different cultures have different ways of thinking, values, social customs, etc. Translators need to understand both cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this point, translation plays a role in intercultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the reader so that the translation achieves cultural equivalence with the original text. This chapter will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of food culture, folk culture, and idiom culture to show how it achieves functional equivalence with the original text. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:47)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
<br />
The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.（Din Juan,2011:39）<br />
<br />
The city described in Folding Beijing is the political and cultural center of China, a city with deep cultural accumulation. In the novel, there are many elements belonging to traditional Chinese food culture. This part will analyze how the translator managed to translate these cuisines into a successful counterpart.（Din Juan,2011:39）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"炒面"is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
<br />
"炒面" is a famous traditional Chinese snack. Translators translate it as "chow mein" instead of "Chinese chow mein". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means Chinese-style fried noodles with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also gives the reader a more intuitive idea of what the dish is.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)<br />
<br />
"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, "白酒" is translated into "baijiu" , the translator doesn't use the word like "spirits", it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
<br />
Here, foreignization method is used, and "白酒" is translated as "baijiu". The translator does not use words like "spirits", which retains Chinese cultural characteristics and achieves a communicative effect at the same time.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）<br />
<br />
The characteristic of this dish is that it is first boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator has captured this feature in his translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", which is made with pork, and he hopes that readers of the English translation will see the image of this dish in their minds, just like the Chinese do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique lifestyles, customs, behavior patterns, etc. in terms of vocabulary. The following will analyze the functional equivalence of translation in folk culture. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:52).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he uses the word "shared" and he adds the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where friends and relatives share several dishes among themselves. The purpose of the passage is to show the boy's poverty. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, where Westerners behave differently, so he uses the word "sharing" and adds the word "family style" to make it easier for the reader to understand this behavior.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)<br />
<br />
"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is one of the major characteristics of Chinese culture. People from the same hometown share similar living habits, upbringing and cultural background, so even strangers can get acquainted quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao are from the third dimension, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective." 管事儿" means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word to make it easy for readers to understand.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. "心意" means money, which is an euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In translation, the translator also considered an euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word "appreciation".<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan says that she hopes Lao Dao will help her keep her secret, so she wants to use money to give Lao Dao." 心意" means money, which is a Chinese euphemism when it is not convenient to give money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered it a euphemism, so the word "appreciation" was used.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the vast and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people use these idioms in their daily life and writing, but some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and it is important to pay attention to the differences between the two cultures when translating them.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", the translator translated it into "ate heartily", although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
The author uses many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", which the translator translates as "to eat in a heartbeat". Although the translation is easy to understand, without the image of a person eating very hungry, it seems that English readers cannot achieve the same understanding and reaction as Chinese readers from the perspective of functional equivalence.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And "（盘子）一片狼藉"translated into "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" translated into "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
<br />
And "(盘子)一片狼藉" is translated as "the plate is a mess", which is a description of a messy situation on the plate. And "the beauty of adulthood" is translated as "in that case, I am doing a good deed by keeping quiet", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe how Lao Dao felt that he kept the secret that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might be together in the future. The translator translated the phrase abstractly into the English translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）<br />
<br />
The English translation of Folding Beijing is analyzed from three aspects of meaning, style, and culture using this paper's functional equivalence theory, and it is concluded that the English translation meets the English readers' understanding of the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and reciprocal Chinese translation of Folding Beijing for English readers. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:56)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyze from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Folding Beijing" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western cultures, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functionally equivalent translation. Analyzing the English version of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture, we can see that linguistically, although Chinese and English are very different in logic and grammar, and there are many differences between Chinese and Western cultures, the translator still tries to keep the original content and find more suitable words in the translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）<br />
<br />
In some specific contents, the translators do not translate into exactly the same form, which is also in line with Nida's theory of functional equivalence, because Nida also suggests that translation should not be limited to form, and the translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's functional equivalence theory does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction novels, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang.(2015).Folding Beijing[J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang郝景芳.(2016).孤独深处[The Depth of Loneliness].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社[Nanjing:Jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing,LTD]：1-40<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(1993)Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：118<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(2001)Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A. & Taber.(2004) Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：12-24<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999).新编奈达论翻译[A new version of Nida's theory on translation].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation]<br />
<br />
Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009).翻译学概论[Introduction to translatology].南京：译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press]<br />
<br />
Zhao Dandan赵丹丹.(2011).浅论奈达的功能对等理论[Nida's theory of functional equivalence].湖北：文学教育[Hubei:Literature Education]<br />
<br />
Zhou Xingyang周兴阳.(2018).从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[Chinese Science Fiction Translation in the Perspective of Functional Equivalence-A case Study of Beijing Zhe Die and its English Version-Folding Beijing].新疆大学[Xinjiang University]<br />
<br />
Wang Guiyuan王桂圆.(2018)系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[A Study on The Translation of Folding Beijing from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics].安徽：海外英语[Anhui：Overseas English]<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
<center>余妮 Yu Ni No.202070080620</center><br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s version has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. <br />
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“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
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Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
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The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) which was co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable, for it has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. With the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
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The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The following chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author makes a conclusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.<br />
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In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, according to the nature of translation. He pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).<br />
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The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, we should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural reaction of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
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Firstly, we should create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully displays the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture concepts cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost not much snow in southern China all year round. Therefore, based on their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabularies. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Re-creation” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).<br />
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Oscar Wilde, born in Dublin, Ireland, is a “born for art” writer. He was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In this play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies, revealing the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)<br />
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Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared to previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
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Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections. Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
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He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was first published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, his translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest—Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. <br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.<br />
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“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but in different meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)<br />
<br />
It not only facilitated the needs of the audience but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience would be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
<br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same. <br />
<br />
In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language remain the same.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.<br />
<br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
<br />
“There are many allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
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(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
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(1) ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. <br />
<br />
(2) CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack. Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can still benefit from them. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’ s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).<br />
<br />
An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012). <br />
<br />
Paradox is a device favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed. Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
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(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. <br />
<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect. In example 4, what amused the audience was the conclusion contrary to the reasons.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With it, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the readers will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Antithesis======<br />
<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. <br />
<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators. Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty. Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than the source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in the target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.<br />
<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we may have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is the most popular one among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is the variety of rhetorical devices. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, too. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019). <br />
<br />
<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we can have a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”. In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce better translation. Even though we can gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
<br />
Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
<br />
Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
<br />
Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
<br />
Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
<br />
Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
<br />
Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen 202020080603== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
With the development of economic globalization,exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand.The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice. Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
<br />
===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. <br />
<br />
The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)<br />
<br />
The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicit, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)<br />
<br />
The first is the implied meaning(implictit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is explicit, which the speaker actually says content.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. <br />
<br />
Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understanding:the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
<br />
understanding: the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and though contend to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. --[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)<br />
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===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)<br />
<br />
Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
<br />
===2. Literary Review===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. <br />
<br />
At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
<br />
Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===<br />
<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
<br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
<br />
On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
<br />
===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
<br />
===3.1 Free Translation===<br />
<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
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===3.2 Addition of Message===<br />
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Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
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===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===<br />
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As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
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The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)<br />
<br />
The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
<br />
*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-166.<br />
<br />
*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
<br />
*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
<br />
*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.<br />
<br />
* Mao Yueyue, Liu Fan. 毛新月, 刘帆. (2018). 释意理论指导下的会议口译中四字词语的翻译——以习近平总书记十九届中共中央政治局常委同中外记者见面会讲话为例. [Translation of four-letter words in conference interpretation under the guidance of interpretation theory - taking the speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the meeting between the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the 19th CPC Central Committee and Chinese and foreign journalists as an example]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](12): 230-231.<br />
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* Ouyang Changyi. 欧阳长怡. (2010). 论释意理论指导下的记者招待会口译策略及释意训练. [On Interpretation Strategies and Interpretation Training of Press Conference under the Guidance of Interpretation Theory]. 福建省外国语文学会.福建省外国语文学会2010年年会论文集. [Fujian Foreign Language Society. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference of Fujian Foreign Language Society]. 福建省外国语文学会: 福建省外国语文学会[Fujian Foreign Language Society: Fujian Foreign Language Society]<br />
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* Xiong Wen. 熊雯. (2014). 释意理论视阙下的口译过程研究. [A study of interpretation process under the view of interpretation theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](24): 154-155.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe. 张杨,李灵哲. (2018). 释意理论指导下的翻译语义策略运用. [The use of translation semantic strategies under the guidance of interpretation theory]. ''佳木斯职业学院学报'' [Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10): 334-336.<br />
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='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
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<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
The “article” would better to be “paper” The “problem” would better to be “ disputation” or “controversy”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 09:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being.<br />
Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time, until they entered China along trade routes from Central Asia in the first century AD.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
Chnese—Chinese please keep your tense consistency. There should be some conjunctions to make it more logical.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
adhere strictly to — strictly adhere to; the form similarity— the similarity in form--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
three period —three periods. Please keep your tense consistency. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
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it was not so widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier that it is of great …into Chinese, hence translators of Buddhist scriptures Constantly emerge. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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He translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures in total. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
“Transliteration” “ the same as”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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Please keep the tense consistency. “while ignoring”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures.<br />
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“mainstream” —“dominant”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
<br />
“then can only…”—“they” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
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=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
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Buddhism believer is not “only”limited to--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
Please keep your tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The principle of “Five Losses…” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
“by private”—“privately”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. <br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25).<br />
India— Indian--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness.<br />
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Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
“arrived”—“reached” “under his efforts”—“with his efforts” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
There is some overlaps “at the beginning” and “at the early days”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
metaphysics— and metaphysics--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
There are many commas without conjunctions.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
The words with mystery? Can it be the words with the sense of mystery?--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
but also has — but also had --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
The —the translation workshop system please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
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=== References ===<br />
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223<br />
<br />
Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308<br />
<br />
Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.<br />
<br />
Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University <br />
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Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.<br />
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Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.<br />
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Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70. <br />
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Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press<br />
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Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.<br />
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WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
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He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
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Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
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Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
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==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi ==<br />
<center>成于思 Cheng Yusi No.202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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André Lefevere; ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook''; Liu Miqing; ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''; “cultural turn”; John Dryden; translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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安德烈·勒菲弗尔;《翻译，历史和文化论集》; 刘宓庆;《中西翻译思想对比研究》;文化转向;约翰·德莱登;翻译原则<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. Dryden's comparison of a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
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===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
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''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies. <br />
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In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii) <br />
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Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)<br />
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If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.<br />
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The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements, which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)<br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it brings those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others. <br />
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I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47) <br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "an author and a translator" to "a master and a slave" through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.(Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)<br />
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Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
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Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracts an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)<br />
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In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102) <br />
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Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating poems in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103) <br />
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As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Dryden proposes a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)<br />
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It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. <br />
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Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compares a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)<br />
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Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars, like Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014) <br />
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A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works were with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)<br />
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Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73) <br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)<br />
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===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
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In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2) <br />
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In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. <br />
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Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
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The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33) <br />
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He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)<br />
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Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)<br />
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Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179) <br />
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The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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However, he also recognizes that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School and New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented", and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories which can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current superficial, assertive and rational views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)<br />
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The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)<br />
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Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)<br />
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Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulated that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)<br />
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Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987) <br />
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In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation principles that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the feature of the tradition of Chinese translation changes from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)<br />
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As such, the flourishing of translation is bound to be our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) <br />
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The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51) <br />
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The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
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The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)<br />
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Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem.(Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate Chinese poems, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility, it expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
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Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
<br />
Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argues that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provides a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)<br />
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===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
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===4.1 From the aspect of the content===<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
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===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===<br />
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Both of these two books are arranged in theme rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters, which are concerned with the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. As to the longer essays, they are collected in the last chapter. <br />
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Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includs the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps readers understanding translation principles.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have better understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of a translator to a slave. Then, it figures out the reasons of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
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Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
===关键词===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
===Introuction===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.<br />
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Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
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Ancient Translation Period<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（quotation missing）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
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A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（paragraph too long）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: <br />
<br />
(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. ) <br />
<br />
Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. <br />
<br />
The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)<br />
<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.<br />
<br />
Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. <br />
<br />
The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. <br />
<br />
These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. <br />
<br />
Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. <br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. <br />
<br />
The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. <br />
<br />
Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)<br />
<br />
===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)<br />
<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. <br />
<br />
The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. <br />
<br />
Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. <br />
<br />
This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).<br />
<br />
The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. <br />
<br />
The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
===Trends in Translation Theory Research===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. <br />
<br />
In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980.<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
<br />
[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
<br />
Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
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1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 2<br />
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云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
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Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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<br />
Example 3<br />
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花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just in the south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 4 <br />
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Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
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With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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Example 7<br />
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番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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Example 10<br />
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Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
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Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 11<br />
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我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 12<br />
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“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 13<br />
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耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 14<br />
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“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
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"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 15<br />
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我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
===''' References '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==<br />
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center><br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence on the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation was regarded as a linguistic phenomena before. But later, with the development of the translation theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science, especially linguistics, can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
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This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
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==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology at home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
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'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
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In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recording two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)<br />
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Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)<br />
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J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and regarded seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure. (J.A Catford , 1965)<br />
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Holmes published The Name and Nature of Translation Studies at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation, which directly promoted the construction of translation studies. ( James Holmes,1975)<br />
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In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from several aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing the translation practice. (Wolfram Wilss, 1982)<br />
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Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is Discourse and the Translator (1990), which is the first book to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers. (Hatim & Mason,1990 )<br />
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Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believed that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
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Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies. (Mona Baker, 2006) <br />
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'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
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In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were using correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books would be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe. (Dong Qiusi, 1951)<br />
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In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the viewpoint that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
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In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published On Approaches to Translation Studies. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' the awareness of the subject of translation studies. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
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In the thesis An Overview of Western Translation Theory (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, translatology could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
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In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
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In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)<br />
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At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. ( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)<br />
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Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）<br />
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Subsequently, Lv published Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new perspective for the study of the construction of translation studies and promoted the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)<br />
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Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)<br />
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Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the development of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies. (Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
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Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012) <br />
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Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)<br />
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Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple approaches of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation. (Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020)<br />
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In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rising of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precedes translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. (Wang Yin,2017)<br />
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Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western translation studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward west, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation. (Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)<br />
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Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)<br />
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Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies of the researches. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)<br />
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From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the awareness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
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==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
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In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies. <br />
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'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
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"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often be confused. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definitions of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
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In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is also used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the rules of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995） <br />
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Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic, literature, philosophy etc. ( Kong Xiangli,2009)<br />
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'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
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Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline and to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)<br />
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'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
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Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translator appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei etc. (Yi Jing,2009)<br />
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The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated texts. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
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'''3.2.2 The awareness of an independent discipline'''<br />
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Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of an independent discipline and proposed a classification of the research field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a merely a technical activity. (Tan Zaixi, 1987 )<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared the independence of translation in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, many famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
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'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
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Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies have shown a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018) <br />
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Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its research field, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
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==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation by early linguists; second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists began to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology were linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
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Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 ) <br />
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Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their researches inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, their contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, systematic-functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists took Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regarded linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the assistance of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts that are "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has exerted a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural context of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the development of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics theory. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 <br />
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The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and materials for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool and new research perspectives for translation studies and provides great convenience for translation studies. ( Liao Qiyi，2000)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The publication of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is quite similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, publishing cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good example. (Yang Zijian,1993)<br />
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From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study. Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be learned from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together. In the process of development, linguistics has absorbed the experience of many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., formed many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
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Linguistics has gone through several stages of development, and it has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics provided experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators should only take other disciplines for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely. ( (Liu Miqing, 1989))<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
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Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
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Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
<br />
Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
<br />
Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析翻译学科学习目前存在的问题，并提出相应的建议。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''=== <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
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Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies", is a basic statement of translation studies，which calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) <br />
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Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, such as comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)<br />
<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation studies can examine the practices and context of translating texts that are specialist (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these knowledge enables students to apply their understanding of theories to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually includes the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills that are necessary elements solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. With the requirement of effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures in today's multicultural and multilingual society, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
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As a science, Translation Studies always has its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. <br />
<br />
Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can have a good understanding about the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. It is necessary for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
Translation activities appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, and the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
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In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. <br />
<br />
The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared on the scene.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have been single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, as well as translation criticism, translation publishing, and translation management, etc.<br />
<br />
At that time, because a large number of people who master foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to improve foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under Foreign Language and Literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
<br />
2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, translation studies explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. <br />
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At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the team to construct translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation in succession. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of “China Translator" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)<br />
<br />
Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge. Translation research ideas, methods, field and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)<br />
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2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
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In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) <br />
<br />
In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Translation studies have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.<br />
<br />
There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers should help students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments that required by the language service market. Teachers can invite industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
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==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. Translation discipline in China has entered a new stage now, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
<br />
3.1. Translation Education <br />
<br />
With the establishment of the autonomy of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the cultivation of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018）<br />
<br />
However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, so it is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction history of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, so systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to bluring and confusing educational goal of translation major. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation major teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them are lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
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3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
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The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. <br />
<br />
The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data shows that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
<br />
In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)<br />
<br />
3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
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Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018) <br />
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This kinds of teaching method that is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model ignore student autonomy, which will pay too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
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3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
<br />
The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is inconsiderable.（Ou Yonghua 2019）<br />
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Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, according to the actual situation of translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but do not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)<br />
<br />
3.2. Students<br />
<br />
The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, so it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
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Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. <br />
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Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
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As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
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3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
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Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not gain sufficient background information.<br />
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With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015) <br />
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3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
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At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless to some extent or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
<br />
==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved over time. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote Translation Studies in China.<br />
<br />
4.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
Translation education plays an important role in cultivating translation talents, and a good translation education system will provide a good environment for students to learn Translation Studies, so it is necessary to improve translation education system.<br />
<br />
4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
<br />
The teaching model is an important guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to innovate. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
<br />
The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching,which attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. It is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
<br />
4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
<br />
Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. <br />
<br />
Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019）<br />
<br />
Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
<br />
Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and to reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of landmark for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)<br />
<br />
The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
<br />
4.2. Students <br />
<br />
Translation talents play a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
<br />
4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future.Not only should they have a solid foundation in language ability, but also they should take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
<br />
A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students are urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
<br />
Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics and the skills and theories of translation，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. <br />
<br />
Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can take part in many social activities to experience different aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the objection of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Therefore, translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and professional knowledge. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. <br />
<br />
From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies are still not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, learn from the latest foreign translation theories, and combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 15:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
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Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
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Chen Cheng.陈诚. (2020).高校英语翻译课程教学现状及改革研究.[ Research on the Teaching Status and Reform of College English Translation Course].淮南职业技术学院学报[''Journal of Huainan Vocational &Technology''] 97-98.<br />
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Chu Xizhi.褚喜之(2009).翻译理论在翻译教学中的重要性.[The Importance of Translation Theory in Translation Teaching].经济研究导刊[''Economic Research Guide'']237-238.<br />
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Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
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Huang Youyi.黄友义.(2018).服务改革开放40年,翻译实践与翻译教育迎来转型发展的新时代.[Servicing Reform and Opening for 40 Years, Translation Practice and Translation Education Usher in a New Era of Transformation and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']5-8.<br />
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Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
<br />
Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
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Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
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Linlin.林琳.(2016).英语文学翻译学习现状及改善措施.[ The Status Quo and Improvement Measures of English Literature Translation Learning].西部素质教育[''Western China Quality Education''] 65.<br />
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Luo Feng.罗峰.(2011).从翻译学学科建设看翻译学在中国的发展.[On the Development of Translation Studies As A Discipline in China].琼州学院学报[''Journal of Qiongzhou University]''115-116.<br />
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Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
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Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
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Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
<br />
Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei. 许钧, 穆雷.(2009).中国翻译学研究30年 (1978 -2007).[30 years of Chinese Translation Studies (1978 -2007)].外国语[''Journal of Foreign Languages'']77-87.<br />
<br />
Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
<br />
Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan== <br />
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center><br />
<br />
<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
译者文化身份对翻译的影响<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translating a work is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important active role in both translating the content and interpreting it, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.<br />
<br />
Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)<br />
<br />
There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.<br />
<br />
=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===<br />
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.<br />
<br />
Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.<br />
<br />
(While your first quote here may be intended to explain to the reader where the concept of cultural identity came from, I suggest you explain the meaning of the concept proposed by the cited author.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)<br />
<br />
====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====<br />
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.<br />
<br />
In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.<br />
<br />
Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on naturalization strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.<br />
<br />
（Be clear about what exactly domestication or foreignization in your text means and who defines it. Use word “domestication” instead of “naturalization”in general.）--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====<br />
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.<br />
<br />
However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." <br />
<br />
However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12) <br />
<br />
We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese literary world. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.<br />
<br />
We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.<br />
(Here you used foreignization ,but above the paper,you use alienation,The specific concepts of context should be unified.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The cultural identity of translators in translation===<br />
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.<br />
(Here world literature is not very accurate, maybe you can say world translation)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====In terms of the original intention of translation====<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao himself said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much and so only that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's love for Shakespeare is so strong that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading Shakespeare, not eating it. <br />
<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believes that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius is to appreciate literature, the general public to read are popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "the highest art only a few people can understand ......, literature and art is not the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Byrd Byrd, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)<br />
(Here maybe you want to say Irving Babbitt not Byrd, plz check it again)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "My aim in translating this book is, first, to maintain the charm of the original work to the greatest extent possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey faithfully the meaning and feelings of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha plays more attention to the performance function of drama.<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)<br />
<br />
EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，<br />
伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，<br />
<br />
This man hath my consent to marry her．<br />
是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的<br />
<br />
Stand forth，Lysander．<br />
走上前来，拉山德。<br />
<br />
And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）<br />
殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子 （朱生豪. 2013：9）<br />
<br />
In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work. <br />
For example, his translation. <br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)<br />
<br />
拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!<br />
否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.<br />
<br />
First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:<br />
<br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)<br />
<br />
Translation of Liang Shiqiu:<br />
<br />
赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，<br />
<br />
否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。<br />
<br />
HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool: <br />
<br />
And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)<br />
<br />
海 上学时她就是个狐狸精。<br />
<br />
她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。<br />
<br />
Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966) <br />
Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature. <br />
<br />
For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.<br />
<br />
Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,<br />
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;<br />
There with fantastic garlands did she come,<br />
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,<br />
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.<br />
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:<br />
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds<br />
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,<br />
When down her weedy trophies and herself<br />
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;<br />
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;<br />
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one<br />
incapable of her own distress,<br />
Or like a creature native and indu’d<br />
Unto that element: but long it could not be<br />
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,<br />
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay<br />
To muddy death.<br />
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）<br />
<br />
The translation of Liang Shiqiu：<br />
(You can say Liang’s version :)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。 就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。 她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works. <br />
<br />
For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion. <br />
<br />
By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Fu Wenhui付文慧．多重文化身份下之戴乃迭英译阐释［The Interpretation of Dai Naidian's English Translation under Multiple Cultural Identities］中国翻译[ Chinese Translation]，2011，32(6):16—20．<br />
<br />
Yan Xiaojiang严晓江． 梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.<br />
<br />
Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.<br />
<br />
Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128.. <br />
<br />
Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.<br />
<br />
Wu Delu.吴得禄.译者文化身份对翻译的影响[The influence of translators' cultural identity on translation].读书文摘[Reading Digest].2016(08):211.<br />
<br />
Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．<br />
<br />
Liu Shuang刘双．文化身份与跨文化传播[Cultural identity and cross-cultural communication]外语学刊[Journal of Foreign Languages]，2000(1):87—91．<br />
<br />
Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪.译者自序[Translator's Preface].文学界(专辑版)[Literature (album edition)].2010(09):36.<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚 四大喜剧 梁实秋译[The Four Great Comedies translated by Liang Shiqiu].北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press].2001<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚． 仲夏夜之梦 朱生豪译．[A Midsummer Night's Dream translated by Zhu Shenghao].上海:上海世界图书出版公司 [Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company],2013．<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋 文学与革命.偏见集[Literature and Revolution. The collection of prejudices].南京:正中书局[Nanjing: Zhengzhong Shuji].中华民国二十三年七月.<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Toury's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Toury and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Toury also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Toury proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Toury describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Toury's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Toury concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Toury believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Toury is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Toury has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Toury emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Toury's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Toury's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Li Hongman 李红满. (2002). 论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J]. [On the Paradigm Shift in Contemporary Western Translation Studies]. 外语与翻译. [Foreign Languages and Translations]. <br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang 张美芳. (2000). 翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J]. [The Objectives and Structure of Translation Studies - A Review of Holmes' Vision of Translation Studies]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Toury Gideon. (2001). ''Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond''[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J]. [Translation Studies: From Specification to Description]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1996). A Skopos Theory of Translation[M]. Heidellburg:TEXT-con.<br />
<br />
Venuti Lawrence. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge.<br />
<br />
Snell-Homby Mary. (1995). Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M]. Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Hemans Theo (1985). ed.The manipulation of Literature[M]. London&Sydney:Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman, Liu Fang 韩子满, 刘芳. （2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J]. [Describe the achievements and shortcomings of translation studies]. 外语学刊. [Journal of Foreign Languages].<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M]. [New Horizons in Translation Studies]. 青岛:青岛出版社. [Qingdao:Qingdao Publishing House].<br />
<br />
==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==<br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655</center><br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655 亚非语言文学</center>--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract:=== <br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and deeply understand the status of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and helps the readers to understand deeply the status of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。<br />
<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，并深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.<br />
<br />
===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities of translation, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives have contributed to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of tranlation experience. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the translation study has became more systematic. Some researchers regard translation study as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered as "misleading reader" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements on translation theories varied all the time. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation activities. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 John MacFarlane====<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the Durhram University Journal. In his thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation, just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that there are often different reading methods when reading the same work even at the same time.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translated version. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something that it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic. Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention translation field at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Firth====<br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) <br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and this concept has produced the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context. Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 James Holmes====<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54） <br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. <br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship among descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text. Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out. After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches." Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, you have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. Taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to "a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Polysystem Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundary between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Gideon Toury<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations who are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, thus makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published in his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description. From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. <br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)<br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications, which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have been often taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.6 Snell-Hornby<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. <br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined，presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)<br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types. Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97) <br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：<br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts. <br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited by the study of equivalence between texts. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation". In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion (translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) <br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "a wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)'' with Li Yeguang and others' translations, and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56) This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) <br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect yet. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36) <br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury believes clearly that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6) In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Conclusion=== <br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.<br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short. There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro-analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Reference===<br />
Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.<br />
<br />
J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.<br />
<br />
Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Snell-Hornby.(1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman 韩子满，Liu Fang 刘芳（2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001).翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive <br />
to the Descriptive Approach].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).<br />
<br />
Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]<br />
<br />
Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰.(2002).多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).<br />
<br />
==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies== <br />
<br />
Translation Strategies <br />
<br />
===Abstract === <br />
<br />
Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.<br />
<br />
Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.<br />
<br />
This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers define them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical significance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)<br />
<br />
===Content===<br />
<br />
Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classifications from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classification is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classifications. It seems that clear-cut definitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype definitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)<br />
<br />
The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reflect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reflects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)<br />
<br />
The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp fiction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)<br />
<br />
Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the definitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few defining characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difficulty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).<br />
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or specific) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “specific activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle specific problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by specific techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classified by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
<br />
As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural filtering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
However, this is not consonant with the dictionary definitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is defined as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) defines translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will influence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identified the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identification, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal significant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can find out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) ==<br />
<br />
Darwish (2008) identifies four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70<br />
<br />
<br />
However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might influence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difficulty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Laffling(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.<br />
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== The Comparison of Machine Translation and Human Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory---A Case Study of E-C Translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example - 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan 202020080630==<br />
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<center>欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Abstract (delete "Abstract here"):With the rapid development of globalization and (add "the" here) Internet, international communication is expanding, and a lot of information needs to be translated. Due to the low efficiency of human translation, machine translation is indispensable in (delete "in") today. However, due to the limitations of machine translation, the quality of machine translation is still worrying. Therefore, from the perspective of Skopos theory, this paper takes the E-C translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example to analyze the machine translation of Google translation and Baidu translation, and compare it with the translation of Song Zhaolin, so as to explore the characteristics of machine translation and human translation, try to discuss the irreplaceable nature of human translation, and discuss how to combine machine translation with human translation to improve the quality and efficiency of translation. This paper is divided into five parts: the first part introduces the background of the current translation environment; the second part introduces Skopos Theory and discusses the feasibility of Skopos Theory in analyzing machine translation and human translation; the third part introduces the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation and human translation, and discusses the relationship between them; the fourth part is a case study to see machine translation from the perspective of Skopos theory Compared with manual translation, it is concluded that machine translation and manual translation must be combined to improve the efficiency and quality of translation. The fifth part is a summary to (change "to" into "of") this paper.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaoliu<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Skopos Theory, machine translation, human translation<br />
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===题目===<br />
目的论视角下机器翻译和人工翻译的对比---以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着全球化和互联网的迅速发展，国际的交流日益扩大，大量信息需要翻译。由于人工翻译效率低下，在越来越强调效率和质量的今天，机器翻译必不可少。然而，由于机器翻译的局限性，机器翻译的质量仍然堪忧。因此,本文以目的论视角, 以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例，分析谷歌翻译和百度翻译的机器译文, 与宋兆霖版本的中文译本对比，由此探析机器翻译与人工翻译的特点,尝试论述人工翻译的不可替代性, 并讨论如何将机器翻译与人工翻译结合提高翻译的质量和效率。本文分为五个部分，第一部分对当前翻译环境背景的介绍；第二部分对目的论进行简介，并讨论目的论用于分析机器翻译和人工翻译的可行性；第三部分介绍机器翻译和人工翻译的优缺点，并讨论他们之间的关系；第四部分进行案例分析，从目的论视角下看机器翻译与人工翻译的对比，得出提高翻译效率与质量必须将机器翻译与人工翻译相结合。第五部分对全文进行总结。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
目的论 机器翻译 人工翻译 <br />
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===1. Introduction ===<br />
With the development of globalization, the growth of Internet and artificial intelligence, machine translation becomes an indispensable choice in today’s society. Compared with human translation, machine translation has the advantages of efficiency. As the traditional translation method, human translation can guarantee the accuracy of the text. In this information era, many people are thinking if（change "if" into "whether"）human translation will be replaced by machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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In September 2016, Google released the neural network translation system, which greatly improved the quality of machine translation. In November, Baidu CEO Robin Li stated at the Wuzhen Summit of the 3rd World Internet Conference that Baidu's artificial intelligence product "automatic translation" will enter a practical state. Therefore, this paper will put the original text of Tale of Two Cities in two representative public machine translation engines at home and abroad, "Google" and "Baidu", to obtain the machine translation. Selecting texts from the famous classical novel ''A Tale of Two Cities'', and comparing machine translations and human translations based on this novel from the perspective of Skopos theory. (change "." into ",") This (change "This" into "this") paper aims to investigate the relationship between human translation and machine translation and their developments in the future. (Hu Kaibao 2016, 10)--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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=== 2. Overview of Skopos Theory ===<br />
In the 1970s, some eminent German translation theory scholars first proposed functional translation theory. Translation theorist Katharina reiss divides text into three types: informative, expressive and operational. She suggested that according to different text types, different translation methods should be used for analysis, and different translation criticism standards should be adopted, that is, text types, language functions and translation strategies should be combined. In the translation process, it’s essential to focus on the functional characteristics of the target text. Her text type theory and translation criticism mode can be regarded as the beginning of functionalist Skopos theory. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
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Hans Vermeer is Reiss's student. He further developed Reiss's theory and proposed Skopos theory. He believed that Skopos theory is based on the source text, and then may produce a series of purposeful and effective behaviors. The core of this theory is that "the purpose of translation determines translation strategies and method to achieve the expected purpose of translation" (Reiss & Vermeer 1984), German scholars Justa Holz Manttari and Christian Nord further developed this theory which based on the theory of communication and behavior, he proposed that translation theory is not a simple translation between words and sentences, but a kind of conscious behavior for the purpose of cultural communication. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
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====2.1 Three Rules of Skopos Theory====<br />
The word “Skopos” is originated from the Greek language and means purpose. Skopos theory refers to the process of translation is determined by the purpose of the translation, so the purpose rule is the highest one of translation. Generally speaking, skopos theory includes three principles: Skopos rule, coherence rule (intra-textual coherence) and fidelity rule (also known as "inter-textual coherence"). (Nord 2001, 20)<br />
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Skopos theory believes that the important principle to be followed is the "purpose" rule, it is the core rule of Skopos Theory: the process of translation should be based on the realization of the communicative function in the target language culture, and the goal to be achieved determines the entire process of translation, that is, the method determines the result. Vermeer differentiated the purpose of translation. He believes that the purpose of translation should include three levels: the purpose of the translator; the purpose of communicative; the purpose of specific translation strategies.In most cases, any translator has a certain purpose before translation, such as being entrusted by a translation company, market demand or the need to introduce technology. In most cases, "purpose" refers to the communicative purpose of translation. Under the guidance of the purpose of communication, the translator can have more space to interpret and adjust the original text. (Nord 2001, 78)<br />
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To achieve the communicative and interative function between the target text and the target receptor, the target text needs to conform to the linguistic coherence, and be understood and accepted by the readers in the context of the target language and culture. The principle of coherence means that the target text must conform to the intra-textual coherence, that is, the translation must be understood by the target reader and meaningful in the culture of the target language and the communication environment in which the translation is used. “The principle of coherence requires that the information generated by the translator (target text) must be interpreted in a manner consistent with the context of the target reader.” (Shuttleworth 2004: 75) This means the translator should maximize the translation Semantic coherence and makes the translation understandable and acceptable to the target readers. The target text can help target readers understand and successfully exchange information.<br />
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The fidelity rule refers to the inter-textual coherence between the original text and the target text, which requires "consistency between the target text and the original text" (Munday, 2010: 79). Therefore, in the translation process, the translator should not only be faithful to the original text, but also transfer the writing style and cultural factors existed in the source text. This principle requires translator to follow the purpose of translation.<br />
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In the process of translation, translators should follow three principles according to Skopos Theory: the Skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. Among these three rules in Skopos Theory, the skopos rule is the primary principle translators should adopt in the process of translation, and the coherence rule and the fidelity rule must follow the skopos rule. So in the case of translation practice, fidelity rule is subordinate to coherence rule, and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule. In a word, Skopos rule plays a decisive role in translation process, which should be considered first in translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011, 20)<br />
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====2.3 Application of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory is different from traditional theories which overemphasize the features of language rules. With regard to Skopos Theory, it requires that translators should not only consider the language but also take account of factors beyond texts and language like the purpose of translation. As for ''A Tale of Two Cities'', the purpose is to make the target reader feel the same as the source target reader. Since this is a literary text, the cultural factors and rhetorical methods used in the source texts should be reflected on the target text. In addition, the feeling of the target text reader should be taken into consideration in the process of translation. Therefore, the translation should conform to habits of the target language. But guided by Skopos Theory, the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation can be easily analyzed, so that a better solution can be founded between human translation and machine translation. <br />
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===3. Machine Translation and Human Translation===<br />
Translation activities have a long history. As far as China is concerned, translation has a history of more than two thousand years. However, the translation tools have rarely changed, and the translations are always been done by "translators". With the development of science and technology and the acceleration of globalization, there is an increasing need for translation, and "machine" translation has emerged. The advantages of high efficiency and low cost of machine translation make people think about whether machine translation will replace human translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of human translation====<br />
Human translation has both advantages and disadvantages. For example, human translation has the characteristics of flexibility, accuracy, high readability and humanization of language. At the same time, however, compared with machine translation, human translation is less efficient and easy to be influenced by translator's own cultural background and translation capacity so it is difficult to achieve rapid development. Before the advent of machine translation, all translation activities were done by human. Compared with machine translation, translators, as a bridge of cross-cultural communication, are more flexible. Translation itself is a complex activity. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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Professional translators who have certain cultural background knowledge can choose different translation methods and strategies according to the similarities and differences between the two languages and cultures, so it is more flexible and accurate. The flexibility of human language enables the translator to express the meaning of the original text in a more abundant language, and accurately handle the rhetorical devices in the original text. Therefore, the target text of human translation must be more readable than machine translation. Human translation has a long history, and people's research on translation has never stopped. Many excellent translators have emerged in the world and put forward various translation ideas and strategies. Translation has established a relatively mature and complete theory. With the rapid development of China's economy and the increasing number of foreign exchanges, the demand for translation is on the rise. At the same time, the time spend on translation needs to be shortened. Therefore, manual translation alone cannot meet the needs of the translation market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of machine translation====<br />
Machine translation refers to a language can be transferred into another language automatically with the help of machine. The idea of machine translation was firstly put forward by Weaver in his book Translation in 1949(Weaver, 1955). Since the end of the 20th century, the development of the Internet and computer technology has provided more optional software and engines for machine translation. At the same time, the corpus has become richer and more complete, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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The current machine translation is based on the "Neural Machine Translation" (NMT) model of artificial intelligence. Currently, the popular web page machine translations include Youdao Translation, Baidu Translation, Google Translation and so on. Google is currently in a leading position in both voice translation and text translation. Google Translation is a service provided by Google to translate texts and web pages, providing instant translation between more than 100 languages. It can provide translations of words, sentences and web pages between any two languages it supports. The more human translation documents that can be analyzed for a particular language, the higher the quality of the translation. In addition, Google's web page translation is fast, especially free to use, so it has a considerable number of users in translation activities, especially among students. Therefore, this paper will take Google Translation and Baidu Translation as an example to analyze the translation quality, which is representative in the market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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Generally speaking, machine translation has the characteristics of high efficiency, low cost, accuracy of terminology translation, and great development potential. Machine translation is fast and efficient, which is unmatched by human translation. Secondly, the price of machine translation is low, even free, which greatly reduces the economic cost and time cost for those who do not require high translation quality. In addition, compared to human translation, the huge corpus established by machine translation makes the translation of some terms, especially the latest scientific and technological terms, faster and more accurate. The accurate translation of these terms requires continuous learning by the translator, and learning requires a process, which has a certain test of the translator's learning ability and learning speed. At this point, human translation has uncertainty and lag. Finally, although the history of machine translation is short, it has achieved rapid development. With the advancement of science and technology and the development of society, the functions of machine translation will be more perfect and the quality of translation will be better. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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First of all, from a microscopic point of view, machine translation often has problems in the choice of word meaning, especially when there is one word with different meaning. It needs the translator to select the meaning based on the context, while machine translation cannot accurately choose the meaning of a word in combination with the context. What’s more, the word order of the translated sentence often does not conform to the word order and expression habits of the target language. From the aspect of tense, it is more accurate when translating English into Chinese, because words in English can directly change tense. However, there are sometimes problems such as no corresponding tenses when translating Chinese into English. From a macro point of view, machine translation does not have cultural sensitivity and is not accurate enough for the translation of some idioms and proverbs with strong cultural color. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.3 Relationship between machine translation and human translation====<br />
Machine translation is based on human translation, and the establishment of corpus that machine translation relies on needs human participation. When translating technical terms, machine translation corpus and parallel text can greatly reduce the time when find and determine proper equivalent terms. However, the establishment of these corpora needs to rely on well translated materials. The accuracy and usability of corpus are also affected by the quality of human translation. Therefore, they restrict and influence each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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There are more or less defects in the micro and macro aspects of machine translation. At the micro level, it mainly includes vocabulary, syntax, tense, and so on. However, at the macro level, it mainly includes text cohesion and cultural background. Therefore, human translation is essential. In addition, all machine translation inspection, modification, sorting and other work must also be carried out manually, so as to make the translation quality better and meet the requirements of communication. It can be seen that machine translation alone cannot meet the requirements of high quality translation. Translation activities cannot be separated from human participation. Therefore, with the development of machine translation, translation should be completed by both machine and human. The two are related, influenced with each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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===4. Case Study from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===<br />
A Tale of Two Cities is a long historical novel by British writer Charles Dickens, first published in 1859. The story is set in the French Revolution and has a touching plot. It is one of the world's literary classics. The twin cities refer to Paris and London. The story connects these two cities and tells the story of the Parisian doctor Manette. He was persecuted by the brothers of the Marquis St. Evremonde due to injustice and was detained in the Bastille prison for 18 years. After being released from prison, Mannette's daughter Lucie fell in love with the enemy's son Darney. Thus, in the whirlpool of the French Revolution, scenes of family grievances and hatred were staged grandly. Life and death, good and evil are blended in conflict and changed in an instant. On the guillotine, Carton calmly sacrificed his life for love. （Dickens 2016）<br />
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A Tale of Two Cities has a rigorous structure and condensed language. Dickens's profound thinking on revolution and humanity and his breathtaking writing talent are fully demonstrated. This paper selects the most representative classic sentences in the text for comparative analysis of translation, studies whether neural network machine translation software can accurately translate classic literary works, and explores whether neural network machine translation replaces manual translation in the context of artificial intelligence. The human translation was by Zhaolin Song. Among the many translation versions in China, Song’s translation was regarded as the version which closes to the source text most. (Feng Baoyin 2018, 232)<br />
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====4.1 Case Study from the perspective of Skopos Rule====<br />
In Vermeer’ opinion, the dominant rule for any translation should be the skopos rule, which means that a translation action is determined by its purposes. That is to say, the translation action should be in accordance with the target context and culture. The purposes of target text determine the translation strategies and methods used in translation process. A good translation should conform to the target culture and target audiences’ expectations. According to Nord, “Skopos of a particular translation task may require a ‘free’ or a ‘faithful’ translation, or anything between these two extremes, depending on the purpose for which the translation is needed”. Once the intended purposes are achieved, the translation will be considered as reasonable and proper. It is unnecessary for the translation to be equivalent to the source text. (Nord 1997, 102 )<br />
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Example 1: We were all going direct to heaven, we were all going direct the other way--in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
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Google translation: 我们都直接去天堂，我们都直接去天堂- -简而言之，这一时期与目前的时期如此遥远，以至于它的一些最吵闹的当局坚持以最高的比较程度来接受它是好是坏。<br />
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Baidu translation: 我们是所有的人都直接去天堂，我们都朝着另一个方向去——简而言之，这个时期和现在的时代非常相似，以至于一些最吵闹的权威坚持要接受它，不管是好是坏，只是在最高级的比较中。<br />
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Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 我们大家都在直升天堂，我们大家都在直下地狱——简而言之，那个时代和当今这个时代是如此相似，因而一些吵嚷不休的权威们也坚持认为，不管它是好是坏，都只能用“ 最……”来评价它。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 20)<br />
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Analysis: <br />
Since this is selected from a novel, the purpose of translation should be express the meaning and beauty of the source text. According to the Google translation, it made a mistake in translating "We were all going directly the other way". The translated meaning is totally different from the original. As to Baidu translation, it expressed the meaning of the original text, while the expression way will confuse the target text reader. In regards to human translation, the translator of this edition adopts the combination of literal translation and free translation. In this way, the translation not only clearly expresses the original meaning, but also takes into account the literariness of the work, so that readers can feel the characteristics of the times more vividly.<br />
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====4.2 Case study from the perspective of coherence rule====<br />
Coherence rule is also called “intra-textual coherence”, which means that the translation should be acceptable and understandable for the target audiences and be meaningful in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received. In other words, the target text should conform to the target receivers’ situation, including their given knowledge, background culture and specific circumstances. (Nord 1997, 120)<br />
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Example 2: Questions, questions, questions! (Charles Dickens 2016, 56)<br />
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Google Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
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Baidu Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
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Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 问题一个接一个地提出来！(Song Zhaolin 2005, 68)<br />
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Analysis: In this sentence, the original text uses three "questions" in a row to enhance the tone. However, Google and Baidu Translation directly translated it to "问题，问题，问题！". It sounds too blunt to read. The target text translated by Google and Baidu cannot reflect the meaning of the original text. What's more, it makes target readers hard to get meaning of the text. While the translator chose the free translation method to make the translation more natural and smooth. The translated text followed the coherence rule in the process of translation.<br />
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Example 3: But just because he had a powerful enemy---an enemy with the power to send him to prison and to keep him there, hidden and forgotten, for eighteen years. (Charles Dickens 2016, 102)<br />
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Google translation: 但是仅仅因为他有一个强大的敌人-一个有能力将他送进监狱并将其隐藏和遗忘在监狱里长达十八年的敌人。<br />
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Baidu translation:只是因为他有一个强大的敌人，一个有能力把他送进监狱，把他关在那里，隐藏起来，被遗忘18年。<br />
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Human translation(Song Zhaolin): 而只是因为他有一个强大的敌人-这个敌人拥有权势将他投进监狱，而且把他在那里与世隔绝、被人遗忘地关了18年。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 130)<br />
<br />
<br />
Analysis: In terms of grammar, English uses long sentences, which are connected by functional words, such as conjunctions, prepositions and relative words. The syntactic structure is relatively complex and it is a hypotactic language. Chinese is a paratactic language. In the process of E-C translation, we often use disassembly syntax to translate a long and complex English sentence into several short and simple Chinese short sentences. From Google Translation, it directly translated the structure of the original text. The target text created by Google translation doesn't conform to target language structure. While the translation of Baidu almost in accordance with the target language structure. As to the human translation, not only was the structure, but also the meaning was perfectly expressed.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Case study from the perspective of fidelity rule====<br />
Fidelity rule is also named by Vermeer as “intertextual coherence”, which puts emphasis on the relationship between the source text and target text. Based on Skopos theory, fidelity rule requires that the target text should be in accordance with the source text, which means the information contained in the source text should be exactly conveyed by the target text under the translators’ efforts. (Nord 1997, 140)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 1: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
<br />
Google Translation: 那是最美好的时光，那是最糟糕的时光，那是智慧的时代，那是愚昧的时代，那是信仰的时代，那是轻信的时代，那是光明的季节， 是黑暗的季节，是希望的春天，是绝望的冬天，我们眼前的一切，眼前的一切。<br />
<br />
Baidu Translation: 那是最好的时代，最坏的时代，智慧的时代，愚昧的时代，信仰的时代，不信的时代，光明的季节，黑暗的季节，希望的春天，绝望的冬天，我们面前什么都有，面前什么都没有。 <br />
<br />
Human Translation (Zhaolin Song): : 那是最美好的时代，那是最糟糕的时代；那是个睿智的年月，那是个蒙昧的年月；那是信心百倍的时期，那是疑虑重重的时期；那是阳光普照的季节，那是黑暗笼罩的季节；那是充满希望的春天，那是让人绝望的冬天；我们面前无所不有，我们面前一无所有。（Song Zhaolin 2005, 20）<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is the classic opening paragraph in "A Tale of Two Cities", and it can be said to be very popular. On the whole, because of the simple structure of this paragraph, the three machine-translated translations all accurately express the content of the original text, but one shortcoming is that it is difficult for machine translation to express the unique beauty of rhythm of the original text.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the translation of commonly used machine translation software and human translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, we can conclude that for the translation of literary works, machine translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text, even equal to manual translation if it is some simple sentence expression. However, the quality of machine translation needs to be improved some sentences with complex sentence patterns and difficult grammatical structures. Therefore, the translation of literary works by machine translation still has a long way to go.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
The main purpose of this paper is to find a better solution between machine translation and human translation under the guidance of the Skopos Theory for optimizing weaknesses of machine translation platforms, which not only generates solutions to errors, but also improves the quality of machine translation. <br />
<br />
Theoretically, this paper applies Skopos Theory to guide human translation and machine translation of literary texts. Machine translation can be regarded as a basis of human translation, while those errors caused by machine translation can be improved manually after the completion of machine translation. Meanwhile, human translation by employing appropriate translation methods and techniques, such as semantic conversion, amplification, omission and so on, human translation based on machine translation enormously solves errors of machine translation which further optimizes weaknesses of machine translation. Human translation process also becomes more efficient with the help of machine. <br />
As for machine translation, firstly, machine translation platforms can’t replace translators on account of its incomplete corpus and limitations in transferring the cultural meaning. Secondly, errors at lexical level caused by defects of machine translation are much more than that at syntactical level in F396P Aircraft Tow Tractor Maintenance Instruction. Lastly, machine translation platforms are restricted to contexts of language, situation and culture which lead to incorrect target text. <br />
<br />
In regard with human translation, from the perspective of Skopos theory, human translation is more understandable and readable to target readers than that of machine translation. It’s essential for the translator to know typical errors in machine translation, features of chose machine translation platforms and characteristics of source text, which could fascinate the efficiency of translation. All in all, machine translation platforms enhance the efficiency of translating large amount of material and human translation provides a solution for machine translation of poor quality. Machine translation and human translation are complement to each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2016). A Tale of Two Cities. Macmillian.<br />
<br />
* Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2011). 中国译学大辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China] 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
* Feng Baoyin冯宝茵 (2018). 从读者反应论对比两个《双城记》译本 [A comparative study of two versions of a tale of two cities from the perspective of reader response theory]. 北方文学, Northern Literature (36):232.<br />
<br />
* Hu Kaibao & Li Yi胡开宝 & 李翼. (2016). 机器翻译特征及其与人工翻译关系的研究. [Research on the characteristics of machine translation and its relationship with human translation] 中国翻译 Chinese Translation (05),10-14. <br />
<br />
* Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
<br />
* Mark Shuttleworth (2004). Dictionary of Translation Studies. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 75.<br />
<br />
* Munday, J. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application. London: Routeledge. 78.<br />
<br />
* Reiss, K & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
* Song Zhaolin宋兆霖 (2005). 双城记 A Tale of Two Cities 中国戏剧出版社, China Drama Press.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=116868History of Translation Studies 102020-12-20T15:19:17Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies */</p>
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<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing 英语笔译 202070080581==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of original language and target language, but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, have not been covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. <br />
<br />
During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also made a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, one needs to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. <br />
<br />
The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures.Similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language.<br />
<br />
In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis.That is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, in which verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator is not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which is direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, translators are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word, which makes it even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence in form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with are going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, translators have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example,“Take care. Hope to see you soon.” is polite and emotional way to express our feelin .<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , translators have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, translators have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to translator's mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, translators can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, translators have to consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore,proper translation skills are needed to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes translators can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases they will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
It is obvious that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, translators can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or free translation based on functional equivalence. In daily life, Chinese people often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus the sentence will be translated into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, it can be seen that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, translators need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but trasnslators have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, translators need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, translators can figure out exactly his characteristics and reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. Translators will find different types of texts in the process of translation and must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.<br />
<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. <br />
<br />
According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, can the translation be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654 法语语言文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
The success of Hao Jingfang's science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", which won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016, could not have been achieved without the rigorous translation work of Ken Liu. The translation of this novel takes the response of the readers of the translated text as the starting point, preserving the meaning and style of the novel while effectively conveying Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of functional equivalence theory that "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". Nida's functional equivalence theory, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has had a profound influence on the translation studies of various literary genres in China. This paper examines the English translation of "Folding Beijing", analyzes Ken Liu's use of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory in his translation, and shows the value of functional equivalence theory for the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", the future Beijing is overpopulated. To solve this crisis, it is transformed into a hierarchical Folding City. The Folding City is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours. The first space is occupied by the upper class of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; the second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; and the third space is occupied by the lower class, who have only eight hours of night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants to send his daughter to a good school, and in order to earn money, he ventures into the first, second and third spaces to deliver letters to others. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and many Chinese native words. The cultural differences between China and the West due to regional factors and customs are a major challenge for translation. The translator must not only consider the reader's understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local color in the work is not removed. The theory of functional equivalence suggests that translation should not be confined to form, and the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text in order to achieve equivalence of content and information.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory has had a profound impact on China and has brought translators new and effective methods of translation guidance. We can see that Ken Liu is also trying to achieve balance and harmony between the translation and the original text when he translates science fiction novels. This paper analyzes the English translation of "Folding Beijing" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory and explores how translators achieve the closest equivalence to the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:11）<br />
<br />
===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, explained dynamic equivalence translation in his influential book,''Toward a Science of Translating''. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, focusing on the equivalence of the reader's response, not just the equivalence of content and form.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
In "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defines dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translated reader's reaction to the translation should be the same as the original reader's reaction.（Nida,2004:24）<br />
<br />
Because dynamic equivalence was controversial in some respects, Nida replaced it with a more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment required to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. Since a functionally equivalent translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language message, the translator's achievement of functional equivalence follows three principles.In his book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did".(Nida 1993:118)<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the response of the reader of the recipient language, and(3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defines the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory,namely from the form and content of the message to the reader's response. It differs from traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the readers of the original text, it can be regarded as functional equivalence of the target language. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s reaction to the translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida and Taber point out that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning will be discussed in this chapter at three levels: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these are the three levels of detailed analysis of lexicon, syntax, and discourse. According to the theory of functional equivalence, translation is not only about word-for-word equivalence, but also about discovering the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in translation of ''Folding Beijing'' from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.(Nida,2004:12)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:（Din Juan,2011:22）<br />
<br />
In literary translation, it is always a challenge to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, and they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is the most appropriate. In the English translation of Beijing Folding, there are many examples of how the translation can achieve functional equivalence with the original at the lexical level, as follows: (Ding Juan, 2011:22)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
<br />
"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）<br />
<br />
"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", In this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention and conveys what appears to be a bad temper. --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）<br />
<br />
"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to show the original meaning.<br />
<br />
The author did not literally translate “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is owing to the translator's own understanding of the text, he hopes readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to convey the original meaning.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
<br />
Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
Syntax, as a rule, refers to the study of how to construct sentences correctly with the words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the readers. Translators should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.（Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
The differences between English and Chinese grammar are mainly reflected in three aspects. First, the use of conjunctions and relational words in English is very frequent. Secondly, English speakers focus on object consciousness and are accustomed to the order from small to large objects and from specific to general; in Chinese texts, there is usually a chronological order of time, space or cause and effect. Finally, English usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while Chinese tends to process information from the stale to the fresh in order to impress (Ding Juan, 2011: 24).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original, we must not only translate the meaning of the words, but also translate the syntactic structure into the appropriate form. The following are examples of how the English translation of Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence with the original at the syntactic level:（Din Juan,2011:24）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
" 现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。'他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。'他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’" （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）<br />
<br />
"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this passage, the translator clearly adjusted the word order, pushing what the same person said before the pause to the next sentence to fit the logic of the English reader." Selection should also be liberalized" ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the reader, so the reader adds to this sentence and translates it as "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", the translator perfectly explains the meaning of "放开".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015) <br />
<br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like "…childhood that…".<br />
<br />
In this passage, the text emphasizes "the past" twice. To achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order by placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences instead of using subordinate clause like"... childhood that...".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, such as "as if", "from where", "that", etc. This is because the syntax of the two languages is different.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.(Din Juan,2011:27）<br />
<br />
Nida argues that readers may have difficulty accepting an approximate formal translation due to the intricacies of the discourse structure and the preconceived knowledge of the original content. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a "rewriting" approach to make the translation acceptable to the reader. In literary translation, the translator must pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be comparable to the original text in terms of discourse level. A dialogue from Folding Beijing and its English translation is selected below as an example of literary translation achieving functional equivalence at the discourse level:(Ding Juan,2011:27)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself." <br />
<br />
Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
<br />
"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.<br />
<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
<br />
Conversational conventions in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made in translation. The form of the dialogue is not exactly translated from Chinese, but the understanding of the text is the same for the readers. For example, "夹了新上来的热菜" is translated as "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", and the translator changes the action to "spoon", which is more in line with Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as the girl in the first space to spoon the dish to the old knife."推给老刀" is translated as "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", which adds some actions to make it more vivid.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
<br />
Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Each writer has his or her own writing style, which no one can imitate perfectly. In other words, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows linguistic characteristics, and the English translation shows the translator's attempt to achieve functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
<br />
First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form, the counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vibrant scenes, and enhance the effectiveness of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to "深渊", and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalent.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated, only translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
<br />
It is a metaphorical sentence and words like "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated. They are translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
<br />
"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks and arms", and "like the humblest servants", the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
<br />
This paragraph has a personification that "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks, and arms" and are "like the humblest of servants," and the use of rhetoric allows people to imagine the folding diagram of the city through the image of a person. By comparing the buildings to a herd of beasts, it shows its scale and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)<br />
<br />
"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
<br />
In this sentence, "怪胎" is translated as "monster" and "born" conveys the same meaning, so the translator did not have any trouble.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
<br />
Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.（Din Juan,2011:33）<br />
<br />
The dialect reflects the local characteristics and is the author's own writing style. Sometimes this is a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator deals with this problem. (Dingjuan, 2011:33)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the use of either rhetoric or dialect in literary works fully reflects the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, translators should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the way of expressing stylistic differences and find out the best way to compensate for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve the maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:47）<br />
<br />
Cultural differences between two languages are also issues that translators should be aware of in the translation process. People who are exposed to different cultures have different ways of thinking, values, social customs, etc. Translators need to understand both cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this point, translation plays a role in intercultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the reader so that the translation achieves cultural equivalence with the original text. This chapter will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of food culture, folk culture, and idiom culture to show how it achieves functional equivalence with the original text. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:47)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
<br />
The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.（Din Juan,2011:39）<br />
<br />
The city described in Folding Beijing is the political and cultural center of China, a city with deep cultural accumulation. In the novel, there are many elements belonging to traditional Chinese food culture. This part will analyze how the translator managed to translate these cuisines into a successful counterpart.（Din Juan,2011:39）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"炒面"is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
<br />
"炒面" is a famous traditional Chinese snack. Translators translate it as "chow mein" instead of "Chinese chow mein". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means Chinese-style fried noodles with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also gives the reader a more intuitive idea of what the dish is.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)<br />
<br />
"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, "白酒" is translated into "baijiu" , the translator doesn't use the word like "spirits", it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
<br />
Here, foreignization method is used, and "白酒" is translated as "baijiu". The translator does not use words like "spirits", which retains Chinese cultural characteristics and achieves a communicative effect at the same time.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）<br />
<br />
The characteristic of this dish is that it is first boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator has captured this feature in his translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", which is made with pork, and he hopes that readers of the English translation will see the image of this dish in their minds, just like the Chinese do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique lifestyles, customs, behavior patterns, etc. in terms of vocabulary. The following will analyze the functional equivalence of translation in folk culture. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:52).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he uses the word "shared" and he adds the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where friends and relatives share several dishes among themselves. The purpose of the passage is to show the boy's poverty. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, where Westerners behave differently, so he uses the word "sharing" and adds the word "family style" to make it easier for the reader to understand this behavior.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)<br />
<br />
"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is one of the major characteristics of Chinese culture. People from the same hometown share similar living habits, upbringing and cultural background, so even strangers can get acquainted quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao are from the third dimension, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective." 管事儿" means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word to make it easy for readers to understand.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. "心意" means money, which is an euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In translation, the translator also considered an euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word "appreciation".<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan says that she hopes Lao Dao will help her keep her secret, so she wants to use money to give Lao Dao." 心意" means money, which is a Chinese euphemism when it is not convenient to give money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered it a euphemism, so the word "appreciation" was used.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the vast and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people use these idioms in their daily life and writing, but some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and it is important to pay attention to the differences between the two cultures when translating them.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", the translator translated it into "ate heartily", although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
The author uses many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", which the translator translates as "to eat in a heartbeat". Although the translation is easy to understand, without the image of a person eating very hungry, it seems that English readers cannot achieve the same understanding and reaction as Chinese readers from the perspective of functional equivalence.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And "（盘子）一片狼藉"translated into "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" translated into "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
<br />
And "(盘子)一片狼藉" is translated as "the plate is a mess", which is a description of a messy situation on the plate. And "the beauty of adulthood" is translated as "in that case, I am doing a good deed by keeping quiet", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe how Lao Dao felt that he kept the secret that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might be together in the future. The translator translated the phrase abstractly into the English translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）<br />
<br />
The English translation of Folding Beijing is analyzed from three aspects of meaning, style, and culture using this paper's functional equivalence theory, and it is concluded that the English translation meets the English readers' understanding of the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and reciprocal Chinese translation of Folding Beijing for English readers. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:56)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyze from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Folding Beijing" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western cultures, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functionally equivalent translation. Analyzing the English version of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture, we can see that linguistically, although Chinese and English are very different in logic and grammar, and there are many differences between Chinese and Western cultures, the translator still tries to keep the original content and find more suitable words in the translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）<br />
<br />
In some specific contents, the translators do not translate into exactly the same form, which is also in line with Nida's theory of functional equivalence, because Nida also suggests that translation should not be limited to form, and the translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's functional equivalence theory does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction novels, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang.(2015).Folding Beijing[J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang郝景芳.(2016).孤独深处[The Depth of Loneliness].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社[Nanjing:Jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing,LTD]：1-40<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(1993)Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：118<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(2001)Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A. & Taber.(2004) Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：12-24<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999).新编奈达论翻译[A new version of Nida's theory on translation].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation]<br />
<br />
Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009).翻译学概论[Introduction to translatology].南京：译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press]<br />
<br />
Zhao Dandan赵丹丹.(2011).浅论奈达的功能对等理论[Nida's theory of functional equivalence].湖北：文学教育[Hubei:Literature Education]<br />
<br />
Zhou Xingyang周兴阳.(2018).从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[Chinese Science Fiction Translation in the Perspective of Functional Equivalence-A case Study of Beijing Zhe Die and its English Version-Folding Beijing].新疆大学[Xinjiang University]<br />
<br />
Wang Guiyuan王桂圆.(2018)系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[A Study on The Translation of Folding Beijing from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics].安徽：海外英语[Anhui：Overseas English]<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
<center>余妮 Yu Ni No.202070080620</center><br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s version has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. <br />
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“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
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Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
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The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) which was co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable, for it has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. With the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
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The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The following chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author makes a conclusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.<br />
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In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, according to the nature of translation. He pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).<br />
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The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, we should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural reaction of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
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Firstly, we should create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully displays the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture concepts cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost not much snow in southern China all year round. Therefore, based on their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabularies. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Re-creation” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).<br />
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Oscar Wilde, born in Dublin, Ireland, is a “born for art” writer. He was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In this play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies, revealing the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)<br />
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Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared to previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
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Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections. Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
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He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was first published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, his translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest—Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. <br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.<br />
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“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but in different meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)<br />
<br />
It not only facilitated the needs of the audience but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience would be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
<br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same. <br />
<br />
In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language remain the same.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.<br />
<br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
<br />
“There are many allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
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(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
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(1) ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. <br />
<br />
(2) CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack. Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can still benefit from them. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’ s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).<br />
<br />
An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012). <br />
<br />
Paradox is a device favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed. Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
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(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. <br />
<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect. In example 4, what amused the audience was the conclusion contrary to the reasons.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With it, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the readers will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Antithesis======<br />
<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. <br />
<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators. Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty. Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than the source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in the target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.<br />
<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we may have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is the most popular one among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is the variety of rhetorical devices. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, too. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019). <br />
<br />
<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we can have a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”. In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce better translation. Even though we can gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
<br />
Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
<br />
Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
<br />
Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
<br />
Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
<br />
Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
<br />
Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen 202020080603== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
With the development of economic globalization,exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand.The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice. Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
<br />
===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. <br />
<br />
The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)<br />
<br />
The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicit, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)<br />
<br />
The first is the implied meaning(implictit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is explicit, which the speaker actually says content.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. <br />
<br />
Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understanding:the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
<br />
understanding: the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and though contend to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. --[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)<br />
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===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)<br />
<br />
Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
<br />
===2. Literary Review===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. <br />
<br />
At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
<br />
Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===<br />
<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
<br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
<br />
On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
<br />
===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
<br />
===3.1 Free Translation===<br />
<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
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===3.2 Addition of Message===<br />
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Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
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===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===<br />
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As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
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The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)<br />
<br />
The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
<br />
*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-166.<br />
<br />
*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
<br />
*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
<br />
*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.<br />
<br />
* Mao Yueyue, Liu Fan. 毛新月, 刘帆. (2018). 释意理论指导下的会议口译中四字词语的翻译——以习近平总书记十九届中共中央政治局常委同中外记者见面会讲话为例. [Translation of four-letter words in conference interpretation under the guidance of interpretation theory - taking the speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the meeting between the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the 19th CPC Central Committee and Chinese and foreign journalists as an example]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](12): 230-231.<br />
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* Ouyang Changyi. 欧阳长怡. (2010). 论释意理论指导下的记者招待会口译策略及释意训练. [On Interpretation Strategies and Interpretation Training of Press Conference under the Guidance of Interpretation Theory]. 福建省外国语文学会.福建省外国语文学会2010年年会论文集. [Fujian Foreign Language Society. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference of Fujian Foreign Language Society]. 福建省外国语文学会: 福建省外国语文学会[Fujian Foreign Language Society: Fujian Foreign Language Society]<br />
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* Xiong Wen. 熊雯. (2014). 释意理论视阙下的口译过程研究. [A study of interpretation process under the view of interpretation theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](24): 154-155.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe. 张杨,李灵哲. (2018). 释意理论指导下的翻译语义策略运用. [The use of translation semantic strategies under the guidance of interpretation theory]. ''佳木斯职业学院学报'' [Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10): 334-336.<br />
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='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
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<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
The “article” would better to be “paper” The “problem” would better to be “ disputation” or “controversy”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 09:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being.<br />
Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time, until they entered China along trade routes from Central Asia in the first century AD.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
Chnese—Chinese please keep your tense consistency. There should be some conjunctions to make it more logical.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
adhere strictly to — strictly adhere to; the form similarity— the similarity in form--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
three period —three periods. Please keep your tense consistency. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
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it was not so widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier that it is of great …into Chinese, hence translators of Buddhist scriptures Constantly emerge. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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He translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures in total. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
“Transliteration” “ the same as”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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Please keep the tense consistency. “while ignoring”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures.<br />
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“mainstream” —“dominant”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
<br />
“then can only…”—“they” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
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=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
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Buddhism believer is not “only”limited to--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
Please keep your tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The principle of “Five Losses…” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
“by private”—“privately”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. <br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25).<br />
India— Indian--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness.<br />
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Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
“arrived”—“reached” “under his efforts”—“with his efforts” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
There is some overlaps “at the beginning” and “at the early days”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
metaphysics— and metaphysics--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
There are many commas without conjunctions.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
The words with mystery? Can it be the words with the sense of mystery?--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
but also has — but also had --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
The —the translation workshop system please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
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=== References ===<br />
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223<br />
<br />
Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308<br />
<br />
Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.<br />
<br />
Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University <br />
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Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.<br />
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Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.<br />
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Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70. <br />
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Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press<br />
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Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.<br />
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WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
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He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
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Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
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Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
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==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi ==<br />
<center>成于思 Cheng Yusi No.202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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André Lefevere; ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook''; Liu Miqing; ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''; “cultural turn”; John Dryden; translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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安德烈·勒菲弗尔;《翻译，历史和文化论集》; 刘宓庆;《中西翻译思想对比研究》;文化转向;约翰·德莱登;翻译原则<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. Dryden's comparison of a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
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===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
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''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies. <br />
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In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii) <br />
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Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)<br />
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If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.<br />
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The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements, which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)<br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it brings those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others. <br />
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I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47) <br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "an author and a translator" to "a master and a slave" through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.(Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)<br />
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Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
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Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracts an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)<br />
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In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102) <br />
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Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating poems in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103) <br />
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As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Dryden proposes a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)<br />
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It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. <br />
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Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compares a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)<br />
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Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars, like Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014) <br />
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A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works were with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)<br />
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Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73) <br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)<br />
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===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
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In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2) <br />
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In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. <br />
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Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
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The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33) <br />
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He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)<br />
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Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)<br />
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Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179) <br />
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The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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However, he also recognizes that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School and New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented", and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories which can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current superficial, assertive and rational views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)<br />
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The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)<br />
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Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)<br />
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Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulated that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)<br />
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Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987) <br />
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In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation principles that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the feature of the tradition of Chinese translation changes from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)<br />
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As such, the flourishing of translation is bound to be our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) <br />
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The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51) <br />
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The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
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The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)<br />
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Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem.(Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate Chinese poems, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility, it expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
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Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
<br />
Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argues that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provides a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)<br />
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===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
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===4.1 From the aspect of the content===<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
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===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===<br />
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Both of these two books are arranged in theme rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters, which are concerned with the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. As to the longer essays, they are collected in the last chapter. <br />
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Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includs the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps readers understanding translation principles.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have better understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of a translator to a slave. Then, it figures out the reasons of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
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Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
===关键词===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
===Introuction===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.<br />
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Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
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Ancient Translation Period<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（quotation missing）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
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A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（paragraph too long）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: <br />
<br />
(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. ) <br />
<br />
Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. <br />
<br />
The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)<br />
<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.<br />
<br />
Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. <br />
<br />
The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. <br />
<br />
These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. <br />
<br />
Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. <br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. <br />
<br />
The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. <br />
<br />
Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)<br />
<br />
===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)<br />
<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. <br />
<br />
The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. <br />
<br />
Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. <br />
<br />
This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).<br />
<br />
The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. <br />
<br />
The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
===Trends in Translation Theory Research===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. <br />
<br />
In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980.<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
<br />
[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
<br />
Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
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1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 2<br />
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云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
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Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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<br />
Example 3<br />
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花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just in the south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 4 <br />
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Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
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With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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Example 7<br />
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番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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Example 10<br />
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Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
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Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 11<br />
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我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 12<br />
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“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 13<br />
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耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 14<br />
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“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
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"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 15<br />
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我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
===''' References '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==<br />
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center><br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence on the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation was regarded as a linguistic phenomena before. But later, with the development of the translation theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science, especially linguistics, can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
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This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
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==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology at home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
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'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
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In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recording two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)<br />
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Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)<br />
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J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and regarded seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure. (J.A Catford , 1965)<br />
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Holmes published The Name and Nature of Translation Studies at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation, which directly promoted the construction of translation studies. ( James Holmes,1975)<br />
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In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from several aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing the translation practice. (Wolfram Wilss, 1982)<br />
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Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is Discourse and the Translator (1990), which is the first book to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers. (Hatim & Mason,1990 )<br />
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Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believed that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
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Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies. (Mona Baker, 2006) <br />
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'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
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In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were using correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books would be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe. (Dong Qiusi, 1951)<br />
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In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the viewpoint that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
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In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published On Approaches to Translation Studies. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' the awareness of the subject of translation studies. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
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In the thesis An Overview of Western Translation Theory (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, translatology could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
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In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
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In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)<br />
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At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. ( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)<br />
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Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）<br />
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Subsequently, Lv published Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new perspective for the study of the construction of translation studies and promoted the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)<br />
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Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)<br />
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Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the development of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies. (Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
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Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012) <br />
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Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)<br />
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Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple approaches of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation. (Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020)<br />
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In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rising of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precedes translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. (Wang Yin,2017)<br />
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Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western translation studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward west, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation. (Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)<br />
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Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)<br />
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Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies of the researches. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)<br />
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From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the awareness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
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==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
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In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies. <br />
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'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
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"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often be confused. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definitions of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
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In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is also used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the rules of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995） <br />
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Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic, literature, philosophy etc. ( Kong Xiangli,2009)<br />
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'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
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Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline and to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)<br />
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'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
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Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translator appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei etc. (Yi Jing,2009)<br />
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The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated texts. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
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'''3.2.2 The awareness of an independent discipline'''<br />
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Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of an independent discipline and proposed a classification of the research field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a merely a technical activity. (Tan Zaixi, 1987 )<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared the independence of translation in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, many famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
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'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
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Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies have shown a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018) <br />
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Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its research field, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
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==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation by early linguists; second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists began to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology were linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
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Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 ) <br />
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Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their researches inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, their contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, systematic-functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists took Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regarded linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the assistance of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts that are "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has exerted a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural context of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the development of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics theory. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 <br />
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The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and materials for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool and new research perspectives for translation studies and provides great convenience for translation studies. ( Liao Qiyi，2000)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The publication of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is quite similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, publishing cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good example. (Yang Zijian,1993)<br />
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From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study. Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be learned from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together. In the process of development, linguistics has absorbed the experience of many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., formed many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
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Linguistics has gone through several stages of development, and it has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics provided experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators should only take other disciplines for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely. ( (Liu Miqing, 1989))<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
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Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
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Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
<br />
Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
<br />
Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析翻译学科学习目前存在的问题，并提出相应的建议。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''=== <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
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Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies", is a basic statement of translation studies，which calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) <br />
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Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, such as comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)<br />
<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation studies can examine the practices and context of translating texts that are specialist (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these knowledge enables students to apply their understanding of theories to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually includes the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills that are necessary elements solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. With the requirement of effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures in today's multicultural and multilingual society, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
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As a science, Translation Studies always has its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. <br />
<br />
Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can have a good understanding about the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. It is necessary for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
Translation activities appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, and the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
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In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. <br />
<br />
The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared on the scene.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have been single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, as well as translation criticism, translation publishing, and translation management, etc.<br />
<br />
At that time, because a large number of people who master foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to improve foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under Foreign Language and Literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
<br />
2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, translation studies explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. <br />
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At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the team to construct translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation in succession. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of “China Translator" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)<br />
<br />
Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge. Translation research ideas, methods, field and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)<br />
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2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
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In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) <br />
<br />
In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Translation studies have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.<br />
<br />
There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers should help students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments that required by the language service market. Teachers can invite industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
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==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. Translation discipline in China has entered a new stage now, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
<br />
3.1. Translation Education <br />
<br />
With the establishment of the autonomy of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the cultivation of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018）<br />
<br />
However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, so it is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction history of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, so systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to bluring and confusing educational goal of translation major. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation major teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them are lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
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3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
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The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. <br />
<br />
The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data shows that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
<br />
In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)<br />
<br />
3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
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Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018) <br />
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This kinds of teaching method that is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model ignore student autonomy, which will pay too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
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3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
<br />
The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is inconsiderable.（Ou Yonghua 2019）<br />
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Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, according to the actual situation of translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but do not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)<br />
<br />
3.2. Students<br />
<br />
The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, so it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
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Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. <br />
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Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
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As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
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3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
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Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not gain sufficient background information.<br />
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With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015) <br />
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3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
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At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless to some extent or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
<br />
==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved over time. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote Translation Studies in China.<br />
<br />
4.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
Translation education plays an important role in cultivating translation talents, and a good translation education system will provide a good environment for students to learn Translation Studies, so it is necessary to improve translation education system.<br />
<br />
4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
<br />
The teaching model is an important guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to innovate. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
<br />
The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching,which attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. It is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
<br />
4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
<br />
Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. <br />
<br />
Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019）<br />
<br />
Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
<br />
Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and to reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of landmark for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)<br />
<br />
The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
<br />
4.2. Students <br />
<br />
Translation talents play a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
<br />
4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future.Not only should they have a solid foundation in language ability, but also they should take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
<br />
A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students are urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
<br />
Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics and the skills and theories of translation，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. <br />
<br />
Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can take part in many social activities to experience different aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. <br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the objection of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Therefore, translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and professional knowledge. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies are still not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, learn from the latest foreign translation theories, and combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hope that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
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Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
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Chen Cheng.陈诚. (2020).高校英语翻译课程教学现状及改革研究.[ Research on the Teaching Status and Reform of College English Translation Course].淮南职业技术学院学报[''Journal of Huainan Vocational &Technology''] 97-98.<br />
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Chu Xizhi.褚喜之(2009).翻译理论在翻译教学中的重要性.[The Importance of Translation Theory in Translation Teaching].经济研究导刊[''Economic Research Guide'']237-238.<br />
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Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
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Huang Youyi.黄友义.(2018).服务改革开放40年,翻译实践与翻译教育迎来转型发展的新时代.[Servicing Reform and Opening for 40 Years, Translation Practice and Translation Education Usher in a New Era of Transformation and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']5-8.<br />
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Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
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Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
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Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
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Linlin.林琳.(2016).英语文学翻译学习现状及改善措施.[ The Status Quo and Improvement Measures of English Literature Translation Learning].西部素质教育[''Western China Quality Education''] 65.<br />
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Luo Feng.罗峰.(2011).从翻译学学科建设看翻译学在中国的发展.[On the Development of Translation Studies As A Discipline in China].琼州学院学报[''Journal of Qiongzhou University]''115-116.<br />
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Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
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Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
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Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
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Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei. 许钧, 穆雷.(2009).中国翻译学研究30年 (1978 -2007).[30 years of Chinese Translation Studies (1978 -2007)].外国语[''Journal of Foreign Languages'']77-87.<br />
<br />
Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
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Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan== <br />
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center><br />
<br />
<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays<br />
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===题目===<br />
译者文化身份对翻译的影响<br />
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===摘要===<br />
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translating a work is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important active role in both translating the content and interpreting it, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.<br />
<br />
Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)<br />
<br />
There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.<br />
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=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===<br />
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.<br />
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Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.<br />
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(While your first quote here may be intended to explain to the reader where the concept of cultural identity came from, I suggest you explain the meaning of the concept proposed by the cited author.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)<br />
<br />
====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====<br />
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.<br />
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In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.<br />
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Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on naturalization strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.<br />
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（Be clear about what exactly domestication or foreignization in your text means and who defines it. Use word “domestication” instead of “naturalization”in general.）--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====<br />
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.<br />
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However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." <br />
<br />
However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12) <br />
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We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese literary world. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.<br />
<br />
We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)<br />
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According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
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The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.<br />
(Here you used foreignization ,but above the paper,you use alienation,The specific concepts of context should be unified.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The cultural identity of translators in translation===<br />
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.<br />
(Here world literature is not very accurate, maybe you can say world translation)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====In terms of the original intention of translation====<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao himself said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much and so only that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's love for Shakespeare is so strong that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading Shakespeare, not eating it. <br />
<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believes that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius is to appreciate literature, the general public to read are popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "the highest art only a few people can understand ......, literature and art is not the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Byrd Byrd, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)<br />
(Here maybe you want to say Irving Babbitt not Byrd, plz check it again)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "My aim in translating this book is, first, to maintain the charm of the original work to the greatest extent possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey faithfully the meaning and feelings of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha plays more attention to the performance function of drama.<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)<br />
<br />
EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，<br />
伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，<br />
<br />
This man hath my consent to marry her．<br />
是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的<br />
<br />
Stand forth，Lysander．<br />
走上前来，拉山德。<br />
<br />
And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）<br />
殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子 （朱生豪. 2013：9）<br />
<br />
In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work. <br />
For example, his translation. <br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)<br />
<br />
拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!<br />
否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.<br />
<br />
First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:<br />
<br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)<br />
<br />
Translation of Liang Shiqiu:<br />
<br />
赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，<br />
<br />
否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。<br />
<br />
HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool: <br />
<br />
And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)<br />
<br />
海 上学时她就是个狐狸精。<br />
<br />
她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。<br />
<br />
Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966) <br />
Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature. <br />
<br />
For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.<br />
<br />
Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,<br />
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;<br />
There with fantastic garlands did she come,<br />
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,<br />
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.<br />
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:<br />
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds<br />
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,<br />
When down her weedy trophies and herself<br />
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;<br />
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;<br />
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one<br />
incapable of her own distress,<br />
Or like a creature native and indu’d<br />
Unto that element: but long it could not be<br />
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,<br />
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay<br />
To muddy death.<br />
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）<br />
<br />
The translation of Liang Shiqiu：<br />
(You can say Liang’s version :)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。 就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。 她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works. <br />
<br />
For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion. <br />
<br />
By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Fu Wenhui付文慧．多重文化身份下之戴乃迭英译阐释［The Interpretation of Dai Naidian's English Translation under Multiple Cultural Identities］中国翻译[ Chinese Translation]，2011，32(6):16—20．<br />
<br />
Yan Xiaojiang严晓江． 梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.<br />
<br />
Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.<br />
<br />
Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128.. <br />
<br />
Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.<br />
<br />
Wu Delu.吴得禄.译者文化身份对翻译的影响[The influence of translators' cultural identity on translation].读书文摘[Reading Digest].2016(08):211.<br />
<br />
Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．<br />
<br />
Liu Shuang刘双．文化身份与跨文化传播[Cultural identity and cross-cultural communication]外语学刊[Journal of Foreign Languages]，2000(1):87—91．<br />
<br />
Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪.译者自序[Translator's Preface].文学界(专辑版)[Literature (album edition)].2010(09):36.<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚 四大喜剧 梁实秋译[The Four Great Comedies translated by Liang Shiqiu].北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press].2001<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚． 仲夏夜之梦 朱生豪译．[A Midsummer Night's Dream translated by Zhu Shenghao].上海:上海世界图书出版公司 [Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company],2013．<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋 文学与革命.偏见集[Literature and Revolution. The collection of prejudices].南京:正中书局[Nanjing: Zhengzhong Shuji].中华民国二十三年七月.<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Toury's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Toury and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Toury also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Toury proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Toury describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Toury's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Toury concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Toury believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Toury is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Toury has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Toury emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Toury's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Toury's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Li Hongman 李红满. (2002). 论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J]. [On the Paradigm Shift in Contemporary Western Translation Studies]. 外语与翻译. [Foreign Languages and Translations]. <br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang 张美芳. (2000). 翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J]. [The Objectives and Structure of Translation Studies - A Review of Holmes' Vision of Translation Studies]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Toury Gideon. (2001). ''Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond''[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J]. [Translation Studies: From Specification to Description]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1996). A Skopos Theory of Translation[M]. Heidellburg:TEXT-con.<br />
<br />
Venuti Lawrence. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge.<br />
<br />
Snell-Homby Mary. (1995). Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M]. Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Hemans Theo (1985). ed.The manipulation of Literature[M]. London&Sydney:Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman, Liu Fang 韩子满, 刘芳. （2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J]. [Describe the achievements and shortcomings of translation studies]. 外语学刊. [Journal of Foreign Languages].<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M]. [New Horizons in Translation Studies]. 青岛:青岛出版社. [Qingdao:Qingdao Publishing House].<br />
<br />
==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==<br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655</center><br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655 亚非语言文学</center>--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract:=== <br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and deeply understand the status of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and helps the readers to understand deeply the status of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。<br />
<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，并深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.<br />
<br />
===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities of translation, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives have contributed to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of tranlation experience. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the translation study has became more systematic. Some researchers regard translation study as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered as "misleading reader" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements on translation theories varied all the time. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation activities. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 John MacFarlane====<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the Durhram University Journal. In his thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation, just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that there are often different reading methods when reading the same work even at the same time.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translated version. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something that it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic. Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention translation field at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Firth====<br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) <br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and this concept has produced the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context. Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 James Holmes====<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54） <br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. <br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship among descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text. Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out. After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches." Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, you have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. Taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to "a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Polysystem Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundary between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Gideon Toury<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations who are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, thus makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published in his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description. From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. <br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)<br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications, which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have been often taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.6 Snell-Hornby<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. <br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined，presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)<br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types. Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97) <br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：<br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts. <br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited by the study of equivalence between texts. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation". In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion (translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) <br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "a wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)'' with Li Yeguang and others' translations, and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56) This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) <br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect yet. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36) <br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury believes clearly that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6) In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Conclusion=== <br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.<br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short. There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro-analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Reference===<br />
Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.<br />
<br />
J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.<br />
<br />
Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Snell-Hornby.(1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman 韩子满，Liu Fang 刘芳（2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001).翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive <br />
to the Descriptive Approach].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).<br />
<br />
Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]<br />
<br />
Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰.(2002).多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).<br />
<br />
==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies== <br />
<br />
Translation Strategies <br />
<br />
===Abstract === <br />
<br />
Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.<br />
<br />
Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.<br />
<br />
This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers define them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical significance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)<br />
<br />
===Content===<br />
<br />
Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classifications from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classification is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classifications. It seems that clear-cut definitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype definitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)<br />
<br />
The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reflect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reflects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)<br />
<br />
The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp fiction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)<br />
<br />
Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the definitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few defining characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difficulty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).<br />
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or specific) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “specific activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle specific problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by specific techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classified by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
<br />
As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural filtering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
However, this is not consonant with the dictionary definitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is defined as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) defines translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will influence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identified the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identification, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal significant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can find out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) ==<br />
<br />
Darwish (2008) identifies four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70<br />
<br />
<br />
However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might influence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difficulty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Laffling(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.<br />
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== The Comparison of Machine Translation and Human Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory---A Case Study of E-C Translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example - 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan 202020080630==<br />
<br />
<center>欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Abstract (delete "Abstract here"):With the rapid development of globalization and (add "the" here) Internet, international communication is expanding, and a lot of information needs to be translated. Due to the low efficiency of human translation, machine translation is indispensable in (delete "in") today. However, due to the limitations of machine translation, the quality of machine translation is still worrying. Therefore, from the perspective of Skopos theory, this paper takes the E-C translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example to analyze the machine translation of Google translation and Baidu translation, and compare it with the translation of Song Zhaolin, so as to explore the characteristics of machine translation and human translation, try to discuss the irreplaceable nature of human translation, and discuss how to combine machine translation with human translation to improve the quality and efficiency of translation. This paper is divided into five parts: the first part introduces the background of the current translation environment; the second part introduces Skopos Theory and discusses the feasibility of Skopos Theory in analyzing machine translation and human translation; the third part introduces the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation and human translation, and discusses the relationship between them; the fourth part is a case study to see machine translation from the perspective of Skopos theory Compared with manual translation, it is concluded that machine translation and manual translation must be combined to improve the efficiency and quality of translation. The fifth part is a summary to (change "to" into "of") this paper.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaoliu<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Skopos Theory, machine translation, human translation<br />
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===题目===<br />
目的论视角下机器翻译和人工翻译的对比---以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着全球化和互联网的迅速发展，国际的交流日益扩大，大量信息需要翻译。由于人工翻译效率低下，在越来越强调效率和质量的今天，机器翻译必不可少。然而，由于机器翻译的局限性，机器翻译的质量仍然堪忧。因此,本文以目的论视角, 以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例，分析谷歌翻译和百度翻译的机器译文, 与宋兆霖版本的中文译本对比，由此探析机器翻译与人工翻译的特点,尝试论述人工翻译的不可替代性, 并讨论如何将机器翻译与人工翻译结合提高翻译的质量和效率。本文分为五个部分，第一部分对当前翻译环境背景的介绍；第二部分对目的论进行简介，并讨论目的论用于分析机器翻译和人工翻译的可行性；第三部分介绍机器翻译和人工翻译的优缺点，并讨论他们之间的关系；第四部分进行案例分析，从目的论视角下看机器翻译与人工翻译的对比，得出提高翻译效率与质量必须将机器翻译与人工翻译相结合。第五部分对全文进行总结。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
目的论 机器翻译 人工翻译 <br />
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===1. Introduction ===<br />
With the development of globalization, the growth of Internet and artificial intelligence, machine translation becomes an indispensable choice in today’s society. Compared with human translation, machine translation has the advantages of efficiency. As the traditional translation method, human translation can guarantee the accuracy of the text. In this information era, many people are thinking if（change "if" into "whether"）human translation will be replaced by machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
In September 2016, Google released the neural network translation system, which greatly improved the quality of machine translation. In November, Baidu CEO Robin Li stated at the Wuzhen Summit of the 3rd World Internet Conference that Baidu's artificial intelligence product "automatic translation" will enter a practical state. Therefore, this paper will put the original text of Tale of Two Cities in two representative public machine translation engines at home and abroad, "Google" and "Baidu", to obtain the machine translation. Selecting texts from the famous classical novel ''A Tale of Two Cities'', and comparing machine translations and human translations based on this novel from the perspective of Skopos theory. (change "." into ",") This (change "This" into "this") paper aims to investigate the relationship between human translation and machine translation and their developments in the future. (Hu Kaibao 2016, 10)--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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=== 2. Overview of Skopos Theory ===<br />
In the 1970s, some eminent German translation theory scholars first proposed functional translation theory. Translation theorist Katharina reiss divides text into three types: informative, expressive and operational. She suggested that according to different text types, different translation methods should be used for analysis, and different translation criticism standards should be adopted, that is, text types, language functions and translation strategies should be combined. In the translation process, it’s essential to focus on the functional characteristics of the target text. Her text type theory and translation criticism mode can be regarded as the beginning of functionalist Skopos theory. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
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Hans Vermeer is Reiss's student. He further developed Reiss's theory and proposed Skopos theory. He believed that Skopos theory is based on the source text, and then may produce a series of purposeful and effective behaviors. The core of this theory is that "the purpose of translation determines translation strategies and method to achieve the expected purpose of translation" (Reiss & Vermeer 1984), German scholars Justa Holz Manttari and Christian Nord further developed this theory which based on the theory of communication and behavior, he proposed that translation theory is not a simple translation between words and sentences, but a kind of conscious behavior for the purpose of cultural communication. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
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====2.1 Three Rules of Skopos Theory====<br />
The word “Skopos” is originated from the Greek language and means purpose. Skopos theory refers to the process of translation is determined by the purpose of the translation, so the purpose rule is the highest one of translation. Generally speaking, skopos theory includes three principles: Skopos rule, coherence rule (intra-textual coherence) and fidelity rule (also known as "inter-textual coherence"). (Nord 2001, 20)<br />
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Skopos theory believes that the important principle to be followed is the "purpose" rule, it is the core rule of Skopos Theory: the process of translation should be based on the realization of the communicative function in the target language culture, and the goal to be achieved determines the entire process of translation, that is, the method determines the result. Vermeer differentiated the purpose of translation. He believes that the purpose of translation should include three levels: the purpose of the translator; the purpose of communicative; the purpose of specific translation strategies.In most cases, any translator has a certain purpose before translation, such as being entrusted by a translation company, market demand or the need to introduce technology. In most cases, "purpose" refers to the communicative purpose of translation. Under the guidance of the purpose of communication, the translator can have more space to interpret and adjust the original text. (Nord 2001, 78)<br />
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To achieve the communicative and interative function between the target text and the target receptor, the target text needs to conform to the linguistic coherence, and be understood and accepted by the readers in the context of the target language and culture. The principle of coherence means that the target text must conform to the intra-textual coherence, that is, the translation must be understood by the target reader and meaningful in the culture of the target language and the communication environment in which the translation is used. “The principle of coherence requires that the information generated by the translator (target text) must be interpreted in a manner consistent with the context of the target reader.” (Shuttleworth 2004: 75) This means the translator should maximize the translation Semantic coherence and makes the translation understandable and acceptable to the target readers. The target text can help target readers understand and successfully exchange information.<br />
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The fidelity rule refers to the inter-textual coherence between the original text and the target text, which requires "consistency between the target text and the original text" (Munday, 2010: 79). Therefore, in the translation process, the translator should not only be faithful to the original text, but also transfer the writing style and cultural factors existed in the source text. This principle requires translator to follow the purpose of translation.<br />
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In the process of translation, translators should follow three principles according to Skopos Theory: the Skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. Among these three rules in Skopos Theory, the skopos rule is the primary principle translators should adopt in the process of translation, and the coherence rule and the fidelity rule must follow the skopos rule. So in the case of translation practice, fidelity rule is subordinate to coherence rule, and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule. In a word, Skopos rule plays a decisive role in translation process, which should be considered first in translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011, 20)<br />
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====2.3 Application of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory is different from traditional theories which overemphasize the features of language rules. With regard to Skopos Theory, it requires that translators should not only consider the language but also take account of factors beyond texts and language like the purpose of translation. As for ''A Tale of Two Cities'', the purpose is to make the target reader feel the same as the source target reader. Since this is a literary text, the cultural factors and rhetorical methods used in the source texts should be reflected on the target text. In addition, the feeling of the target text reader should be taken into consideration in the process of translation. Therefore, the translation should conform to habits of the target language. But guided by Skopos Theory, the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation can be easily analyzed, so that a better solution can be founded between human translation and machine translation. <br />
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===3. Machine Translation and Human Translation===<br />
Translation activities have a long history. As far as China is concerned, translation has a history of more than two thousand years. However, the translation tools have rarely changed, and the translations are always been done by "translators". With the development of science and technology and the acceleration of globalization, there is an increasing need for translation, and "machine" translation has emerged. The advantages of high efficiency and low cost of machine translation make people think about whether machine translation will replace human translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of human translation====<br />
Human translation has both advantages and disadvantages. For example, human translation has the characteristics of flexibility, accuracy, high readability and humanization of language. At the same time, however, compared with machine translation, human translation is less efficient and easy to be influenced by translator's own cultural background and translation capacity so it is difficult to achieve rapid development. Before the advent of machine translation, all translation activities were done by human. Compared with machine translation, translators, as a bridge of cross-cultural communication, are more flexible. Translation itself is a complex activity. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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Professional translators who have certain cultural background knowledge can choose different translation methods and strategies according to the similarities and differences between the two languages and cultures, so it is more flexible and accurate. The flexibility of human language enables the translator to express the meaning of the original text in a more abundant language, and accurately handle the rhetorical devices in the original text. Therefore, the target text of human translation must be more readable than machine translation. Human translation has a long history, and people's research on translation has never stopped. Many excellent translators have emerged in the world and put forward various translation ideas and strategies. Translation has established a relatively mature and complete theory. With the rapid development of China's economy and the increasing number of foreign exchanges, the demand for translation is on the rise. At the same time, the time spend on translation needs to be shortened. Therefore, manual translation alone cannot meet the needs of the translation market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of machine translation====<br />
Machine translation refers to a language can be transferred into another language automatically with the help of machine. The idea of machine translation was firstly put forward by Weaver in his book Translation in 1949(Weaver, 1955). Since the end of the 20th century, the development of the Internet and computer technology has provided more optional software and engines for machine translation. At the same time, the corpus has become richer and more complete, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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The current machine translation is based on the "Neural Machine Translation" (NMT) model of artificial intelligence. Currently, the popular web page machine translations include Youdao Translation, Baidu Translation, Google Translation and so on. Google is currently in a leading position in both voice translation and text translation. Google Translation is a service provided by Google to translate texts and web pages, providing instant translation between more than 100 languages. It can provide translations of words, sentences and web pages between any two languages it supports. The more human translation documents that can be analyzed for a particular language, the higher the quality of the translation. In addition, Google's web page translation is fast, especially free to use, so it has a considerable number of users in translation activities, especially among students. Therefore, this paper will take Google Translation and Baidu Translation as an example to analyze the translation quality, which is representative in the market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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Generally speaking, machine translation has the characteristics of high efficiency, low cost, accuracy of terminology translation, and great development potential. Machine translation is fast and efficient, which is unmatched by human translation. Secondly, the price of machine translation is low, even free, which greatly reduces the economic cost and time cost for those who do not require high translation quality. In addition, compared to human translation, the huge corpus established by machine translation makes the translation of some terms, especially the latest scientific and technological terms, faster and more accurate. The accurate translation of these terms requires continuous learning by the translator, and learning requires a process, which has a certain test of the translator's learning ability and learning speed. At this point, human translation has uncertainty and lag. Finally, although the history of machine translation is short, it has achieved rapid development. With the advancement of science and technology and the development of society, the functions of machine translation will be more perfect and the quality of translation will be better. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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First of all, from a microscopic point of view, machine translation often has problems in the choice of word meaning, especially when there is one word with different meaning. It needs the translator to select the meaning based on the context, while machine translation cannot accurately choose the meaning of a word in combination with the context. What’s more, the word order of the translated sentence often does not conform to the word order and expression habits of the target language. From the aspect of tense, it is more accurate when translating English into Chinese, because words in English can directly change tense. However, there are sometimes problems such as no corresponding tenses when translating Chinese into English. From a macro point of view, machine translation does not have cultural sensitivity and is not accurate enough for the translation of some idioms and proverbs with strong cultural color. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.3 Relationship between machine translation and human translation====<br />
Machine translation is based on human translation, and the establishment of corpus that machine translation relies on needs human participation. When translating technical terms, machine translation corpus and parallel text can greatly reduce the time when find and determine proper equivalent terms. However, the establishment of these corpora needs to rely on well translated materials. The accuracy and usability of corpus are also affected by the quality of human translation. Therefore, they restrict and influence each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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There are more or less defects in the micro and macro aspects of machine translation. At the micro level, it mainly includes vocabulary, syntax, tense, and so on. However, at the macro level, it mainly includes text cohesion and cultural background. Therefore, human translation is essential. In addition, all machine translation inspection, modification, sorting and other work must also be carried out manually, so as to make the translation quality better and meet the requirements of communication. It can be seen that machine translation alone cannot meet the requirements of high quality translation. Translation activities cannot be separated from human participation. Therefore, with the development of machine translation, translation should be completed by both machine and human. The two are related, influenced with each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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===4. Case Study from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===<br />
A Tale of Two Cities is a long historical novel by British writer Charles Dickens, first published in 1859. The story is set in the French Revolution and has a touching plot. It is one of the world's literary classics. The twin cities refer to Paris and London. The story connects these two cities and tells the story of the Parisian doctor Manette. He was persecuted by the brothers of the Marquis St. Evremonde due to injustice and was detained in the Bastille prison for 18 years. After being released from prison, Mannette's daughter Lucie fell in love with the enemy's son Darney. Thus, in the whirlpool of the French Revolution, scenes of family grievances and hatred were staged grandly. Life and death, good and evil are blended in conflict and changed in an instant. On the guillotine, Carton calmly sacrificed his life for love. （Dickens 2016）<br />
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A Tale of Two Cities has a rigorous structure and condensed language. Dickens's profound thinking on revolution and humanity and his breathtaking writing talent are fully demonstrated. This paper selects the most representative classic sentences in the text for comparative analysis of translation, studies whether neural network machine translation software can accurately translate classic literary works, and explores whether neural network machine translation replaces manual translation in the context of artificial intelligence. The human translation was by Zhaolin Song. Among the many translation versions in China, Song’s translation was regarded as the version which closes to the source text most. (Feng Baoyin 2018, 232)<br />
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====4.1 Case Study from the perspective of Skopos Rule====<br />
In Vermeer’ opinion, the dominant rule for any translation should be the skopos rule, which means that a translation action is determined by its purposes. That is to say, the translation action should be in accordance with the target context and culture. The purposes of target text determine the translation strategies and methods used in translation process. A good translation should conform to the target culture and target audiences’ expectations. According to Nord, “Skopos of a particular translation task may require a ‘free’ or a ‘faithful’ translation, or anything between these two extremes, depending on the purpose for which the translation is needed”. Once the intended purposes are achieved, the translation will be considered as reasonable and proper. It is unnecessary for the translation to be equivalent to the source text. (Nord 1997, 102 )<br />
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Example 1: We were all going direct to heaven, we were all going direct the other way--in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
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Google translation: 我们都直接去天堂，我们都直接去天堂- -简而言之，这一时期与目前的时期如此遥远，以至于它的一些最吵闹的当局坚持以最高的比较程度来接受它是好是坏。<br />
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Baidu translation: 我们是所有的人都直接去天堂，我们都朝着另一个方向去——简而言之，这个时期和现在的时代非常相似，以至于一些最吵闹的权威坚持要接受它，不管是好是坏，只是在最高级的比较中。<br />
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Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 我们大家都在直升天堂，我们大家都在直下地狱——简而言之，那个时代和当今这个时代是如此相似，因而一些吵嚷不休的权威们也坚持认为，不管它是好是坏，都只能用“ 最……”来评价它。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 20)<br />
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Analysis: <br />
Since this is selected from a novel, the purpose of translation should be express the meaning and beauty of the source text. According to the Google translation, it made a mistake in translating "We were all going directly the other way". The translated meaning is totally different from the original. As to Baidu translation, it expressed the meaning of the original text, while the expression way will confuse the target text reader. In regards to human translation, the translator of this edition adopts the combination of literal translation and free translation. In this way, the translation not only clearly expresses the original meaning, but also takes into account the literariness of the work, so that readers can feel the characteristics of the times more vividly.<br />
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====4.2 Case study from the perspective of coherence rule====<br />
Coherence rule is also called “intra-textual coherence”, which means that the translation should be acceptable and understandable for the target audiences and be meaningful in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received. In other words, the target text should conform to the target receivers’ situation, including their given knowledge, background culture and specific circumstances. (Nord 1997, 120)<br />
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Example 2: Questions, questions, questions! (Charles Dickens 2016, 56)<br />
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Google Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
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Baidu Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
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Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 问题一个接一个地提出来！(Song Zhaolin 2005, 68)<br />
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Analysis: In this sentence, the original text uses three "questions" in a row to enhance the tone. However, Google and Baidu Translation directly translated it to "问题，问题，问题！". It sounds too blunt to read. The target text translated by Google and Baidu cannot reflect the meaning of the original text. What's more, it makes target readers hard to get meaning of the text. While the translator chose the free translation method to make the translation more natural and smooth. The translated text followed the coherence rule in the process of translation.<br />
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Example 3: But just because he had a powerful enemy---an enemy with the power to send him to prison and to keep him there, hidden and forgotten, for eighteen years. (Charles Dickens 2016, 102)<br />
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Google translation: 但是仅仅因为他有一个强大的敌人-一个有能力将他送进监狱并将其隐藏和遗忘在监狱里长达十八年的敌人。<br />
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Baidu translation:只是因为他有一个强大的敌人，一个有能力把他送进监狱，把他关在那里，隐藏起来，被遗忘18年。<br />
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Human translation(Song Zhaolin): 而只是因为他有一个强大的敌人-这个敌人拥有权势将他投进监狱，而且把他在那里与世隔绝、被人遗忘地关了18年。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 130)<br />
<br />
<br />
Analysis: In terms of grammar, English uses long sentences, which are connected by functional words, such as conjunctions, prepositions and relative words. The syntactic structure is relatively complex and it is a hypotactic language. Chinese is a paratactic language. In the process of E-C translation, we often use disassembly syntax to translate a long and complex English sentence into several short and simple Chinese short sentences. From Google Translation, it directly translated the structure of the original text. The target text created by Google translation doesn't conform to target language structure. While the translation of Baidu almost in accordance with the target language structure. As to the human translation, not only was the structure, but also the meaning was perfectly expressed.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Case study from the perspective of fidelity rule====<br />
Fidelity rule is also named by Vermeer as “intertextual coherence”, which puts emphasis on the relationship between the source text and target text. Based on Skopos theory, fidelity rule requires that the target text should be in accordance with the source text, which means the information contained in the source text should be exactly conveyed by the target text under the translators’ efforts. (Nord 1997, 140)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 1: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
<br />
Google Translation: 那是最美好的时光，那是最糟糕的时光，那是智慧的时代，那是愚昧的时代，那是信仰的时代，那是轻信的时代，那是光明的季节， 是黑暗的季节，是希望的春天，是绝望的冬天，我们眼前的一切，眼前的一切。<br />
<br />
Baidu Translation: 那是最好的时代，最坏的时代，智慧的时代，愚昧的时代，信仰的时代，不信的时代，光明的季节，黑暗的季节，希望的春天，绝望的冬天，我们面前什么都有，面前什么都没有。 <br />
<br />
Human Translation (Zhaolin Song): : 那是最美好的时代，那是最糟糕的时代；那是个睿智的年月，那是个蒙昧的年月；那是信心百倍的时期，那是疑虑重重的时期；那是阳光普照的季节，那是黑暗笼罩的季节；那是充满希望的春天，那是让人绝望的冬天；我们面前无所不有，我们面前一无所有。（Song Zhaolin 2005, 20）<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is the classic opening paragraph in "A Tale of Two Cities", and it can be said to be very popular. On the whole, because of the simple structure of this paragraph, the three machine-translated translations all accurately express the content of the original text, but one shortcoming is that it is difficult for machine translation to express the unique beauty of rhythm of the original text.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the translation of commonly used machine translation software and human translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, we can conclude that for the translation of literary works, machine translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text, even equal to manual translation if it is some simple sentence expression. However, the quality of machine translation needs to be improved some sentences with complex sentence patterns and difficult grammatical structures. Therefore, the translation of literary works by machine translation still has a long way to go.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
The main purpose of this paper is to find a better solution between machine translation and human translation under the guidance of the Skopos Theory for optimizing weaknesses of machine translation platforms, which not only generates solutions to errors, but also improves the quality of machine translation. <br />
<br />
Theoretically, this paper applies Skopos Theory to guide human translation and machine translation of literary texts. Machine translation can be regarded as a basis of human translation, while those errors caused by machine translation can be improved manually after the completion of machine translation. Meanwhile, human translation by employing appropriate translation methods and techniques, such as semantic conversion, amplification, omission and so on, human translation based on machine translation enormously solves errors of machine translation which further optimizes weaknesses of machine translation. Human translation process also becomes more efficient with the help of machine. <br />
As for machine translation, firstly, machine translation platforms can’t replace translators on account of its incomplete corpus and limitations in transferring the cultural meaning. Secondly, errors at lexical level caused by defects of machine translation are much more than that at syntactical level in F396P Aircraft Tow Tractor Maintenance Instruction. Lastly, machine translation platforms are restricted to contexts of language, situation and culture which lead to incorrect target text. <br />
<br />
In regard with human translation, from the perspective of Skopos theory, human translation is more understandable and readable to target readers than that of machine translation. It’s essential for the translator to know typical errors in machine translation, features of chose machine translation platforms and characteristics of source text, which could fascinate the efficiency of translation. All in all, machine translation platforms enhance the efficiency of translating large amount of material and human translation provides a solution for machine translation of poor quality. Machine translation and human translation are complement to each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2016). A Tale of Two Cities. Macmillian.<br />
<br />
* Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2011). 中国译学大辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China] 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
* Feng Baoyin冯宝茵 (2018). 从读者反应论对比两个《双城记》译本 [A comparative study of two versions of a tale of two cities from the perspective of reader response theory]. 北方文学, Northern Literature (36):232.<br />
<br />
* Hu Kaibao & Li Yi胡开宝 & 李翼. (2016). 机器翻译特征及其与人工翻译关系的研究. [Research on the characteristics of machine translation and its relationship with human translation] 中国翻译 Chinese Translation (05),10-14. <br />
<br />
* Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
<br />
* Mark Shuttleworth (2004). Dictionary of Translation Studies. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 75.<br />
<br />
* Munday, J. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application. London: Routeledge. 78.<br />
<br />
* Reiss, K & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
* Song Zhaolin宋兆霖 (2005). 双城记 A Tale of Two Cities 中国戏剧出版社, China Drama Press.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=116866History of Translation Studies 102020-12-20T15:17:40Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing 英语笔译 202070080581==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of original language and target language, but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, have not been covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. <br />
<br />
During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also made a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, one needs to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. <br />
<br />
The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures.Similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language.<br />
<br />
In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis.That is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, in which verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator is not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which is direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, translators are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word, which makes it even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence in form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with are going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, translators have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example,“Take care. Hope to see you soon.” is polite and emotional way to express our feelin .<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , translators have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, translators have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to translator's mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, translators can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, translators have to consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore,proper translation skills are needed to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes translators can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases they will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
It is obvious that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, translators can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or free translation based on functional equivalence. In daily life, Chinese people often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus the sentence will be translated into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, it can be seen that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, translators need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but trasnslators have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, translators need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, translators can figure out exactly his characteristics and reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. Translators will find different types of texts in the process of translation and must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.<br />
<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. <br />
<br />
According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, can the translation be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654 法语语言文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
The success of Hao Jingfang's science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", which won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016, could not have been achieved without the rigorous translation work of Ken Liu. The translation of this novel takes the response of the readers of the translated text as the starting point, preserving the meaning and style of the novel while effectively conveying Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of functional equivalence theory that "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". Nida's functional equivalence theory, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has had a profound influence on the translation studies of various literary genres in China. This paper examines the English translation of "Folding Beijing", analyzes Ken Liu's use of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory in his translation, and shows the value of functional equivalence theory for the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", the future Beijing is overpopulated. To solve this crisis, it is transformed into a hierarchical Folding City. The Folding City is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours. The first space is occupied by the upper class of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; the second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; and the third space is occupied by the lower class, who have only eight hours of night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants to send his daughter to a good school, and in order to earn money, he ventures into the first, second and third spaces to deliver letters to others. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and many Chinese native words. The cultural differences between China and the West due to regional factors and customs are a major challenge for translation. The translator must not only consider the reader's understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local color in the work is not removed. The theory of functional equivalence suggests that translation should not be confined to form, and the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text in order to achieve equivalence of content and information.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory has had a profound impact on China and has brought translators new and effective methods of translation guidance. We can see that Ken Liu is also trying to achieve balance and harmony between the translation and the original text when he translates science fiction novels. This paper analyzes the English translation of "Folding Beijing" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory and explores how translators achieve the closest equivalence to the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:11）<br />
<br />
===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, explained dynamic equivalence translation in his influential book,''Toward a Science of Translating''. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, focusing on the equivalence of the reader's response, not just the equivalence of content and form.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
In "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defines dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translated reader's reaction to the translation should be the same as the original reader's reaction.（Nida,2004:24）<br />
<br />
Because dynamic equivalence was controversial in some respects, Nida replaced it with a more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment required to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. Since a functionally equivalent translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language message, the translator's achievement of functional equivalence follows three principles.In his book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did".(Nida 1993:118)<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the response of the reader of the recipient language, and(3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defines the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory,namely from the form and content of the message to the reader's response. It differs from traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the readers of the original text, it can be regarded as functional equivalence of the target language. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s reaction to the translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida and Taber point out that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning will be discussed in this chapter at three levels: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these are the three levels of detailed analysis of lexicon, syntax, and discourse. According to the theory of functional equivalence, translation is not only about word-for-word equivalence, but also about discovering the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in translation of ''Folding Beijing'' from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.(Nida,2004:12)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:（Din Juan,2011:22）<br />
<br />
In literary translation, it is always a challenge to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, and they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is the most appropriate. In the English translation of Beijing Folding, there are many examples of how the translation can achieve functional equivalence with the original at the lexical level, as follows: (Ding Juan, 2011:22)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
<br />
"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）<br />
<br />
"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", In this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention and conveys what appears to be a bad temper. --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）<br />
<br />
"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to show the original meaning.<br />
<br />
The author did not literally translate “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is owing to the translator's own understanding of the text, he hopes readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to convey the original meaning.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
<br />
Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
Syntax, as a rule, refers to the study of how to construct sentences correctly with the words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the readers. Translators should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.（Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
The differences between English and Chinese grammar are mainly reflected in three aspects. First, the use of conjunctions and relational words in English is very frequent. Secondly, English speakers focus on object consciousness and are accustomed to the order from small to large objects and from specific to general; in Chinese texts, there is usually a chronological order of time, space or cause and effect. Finally, English usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while Chinese tends to process information from the stale to the fresh in order to impress (Ding Juan, 2011: 24).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original, we must not only translate the meaning of the words, but also translate the syntactic structure into the appropriate form. The following are examples of how the English translation of Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence with the original at the syntactic level:（Din Juan,2011:24）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
" 现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。'他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。'他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’" （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）<br />
<br />
"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this passage, the translator clearly adjusted the word order, pushing what the same person said before the pause to the next sentence to fit the logic of the English reader." Selection should also be liberalized" ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the reader, so the reader adds to this sentence and translates it as "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", the translator perfectly explains the meaning of "放开".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015) <br />
<br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like "…childhood that…".<br />
<br />
In this passage, the text emphasizes "the past" twice. To achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order by placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences instead of using subordinate clause like"... childhood that...".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, such as "as if", "from where", "that", etc. This is because the syntax of the two languages is different.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.(Din Juan,2011:27）<br />
<br />
Nida argues that readers may have difficulty accepting an approximate formal translation due to the intricacies of the discourse structure and the preconceived knowledge of the original content. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a "rewriting" approach to make the translation acceptable to the reader. In literary translation, the translator must pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be comparable to the original text in terms of discourse level. A dialogue from Folding Beijing and its English translation is selected below as an example of literary translation achieving functional equivalence at the discourse level:(Ding Juan,2011:27)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself." <br />
<br />
Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
<br />
"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.<br />
<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
<br />
Conversational conventions in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made in translation. The form of the dialogue is not exactly translated from Chinese, but the understanding of the text is the same for the readers. For example, "夹了新上来的热菜" is translated as "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", and the translator changes the action to "spoon", which is more in line with Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as the girl in the first space to spoon the dish to the old knife."推给老刀" is translated as "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", which adds some actions to make it more vivid.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
<br />
Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Each writer has his or her own writing style, which no one can imitate perfectly. In other words, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows linguistic characteristics, and the English translation shows the translator's attempt to achieve functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
<br />
First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form, the counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vibrant scenes, and enhance the effectiveness of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to "深渊", and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalent.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated, only translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
<br />
It is a metaphorical sentence and words like "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated. They are translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
<br />
"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks and arms", and "like the humblest servants", the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
<br />
This paragraph has a personification that "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks, and arms" and are "like the humblest of servants," and the use of rhetoric allows people to imagine the folding diagram of the city through the image of a person. By comparing the buildings to a herd of beasts, it shows its scale and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)<br />
<br />
"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
<br />
In this sentence, "怪胎" is translated as "monster" and "born" conveys the same meaning, so the translator did not have any trouble.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
<br />
Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.（Din Juan,2011:33）<br />
<br />
The dialect reflects the local characteristics and is the author's own writing style. Sometimes this is a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator deals with this problem. (Dingjuan, 2011:33)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the use of either rhetoric or dialect in literary works fully reflects the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, translators should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the way of expressing stylistic differences and find out the best way to compensate for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve the maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:47）<br />
<br />
Cultural differences between two languages are also issues that translators should be aware of in the translation process. People who are exposed to different cultures have different ways of thinking, values, social customs, etc. Translators need to understand both cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this point, translation plays a role in intercultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the reader so that the translation achieves cultural equivalence with the original text. This chapter will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of food culture, folk culture, and idiom culture to show how it achieves functional equivalence with the original text. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:47)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
<br />
The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.（Din Juan,2011:39）<br />
<br />
The city described in Folding Beijing is the political and cultural center of China, a city with deep cultural accumulation. In the novel, there are many elements belonging to traditional Chinese food culture. This part will analyze how the translator managed to translate these cuisines into a successful counterpart.（Din Juan,2011:39）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"炒面"is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
<br />
"炒面" is a famous traditional Chinese snack. Translators translate it as "chow mein" instead of "Chinese chow mein". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means Chinese-style fried noodles with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also gives the reader a more intuitive idea of what the dish is.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)<br />
<br />
"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, "白酒" is translated into "baijiu" , the translator doesn't use the word like "spirits", it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
<br />
Here, foreignization method is used, and "白酒" is translated as "baijiu". The translator does not use words like "spirits", which retains Chinese cultural characteristics and achieves a communicative effect at the same time.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）<br />
<br />
The characteristic of this dish is that it is first boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator has captured this feature in his translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", which is made with pork, and he hopes that readers of the English translation will see the image of this dish in their minds, just like the Chinese do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique lifestyles, customs, behavior patterns, etc. in terms of vocabulary. The following will analyze the functional equivalence of translation in folk culture. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:52).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he uses the word "shared" and he adds the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where friends and relatives share several dishes among themselves. The purpose of the passage is to show the boy's poverty. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, where Westerners behave differently, so he uses the word "sharing" and adds the word "family style" to make it easier for the reader to understand this behavior.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)<br />
<br />
"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is one of the major characteristics of Chinese culture. People from the same hometown share similar living habits, upbringing and cultural background, so even strangers can get acquainted quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao are from the third dimension, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective." 管事儿" means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word to make it easy for readers to understand.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. "心意" means money, which is an euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In translation, the translator also considered an euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word "appreciation".<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan says that she hopes Lao Dao will help her keep her secret, so she wants to use money to give Lao Dao." 心意" means money, which is a Chinese euphemism when it is not convenient to give money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered it a euphemism, so the word "appreciation" was used.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the vast and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people use these idioms in their daily life and writing, but some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and it is important to pay attention to the differences between the two cultures when translating them.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", the translator translated it into "ate heartily", although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
The author uses many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", which the translator translates as "to eat in a heartbeat". Although the translation is easy to understand, without the image of a person eating very hungry, it seems that English readers cannot achieve the same understanding and reaction as Chinese readers from the perspective of functional equivalence.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And "（盘子）一片狼藉"translated into "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" translated into "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
<br />
And "(盘子)一片狼藉" is translated as "the plate is a mess", which is a description of a messy situation on the plate. And "the beauty of adulthood" is translated as "in that case, I am doing a good deed by keeping quiet", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe how Lao Dao felt that he kept the secret that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might be together in the future. The translator translated the phrase abstractly into the English translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）<br />
<br />
The English translation of Folding Beijing is analyzed from three aspects of meaning, style, and culture using this paper's functional equivalence theory, and it is concluded that the English translation meets the English readers' understanding of the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and reciprocal Chinese translation of Folding Beijing for English readers. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:56)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyze from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Folding Beijing" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western cultures, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functionally equivalent translation. Analyzing the English version of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture, we can see that linguistically, although Chinese and English are very different in logic and grammar, and there are many differences between Chinese and Western cultures, the translator still tries to keep the original content and find more suitable words in the translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）<br />
<br />
In some specific contents, the translators do not translate into exactly the same form, which is also in line with Nida's theory of functional equivalence, because Nida also suggests that translation should not be limited to form, and the translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's functional equivalence theory does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction novels, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang.(2015).Folding Beijing[J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang郝景芳.(2016).孤独深处[The Depth of Loneliness].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社[Nanjing:Jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing,LTD]：1-40<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(1993)Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：118<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(2001)Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A. & Taber.(2004) Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：12-24<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999).新编奈达论翻译[A new version of Nida's theory on translation].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation]<br />
<br />
Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009).翻译学概论[Introduction to translatology].南京：译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press]<br />
<br />
Zhao Dandan赵丹丹.(2011).浅论奈达的功能对等理论[Nida's theory of functional equivalence].湖北：文学教育[Hubei:Literature Education]<br />
<br />
Zhou Xingyang周兴阳.(2018).从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[Chinese Science Fiction Translation in the Perspective of Functional Equivalence-A case Study of Beijing Zhe Die and its English Version-Folding Beijing].新疆大学[Xinjiang University]<br />
<br />
Wang Guiyuan王桂圆.(2018)系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[A Study on The Translation of Folding Beijing from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics].安徽：海外英语[Anhui：Overseas English]<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
<center>余妮 Yu Ni No.202070080620</center><br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s version has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. <br />
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“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
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Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
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The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) which was co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable, for it has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. With the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
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The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The following chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author makes a conclusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.<br />
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In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, according to the nature of translation. He pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).<br />
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The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, we should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural reaction of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
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Firstly, we should create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully displays the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture concepts cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost not much snow in southern China all year round. Therefore, based on their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabularies. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Re-creation” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).<br />
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Oscar Wilde, born in Dublin, Ireland, is a “born for art” writer. He was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In this play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies, revealing the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)<br />
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Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared to previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
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Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections. Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
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He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was first published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, his translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest—Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. <br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.<br />
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“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but in different meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)<br />
<br />
It not only facilitated the needs of the audience but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience would be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
<br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same. <br />
<br />
In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language remain the same.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.<br />
<br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
<br />
“There are many allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
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(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
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(1) ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. <br />
<br />
(2) CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack. Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can still benefit from them. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’ s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).<br />
<br />
An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012). <br />
<br />
Paradox is a device favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed. Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
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(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. <br />
<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect. In example 4, what amused the audience was the conclusion contrary to the reasons.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With it, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the readers will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Antithesis======<br />
<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. <br />
<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators. Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty. Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than the source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in the target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.<br />
<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we may have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is the most popular one among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is the variety of rhetorical devices. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, too. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019). <br />
<br />
<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we can have a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”. In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce better translation. Even though we can gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
<br />
Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
<br />
Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
<br />
Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
<br />
Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
<br />
Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
<br />
Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen 202020080603== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
With the development of economic globalization,exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand.The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice. Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
<br />
===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. <br />
<br />
The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)<br />
<br />
The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicit, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)<br />
<br />
The first is the implied meaning(implictit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is explicit, which the speaker actually says content.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. <br />
<br />
Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understanding:the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
<br />
understanding: the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and though contend to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. --[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)<br />
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===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)<br />
<br />
Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
<br />
===2. Literary Review===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. <br />
<br />
At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
<br />
Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===<br />
<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
<br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
<br />
On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
<br />
===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
<br />
===3.1 Free Translation===<br />
<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
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===3.2 Addition of Message===<br />
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Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
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===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===<br />
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As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
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The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)<br />
<br />
The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
<br />
*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-166.<br />
<br />
*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
<br />
*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
<br />
*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.<br />
<br />
* Mao Yueyue, Liu Fan. 毛新月, 刘帆. (2018). 释意理论指导下的会议口译中四字词语的翻译——以习近平总书记十九届中共中央政治局常委同中外记者见面会讲话为例. [Translation of four-letter words in conference interpretation under the guidance of interpretation theory - taking the speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the meeting between the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the 19th CPC Central Committee and Chinese and foreign journalists as an example]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](12): 230-231.<br />
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* Ouyang Changyi. 欧阳长怡. (2010). 论释意理论指导下的记者招待会口译策略及释意训练. [On Interpretation Strategies and Interpretation Training of Press Conference under the Guidance of Interpretation Theory]. 福建省外国语文学会.福建省外国语文学会2010年年会论文集. [Fujian Foreign Language Society. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference of Fujian Foreign Language Society]. 福建省外国语文学会: 福建省外国语文学会[Fujian Foreign Language Society: Fujian Foreign Language Society]<br />
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* Xiong Wen. 熊雯. (2014). 释意理论视阙下的口译过程研究. [A study of interpretation process under the view of interpretation theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](24): 154-155.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe. 张杨,李灵哲. (2018). 释意理论指导下的翻译语义策略运用. [The use of translation semantic strategies under the guidance of interpretation theory]. ''佳木斯职业学院学报'' [Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10): 334-336.<br />
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='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
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<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
The “article” would better to be “paper” The “problem” would better to be “ disputation” or “controversy”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 09:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being.<br />
Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time, until they entered China along trade routes from Central Asia in the first century AD.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
Chnese—Chinese please keep your tense consistency. There should be some conjunctions to make it more logical.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
adhere strictly to — strictly adhere to; the form similarity— the similarity in form--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
three period —three periods. Please keep your tense consistency. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
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it was not so widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier that it is of great …into Chinese, hence translators of Buddhist scriptures Constantly emerge. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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He translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures in total. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
“Transliteration” “ the same as”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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Please keep the tense consistency. “while ignoring”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures.<br />
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“mainstream” —“dominant”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
<br />
“then can only…”—“they” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
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=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
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Buddhism believer is not “only”limited to--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
Please keep your tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The principle of “Five Losses…” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
“by private”—“privately”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. <br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25).<br />
India— Indian--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness.<br />
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Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
“arrived”—“reached” “under his efforts”—“with his efforts” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
There is some overlaps “at the beginning” and “at the early days”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
metaphysics— and metaphysics--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
There are many commas without conjunctions.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
The words with mystery? Can it be the words with the sense of mystery?--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
but also has — but also had --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
The —the translation workshop system please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
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=== References ===<br />
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223<br />
<br />
Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308<br />
<br />
Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.<br />
<br />
Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University <br />
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Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.<br />
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Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.<br />
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Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70. <br />
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Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press<br />
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Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.<br />
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WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
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He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
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Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
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Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
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==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi ==<br />
<center>成于思 Cheng Yusi No.202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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André Lefevere; ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook''; Liu Miqing; ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''; “cultural turn”; John Dryden; translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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安德烈·勒菲弗尔;《翻译，历史和文化论集》; 刘宓庆;《中西翻译思想对比研究》;文化转向;约翰·德莱登;翻译原则<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. Dryden's comparison of a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
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===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
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''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies. <br />
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In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii) <br />
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Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)<br />
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If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.<br />
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The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements, which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)<br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it brings those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others. <br />
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I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47) <br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "an author and a translator" to "a master and a slave" through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.(Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)<br />
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Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
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Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracts an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)<br />
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In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102) <br />
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Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating poems in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103) <br />
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As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Dryden proposes a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)<br />
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It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. <br />
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Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compares a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)<br />
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Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars, like Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014) <br />
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A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works were with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)<br />
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Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73) <br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)<br />
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===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
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In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2) <br />
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In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. <br />
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Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
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The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33) <br />
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He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)<br />
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Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)<br />
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Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179) <br />
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The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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However, he also recognizes that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School and New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented", and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories which can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current superficial, assertive and rational views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)<br />
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The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)<br />
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Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)<br />
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Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulated that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)<br />
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Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987) <br />
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In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation principles that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the feature of the tradition of Chinese translation changes from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)<br />
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As such, the flourishing of translation is bound to be our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) <br />
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The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51) <br />
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The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
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The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)<br />
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Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem.(Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate Chinese poems, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility, it expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
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Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
<br />
Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argues that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provides a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)<br />
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===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
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===4.1 From the aspect of the content===<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
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===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===<br />
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Both of these two books are arranged in theme rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters, which are concerned with the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. As to the longer essays, they are collected in the last chapter. <br />
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Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includs the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps readers understanding translation principles.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have better understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of a translator to a slave. Then, it figures out the reasons of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
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Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
===关键词===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
===Introuction===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.<br />
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Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
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Ancient Translation Period<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（quotation missing）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
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A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（paragraph too long）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: <br />
<br />
(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. ) <br />
<br />
Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. <br />
<br />
The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)<br />
<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.<br />
<br />
Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. <br />
<br />
The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. <br />
<br />
These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. <br />
<br />
Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. <br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. <br />
<br />
The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. <br />
<br />
Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)<br />
<br />
===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)<br />
<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. <br />
<br />
The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. <br />
<br />
Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. <br />
<br />
This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).<br />
<br />
The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. <br />
<br />
The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
===Trends in Translation Theory Research===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. <br />
<br />
In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980.<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
<br />
[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645 MTI 英语口译==<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
<br />
Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
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1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 2<br />
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云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
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Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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<br />
Example 3<br />
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花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just in the south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 4 <br />
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Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
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With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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Example 7<br />
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番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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Example 10<br />
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Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
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Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 11<br />
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我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 12<br />
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“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 13<br />
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耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 14<br />
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“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
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"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 15<br />
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我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
===''' References '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==<br />
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center><br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence on the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
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For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation was regarded as a linguistic phenomena before. But later, with the development of the translation theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science, especially linguistics, can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
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This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
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==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology at home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
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'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
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In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recording two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)<br />
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Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)<br />
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J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and regarded seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure. (J.A Catford , 1965)<br />
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Holmes published The Name and Nature of Translation Studies at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation, which directly promoted the construction of translation studies. ( James Holmes,1975)<br />
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In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from several aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing the translation practice. (Wolfram Wilss, 1982)<br />
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Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is Discourse and the Translator (1990), which is the first book to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers. (Hatim & Mason,1990 )<br />
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Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believed that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
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Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies. (Mona Baker, 2006) <br />
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'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
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In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were using correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books would be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe. (Dong Qiusi, 1951)<br />
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In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the viewpoint that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
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In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published On Approaches to Translation Studies. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' the awareness of the subject of translation studies. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
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In the thesis An Overview of Western Translation Theory (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, translatology could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
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In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
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In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)<br />
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At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. ( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)<br />
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Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）<br />
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Subsequently, Lv published Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new perspective for the study of the construction of translation studies and promoted the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)<br />
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Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)<br />
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Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the development of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies. (Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
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Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012) <br />
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Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)<br />
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Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple approaches of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation. (Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020)<br />
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In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rising of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precedes translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. (Wang Yin,2017)<br />
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Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western translation studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward west, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation. (Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)<br />
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Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)<br />
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Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies of the researches. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)<br />
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From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the awareness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
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==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
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In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies. <br />
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'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
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"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often be confused. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definitions of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
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In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is also used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the rules of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995） <br />
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Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic, literature, philosophy etc. ( Kong Xiangli,2009)<br />
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'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
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Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline and to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)<br />
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'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
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Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translator appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei etc. (Yi Jing,2009)<br />
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The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated texts. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
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'''3.2.2 The awareness of an independent discipline'''<br />
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Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of an independent discipline and proposed a classification of the research field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a merely a technical activity. (Tan Zaixi, 1987 )<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared the independence of translation in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, many famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
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'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
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Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies have shown a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018) <br />
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Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its research field, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
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==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation by early linguists; second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists began to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology were linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
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Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 ) <br />
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Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their researches inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, their contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, systematic-functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists took Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regarded linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the assistance of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts that are "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has exerted a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural context of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the development of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics theory. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 <br />
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The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and materials for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool and new research perspectives for translation studies and provides great convenience for translation studies. ( Liao Qiyi，2000)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The publication of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is quite similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, publishing cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good example. (Yang Zijian,1993)<br />
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From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study. Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be learned from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together. In the process of development, linguistics has absorbed the experience of many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., formed many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
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Linguistics has gone through several stages of development, and it has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics provided experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators should only take other disciplines for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely. ( (Liu Miqing, 1989))<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
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Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
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Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
<br />
Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
<br />
Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析翻译学科学习目前存在的问题，并提出相应的建议。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''=== <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
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Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies", is a basic statement of translation studies，which calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) <br />
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Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, such as comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)<br />
<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation studies can examine the practices and context of translating texts that are specialist (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
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Learning these knowledge enables students to apply their understanding of theories to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually includes the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills that are necessary elements solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. With the requirement of effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures in today's multicultural and multilingual society, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
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As a science, Translation Studies always has its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. <br />
<br />
Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can have a good understanding about the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. It is necessary for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
Translation activities appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, and the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
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In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. <br />
<br />
The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared on the scene.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have been single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, as well as translation criticism, translation publishing, and translation management, etc.<br />
<br />
At that time, because a large number of people who master foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to improve foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under Foreign Language and Literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
<br />
2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, translation studies explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. <br />
<br />
At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the team to construct translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation in succession. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of “China Translator" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)<br />
<br />
Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge. Translation research ideas, methods, field and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)<br />
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2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
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In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) <br />
<br />
In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Translation studies have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.<br />
<br />
There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers should help students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments that required by the language service market. Teachers can invite industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
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==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. Translation discipline in China has entered a new stage now, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
<br />
3.1. Translation Education <br />
<br />
With the establishment of the autonomy of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the cultivation of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018）<br />
<br />
However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, so it is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction history of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, so systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to bluring and confusing educational goal of translation major. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation major teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them are lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
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3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
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The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. <br />
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The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data shows that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
<br />
In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)<br />
<br />
3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
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Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018) <br />
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This kinds of teaching method that is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model ignore student autonomy, which will pay too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
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3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
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The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is inconsiderable.（Ou Yonghua 2019）<br />
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Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, according to the actual situation of translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but do not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)<br />
<br />
3.2. Students<br />
<br />
The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, so it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
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Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. <br />
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Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
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As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
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3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
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Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not gain sufficient background information.<br />
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With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015) <br />
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3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
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At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless to some extent or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
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==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved over time. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote Translation Studies in China.<br />
<br />
4.1. Translation Education<br />
Translation education plays an important role in cultivating translation talents, and a good translation education system will provide a good environment for students to learn Translation Studies, so it is necessary to improve translation education system.<br />
<br />
4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
<br />
The teaching model is an important guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to innovate. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
<br />
The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching,which attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. It is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
<br />
4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
<br />
Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. <br />
<br />
Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019）<br />
<br />
Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
<br />
Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and to reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of landmark for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)<br />
<br />
The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
<br />
4.2. Students <br />
<br />
Translation talents play a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
<br />
4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future.Not only should they have a solid foundation in language ability, but also they should take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
<br />
A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students are urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
<br />
Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics and the skills and theories of translation，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. <br />
<br />
Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can take part in many social activities to experience different aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. <br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the objection of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Therefore, translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and professional knowledge. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies are still not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, learn from the latest foreign translation theories, and combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hope that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
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Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
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Chen Cheng.陈诚. (2020).高校英语翻译课程教学现状及改革研究.[ Research on the Teaching Status and Reform of College English Translation Course].淮南职业技术学院学报[''Journal of Huainan Vocational &Technology''] 97-98.<br />
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Chu Xizhi.褚喜之(2009).翻译理论在翻译教学中的重要性.[The Importance of Translation Theory in Translation Teaching].经济研究导刊[''Economic Research Guide'']237-238.<br />
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Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
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Huang Youyi.黄友义.(2018).服务改革开放40年,翻译实践与翻译教育迎来转型发展的新时代.[Servicing Reform and Opening for 40 Years, Translation Practice and Translation Education Usher in a New Era of Transformation and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']5-8.<br />
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Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
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Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
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Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
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Linlin.林琳.(2016).英语文学翻译学习现状及改善措施.[ The Status Quo and Improvement Measures of English Literature Translation Learning].西部素质教育[''Western China Quality Education''] 65.<br />
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Luo Feng.罗峰.(2011).从翻译学学科建设看翻译学在中国的发展.[On the Development of Translation Studies As A Discipline in China].琼州学院学报[''Journal of Qiongzhou University]''115-116.<br />
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Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
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Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
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Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
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Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei. 许钧, 穆雷.(2009).中国翻译学研究30年 (1978 -2007).[30 years of Chinese Translation Studies (1978 -2007)].外国语[''Journal of Foreign Languages'']77-87.<br />
<br />
Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
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Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan== <br />
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center><br />
<br />
<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays<br />
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===题目===<br />
译者文化身份对翻译的影响<br />
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===摘要===<br />
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translating a work is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important active role in both translating the content and interpreting it, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.<br />
<br />
Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)<br />
<br />
There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.<br />
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=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===<br />
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.<br />
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Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.<br />
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(While your first quote here may be intended to explain to the reader where the concept of cultural identity came from, I suggest you explain the meaning of the concept proposed by the cited author.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)<br />
<br />
====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====<br />
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.<br />
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In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.<br />
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Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on naturalization strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.<br />
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（Be clear about what exactly domestication or foreignization in your text means and who defines it. Use word “domestication” instead of “naturalization”in general.）--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====<br />
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.<br />
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However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." <br />
<br />
However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12) <br />
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We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese literary world. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.<br />
<br />
We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)<br />
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According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
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The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.<br />
(Here you used foreignization ,but above the paper,you use alienation,The specific concepts of context should be unified.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The cultural identity of translators in translation===<br />
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.<br />
(Here world literature is not very accurate, maybe you can say world translation)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====In terms of the original intention of translation====<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao himself said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much and so only that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's love for Shakespeare is so strong that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading Shakespeare, not eating it. <br />
<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believes that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius is to appreciate literature, the general public to read are popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "the highest art only a few people can understand ......, literature and art is not the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Byrd Byrd, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)<br />
(Here maybe you want to say Irving Babbitt not Byrd, plz check it again)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "My aim in translating this book is, first, to maintain the charm of the original work to the greatest extent possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey faithfully the meaning and feelings of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha plays more attention to the performance function of drama.<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)<br />
<br />
EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，<br />
伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，<br />
<br />
This man hath my consent to marry her．<br />
是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的<br />
<br />
Stand forth，Lysander．<br />
走上前来，拉山德。<br />
<br />
And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）<br />
殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子 （朱生豪. 2013：9）<br />
<br />
In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work. <br />
For example, his translation. <br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)<br />
<br />
拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!<br />
否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.<br />
<br />
First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:<br />
<br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)<br />
<br />
Translation of Liang Shiqiu:<br />
<br />
赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，<br />
<br />
否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。<br />
<br />
HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool: <br />
<br />
And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)<br />
<br />
海 上学时她就是个狐狸精。<br />
<br />
她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。<br />
<br />
Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966) <br />
Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature. <br />
<br />
For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.<br />
<br />
Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,<br />
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;<br />
There with fantastic garlands did she come,<br />
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,<br />
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.<br />
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:<br />
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds<br />
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,<br />
When down her weedy trophies and herself<br />
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;<br />
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;<br />
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one<br />
incapable of her own distress,<br />
Or like a creature native and indu’d<br />
Unto that element: but long it could not be<br />
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,<br />
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay<br />
To muddy death.<br />
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）<br />
<br />
The translation of Liang Shiqiu：<br />
(You can say Liang’s version :)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。 就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。 她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works. <br />
<br />
For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion. <br />
<br />
By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Fu Wenhui付文慧．多重文化身份下之戴乃迭英译阐释［The Interpretation of Dai Naidian's English Translation under Multiple Cultural Identities］中国翻译[ Chinese Translation]，2011，32(6):16—20．<br />
<br />
Yan Xiaojiang严晓江． 梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.<br />
<br />
Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.<br />
<br />
Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128.. <br />
<br />
Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.<br />
<br />
Wu Delu.吴得禄.译者文化身份对翻译的影响[The influence of translators' cultural identity on translation].读书文摘[Reading Digest].2016(08):211.<br />
<br />
Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．<br />
<br />
Liu Shuang刘双．文化身份与跨文化传播[Cultural identity and cross-cultural communication]外语学刊[Journal of Foreign Languages]，2000(1):87—91．<br />
<br />
Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪.译者自序[Translator's Preface].文学界(专辑版)[Literature (album edition)].2010(09):36.<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚 四大喜剧 梁实秋译[The Four Great Comedies translated by Liang Shiqiu].北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press].2001<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚． 仲夏夜之梦 朱生豪译．[A Midsummer Night's Dream translated by Zhu Shenghao].上海:上海世界图书出版公司 [Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company],2013．<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋 文学与革命.偏见集[Literature and Revolution. The collection of prejudices].南京:正中书局[Nanjing: Zhengzhong Shuji].中华民国二十三年七月.<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Toury's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Toury and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Toury also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Toury proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Toury describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Toury's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Toury concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Toury believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Toury is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Toury has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Toury emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Toury's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Toury's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Li Hongman 李红满. (2002). 论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J]. [On the Paradigm Shift in Contemporary Western Translation Studies]. 外语与翻译. [Foreign Languages and Translations]. <br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang 张美芳. (2000). 翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J]. [The Objectives and Structure of Translation Studies - A Review of Holmes' Vision of Translation Studies]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Toury Gideon. (2001). ''Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond''[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J]. [Translation Studies: From Specification to Description]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1996). A Skopos Theory of Translation[M]. Heidellburg:TEXT-con.<br />
<br />
Venuti Lawrence. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge.<br />
<br />
Snell-Homby Mary. (1995). Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M]. Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Hemans Theo (1985). ed.The manipulation of Literature[M]. London&Sydney:Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman, Liu Fang 韩子满, 刘芳. （2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J]. [Describe the achievements and shortcomings of translation studies]. 外语学刊. [Journal of Foreign Languages].<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M]. [New Horizons in Translation Studies]. 青岛:青岛出版社. [Qingdao:Qingdao Publishing House].<br />
<br />
==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==<br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655</center><br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655 亚非语言文学</center>--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract:=== <br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and deeply understand the status of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and helps the readers to understand deeply the status of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。<br />
<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，并深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.<br />
<br />
===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities of translation, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives have contributed to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of tranlation experience. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the translation study has became more systematic. Some researchers regard translation study as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered as "misleading reader" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements on translation theories varied all the time. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation activities. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 John MacFarlane====<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the Durhram University Journal. In his thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation, just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that there are often different reading methods when reading the same work even at the same time.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translated version. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something that it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic. Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention translation field at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Firth====<br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) <br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and this concept has produced the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context. Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 James Holmes====<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54） <br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. <br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship among descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text. Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out. After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches." Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, you have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. Taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to "a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Polysystem Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundary between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Gideon Toury<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations who are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, thus makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published in his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description. From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. <br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)<br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications, which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have been often taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.6 Snell-Hornby<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. <br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined，presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)<br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types. Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97) <br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：<br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts. <br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited by the study of equivalence between texts. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation". In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion (translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) <br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "a wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)'' with Li Yeguang and others' translations, and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56) This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) <br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect yet. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36) <br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury believes clearly that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6) In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Conclusion=== <br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.<br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short. There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro-analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Reference===<br />
Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.<br />
<br />
J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.<br />
<br />
Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Snell-Hornby.(1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman 韩子满，Liu Fang 刘芳（2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001).翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive <br />
to the Descriptive Approach].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).<br />
<br />
Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]<br />
<br />
Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰.(2002).多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).<br />
<br />
==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies== <br />
<br />
Translation Strategies <br />
<br />
===Abstract === <br />
<br />
Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.<br />
<br />
Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.<br />
<br />
This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers define them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical significance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)<br />
<br />
===Content===<br />
<br />
Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classifications from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classification is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classifications. It seems that clear-cut definitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype definitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)<br />
<br />
The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reflect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reflects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)<br />
<br />
The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp fiction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)<br />
<br />
Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the definitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few defining characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difficulty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).<br />
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or specific) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “specific activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle specific problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by specific techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classified by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
<br />
As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural filtering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
However, this is not consonant with the dictionary definitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is defined as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) defines translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will influence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identified the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identification, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal significant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can find out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) ==<br />
<br />
Darwish (2008) identifies four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70<br />
<br />
<br />
However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might influence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difficulty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Laffling(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.<br />
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== The Comparison of Machine Translation and Human Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory---A Case Study of E-C Translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example - 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan 202020080630==<br />
<br />
<center>欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Abstract (delete "Abstract here"):With the rapid development of globalization and (add "the" here) Internet, international communication is expanding, and a lot of information needs to be translated. Due to the low efficiency of human translation, machine translation is indispensable in (delete "in") today. However, due to the limitations of machine translation, the quality of machine translation is still worrying. Therefore, from the perspective of Skopos theory, this paper takes the E-C translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example to analyze the machine translation of Google translation and Baidu translation, and compare it with the translation of Song Zhaolin, so as to explore the characteristics of machine translation and human translation, try to discuss the irreplaceable nature of human translation, and discuss how to combine machine translation with human translation to improve the quality and efficiency of translation. This paper is divided into five parts: the first part introduces the background of the current translation environment; the second part introduces Skopos Theory and discusses the feasibility of Skopos Theory in analyzing machine translation and human translation; the third part introduces the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation and human translation, and discusses the relationship between them; the fourth part is a case study to see machine translation from the perspective of Skopos theory Compared with manual translation, it is concluded that machine translation and manual translation must be combined to improve the efficiency and quality of translation. The fifth part is a summary to (change "to" into "of") this paper.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaoliu<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Skopos Theory, machine translation, human translation<br />
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===题目===<br />
目的论视角下机器翻译和人工翻译的对比---以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着全球化和互联网的迅速发展，国际的交流日益扩大，大量信息需要翻译。由于人工翻译效率低下，在越来越强调效率和质量的今天，机器翻译必不可少。然而，由于机器翻译的局限性，机器翻译的质量仍然堪忧。因此,本文以目的论视角, 以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例，分析谷歌翻译和百度翻译的机器译文, 与宋兆霖版本的中文译本对比，由此探析机器翻译与人工翻译的特点,尝试论述人工翻译的不可替代性, 并讨论如何将机器翻译与人工翻译结合提高翻译的质量和效率。本文分为五个部分，第一部分对当前翻译环境背景的介绍；第二部分对目的论进行简介，并讨论目的论用于分析机器翻译和人工翻译的可行性；第三部分介绍机器翻译和人工翻译的优缺点，并讨论他们之间的关系；第四部分进行案例分析，从目的论视角下看机器翻译与人工翻译的对比，得出提高翻译效率与质量必须将机器翻译与人工翻译相结合。第五部分对全文进行总结。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
目的论 机器翻译 人工翻译 <br />
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===1. Introduction ===<br />
With the development of globalization, the growth of Internet and artificial intelligence, machine translation becomes an indispensable choice in today’s society. Compared with human translation, machine translation has the advantages of efficiency. As the traditional translation method, human translation can guarantee the accuracy of the text. In this information era, many people are thinking if（change "if" into "whether"）human translation will be replaced by machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
In September 2016, Google released the neural network translation system, which greatly improved the quality of machine translation. In November, Baidu CEO Robin Li stated at the Wuzhen Summit of the 3rd World Internet Conference that Baidu's artificial intelligence product "automatic translation" will enter a practical state. Therefore, this paper will put the original text of Tale of Two Cities in two representative public machine translation engines at home and abroad, "Google" and "Baidu", to obtain the machine translation. Selecting texts from the famous classical novel ''A Tale of Two Cities'', and comparing machine translations and human translations based on this novel from the perspective of Skopos theory. (change "." into ",") This (change "This" into "this") paper aims to investigate the relationship between human translation and machine translation and their developments in the future. (Hu Kaibao 2016, 10)--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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=== 2. Overview of Skopos Theory ===<br />
In the 1970s, some eminent German translation theory scholars first proposed functional translation theory. Translation theorist Katharina reiss divides text into three types: informative, expressive and operational. She suggested that according to different text types, different translation methods should be used for analysis, and different translation criticism standards should be adopted, that is, text types, language functions and translation strategies should be combined. In the translation process, it’s essential to focus on the functional characteristics of the target text. Her text type theory and translation criticism mode can be regarded as the beginning of functionalist Skopos theory. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
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Hans Vermeer is Reiss's student. He further developed Reiss's theory and proposed Skopos theory. He believed that Skopos theory is based on the source text, and then may produce a series of purposeful and effective behaviors. The core of this theory is that "the purpose of translation determines translation strategies and method to achieve the expected purpose of translation" (Reiss & Vermeer 1984), German scholars Justa Holz Manttari and Christian Nord further developed this theory which based on the theory of communication and behavior, he proposed that translation theory is not a simple translation between words and sentences, but a kind of conscious behavior for the purpose of cultural communication. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
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====2.1 Three Rules of Skopos Theory====<br />
The word “Skopos” is originated from the Greek language and means purpose. Skopos theory refers to the process of translation is determined by the purpose of the translation, so the purpose rule is the highest one of translation. Generally speaking, skopos theory includes three principles: Skopos rule, coherence rule (intra-textual coherence) and fidelity rule (also known as "inter-textual coherence"). (Nord 2001, 20)<br />
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Skopos theory believes that the important principle to be followed is the "purpose" rule, it is the core rule of Skopos Theory: the process of translation should be based on the realization of the communicative function in the target language culture, and the goal to be achieved determines the entire process of translation, that is, the method determines the result. Vermeer differentiated the purpose of translation. He believes that the purpose of translation should include three levels: the purpose of the translator; the purpose of communicative; the purpose of specific translation strategies.In most cases, any translator has a certain purpose before translation, such as being entrusted by a translation company, market demand or the need to introduce technology. In most cases, "purpose" refers to the communicative purpose of translation. Under the guidance of the purpose of communication, the translator can have more space to interpret and adjust the original text. (Nord 2001, 78)<br />
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To achieve the communicative and interative function between the target text and the target receptor, the target text needs to conform to the linguistic coherence, and be understood and accepted by the readers in the context of the target language and culture. The principle of coherence means that the target text must conform to the intra-textual coherence, that is, the translation must be understood by the target reader and meaningful in the culture of the target language and the communication environment in which the translation is used. “The principle of coherence requires that the information generated by the translator (target text) must be interpreted in a manner consistent with the context of the target reader.” (Shuttleworth 2004: 75) This means the translator should maximize the translation Semantic coherence and makes the translation understandable and acceptable to the target readers. The target text can help target readers understand and successfully exchange information.<br />
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The fidelity rule refers to the inter-textual coherence between the original text and the target text, which requires "consistency between the target text and the original text" (Munday, 2010: 79). Therefore, in the translation process, the translator should not only be faithful to the original text, but also transfer the writing style and cultural factors existed in the source text. This principle requires translator to follow the purpose of translation.<br />
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In the process of translation, translators should follow three principles according to Skopos Theory: the Skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. Among these three rules in Skopos Theory, the skopos rule is the primary principle translators should adopt in the process of translation, and the coherence rule and the fidelity rule must follow the skopos rule. So in the case of translation practice, fidelity rule is subordinate to coherence rule, and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule. In a word, Skopos rule plays a decisive role in translation process, which should be considered first in translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011, 20)<br />
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====2.3 Application of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory is different from traditional theories which overemphasize the features of language rules. With regard to Skopos Theory, it requires that translators should not only consider the language but also take account of factors beyond texts and language like the purpose of translation. As for ''A Tale of Two Cities'', the purpose is to make the target reader feel the same as the source target reader. Since this is a literary text, the cultural factors and rhetorical methods used in the source texts should be reflected on the target text. In addition, the feeling of the target text reader should be taken into consideration in the process of translation. Therefore, the translation should conform to habits of the target language. But guided by Skopos Theory, the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation can be easily analyzed, so that a better solution can be founded between human translation and machine translation. <br />
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===3. Machine Translation and Human Translation===<br />
Translation activities have a long history. As far as China is concerned, translation has a history of more than two thousand years. However, the translation tools have rarely changed, and the translations are always been done by "translators". With the development of science and technology and the acceleration of globalization, there is an increasing need for translation, and "machine" translation has emerged. The advantages of high efficiency and low cost of machine translation make people think about whether machine translation will replace human translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of human translation====<br />
Human translation has both advantages and disadvantages. For example, human translation has the characteristics of flexibility, accuracy, high readability and humanization of language. At the same time, however, compared with machine translation, human translation is less efficient and easy to be influenced by translator's own cultural background and translation capacity so it is difficult to achieve rapid development. Before the advent of machine translation, all translation activities were done by human. Compared with machine translation, translators, as a bridge of cross-cultural communication, are more flexible. Translation itself is a complex activity. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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Professional translators who have certain cultural background knowledge can choose different translation methods and strategies according to the similarities and differences between the two languages and cultures, so it is more flexible and accurate. The flexibility of human language enables the translator to express the meaning of the original text in a more abundant language, and accurately handle the rhetorical devices in the original text. Therefore, the target text of human translation must be more readable than machine translation. Human translation has a long history, and people's research on translation has never stopped. Many excellent translators have emerged in the world and put forward various translation ideas and strategies. Translation has established a relatively mature and complete theory. With the rapid development of China's economy and the increasing number of foreign exchanges, the demand for translation is on the rise. At the same time, the time spend on translation needs to be shortened. Therefore, manual translation alone cannot meet the needs of the translation market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of machine translation====<br />
Machine translation refers to a language can be transferred into another language automatically with the help of machine. The idea of machine translation was firstly put forward by Weaver in his book Translation in 1949(Weaver, 1955). Since the end of the 20th century, the development of the Internet and computer technology has provided more optional software and engines for machine translation. At the same time, the corpus has become richer and more complete, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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The current machine translation is based on the "Neural Machine Translation" (NMT) model of artificial intelligence. Currently, the popular web page machine translations include Youdao Translation, Baidu Translation, Google Translation and so on. Google is currently in a leading position in both voice translation and text translation. Google Translation is a service provided by Google to translate texts and web pages, providing instant translation between more than 100 languages. It can provide translations of words, sentences and web pages between any two languages it supports. The more human translation documents that can be analyzed for a particular language, the higher the quality of the translation. In addition, Google's web page translation is fast, especially free to use, so it has a considerable number of users in translation activities, especially among students. Therefore, this paper will take Google Translation and Baidu Translation as an example to analyze the translation quality, which is representative in the market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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Generally speaking, machine translation has the characteristics of high efficiency, low cost, accuracy of terminology translation, and great development potential. Machine translation is fast and efficient, which is unmatched by human translation. Secondly, the price of machine translation is low, even free, which greatly reduces the economic cost and time cost for those who do not require high translation quality. In addition, compared to human translation, the huge corpus established by machine translation makes the translation of some terms, especially the latest scientific and technological terms, faster and more accurate. The accurate translation of these terms requires continuous learning by the translator, and learning requires a process, which has a certain test of the translator's learning ability and learning speed. At this point, human translation has uncertainty and lag. Finally, although the history of machine translation is short, it has achieved rapid development. With the advancement of science and technology and the development of society, the functions of machine translation will be more perfect and the quality of translation will be better. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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First of all, from a microscopic point of view, machine translation often has problems in the choice of word meaning, especially when there is one word with different meaning. It needs the translator to select the meaning based on the context, while machine translation cannot accurately choose the meaning of a word in combination with the context. What’s more, the word order of the translated sentence often does not conform to the word order and expression habits of the target language. From the aspect of tense, it is more accurate when translating English into Chinese, because words in English can directly change tense. However, there are sometimes problems such as no corresponding tenses when translating Chinese into English. From a macro point of view, machine translation does not have cultural sensitivity and is not accurate enough for the translation of some idioms and proverbs with strong cultural color. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.3 Relationship between machine translation and human translation====<br />
Machine translation is based on human translation, and the establishment of corpus that machine translation relies on needs human participation. When translating technical terms, machine translation corpus and parallel text can greatly reduce the time when find and determine proper equivalent terms. However, the establishment of these corpora needs to rely on well translated materials. The accuracy and usability of corpus are also affected by the quality of human translation. Therefore, they restrict and influence each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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There are more or less defects in the micro and macro aspects of machine translation. At the micro level, it mainly includes vocabulary, syntax, tense, and so on. However, at the macro level, it mainly includes text cohesion and cultural background. Therefore, human translation is essential. In addition, all machine translation inspection, modification, sorting and other work must also be carried out manually, so as to make the translation quality better and meet the requirements of communication. It can be seen that machine translation alone cannot meet the requirements of high quality translation. Translation activities cannot be separated from human participation. Therefore, with the development of machine translation, translation should be completed by both machine and human. The two are related, influenced with each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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===4. Case Study from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===<br />
A Tale of Two Cities is a long historical novel by British writer Charles Dickens, first published in 1859. The story is set in the French Revolution and has a touching plot. It is one of the world's literary classics. The twin cities refer to Paris and London. The story connects these two cities and tells the story of the Parisian doctor Manette. He was persecuted by the brothers of the Marquis St. Evremonde due to injustice and was detained in the Bastille prison for 18 years. After being released from prison, Mannette's daughter Lucie fell in love with the enemy's son Darney. Thus, in the whirlpool of the French Revolution, scenes of family grievances and hatred were staged grandly. Life and death, good and evil are blended in conflict and changed in an instant. On the guillotine, Carton calmly sacrificed his life for love. （Dickens 2016）<br />
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A Tale of Two Cities has a rigorous structure and condensed language. Dickens's profound thinking on revolution and humanity and his breathtaking writing talent are fully demonstrated. This paper selects the most representative classic sentences in the text for comparative analysis of translation, studies whether neural network machine translation software can accurately translate classic literary works, and explores whether neural network machine translation replaces manual translation in the context of artificial intelligence. The human translation was by Zhaolin Song. Among the many translation versions in China, Song’s translation was regarded as the version which closes to the source text most. (Feng Baoyin 2018, 232)<br />
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====4.1 Case Study from the perspective of Skopos Rule====<br />
In Vermeer’ opinion, the dominant rule for any translation should be the skopos rule, which means that a translation action is determined by its purposes. That is to say, the translation action should be in accordance with the target context and culture. The purposes of target text determine the translation strategies and methods used in translation process. A good translation should conform to the target culture and target audiences’ expectations. According to Nord, “Skopos of a particular translation task may require a ‘free’ or a ‘faithful’ translation, or anything between these two extremes, depending on the purpose for which the translation is needed”. Once the intended purposes are achieved, the translation will be considered as reasonable and proper. It is unnecessary for the translation to be equivalent to the source text. (Nord 1997, 102 )<br />
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Example 1: We were all going direct to heaven, we were all going direct the other way--in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
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Google translation: 我们都直接去天堂，我们都直接去天堂- -简而言之，这一时期与目前的时期如此遥远，以至于它的一些最吵闹的当局坚持以最高的比较程度来接受它是好是坏。<br />
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Baidu translation: 我们是所有的人都直接去天堂，我们都朝着另一个方向去——简而言之，这个时期和现在的时代非常相似，以至于一些最吵闹的权威坚持要接受它，不管是好是坏，只是在最高级的比较中。<br />
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Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 我们大家都在直升天堂，我们大家都在直下地狱——简而言之，那个时代和当今这个时代是如此相似，因而一些吵嚷不休的权威们也坚持认为，不管它是好是坏，都只能用“ 最……”来评价它。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 20)<br />
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Analysis: <br />
Since this is selected from a novel, the purpose of translation should be express the meaning and beauty of the source text. According to the Google translation, it made a mistake in translating "We were all going directly the other way". The translated meaning is totally different from the original. As to Baidu translation, it expressed the meaning of the original text, while the expression way will confuse the target text reader. In regards to human translation, the translator of this edition adopts the combination of literal translation and free translation. In this way, the translation not only clearly expresses the original meaning, but also takes into account the literariness of the work, so that readers can feel the characteristics of the times more vividly.<br />
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====4.2 Case study from the perspective of coherence rule====<br />
Coherence rule is also called “intra-textual coherence”, which means that the translation should be acceptable and understandable for the target audiences and be meaningful in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received. In other words, the target text should conform to the target receivers’ situation, including their given knowledge, background culture and specific circumstances. (Nord 1997, 120)<br />
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Example 2: Questions, questions, questions! (Charles Dickens 2016, 56)<br />
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Google Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
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Baidu Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
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Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 问题一个接一个地提出来！(Song Zhaolin 2005, 68)<br />
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Analysis: In this sentence, the original text uses three "questions" in a row to enhance the tone. However, Google and Baidu Translation directly translated it to "问题，问题，问题！". It sounds too blunt to read. The target text translated by Google and Baidu cannot reflect the meaning of the original text. What's more, it makes target readers hard to get meaning of the text. While the translator chose the free translation method to make the translation more natural and smooth. The translated text followed the coherence rule in the process of translation.<br />
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Example 3: But just because he had a powerful enemy---an enemy with the power to send him to prison and to keep him there, hidden and forgotten, for eighteen years. (Charles Dickens 2016, 102)<br />
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Google translation: 但是仅仅因为他有一个强大的敌人-一个有能力将他送进监狱并将其隐藏和遗忘在监狱里长达十八年的敌人。<br />
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Baidu translation:只是因为他有一个强大的敌人，一个有能力把他送进监狱，把他关在那里，隐藏起来，被遗忘18年。<br />
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Human translation(Song Zhaolin): 而只是因为他有一个强大的敌人-这个敌人拥有权势将他投进监狱，而且把他在那里与世隔绝、被人遗忘地关了18年。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 130)<br />
<br />
<br />
Analysis: In terms of grammar, English uses long sentences, which are connected by functional words, such as conjunctions, prepositions and relative words. The syntactic structure is relatively complex and it is a hypotactic language. Chinese is a paratactic language. In the process of E-C translation, we often use disassembly syntax to translate a long and complex English sentence into several short and simple Chinese short sentences. From Google Translation, it directly translated the structure of the original text. The target text created by Google translation doesn't conform to target language structure. While the translation of Baidu almost in accordance with the target language structure. As to the human translation, not only was the structure, but also the meaning was perfectly expressed.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Case study from the perspective of fidelity rule====<br />
Fidelity rule is also named by Vermeer as “intertextual coherence”, which puts emphasis on the relationship between the source text and target text. Based on Skopos theory, fidelity rule requires that the target text should be in accordance with the source text, which means the information contained in the source text should be exactly conveyed by the target text under the translators’ efforts. (Nord 1997, 140)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 1: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
<br />
Google Translation: 那是最美好的时光，那是最糟糕的时光，那是智慧的时代，那是愚昧的时代，那是信仰的时代，那是轻信的时代，那是光明的季节， 是黑暗的季节，是希望的春天，是绝望的冬天，我们眼前的一切，眼前的一切。<br />
<br />
Baidu Translation: 那是最好的时代，最坏的时代，智慧的时代，愚昧的时代，信仰的时代，不信的时代，光明的季节，黑暗的季节，希望的春天，绝望的冬天，我们面前什么都有，面前什么都没有。 <br />
<br />
Human Translation (Zhaolin Song): : 那是最美好的时代，那是最糟糕的时代；那是个睿智的年月，那是个蒙昧的年月；那是信心百倍的时期，那是疑虑重重的时期；那是阳光普照的季节，那是黑暗笼罩的季节；那是充满希望的春天，那是让人绝望的冬天；我们面前无所不有，我们面前一无所有。（Song Zhaolin 2005, 20）<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is the classic opening paragraph in "A Tale of Two Cities", and it can be said to be very popular. On the whole, because of the simple structure of this paragraph, the three machine-translated translations all accurately express the content of the original text, but one shortcoming is that it is difficult for machine translation to express the unique beauty of rhythm of the original text.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the translation of commonly used machine translation software and human translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, we can conclude that for the translation of literary works, machine translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text, even equal to manual translation if it is some simple sentence expression. However, the quality of machine translation needs to be improved some sentences with complex sentence patterns and difficult grammatical structures. Therefore, the translation of literary works by machine translation still has a long way to go.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
The main purpose of this paper is to find a better solution between machine translation and human translation under the guidance of the Skopos Theory for optimizing weaknesses of machine translation platforms, which not only generates solutions to errors, but also improves the quality of machine translation. <br />
<br />
Theoretically, this paper applies Skopos Theory to guide human translation and machine translation of literary texts. Machine translation can be regarded as a basis of human translation, while those errors caused by machine translation can be improved manually after the completion of machine translation. Meanwhile, human translation by employing appropriate translation methods and techniques, such as semantic conversion, amplification, omission and so on, human translation based on machine translation enormously solves errors of machine translation which further optimizes weaknesses of machine translation. Human translation process also becomes more efficient with the help of machine. <br />
As for machine translation, firstly, machine translation platforms can’t replace translators on account of its incomplete corpus and limitations in transferring the cultural meaning. Secondly, errors at lexical level caused by defects of machine translation are much more than that at syntactical level in F396P Aircraft Tow Tractor Maintenance Instruction. Lastly, machine translation platforms are restricted to contexts of language, situation and culture which lead to incorrect target text. <br />
<br />
In regard with human translation, from the perspective of Skopos theory, human translation is more understandable and readable to target readers than that of machine translation. It’s essential for the translator to know typical errors in machine translation, features of chose machine translation platforms and characteristics of source text, which could fascinate the efficiency of translation. All in all, machine translation platforms enhance the efficiency of translating large amount of material and human translation provides a solution for machine translation of poor quality. Machine translation and human translation are complement to each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2016). A Tale of Two Cities. Macmillian.<br />
<br />
* Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2011). 中国译学大辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China] 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
* Feng Baoyin冯宝茵 (2018). 从读者反应论对比两个《双城记》译本 [A comparative study of two versions of a tale of two cities from the perspective of reader response theory]. 北方文学, Northern Literature (36):232.<br />
<br />
* Hu Kaibao & Li Yi胡开宝 & 李翼. (2016). 机器翻译特征及其与人工翻译关系的研究. [Research on the characteristics of machine translation and its relationship with human translation] 中国翻译 Chinese Translation (05),10-14. <br />
<br />
* Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
<br />
* Mark Shuttleworth (2004). Dictionary of Translation Studies. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 75.<br />
<br />
* Munday, J. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application. London: Routeledge. 78.<br />
<br />
* Reiss, K & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
* Song Zhaolin宋兆霖 (2005). 双城记 A Tale of Two Cities 中国戏剧出版社, China Drama Press.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=116828History of Translation Studies 102020-12-20T14:54:33Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China */</p>
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<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing 英语笔译 202070080581==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of original language and target language, but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, have not been covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. <br />
<br />
During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also made a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, one needs to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. <br />
<br />
The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures.Similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language.<br />
<br />
In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis.That is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, in which verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator is not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which is direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, translators are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word, which makes it even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence in form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with are going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, translators have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example,“Take care. Hope to see you soon.” is polite and emotional way to express our feelin .<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , translators have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, translators have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to translator's mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, translators can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, translators have to consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore,proper translation skills are needed to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes translators can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases they will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
It is obvious that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, translators can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or free translation based on functional equivalence. In daily life, Chinese people often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus the sentence will be translated into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, it can be seen that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, translators need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but trasnslators have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, translators need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, translators can figure out exactly his characteristics and reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. Translators will find different types of texts in the process of translation and must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.<br />
<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. <br />
<br />
According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, can the translation be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654 法语语言文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
The success of Hao Jingfang's science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", which won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016, could not have been achieved without the rigorous translation work of Ken Liu. The translation of this novel takes the response of the readers of the translated text as the starting point, preserving the meaning and style of the novel while effectively conveying Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of functional equivalence theory that "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". Nida's functional equivalence theory, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has had a profound influence on the translation studies of various literary genres in China. This paper examines the English translation of "Folding Beijing", analyzes Ken Liu's use of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory in his translation, and shows the value of functional equivalence theory for the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", the future Beijing is overpopulated. To solve this crisis, it is transformed into a hierarchical Folding City. The Folding City is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours. The first space is occupied by the upper class of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; the second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; and the third space is occupied by the lower class, who have only eight hours of night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants to send his daughter to a good school, and in order to earn money, he ventures into the first, second and third spaces to deliver letters to others. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and many Chinese native words. The cultural differences between China and the West due to regional factors and customs are a major challenge for translation. The translator must not only consider the reader's understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local color in the work is not removed. The theory of functional equivalence suggests that translation should not be confined to form, and the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text in order to achieve equivalence of content and information.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory has had a profound impact on China and has brought translators new and effective methods of translation guidance. We can see that Ken Liu is also trying to achieve balance and harmony between the translation and the original text when he translates science fiction novels. This paper analyzes the English translation of "Folding Beijing" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory and explores how translators achieve the closest equivalence to the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:11）<br />
<br />
===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, explained dynamic equivalence translation in his influential book,''Toward a Science of Translating''. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, focusing on the equivalence of the reader's response, not just the equivalence of content and form.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
In "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defines dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translated reader's reaction to the translation should be the same as the original reader's reaction.（Nida,2004:24）<br />
<br />
Because dynamic equivalence was controversial in some respects, Nida replaced it with a more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment required to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. Since a functionally equivalent translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language message, the translator's achievement of functional equivalence follows three principles.In his book ''Language, Culture and Translation'', Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did".(Nida 1993:118)<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the response of the reader of the recipient language, and(3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defines the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory,namely from the form and content of the message to the reader's response. It differs from traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the readers of the original text, it can be regarded as functional equivalence of the target language. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s reaction to the translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida and Taber point out that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning will be discussed in this chapter at three levels: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these are the three levels of detailed analysis of lexicon, syntax, and discourse. According to the theory of functional equivalence, translation is not only about word-for-word equivalence, but also about discovering the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in translation of ''Folding Beijing'' from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.(Nida,2004:12)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:（Din Juan,2011:22）<br />
<br />
In literary translation, it is always a challenge to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, and they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is the most appropriate. In the English translation of Beijing Folding, there are many examples of how the translation can achieve functional equivalence with the original at the lexical level, as follows: (Ding Juan, 2011:22)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
<br />
"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）<br />
<br />
"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", In this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention and conveys what appears to be a bad temper. --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）<br />
<br />
"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to show the original meaning.<br />
<br />
The author did not literally translate “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is owing to the translator's own understanding of the text, he hopes readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to convey the original meaning.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
<br />
Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
Syntax, as a rule, refers to the study of how to construct sentences correctly with the words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the readers. Translators should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.（Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
The differences between English and Chinese grammar are mainly reflected in three aspects. First, the use of conjunctions and relational words in English is very frequent. Secondly, English speakers focus on object consciousness and are accustomed to the order from small to large objects and from specific to general; in Chinese texts, there is usually a chronological order of time, space or cause and effect. Finally, English usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while Chinese tends to process information from the stale to the fresh in order to impress (Ding Juan, 2011: 24).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original, we must not only translate the meaning of the words, but also translate the syntactic structure into the appropriate form. The following are examples of how the English translation of Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence with the original at the syntactic level:（Din Juan,2011:24）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
" 现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。'他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。'他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’" （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）<br />
<br />
"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this passage, the translator clearly adjusted the word order, pushing what the same person said before the pause to the next sentence to fit the logic of the English reader." Selection should also be liberalized" ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the reader, so the reader adds to this sentence and translates it as "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", the translator perfectly explains the meaning of "放开".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015) <br />
<br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like "…childhood that…".<br />
<br />
In this passage, the text emphasizes "the past" twice. To achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order by placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences instead of using subordinate clause like"... childhood that...".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, such as "as if", "from where", "that", etc. This is because the syntax of the two languages is different.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.(Din Juan,2011:27）<br />
<br />
Nida argues that readers may have difficulty accepting an approximate formal translation due to the intricacies of the discourse structure and the preconceived knowledge of the original content. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a "rewriting" approach to make the translation acceptable to the reader. In literary translation, the translator must pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be comparable to the original text in terms of discourse level. A dialogue from Folding Beijing and its English translation is selected below as an example of literary translation achieving functional equivalence at the discourse level:(Ding Juan,2011:27)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself." <br />
<br />
Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
<br />
"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.<br />
<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
<br />
Conversational conventions in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made in translation. The form of the dialogue is not exactly translated from Chinese, but the understanding of the text is the same for the readers. For example, "夹了新上来的热菜" is translated as "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", and the translator changes the action to "spoon", which is more in line with Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as the girl in the first space to spoon the dish to the old knife."推给老刀" is translated as "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", which adds some actions to make it more vivid.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
<br />
Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Each writer has his or her own writing style, which no one can imitate perfectly. In other words, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows linguistic characteristics, and the English translation shows the translator's attempt to achieve functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
<br />
First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form, the counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vibrant scenes, and enhance the effectiveness of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to "深渊", and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalent.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated, only translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
<br />
It is a metaphorical sentence and words like "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated. They are translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
<br />
"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks and arms", and "like the humblest servants", the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
<br />
This paragraph has a personification that "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks, and arms" and are "like the humblest of servants," and the use of rhetoric allows people to imagine the folding diagram of the city through the image of a person. By comparing the buildings to a herd of beasts, it shows its scale and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)<br />
<br />
"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
<br />
In this sentence, "怪胎" is translated as "monster" and "born" conveys the same meaning, so the translator did not have any trouble.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
<br />
Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.（Din Juan,2011:33）<br />
<br />
The dialect reflects the local characteristics and is the author's own writing style. Sometimes this is a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator deals with this problem. (Dingjuan, 2011:33)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the use of either rhetoric or dialect in literary works fully reflects the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, translators should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the way of expressing stylistic differences and find out the best way to compensate for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve the maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:47）<br />
<br />
Cultural differences between two languages are also issues that translators should be aware of in the translation process. People who are exposed to different cultures have different ways of thinking, values, social customs, etc. Translators need to understand both cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this point, translation plays a role in intercultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the reader so that the translation achieves cultural equivalence with the original text. This chapter will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of food culture, folk culture, and idiom culture to show how it achieves functional equivalence with the original text. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:47)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
<br />
The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.（Din Juan,2011:39）<br />
<br />
The city described in Folding Beijing is the political and cultural center of China, a city with deep cultural accumulation. In the novel, there are many elements belonging to traditional Chinese food culture. This part will analyze how the translator managed to translate these cuisines into a successful counterpart.（Din Juan,2011:39）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"炒面"is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
<br />
"炒面" is a famous traditional Chinese snack. Translators translate it as "chow mein" instead of "Chinese chow mein". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means Chinese-style fried noodles with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also gives the reader a more intuitive idea of what the dish is.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)<br />
<br />
"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, "白酒" is translated into "baijiu" , the translator doesn't use the word like "spirits", it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
<br />
Here, foreignization method is used, and "白酒" is translated as "baijiu". The translator does not use words like "spirits", which retains Chinese cultural characteristics and achieves a communicative effect at the same time.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）<br />
<br />
The characteristic of this dish is that it is first boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator has captured this feature in his translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", which is made with pork, and he hopes that readers of the English translation will see the image of this dish in their minds, just like the Chinese do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique lifestyles, customs, behavior patterns, etc. in terms of vocabulary. The following will analyze the functional equivalence of translation in folk culture. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:52).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he uses the word "shared" and he adds the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where friends and relatives share several dishes among themselves. The purpose of the passage is to show the boy's poverty. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, where Westerners behave differently, so he uses the word "sharing" and adds the word "family style" to make it easier for the reader to understand this behavior.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)<br />
<br />
"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is one of the major characteristics of Chinese culture. People from the same hometown share similar living habits, upbringing and cultural background, so even strangers can get acquainted quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao are from the third dimension, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective." 管事儿" means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word to make it easy for readers to understand.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. "心意" means money, which is an euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In translation, the translator also considered an euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word "appreciation".<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan says that she hopes Lao Dao will help her keep her secret, so she wants to use money to give Lao Dao." 心意" means money, which is a Chinese euphemism when it is not convenient to give money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered it a euphemism, so the word "appreciation" was used.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the vast and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people use these idioms in their daily life and writing, but some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and it is important to pay attention to the differences between the two cultures when translating them.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", the translator translated it into "ate heartily", although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
The author uses many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", which the translator translates as "to eat in a heartbeat". Although the translation is easy to understand, without the image of a person eating very hungry, it seems that English readers cannot achieve the same understanding and reaction as Chinese readers from the perspective of functional equivalence.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And "（盘子）一片狼藉"translated into "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" translated into "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
<br />
And "(盘子)一片狼藉" is translated as "the plate is a mess", which is a description of a messy situation on the plate. And "the beauty of adulthood" is translated as "in that case, I am doing a good deed by keeping quiet", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe how Lao Dao felt that he kept the secret that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might be together in the future. The translator translated the phrase abstractly into the English translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）<br />
<br />
The English translation of Folding Beijing is analyzed from three aspects of meaning, style, and culture using this paper's functional equivalence theory, and it is concluded that the English translation meets the English readers' understanding of the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and reciprocal Chinese translation of Folding Beijing for English readers. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:56)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyze from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Folding Beijing" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western cultures, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functionally equivalent translation. Analyzing the English version of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture, we can see that linguistically, although Chinese and English are very different in logic and grammar, and there are many differences between Chinese and Western cultures, the translator still tries to keep the original content and find more suitable words in the translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）<br />
<br />
In some specific contents, the translators do not translate into exactly the same form, which is also in line with Nida's theory of functional equivalence, because Nida also suggests that translation should not be limited to form, and the translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's functional equivalence theory does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction novels, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang.(2015).Folding Beijing[J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang郝景芳.(2016).孤独深处[The Depth of Loneliness].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社[Nanjing:Jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing,LTD]：1-40<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(1993)Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：118<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(2001)Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A. & Taber.(2004) Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：12-24<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999).新编奈达论翻译[A new version of Nida's theory on translation].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation]<br />
<br />
Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009).翻译学概论[Introduction to translatology].南京：译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press]<br />
<br />
Zhao Dandan赵丹丹.(2011).浅论奈达的功能对等理论[Nida's theory of functional equivalence].湖北：文学教育[Hubei:Literature Education]<br />
<br />
Zhou Xingyang周兴阳.(2018).从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[Chinese Science Fiction Translation in the Perspective of Functional Equivalence-A case Study of Beijing Zhe Die and its English Version-Folding Beijing].新疆大学[Xinjiang University]<br />
<br />
Wang Guiyuan王桂圆.(2018)系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[A Study on The Translation of Folding Beijing from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics].安徽：海外英语[Anhui：Overseas English]<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
<center>余妮 Yu Ni No.202070080620</center><br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s version has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. <br />
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“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
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Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
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The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) which was co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable, for it has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. With the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
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The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The following chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author makes a conclusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.<br />
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In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, according to the nature of translation. He pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).<br />
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The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, we should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural reaction of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
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Firstly, we should create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully displays the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture concepts cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost not much snow in southern China all year round. Therefore, based on their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabularies. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Re-creation” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).<br />
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Oscar Wilde, born in Dublin, Ireland, is a “born for art” writer. He was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In this play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies, revealing the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)<br />
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Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared to previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
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Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections. Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
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He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was first published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, his translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest—Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. <br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.<br />
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“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but in different meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)<br />
<br />
It not only facilitated the needs of the audience but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience would be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
<br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same. <br />
<br />
In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language remain the same.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.<br />
<br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
<br />
“There are many allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
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(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
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(1) ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. <br />
<br />
(2) CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack. Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can still benefit from them. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’ s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).<br />
<br />
An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012). <br />
<br />
Paradox is a device favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed. Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
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(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. <br />
<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect. In example 4, what amused the audience was the conclusion contrary to the reasons.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With it, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the readers will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Antithesis======<br />
<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. <br />
<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators. Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty. Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than the source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in the target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.<br />
<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we may have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is the most popular one among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is the variety of rhetorical devices. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, too. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019). <br />
<br />
<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we can have a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”. In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce better translation. Even though we can gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
<br />
Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
<br />
Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
<br />
Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
<br />
Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
<br />
Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
<br />
Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen 202020080603== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
With the development of economic globalization,exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand.The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice. Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
<br />
===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. <br />
<br />
The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)<br />
<br />
The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicit, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)<br />
<br />
The first is the implied meaning(implictit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is explicit, which the speaker actually says content.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. <br />
<br />
Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understanding:the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
<br />
understanding: the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and though contend to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. --[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)<br />
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===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)<br />
<br />
Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
<br />
===2. Literary Review===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. <br />
<br />
At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
<br />
Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===<br />
<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
<br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
<br />
On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
<br />
===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
<br />
===3.1 Free Translation===<br />
<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
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===3.2 Addition of Message===<br />
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Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
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===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===<br />
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As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
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The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)<br />
<br />
The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
<br />
*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-166.<br />
<br />
*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
<br />
*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
<br />
*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.<br />
<br />
* Mao Yueyue, Liu Fan. 毛新月, 刘帆. (2018). 释意理论指导下的会议口译中四字词语的翻译——以习近平总书记十九届中共中央政治局常委同中外记者见面会讲话为例. [Translation of four-letter words in conference interpretation under the guidance of interpretation theory - taking the speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the meeting between the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the 19th CPC Central Committee and Chinese and foreign journalists as an example]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](12): 230-231.<br />
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* Ouyang Changyi. 欧阳长怡. (2010). 论释意理论指导下的记者招待会口译策略及释意训练. [On Interpretation Strategies and Interpretation Training of Press Conference under the Guidance of Interpretation Theory]. 福建省外国语文学会.福建省外国语文学会2010年年会论文集. [Fujian Foreign Language Society. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference of Fujian Foreign Language Society]. 福建省外国语文学会: 福建省外国语文学会[Fujian Foreign Language Society: Fujian Foreign Language Society]<br />
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* Xiong Wen. 熊雯. (2014). 释意理论视阙下的口译过程研究. [A study of interpretation process under the view of interpretation theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](24): 154-155.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe. 张杨,李灵哲. (2018). 释意理论指导下的翻译语义策略运用. [The use of translation semantic strategies under the guidance of interpretation theory]. ''佳木斯职业学院学报'' [Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10): 334-336.<br />
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='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
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<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
The “article” would better to be “paper” The “problem” would better to be “ disputation” or “controversy”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 09:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being.<br />
Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time, until they entered China along trade routes from Central Asia in the first century AD.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
Chnese—Chinese please keep your tense consistency. There should be some conjunctions to make it more logical.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
adhere strictly to — strictly adhere to; the form similarity— the similarity in form--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
three period —three periods. Please keep your tense consistency. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
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it was not so widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier that it is of great …into Chinese, hence translators of Buddhist scriptures Constantly emerge. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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He translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures in total. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
“Transliteration” “ the same as”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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Please keep the tense consistency. “while ignoring”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures.<br />
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“mainstream” —“dominant”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
<br />
“then can only…”—“they” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
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=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
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Buddhism believer is not “only”limited to--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
Please keep your tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The principle of “Five Losses…” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
“by private”—“privately”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. <br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25).<br />
India— Indian--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness.<br />
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Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
“arrived”—“reached” “under his efforts”—“with his efforts” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
There is some overlaps “at the beginning” and “at the early days”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
metaphysics— and metaphysics--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
There are many commas without conjunctions.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
The words with mystery? Can it be the words with the sense of mystery?--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
but also has — but also had --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
The —the translation workshop system please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
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=== References ===<br />
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223<br />
<br />
Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308<br />
<br />
Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.<br />
<br />
Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University <br />
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Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.<br />
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Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.<br />
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Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70. <br />
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Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press<br />
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Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.<br />
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WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
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He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
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Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
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Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
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==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi ==<br />
<center>成于思 Cheng Yusi No.202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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André Lefevere; ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook''; Liu Miqing; ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''; “cultural turn”; John Dryden; translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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安德烈·勒菲弗尔;《翻译，历史和文化论集》; 刘宓庆;《中西翻译思想对比研究》;文化转向;约翰·德莱登;翻译原则<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. Dryden's comparison of a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
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===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
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''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies. <br />
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In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii) <br />
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Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)<br />
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If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.<br />
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The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements, which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)<br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it brings those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others. <br />
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I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47) <br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "an author and a translator" to "a master and a slave" through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.(Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)<br />
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Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
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Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracts an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)<br />
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In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102) <br />
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Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating poems in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103) <br />
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As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Dryden proposes a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)<br />
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It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. <br />
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Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compares a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)<br />
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Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars, like Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014) <br />
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A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works were with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)<br />
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Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73) <br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)<br />
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===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
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In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2) <br />
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In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. <br />
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Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
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The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33) <br />
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He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)<br />
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Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)<br />
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Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179) <br />
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The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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However, he also recognizes that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School and New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented", and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories which can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current superficial, assertive and rational views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)<br />
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The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)<br />
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Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)<br />
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Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulated that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)<br />
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Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987) <br />
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In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation principles that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the feature of the tradition of Chinese translation changes from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)<br />
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As such, the flourishing of translation is bound to be our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) <br />
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The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51) <br />
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The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
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The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)<br />
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Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem.(Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate Chinese poems, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility, it expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
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Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
<br />
Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argues that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provides a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)<br />
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===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
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===4.1 From the aspect of the content===<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
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===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===<br />
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Both of these two books are arranged in theme rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters, which are concerned with the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. As to the longer essays, they are collected in the last chapter. <br />
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Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includs the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps readers understanding translation principles.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have better understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of a translator to a slave. Then, it figures out the reasons of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
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Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
===关键词===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
===Introuction===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.<br />
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Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
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Ancient Translation Period<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（quotation missing）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
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A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（paragraph too long）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: <br />
<br />
(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. ) <br />
<br />
Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. <br />
<br />
The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)<br />
<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.<br />
<br />
Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. <br />
<br />
The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. <br />
<br />
These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. <br />
<br />
Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. <br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. <br />
<br />
The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. <br />
<br />
Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)<br />
<br />
===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)<br />
<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. <br />
<br />
The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. <br />
<br />
Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. <br />
<br />
This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).<br />
<br />
The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. <br />
<br />
The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
===Trends in Translation Theory Research===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. <br />
<br />
In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980.<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
<br />
[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645==<br />
<br />
吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
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Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. [Quotation missing--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi]<br />
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Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
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1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
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Example 1:<br />
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路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 2<br />
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云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 3<br />
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花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 4 <br />
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Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
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With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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Example 7<br />
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番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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Example 10<br />
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Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
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Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 11<br />
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我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 12<br />
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“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 13<br />
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耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 14<br />
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“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
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"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 15<br />
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我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.[Quotation missing--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 14:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi]<br />
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===''' References '''===<br />
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* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
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='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
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==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==<br />
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center><br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence on the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
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For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation was regarded as a linguistic phenomena before. But later, with the development of the translation theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science, especially linguistics, can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
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This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
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==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology at home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
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'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
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In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recording two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)<br />
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Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)<br />
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J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and regarded seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure. (J.A Catford , 1965)<br />
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Holmes published The Name and Nature of Translation Studies at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation, which directly promoted the construction of translation studies. ( James Holmes,1975)<br />
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In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from several aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing the translation practice. (Wolfram Wilss, 1982)<br />
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Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is Discourse and the Translator (1990), which is the first book to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers. (Hatim & Mason,1990 )<br />
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Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believed that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
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Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies. (Mona Baker, 2006) <br />
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'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
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In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were using correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books would be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe. (Dong Qiusi, 1951)<br />
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In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the viewpoint that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
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In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published On Approaches to Translation Studies. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' the awareness of the subject of translation studies. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
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In the thesis An Overview of Western Translation Theory (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, translatology could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
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In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
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In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)<br />
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At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. ( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)<br />
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Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）<br />
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Subsequently, Lv published Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new perspective for the study of the construction of translation studies and promoted the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)<br />
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Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)<br />
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Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the development of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies. (Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
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Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012) <br />
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Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)<br />
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Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple approaches of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation. (Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020)<br />
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In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rising of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precedes translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. (Wang Yin,2017)<br />
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Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western translation studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward west, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation. (Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)<br />
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Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)<br />
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Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies of the researches. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)<br />
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From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the awareness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
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==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
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In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies. <br />
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'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
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"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often be confused. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definitions of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
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In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is also used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the rules of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995） <br />
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Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic, literature, philosophy etc. ( Kong Xiangli,2009)<br />
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'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
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Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline and to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)<br />
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'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
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Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translator appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei etc. (Yi Jing,2009)<br />
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The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated texts. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
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'''3.2.2 The awareness of an independent discipline'''<br />
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Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of an independent discipline and proposed a classification of the research field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a merely a technical activity. (Tan Zaixi, 1987 )<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared the independence of translation in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, many famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
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'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
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Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies have shown a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018) <br />
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Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its research field, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
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==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation by early linguists; second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists began to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology were linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
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Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 ) <br />
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Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their researches inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, their contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, systematic-functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists took Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regarded linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the assistance of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts that are "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has exerted a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural context of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the development of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics theory. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 <br />
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The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and materials for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool and new research perspectives for translation studies and provides great convenience for translation studies. ( Liao Qiyi，2000)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The publication of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is quite similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, publishing cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good example. (Yang Zijian,1993)<br />
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From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study. Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be learned from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together. In the process of development, linguistics has absorbed the experience of many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., formed many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
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Linguistics has gone through several stages of development, and it has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics provided experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators should only take other disciplines for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely. ( (Liu Miqing, 1989))<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
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Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
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Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
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Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
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Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析翻译学科学习目前存在的问题，并提出相应的建议。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''=== <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
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Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies", is a basic statement of translation studies，which calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) <br />
<br />
Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, such as comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)<br />
<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation studies can examine the practices and context of translating texts that are specialist (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these knowledge enables students to apply their understanding of theories to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually includes the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills that are necessary elements solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. With the requirement of effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures in today's multicultural and multilingual society, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
<br />
As a science, Translation Studies always has its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. <br />
<br />
Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can have a good understanding about the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. It is necessary for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
Translation activities appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, and the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. <br />
<br />
The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared on the scene.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have been single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, as well as translation criticism, translation publishing, and translation management, etc.<br />
<br />
At that time, because a large number of people who master foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to improve foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under Foreign Language and Literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
<br />
2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, translation studies explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. <br />
<br />
At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the team to construct translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation in succession. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of “China Translator" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)<br />
<br />
Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge. Translation research ideas, methods, field and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)<br />
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2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
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In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) <br />
<br />
In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Translation studies have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.<br />
<br />
There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers should help students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments that required by the language service market. Teachers can invite industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
<br />
==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. Translation discipline in China has entered a new stage now, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
<br />
3.1. Translation Education <br />
<br />
With the establishment of the autonomy of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the cultivation of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018）<br />
<br />
However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, so it is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction history of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, so systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
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At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to bluring and confusing educational goal of translation major. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation major teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition, due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them are lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
<br />
3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
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The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. <br />
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The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data shows that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
<br />
In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)<br />
<br />
3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
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Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018) <br />
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This kinds of teaching method that is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model ignore student autonomy, which will pay too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
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3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
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The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is inconsiderable.（Ou Yonghua 2019）<br />
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Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, according to the actual situation of translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but do not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)<br />
<br />
3.2. Students<br />
<br />
The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, so it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
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Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. <br />
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Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
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As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
<br />
3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
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Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not gain sufficient background information.<br />
<br />
With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015) <br />
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3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
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At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless to some extent or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
<br />
==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved over time. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote Translation Studies in China.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
<br />
The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
The teaching model is an important guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation. (Wang Baigula 2018)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
<br />
Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to innovate. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019) <br />
<br />
The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching,which attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. It is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019) --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
<br />
Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. <br />
<br />
Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） <br />
<br />
Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
<br />
Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of roadmap for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)<br />
<br />
Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and to reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of landmark for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
<br />
The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
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4.2. Students <br />
<br />
The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
<br />
Translation talents play a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009) <br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future.Not only should they have a solid foundation in language ability, but also they should take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009) --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students are urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
<br />
Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. <br />
<br />
Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics and the skills and theories of translation，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. <br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the objection of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Therefore, translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and professional knowledge. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies are still not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, learn from the latest foreign translation theories, and combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hope that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
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Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
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Chen Cheng.陈诚. (2020).高校英语翻译课程教学现状及改革研究.[ Research on the Teaching Status and Reform of College English Translation Course].淮南职业技术学院学报[''Journal of Huainan Vocational &Technology''] 97-98.<br />
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Chu Xizhi.褚喜之(2009).翻译理论在翻译教学中的重要性.[The Importance of Translation Theory in Translation Teaching].经济研究导刊[''Economic Research Guide'']237-238.<br />
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Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
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Huang Youyi.黄友义.(2018).服务改革开放40年,翻译实践与翻译教育迎来转型发展的新时代.[Servicing Reform and Opening for 40 Years, Translation Practice and Translation Education Usher in a New Era of Transformation and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']5-8.<br />
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Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
<br />
Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
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Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
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Linlin.林琳.(2016).英语文学翻译学习现状及改善措施.[ The Status Quo and Improvement Measures of English Literature Translation Learning].西部素质教育[''Western China Quality Education''] 65.<br />
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Luo Feng.罗峰.(2011).从翻译学学科建设看翻译学在中国的发展.[On the Development of Translation Studies As A Discipline in China].琼州学院学报[''Journal of Qiongzhou University]''115-116.<br />
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Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
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Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
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Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
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Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei. 许钧, 穆雷.(2009).中国翻译学研究30年 (1978 -2007).[30 years of Chinese Translation Studies (1978 -2007)].外国语[''Journal of Foreign Languages'']77-87.<br />
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Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
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Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan== <br />
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center><br />
<br />
<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays<br />
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===题目===<br />
译者文化身份对翻译的影响<br />
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===摘要===<br />
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translating a work is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important active role in both translating the content and interpreting it, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.<br />
<br />
Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)<br />
<br />
There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.<br />
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=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===<br />
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.<br />
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Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.<br />
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(While your first quote here may be intended to explain to the reader where the concept of cultural identity came from, I suggest you explain the meaning of the concept proposed by the cited author.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)<br />
<br />
====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====<br />
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.<br />
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In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.<br />
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Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on naturalization strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.<br />
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（Be clear about what exactly domestication or foreignization in your text means and who defines it. Use word “domestication” instead of “naturalization”in general.）--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====<br />
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.<br />
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However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." <br />
<br />
However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12) <br />
<br />
We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese literary world. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.<br />
<br />
We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.<br />
(Here you used foreignization ,but above the paper,you use alienation,The specific concepts of context should be unified.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The cultural identity of translators in translation===<br />
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.<br />
(Here world literature is not very accurate, maybe you can say world translation)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====In terms of the original intention of translation====<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao himself said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much and so only that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's love for Shakespeare is so strong that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading Shakespeare, not eating it. <br />
<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believes that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius is to appreciate literature, the general public to read are popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "the highest art only a few people can understand ......, literature and art is not the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Byrd Byrd, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)<br />
(Here maybe you want to say Irving Babbitt not Byrd, plz check it again)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "My aim in translating this book is, first, to maintain the charm of the original work to the greatest extent possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey faithfully the meaning and feelings of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha plays more attention to the performance function of drama.<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)<br />
<br />
EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，<br />
伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，<br />
<br />
This man hath my consent to marry her．<br />
是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的<br />
<br />
Stand forth，Lysander．<br />
走上前来，拉山德。<br />
<br />
And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）<br />
殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子 （朱生豪. 2013：9）<br />
<br />
In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work. <br />
For example, his translation. <br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)<br />
<br />
拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!<br />
否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.<br />
<br />
First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:<br />
<br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)<br />
<br />
Translation of Liang Shiqiu:<br />
<br />
赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，<br />
<br />
否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。<br />
<br />
HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool: <br />
<br />
And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)<br />
<br />
海 上学时她就是个狐狸精。<br />
<br />
她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。<br />
<br />
Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966) <br />
Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature. <br />
<br />
For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.<br />
<br />
Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,<br />
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;<br />
There with fantastic garlands did she come,<br />
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,<br />
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.<br />
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:<br />
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds<br />
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,<br />
When down her weedy trophies and herself<br />
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;<br />
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;<br />
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one<br />
incapable of her own distress,<br />
Or like a creature native and indu’d<br />
Unto that element: but long it could not be<br />
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,<br />
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay<br />
To muddy death.<br />
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）<br />
<br />
The translation of Liang Shiqiu：<br />
(You can say Liang’s version :)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。 就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。 她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works. <br />
<br />
For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion. <br />
<br />
By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Fu Wenhui付文慧．多重文化身份下之戴乃迭英译阐释［The Interpretation of Dai Naidian's English Translation under Multiple Cultural Identities］中国翻译[ Chinese Translation]，2011，32(6):16—20．<br />
<br />
Yan Xiaojiang严晓江． 梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.<br />
<br />
Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.<br />
<br />
Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128.. <br />
<br />
Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.<br />
<br />
Wu Delu.吴得禄.译者文化身份对翻译的影响[The influence of translators' cultural identity on translation].读书文摘[Reading Digest].2016(08):211.<br />
<br />
Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．<br />
<br />
Liu Shuang刘双．文化身份与跨文化传播[Cultural identity and cross-cultural communication]外语学刊[Journal of Foreign Languages]，2000(1):87—91．<br />
<br />
Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪.译者自序[Translator's Preface].文学界(专辑版)[Literature (album edition)].2010(09):36.<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚 四大喜剧 梁实秋译[The Four Great Comedies translated by Liang Shiqiu].北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press].2001<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚． 仲夏夜之梦 朱生豪译．[A Midsummer Night's Dream translated by Zhu Shenghao].上海:上海世界图书出版公司 [Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company],2013．<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋 文学与革命.偏见集[Literature and Revolution. The collection of prejudices].南京:正中书局[Nanjing: Zhengzhong Shuji].中华民国二十三年七月.<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Toury's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Toury and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Toury also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Toury proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Toury describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Toury, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
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According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
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He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Toury, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Toury's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
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According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
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Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
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Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Toury, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Toury concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Toury believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Toury is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Toury has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
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According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
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Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In his study of descriptive translation, Toury emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Toury's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Toury's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
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In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
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The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
Li Hongman 李红满. (2002). 论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J]. [On the Paradigm Shift in Contemporary Western Translation Studies]. 外语与翻译. [Foreign Languages and Translations]. <br />
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Zhang Meifang 张美芳. (2000). 翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J]. [The Objectives and Structure of Translation Studies - A Review of Holmes' Vision of Translation Studies]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
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Toury Gideon. (2001). ''Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond''[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J]. [Translation Studies: From Specification to Description]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
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Vermeer Hans J. (1996). A Skopos Theory of Translation[M]. Heidellburg:TEXT-con.<br />
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Venuti Lawrence. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge.<br />
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Snell-Homby Mary. (1995). Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M]. Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.<br />
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Hemans Theo (1985). ed.The manipulation of Literature[M]. London&Sydney:Croom Helm.<br />
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Han Ziman, Liu Fang 韩子满, 刘芳. （2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J]. [Describe the achievements and shortcomings of translation studies]. 外语学刊. [Journal of Foreign Languages].<br />
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Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M]. [New Horizons in Translation Studies]. 青岛:青岛出版社. [Qingdao:Qingdao Publishing House].<br />
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==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==<br />
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<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655</center><br />
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<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655 亚非语言文学</center>--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Abstract:=== <br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and deeply understand the status of descriptive translation studies.<br />
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This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and helps the readers to understand deeply the status of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===摘要：===<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。<br />
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本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，并深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.<br />
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===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities of translation, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）<br />
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Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives have contributed to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）<br />
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Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of tranlation experience. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) <br />
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In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the translation study has became more systematic. Some researchers regard translation study as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
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However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered as "misleading reader" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements on translation theories varied all the time. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation activities. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===<br />
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In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.<br />
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In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 John MacFarlane====<br />
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In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
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In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the Durhram University Journal. In his thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation, just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that there are often different reading methods when reading the same work even at the same time.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translated version. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
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Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something that it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic. Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention translation field at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Firth====<br />
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Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) <br />
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Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and this concept has produced the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context. Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 James Holmes====<br />
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With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）<br />
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With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54） <br />
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"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. <br />
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He discusses the dialectical relationship among descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
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For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text. Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out. After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches." Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, you have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
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Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. Taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).<br />
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Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to "a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.<br />
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However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 Polysystem Theory====<br />
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In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
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In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundary between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
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According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）<br />
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Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5 Gideon Toury<br />
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Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）<br />
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Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations who are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
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This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, thus makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published in his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description. From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
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Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. <br />
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In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)<br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications, which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have been often taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.6 Snell-Hornby<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. <br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined，presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)<br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types. Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97) <br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：<br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts. <br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited by the study of equivalence between texts. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation". In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion (translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) <br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "a wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)'' with Li Yeguang and others' translations, and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56) This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) <br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect yet. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36) <br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury believes clearly that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6) In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Conclusion=== <br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.<br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short. There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro-analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Reference===<br />
Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.<br />
<br />
J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.<br />
<br />
Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Snell-Hornby.(1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman 韩子满，Liu Fang 刘芳（2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001).翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive <br />
to the Descriptive Approach].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).<br />
<br />
Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]<br />
<br />
Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰.(2002).多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).<br />
<br />
==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies== <br />
<br />
Translation Strategies <br />
<br />
===Abstract === <br />
<br />
Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.<br />
<br />
Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.<br />
<br />
This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers define them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical significance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)<br />
<br />
===Content===<br />
<br />
Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classifications from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classification is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classifications. It seems that clear-cut definitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype definitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)<br />
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The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reflect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reflects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)<br />
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The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp fiction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)<br />
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Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the definitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few defining characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difficulty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).<br />
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or specific) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “specific activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle specific problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by specific techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classified by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
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As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural filtering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
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However, this is not consonant with the dictionary definitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is defined as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) defines translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will influence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identified the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identification, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal significant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can find out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) ==<br />
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Darwish (2008) identifies four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70<br />
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However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might influence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difficulty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Laffling(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.<br />
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== The Comparison of Machine Translation and Human Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory---A Case Study of E-C Translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example - 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan 202020080630==<br />
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<center>欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Abstract (delete "Abstract here"):With the rapid development of globalization and (add "the" here) Internet, international communication is expanding, and a lot of information needs to be translated. Due to the low efficiency of human translation, machine translation is indispensable in (delete "in") today. However, due to the limitations of machine translation, the quality of machine translation is still worrying. Therefore, from the perspective of Skopos theory, this paper takes the E-C translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example to analyze the machine translation of Google translation and Baidu translation, and compare it with the translation of Song Zhaolin, so as to explore the characteristics of machine translation and human translation, try to discuss the irreplaceable nature of human translation, and discuss how to combine machine translation with human translation to improve the quality and efficiency of translation. This paper is divided into five parts: the first part introduces the background of the current translation environment; the second part introduces Skopos Theory and discusses the feasibility of Skopos Theory in analyzing machine translation and human translation; the third part introduces the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation and human translation, and discusses the relationship between them; the fourth part is a case study to see machine translation from the perspective of Skopos theory Compared with manual translation, it is concluded that machine translation and manual translation must be combined to improve the efficiency and quality of translation. The fifth part is a summary to (change "to" into "of") this paper.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaoliu<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Skopos Theory, machine translation, human translation<br />
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===题目===<br />
目的论视角下机器翻译和人工翻译的对比---以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着全球化和互联网的迅速发展，国际的交流日益扩大，大量信息需要翻译。由于人工翻译效率低下，在越来越强调效率和质量的今天，机器翻译必不可少。然而，由于机器翻译的局限性，机器翻译的质量仍然堪忧。因此,本文以目的论视角, 以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例，分析谷歌翻译和百度翻译的机器译文, 与宋兆霖版本的中文译本对比，由此探析机器翻译与人工翻译的特点,尝试论述人工翻译的不可替代性, 并讨论如何将机器翻译与人工翻译结合提高翻译的质量和效率。本文分为五个部分，第一部分对当前翻译环境背景的介绍；第二部分对目的论进行简介，并讨论目的论用于分析机器翻译和人工翻译的可行性；第三部分介绍机器翻译和人工翻译的优缺点，并讨论他们之间的关系；第四部分进行案例分析，从目的论视角下看机器翻译与人工翻译的对比，得出提高翻译效率与质量必须将机器翻译与人工翻译相结合。第五部分对全文进行总结。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
目的论 机器翻译 人工翻译 <br />
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===1. Introduction ===<br />
With the development of globalization, the growth of Internet and artificial intelligence, machine translation becomes an indispensable choice in today’s society. Compared with human translation, machine translation has the advantages of efficiency. As the traditional translation method, human translation can guarantee the accuracy of the text. In this information era, many people are thinking if（change "if" into "whether"）human translation will be replaced by machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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In September 2016, Google released the neural network translation system, which greatly improved the quality of machine translation. In November, Baidu CEO Robin Li stated at the Wuzhen Summit of the 3rd World Internet Conference that Baidu's artificial intelligence product "automatic translation" will enter a practical state. Therefore, this paper will put the original text of Tale of Two Cities in two representative public machine translation engines at home and abroad, "Google" and "Baidu", to obtain the machine translation. Selecting texts from the famous classical novel ''A Tale of Two Cities'', and comparing machine translations and human translations based on this novel from the perspective of Skopos theory. (change "." into ",") This (change "This" into "this") paper aims to investigate the relationship between human translation and machine translation and their developments in the future. (Hu Kaibao 2016, 10)--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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=== 2. Overview of Skopos Theory ===<br />
In the 1970s, some eminent German translation theory scholars first proposed functional translation theory. Translation theorist Katharina reiss divides text into three types: informative, expressive and operational. She suggested that according to different text types, different translation methods should be used for analysis, and different translation criticism standards should be adopted, that is, text types, language functions and translation strategies should be combined. In the translation process, it’s essential to focus on the functional characteristics of the target text. Her text type theory and translation criticism mode can be regarded as the beginning of functionalist Skopos theory. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
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Hans Vermeer is Reiss's student. He further developed Reiss's theory and proposed Skopos theory. He believed that Skopos theory is based on the source text, and then may produce a series of purposeful and effective behaviors. The core of this theory is that "the purpose of translation determines translation strategies and method to achieve the expected purpose of translation" (Reiss & Vermeer 1984), German scholars Justa Holz Manttari and Christian Nord further developed this theory which based on the theory of communication and behavior, he proposed that translation theory is not a simple translation between words and sentences, but a kind of conscious behavior for the purpose of cultural communication. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
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====2.1 Three Rules of Skopos Theory====<br />
The word “Skopos” is originated from the Greek language and means purpose. Skopos theory refers to the process of translation is determined by the purpose of the translation, so the purpose rule is the highest one of translation. Generally speaking, skopos theory includes three principles: Skopos rule, coherence rule (intra-textual coherence) and fidelity rule (also known as "inter-textual coherence"). (Nord 2001, 20)<br />
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Skopos theory believes that the important principle to be followed is the "purpose" rule, it is the core rule of Skopos Theory: the process of translation should be based on the realization of the communicative function in the target language culture, and the goal to be achieved determines the entire process of translation, that is, the method determines the result. Vermeer differentiated the purpose of translation. He believes that the purpose of translation should include three levels: the purpose of the translator; the purpose of communicative; the purpose of specific translation strategies.In most cases, any translator has a certain purpose before translation, such as being entrusted by a translation company, market demand or the need to introduce technology. In most cases, "purpose" refers to the communicative purpose of translation. Under the guidance of the purpose of communication, the translator can have more space to interpret and adjust the original text. (Nord 2001, 78)<br />
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To achieve the communicative and interative function between the target text and the target receptor, the target text needs to conform to the linguistic coherence, and be understood and accepted by the readers in the context of the target language and culture. The principle of coherence means that the target text must conform to the intra-textual coherence, that is, the translation must be understood by the target reader and meaningful in the culture of the target language and the communication environment in which the translation is used. “The principle of coherence requires that the information generated by the translator (target text) must be interpreted in a manner consistent with the context of the target reader.” (Shuttleworth 2004: 75) This means the translator should maximize the translation Semantic coherence and makes the translation understandable and acceptable to the target readers. The target text can help target readers understand and successfully exchange information.<br />
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The fidelity rule refers to the inter-textual coherence between the original text and the target text, which requires "consistency between the target text and the original text" (Munday, 2010: 79). Therefore, in the translation process, the translator should not only be faithful to the original text, but also transfer the writing style and cultural factors existed in the source text. This principle requires translator to follow the purpose of translation.<br />
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In the process of translation, translators should follow three principles according to Skopos Theory: the Skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. Among these three rules in Skopos Theory, the skopos rule is the primary principle translators should adopt in the process of translation, and the coherence rule and the fidelity rule must follow the skopos rule. So in the case of translation practice, fidelity rule is subordinate to coherence rule, and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule. In a word, Skopos rule plays a decisive role in translation process, which should be considered first in translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011, 20)<br />
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====2.3 Application of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory is different from traditional theories which overemphasize the features of language rules. With regard to Skopos Theory, it requires that translators should not only consider the language but also take account of factors beyond texts and language like the purpose of translation. As for ''A Tale of Two Cities'', the purpose is to make the target reader feel the same as the source target reader. Since this is a literary text, the cultural factors and rhetorical methods used in the source texts should be reflected on the target text. In addition, the feeling of the target text reader should be taken into consideration in the process of translation. Therefore, the translation should conform to habits of the target language. But guided by Skopos Theory, the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation can be easily analyzed, so that a better solution can be founded between human translation and machine translation. <br />
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===3. Machine Translation and Human Translation===<br />
Translation activities have a long history. As far as China is concerned, translation has a history of more than two thousand years. However, the translation tools have rarely changed, and the translations are always been done by "translators". With the development of science and technology and the acceleration of globalization, there is an increasing need for translation, and "machine" translation has emerged. The advantages of high efficiency and low cost of machine translation make people think about whether machine translation will replace human translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of human translation====<br />
Human translation has both advantages and disadvantages. For example, human translation has the characteristics of flexibility, accuracy, high readability and humanization of language. At the same time, however, compared with machine translation, human translation is less efficient and easy to be influenced by translator's own cultural background and translation capacity so it is difficult to achieve rapid development. Before the advent of machine translation, all translation activities were done by human. Compared with machine translation, translators, as a bridge of cross-cultural communication, are more flexible. Translation itself is a complex activity. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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Professional translators who have certain cultural background knowledge can choose different translation methods and strategies according to the similarities and differences between the two languages and cultures, so it is more flexible and accurate. The flexibility of human language enables the translator to express the meaning of the original text in a more abundant language, and accurately handle the rhetorical devices in the original text. Therefore, the target text of human translation must be more readable than machine translation. Human translation has a long history, and people's research on translation has never stopped. Many excellent translators have emerged in the world and put forward various translation ideas and strategies. Translation has established a relatively mature and complete theory. With the rapid development of China's economy and the increasing number of foreign exchanges, the demand for translation is on the rise. At the same time, the time spend on translation needs to be shortened. Therefore, manual translation alone cannot meet the needs of the translation market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of machine translation====<br />
Machine translation refers to a language can be transferred into another language automatically with the help of machine. The idea of machine translation was firstly put forward by Weaver in his book Translation in 1949(Weaver, 1955). Since the end of the 20th century, the development of the Internet and computer technology has provided more optional software and engines for machine translation. At the same time, the corpus has become richer and more complete, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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The current machine translation is based on the "Neural Machine Translation" (NMT) model of artificial intelligence. Currently, the popular web page machine translations include Youdao Translation, Baidu Translation, Google Translation and so on. Google is currently in a leading position in both voice translation and text translation. Google Translation is a service provided by Google to translate texts and web pages, providing instant translation between more than 100 languages. It can provide translations of words, sentences and web pages between any two languages it supports. The more human translation documents that can be analyzed for a particular language, the higher the quality of the translation. In addition, Google's web page translation is fast, especially free to use, so it has a considerable number of users in translation activities, especially among students. Therefore, this paper will take Google Translation and Baidu Translation as an example to analyze the translation quality, which is representative in the market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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Generally speaking, machine translation has the characteristics of high efficiency, low cost, accuracy of terminology translation, and great development potential. Machine translation is fast and efficient, which is unmatched by human translation. Secondly, the price of machine translation is low, even free, which greatly reduces the economic cost and time cost for those who do not require high translation quality. In addition, compared to human translation, the huge corpus established by machine translation makes the translation of some terms, especially the latest scientific and technological terms, faster and more accurate. The accurate translation of these terms requires continuous learning by the translator, and learning requires a process, which has a certain test of the translator's learning ability and learning speed. At this point, human translation has uncertainty and lag. Finally, although the history of machine translation is short, it has achieved rapid development. With the advancement of science and technology and the development of society, the functions of machine translation will be more perfect and the quality of translation will be better. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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First of all, from a microscopic point of view, machine translation often has problems in the choice of word meaning, especially when there is one word with different meaning. It needs the translator to select the meaning based on the context, while machine translation cannot accurately choose the meaning of a word in combination with the context. What’s more, the word order of the translated sentence often does not conform to the word order and expression habits of the target language. From the aspect of tense, it is more accurate when translating English into Chinese, because words in English can directly change tense. However, there are sometimes problems such as no corresponding tenses when translating Chinese into English. From a macro point of view, machine translation does not have cultural sensitivity and is not accurate enough for the translation of some idioms and proverbs with strong cultural color. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.3 Relationship between machine translation and human translation====<br />
Machine translation is based on human translation, and the establishment of corpus that machine translation relies on needs human participation. When translating technical terms, machine translation corpus and parallel text can greatly reduce the time when find and determine proper equivalent terms. However, the establishment of these corpora needs to rely on well translated materials. The accuracy and usability of corpus are also affected by the quality of human translation. Therefore, they restrict and influence each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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There are more or less defects in the micro and macro aspects of machine translation. At the micro level, it mainly includes vocabulary, syntax, tense, and so on. However, at the macro level, it mainly includes text cohesion and cultural background. Therefore, human translation is essential. In addition, all machine translation inspection, modification, sorting and other work must also be carried out manually, so as to make the translation quality better and meet the requirements of communication. It can be seen that machine translation alone cannot meet the requirements of high quality translation. Translation activities cannot be separated from human participation. Therefore, with the development of machine translation, translation should be completed by both machine and human. The two are related, influenced with each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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===4. Case Study from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===<br />
A Tale of Two Cities is a long historical novel by British writer Charles Dickens, first published in 1859. The story is set in the French Revolution and has a touching plot. It is one of the world's literary classics. The twin cities refer to Paris and London. The story connects these two cities and tells the story of the Parisian doctor Manette. He was persecuted by the brothers of the Marquis St. Evremonde due to injustice and was detained in the Bastille prison for 18 years. After being released from prison, Mannette's daughter Lucie fell in love with the enemy's son Darney. Thus, in the whirlpool of the French Revolution, scenes of family grievances and hatred were staged grandly. Life and death, good and evil are blended in conflict and changed in an instant. On the guillotine, Carton calmly sacrificed his life for love. （Dickens 2016）<br />
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A Tale of Two Cities has a rigorous structure and condensed language. Dickens's profound thinking on revolution and humanity and his breathtaking writing talent are fully demonstrated. This paper selects the most representative classic sentences in the text for comparative analysis of translation, studies whether neural network machine translation software can accurately translate classic literary works, and explores whether neural network machine translation replaces manual translation in the context of artificial intelligence. The human translation was by Zhaolin Song. Among the many translation versions in China, Song’s translation was regarded as the version which closes to the source text most. (Feng Baoyin 2018, 232)<br />
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====4.1 Case Study from the perspective of Skopos Rule====<br />
In Vermeer’ opinion, the dominant rule for any translation should be the skopos rule, which means that a translation action is determined by its purposes. That is to say, the translation action should be in accordance with the target context and culture. The purposes of target text determine the translation strategies and methods used in translation process. A good translation should conform to the target culture and target audiences’ expectations. According to Nord, “Skopos of a particular translation task may require a ‘free’ or a ‘faithful’ translation, or anything between these two extremes, depending on the purpose for which the translation is needed”. Once the intended purposes are achieved, the translation will be considered as reasonable and proper. It is unnecessary for the translation to be equivalent to the source text. (Nord 1997, 102 )<br />
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Example 1: We were all going direct to heaven, we were all going direct the other way--in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
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Google translation: 我们都直接去天堂，我们都直接去天堂- -简而言之，这一时期与目前的时期如此遥远，以至于它的一些最吵闹的当局坚持以最高的比较程度来接受它是好是坏。<br />
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Baidu translation: 我们是所有的人都直接去天堂，我们都朝着另一个方向去——简而言之，这个时期和现在的时代非常相似，以至于一些最吵闹的权威坚持要接受它，不管是好是坏，只是在最高级的比较中。<br />
<br />
Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 我们大家都在直升天堂，我们大家都在直下地狱——简而言之，那个时代和当今这个时代是如此相似，因而一些吵嚷不休的权威们也坚持认为，不管它是好是坏，都只能用“ 最……”来评价它。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 20)<br />
<br />
Analysis: <br />
Since this is selected from a novel, the purpose of translation should be express the meaning and beauty of the source text. According to the Google translation, it made a mistake in translating "We were all going directly the other way". The translated meaning is totally different from the original. As to Baidu translation, it expressed the meaning of the original text, while the expression way will confuse the target text reader. In regards to human translation, the translator of this edition adopts the combination of literal translation and free translation. In this way, the translation not only clearly expresses the original meaning, but also takes into account the literariness of the work, so that readers can feel the characteristics of the times more vividly.<br />
<br />
====4.2 Case study from the perspective of coherence rule====<br />
Coherence rule is also called “intra-textual coherence”, which means that the translation should be acceptable and understandable for the target audiences and be meaningful in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received. In other words, the target text should conform to the target receivers’ situation, including their given knowledge, background culture and specific circumstances. (Nord 1997, 120)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 2: Questions, questions, questions! (Charles Dickens 2016, 56)<br />
)<br />
<br />
Google Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
<br />
Baidu Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
<br />
Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 问题一个接一个地提出来！(Song Zhaolin 2005, 68)<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this sentence, the original text uses three "questions" in a row to enhance the tone. However, Google and Baidu Translation directly translated it to "问题，问题，问题！". It sounds too blunt to read. The target text translated by Google and Baidu cannot reflect the meaning of the original text. What's more, it makes target readers hard to get meaning of the text. While the translator chose the free translation method to make the translation more natural and smooth. The translated text followed the coherence rule in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
Example 3: But just because he had a powerful enemy---an enemy with the power to send him to prison and to keep him there, hidden and forgotten, for eighteen years. (Charles Dickens 2016, 102)<br />
<br />
Google translation: 但是仅仅因为他有一个强大的敌人-一个有能力将他送进监狱并将其隐藏和遗忘在监狱里长达十八年的敌人。<br />
<br />
Baidu translation:只是因为他有一个强大的敌人，一个有能力把他送进监狱，把他关在那里，隐藏起来，被遗忘18年。<br />
<br />
Human translation(Song Zhaolin): 而只是因为他有一个强大的敌人-这个敌人拥有权势将他投进监狱，而且把他在那里与世隔绝、被人遗忘地关了18年。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 130)<br />
<br />
<br />
Analysis: In terms of grammar, English uses long sentences, which are connected by functional words, such as conjunctions, prepositions and relative words. The syntactic structure is relatively complex and it is a hypotactic language. Chinese is a paratactic language. In the process of E-C translation, we often use disassembly syntax to translate a long and complex English sentence into several short and simple Chinese short sentences. From Google Translation, it directly translated the structure of the original text. The target text created by Google translation doesn't conform to target language structure. While the translation of Baidu almost in accordance with the target language structure. As to the human translation, not only was the structure, but also the meaning was perfectly expressed.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Case study from the perspective of fidelity rule====<br />
Fidelity rule is also named by Vermeer as “intertextual coherence”, which puts emphasis on the relationship between the source text and target text. Based on Skopos theory, fidelity rule requires that the target text should be in accordance with the source text, which means the information contained in the source text should be exactly conveyed by the target text under the translators’ efforts. (Nord 1997, 140)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 1: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
<br />
Google Translation: 那是最美好的时光，那是最糟糕的时光，那是智慧的时代，那是愚昧的时代，那是信仰的时代，那是轻信的时代，那是光明的季节， 是黑暗的季节，是希望的春天，是绝望的冬天，我们眼前的一切，眼前的一切。<br />
<br />
Baidu Translation: 那是最好的时代，最坏的时代，智慧的时代，愚昧的时代，信仰的时代，不信的时代，光明的季节，黑暗的季节，希望的春天，绝望的冬天，我们面前什么都有，面前什么都没有。 <br />
<br />
Human Translation (Zhaolin Song): : 那是最美好的时代，那是最糟糕的时代；那是个睿智的年月，那是个蒙昧的年月；那是信心百倍的时期，那是疑虑重重的时期；那是阳光普照的季节，那是黑暗笼罩的季节；那是充满希望的春天，那是让人绝望的冬天；我们面前无所不有，我们面前一无所有。（Song Zhaolin 2005, 20）<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is the classic opening paragraph in "A Tale of Two Cities", and it can be said to be very popular. On the whole, because of the simple structure of this paragraph, the three machine-translated translations all accurately express the content of the original text, but one shortcoming is that it is difficult for machine translation to express the unique beauty of rhythm of the original text.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the translation of commonly used machine translation software and human translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, we can conclude that for the translation of literary works, machine translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text, even equal to manual translation if it is some simple sentence expression. However, the quality of machine translation needs to be improved some sentences with complex sentence patterns and difficult grammatical structures. Therefore, the translation of literary works by machine translation still has a long way to go.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
The main purpose of this paper is to find a better solution between machine translation and human translation under the guidance of the Skopos Theory for optimizing weaknesses of machine translation platforms, which not only generates solutions to errors, but also improves the quality of machine translation. <br />
<br />
Theoretically, this paper applies Skopos Theory to guide human translation and machine translation of literary texts. Machine translation can be regarded as a basis of human translation, while those errors caused by machine translation can be improved manually after the completion of machine translation. Meanwhile, human translation by employing appropriate translation methods and techniques, such as semantic conversion, amplification, omission and so on, human translation based on machine translation enormously solves errors of machine translation which further optimizes weaknesses of machine translation. Human translation process also becomes more efficient with the help of machine. <br />
As for machine translation, firstly, machine translation platforms can’t replace translators on account of its incomplete corpus and limitations in transferring the cultural meaning. Secondly, errors at lexical level caused by defects of machine translation are much more than that at syntactical level in F396P Aircraft Tow Tractor Maintenance Instruction. Lastly, machine translation platforms are restricted to contexts of language, situation and culture which lead to incorrect target text. <br />
<br />
In regard with human translation, from the perspective of Skopos theory, human translation is more understandable and readable to target readers than that of machine translation. It’s essential for the translator to know typical errors in machine translation, features of chose machine translation platforms and characteristics of source text, which could fascinate the efficiency of translation. All in all, machine translation platforms enhance the efficiency of translating large amount of material and human translation provides a solution for machine translation of poor quality. Machine translation and human translation are complement to each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2016). A Tale of Two Cities. Macmillian.<br />
<br />
* Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2011). 中国译学大辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China] 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
* Feng Baoyin冯宝茵 (2018). 从读者反应论对比两个《双城记》译本 [A comparative study of two versions of a tale of two cities from the perspective of reader response theory]. 北方文学, Northern Literature (36):232.<br />
<br />
* Hu Kaibao & Li Yi胡开宝 & 李翼. (2016). 机器翻译特征及其与人工翻译关系的研究. [Research on the characteristics of machine translation and its relationship with human translation] 中国翻译 Chinese Translation (05),10-14. <br />
<br />
* Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
<br />
* Mark Shuttleworth (2004). Dictionary of Translation Studies. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 75.<br />
<br />
* Munday, J. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application. London: Routeledge. 78.<br />
<br />
* Reiss, K & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
* Song Zhaolin宋兆霖 (2005). 双城记 A Tale of Two Cities 中国戏剧出版社, China Drama Press.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=116789History of Translation Studies 102020-12-20T14:30:29Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing 英语笔译 202070080581==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of original language and target language, but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, have not been covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. <br />
<br />
During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also made a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, one needs to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. <br />
<br />
The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures.Similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language.<br />
<br />
In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis.That is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, in which verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator is not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which is direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, translators are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word, which makes it even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence in form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with are going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, translators have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example,“Take care. Hope to see you soon.” is polite and emotional way to express our feelin .<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , translators have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, translators have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to translator's mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, translators can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, translators have to consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore,proper translation skills are needed to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes translators can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases they will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
It is obvious that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, translators can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or free translation based on functional equivalence. In daily life, Chinese people often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus the sentence will be translated into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, it can be seen that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, translators need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but trasnslators have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
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In addition, translators need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, translators can figure out exactly his characteristics and reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
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The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
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====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
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Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. Translators will find different types of texts in the process of translation and must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.<br />
<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. <br />
<br />
According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, can the translation be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
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Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654 法语语言文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
The success of Hao Jingfang's science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", which won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016, could not have been achieved without the rigorous translation work of Ken Liu. The translation of this novel takes the response of the readers of the translated text as the starting point, preserving the meaning and style of the novel while effectively conveying Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of functional equivalence theory that "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". Nida's functional equivalence theory, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has had a profound influence on the translation studies of various literary genres in China. This paper examines the English translation of "Folding Beijing", analyzes Ken Liu's use of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory in his translation, and shows the value of functional equivalence theory for the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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In the science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", the future Beijing is overpopulated. To solve this crisis, it is transformed into a hierarchical Folding City. The Folding City is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours. The first space is occupied by the upper class of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; the second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; and the third space is occupied by the lower class, who have only eight hours of night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants to send his daughter to a good school, and in order to earn money, he ventures into the first, second and third spaces to deliver letters to others. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
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This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and many Chinese native words. The cultural differences between China and the West due to regional factors and customs are a major challenge for translation. The translator must not only consider the reader's understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local color in the work is not removed. The theory of functional equivalence suggests that translation should not be confined to form, and the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text in order to achieve equivalence of content and information.<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence theory has had a profound impact on China and has brought translators new and effective methods of translation guidance. We can see that Ken Liu is also trying to achieve balance and harmony between the translation and the original text when he translates science fiction novels. This paper analyzes the English translation of "Folding Beijing" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory and explores how translators achieve the closest equivalence to the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:11）<br />
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===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work Toward a Science of Translating. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. （Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, explained dynamic equivalence translation in his influential book,Toward a Science of Translating. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, focusing on the equivalence of the reader's response, not just the equivalence of content and form.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In his book The Theory and Practice of Translation, Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. （Nida,2004:24） <br />
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In "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defines dynamic equivalence as follows. Dynamic equivalence is defined as the degree to which the receptors of information in the receptor language react to the information in essentially the same way as the receptors in the source language react to the information (Nida, 2004: 24) Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translated reader's reaction to the translation should be the same as the original reader's reaction.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did" (Nida 1993:118). <br />
<br />
Because dynamic equivalence was controversial in some respects, Nida replaced it with a more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment required to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. Since a functionally equivalent translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language message, the translator's achievement of functional equivalence follows three principles.In his book Language, Culture and Translation, Nida divides functional equivalence into two levels of categories:the minimal level and the maximum level.The minimal level,as a realistic definition of functional equivalence, is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did".(Nida 1993:118)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
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In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation conform to (1) the context of the source language message, (2) the response of the reader of the recipient language, and (3) the recipient language and culture as a whole. Nida defines the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory,namely from the form and content of the message to the reader's response. It differs from traditional translation theory, which emphasizes verbal comparison between the original and the target text. Functional equivalence involves the reader's response. If the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the readers of the original text, it can be regarded as functional equivalence of the target language. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader's reaction to translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
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====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
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Nida and Taber stated that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.(Nida,2004:12)<br />
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Nida and Taber point out that "translation consists in reproducing the closest natural equivalence of source language information in the receptor language, above all in terms of meaning." Meaning will be discussed in this chapter at three levels: word, sentence, and segment, in other words, these are the three levels of detailed analysis of lexicon, syntax, and discourse. According to the theory of functional equivalence, translation is not only about word-for-word equivalence, but also about discovering the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of lexis, syntax and discourse (Nida, 2004:12).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
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In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:（Din Juan,2011:22）<br />
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In literary translation, it is always a challenge to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, and they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is the most appropriate. In the English translation of Beijing Folding, there are many examples of how the translation can achieve functional equivalence with the original at the lexical level, as follows: (Ding Juan, 2011:22)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
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"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
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Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）<br />
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"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
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The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", In this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention and conveys what appears to be a bad temper. --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）<br />
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"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to show the original meaning.<br />
<br />
The author did not literally translate “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is owing to the translator's own understanding of the text, he hopes readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to convey the original meaning.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
<br />
Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
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Syntax, as a rule, refers to the study of how to construct sentences correctly with the words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the readers. Translators should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.（Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
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The differences between English and Chinese grammar are mainly reflected in three aspects. First, the use of conjunctions and relational words in English is very frequent. Secondly, English speakers focus on object consciousness and are accustomed to the order from small to large objects and from specific to general; in Chinese texts, there is usually a chronological order of time, space or cause and effect. Finally, English usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while Chinese tends to process information from the stale to the fresh in order to impress (Ding Juan, 2011: 24).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original, we must not only translate the meaning of the words, but also translate the syntactic structure into the appropriate form. The following are examples of how the English translation of Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence with the original at the syntactic level:（Din Juan,2011:24）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
" 现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。'他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。'他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’" （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）<br />
<br />
"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this passage, the translator clearly adjusted the word order, pushing what the same person said before the pause to the next sentence to fit the logic of the English reader." Selection should also be liberalized" ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the reader, so the reader adds to this sentence and translates it as "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", the translator perfectly explains the meaning of "放开".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015) <br />
<br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like "…childhood that…".<br />
<br />
In this passage, the text emphasizes "the past" twice. To achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order by placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences instead of using subordinate clause like"... childhood that...".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, such as "as if", "from where", "that", etc. This is because the syntax of the two languages is different.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.(Din Juan,2011:27）<br />
<br />
Nida argues that readers may have difficulty accepting an approximate formal translation due to the intricacies of the discourse structure and the preconceived knowledge of the original content. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a "rewriting" approach to make the translation acceptable to the reader. In literary translation, the translator must pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be comparable to the original text in terms of discourse level. A dialogue from Folding Beijing and its English translation is selected below as an example of literary translation achieving functional equivalence at the discourse level:(Ding Juan,2011:27)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself." <br />
<br />
Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
<br />
"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.<br />
<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
<br />
Conversational conventions in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made in translation. The form of the dialogue is not exactly translated from Chinese, but the understanding of the text is the same for the readers. For example, "夹了新上来的热菜" is translated as "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", and the translator changes the action to "spoon", which is more in line with Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as the girl in the first space to spoon the dish to the old knife."推给老刀" is translated as "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", which adds some actions to make it more vivid.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
<br />
Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Each writer has his or her own writing style, which no one can imitate perfectly. In other words, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows linguistic characteristics, and the English translation shows the translator's attempt to achieve functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
<br />
First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form, the counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vibrant scenes, and enhance the effectiveness of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to "深渊", and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalent.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated, only translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
<br />
It is a metaphorical sentence and words like "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated. They are translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
<br />
"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks and arms", and "like the humblest servants", the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
<br />
This paragraph has a personification that "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks, and arms" and are "like the humblest of servants," and the use of rhetoric allows people to imagine the folding diagram of the city through the image of a person. By comparing the buildings to a herd of beasts, it shows its scale and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)<br />
<br />
"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
<br />
In this sentence, "怪胎" is translated as "monster" and "born" conveys the same meaning, so the translator did not have any trouble.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
<br />
Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.（Din Juan,2011:33）<br />
<br />
The dialect reflects the local characteristics and is the author's own writing style. Sometimes this is a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator deals with this problem. (Dingjuan, 2011:33)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the use of either rhetoric or dialect in literary works fully reflects the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, translators should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the way of expressing stylistic differences and find out the best way to compensate for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve the maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:47）<br />
<br />
Cultural differences between two languages are also issues that translators should be aware of in the translation process. People who are exposed to different cultures have different ways of thinking, values, social customs, etc. Translators need to understand both cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this point, translation plays a role in intercultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the reader so that the translation achieves cultural equivalence with the original text. This chapter will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of food culture, folk culture, and idiom culture to show how it achieves functional equivalence with the original text. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:47)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
<br />
The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.（Din Juan,2011:39）<br />
<br />
The city described in Folding Beijing is the political and cultural center of China, a city with deep cultural accumulation. In the novel, there are many elements belonging to traditional Chinese food culture. This part will analyze how the translator managed to translate these cuisines into a successful counterpart.（Din Juan,2011:39）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"炒面"is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
<br />
"炒面" is a famous traditional Chinese snack. Translators translate it as "chow mein" instead of "Chinese chow mein". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means Chinese-style fried noodles with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also gives the reader a more intuitive idea of what the dish is.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)<br />
<br />
"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, "白酒" is translated into "baijiu" , the translator doesn't use the word like "spirits", it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
<br />
Here, foreignization method is used, and "白酒" is translated as "baijiu". The translator does not use words like "spirits", which retains Chinese cultural characteristics and achieves a communicative effect at the same time.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）<br />
<br />
The characteristic of this dish is that it is first boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator has captured this feature in his translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", which is made with pork, and he hopes that readers of the English translation will see the image of this dish in their minds, just like the Chinese do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique lifestyles, customs, behavior patterns, etc. in terms of vocabulary. The following will analyze the functional equivalence of translation in folk culture. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:52).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he uses the word "shared" and he adds the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where friends and relatives share several dishes among themselves. The purpose of the passage is to show the boy's poverty. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, where Westerners behave differently, so he uses the word "sharing" and adds the word "family style" to make it easier for the reader to understand this behavior.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)<br />
<br />
"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is one of the major characteristics of Chinese culture. People from the same hometown share similar living habits, upbringing and cultural background, so even strangers can get acquainted quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao are from the third dimension, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective." 管事儿" means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word to make it easy for readers to understand.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. "心意" means money, which is an euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In translation, the translator also considered an euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word "appreciation".<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan says that she hopes Lao Dao will help her keep her secret, so she wants to use money to give Lao Dao." 心意" means money, which is a Chinese euphemism when it is not convenient to give money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered it a euphemism, so the word "appreciation" was used.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the vast and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people use these idioms in their daily life and writing, but some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and it is important to pay attention to the differences between the two cultures when translating them.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", the translator translated it into "ate heartily", although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
The author uses many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", which the translator translates as "to eat in a heartbeat". Although the translation is easy to understand, without the image of a person eating very hungry, it seems that English readers cannot achieve the same understanding and reaction as Chinese readers from the perspective of functional equivalence.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And "（盘子）一片狼藉"translated into "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" translated into "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
<br />
And "(盘子)一片狼藉" is translated as "the plate is a mess", which is a description of a messy situation on the plate. And "the beauty of adulthood" is translated as "in that case, I am doing a good deed by keeping quiet", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe how Lao Dao felt that he kept the secret that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might be together in the future. The translator translated the phrase abstractly into the English translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）<br />
<br />
The English translation of Folding Beijing is analyzed from three aspects of meaning, style, and culture using this paper's functional equivalence theory, and it is concluded that the English translation meets the English readers' understanding of the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and reciprocal Chinese translation of Folding Beijing for English readers. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:56)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyze from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Folding Beijing" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western cultures, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functionally equivalent translation. Analyzing the English version of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture, we can see that linguistically, although Chinese and English are very different in logic and grammar, and there are many differences between Chinese and Western cultures, the translator still tries to keep the original content and find more suitable words in the translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）<br />
<br />
In some specific contents, the translators do not translate into exactly the same form, which is also in line with Nida's theory of functional equivalence, because Nida also suggests that translation should not be limited to form, and the translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's functional equivalence theory does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction novels, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang.(2015).Folding Beijing[J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang郝景芳.(2016).孤独深处[The Depth of Loneliness].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社[Nanjing:Jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing,LTD]：1-40<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(1993)Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：118<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(2001)Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A. & Taber.(2004) Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：12-24<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999).新编奈达论翻译[A new version of Nida's theory on translation].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation]<br />
<br />
Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009).翻译学概论[Introduction to translatology].南京：译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press]<br />
<br />
Zhao Dandan赵丹丹.(2011).浅论奈达的功能对等理论[Nida's theory of functional equivalence].湖北：文学教育[Hubei:Literature Education]<br />
<br />
Zhou Xingyang周兴阳.(2018).从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[Chinese Science Fiction Translation in the Perspective of Functional Equivalence-A case Study of Beijing Zhe Die and its English Version-Folding Beijing].新疆大学[Xinjiang University]<br />
<br />
Wang Guiyuan王桂圆.(2018)系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[A Study on The Translation of Folding Beijing from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics].安徽：海外英语[Anhui：Overseas English]<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
<center>余妮 Yu Ni No.202070080620</center><br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s version has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. <br />
<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
<br />
The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) which was co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable, for it has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. With the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The following chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author makes a conclusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.<br />
<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, according to the nature of translation. He pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).<br />
<br />
The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, we should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural reaction of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
<br />
Firstly, we should create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully displays the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?<br />
<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture concepts cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost not much snow in southern China all year round. Therefore, based on their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)<br />
<br />
In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabularies. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Re-creation” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, born in Dublin, Ireland, is a “born for art” writer. He was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.<br />
<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In this play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)<br />
<br />
Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies, revealing the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)<br />
<br />
Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).<br />
<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
<br />
Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared to previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
<br />
Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).<br />
<br />
From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
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Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections. Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
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He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was first published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, his translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest—Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. <br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.<br />
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“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but in different meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)<br />
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It not only facilitated the needs of the audience but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience would be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. <br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same. <br />
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In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language remain the same.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.<br />
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In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
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“There are many allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
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(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
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(1) ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
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In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. <br />
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(2) CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack. Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. <br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can still benefit from them. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’ s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).<br />
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An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
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======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012). <br />
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Paradox is a device favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed. Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
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(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. <br />
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In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect. In example 4, what amused the audience was the conclusion contrary to the reasons.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)<br />
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Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With it, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the readers will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Antithesis======<br />
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(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. <br />
<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators. Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty. Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than the source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in the target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.<br />
<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we may have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is the most popular one among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is the variety of rhetorical devices. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, too. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019). <br />
<br />
<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we can have a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”. In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce better translation. Even though we can gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
<br />
Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
<br />
Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
<br />
Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
<br />
Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
<br />
Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
<br />
Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen 202020080603== <br />
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===Abstract===<br />
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
With the development of economic globalization,exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand.The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice. Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
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===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. <br />
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The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)<br />
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The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicit, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)<br />
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The first is the implied meaning(implictit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is explicit, which the speaker actually says content.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. <br />
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Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
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The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understanding:the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
<br />
understanding: the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and though contend to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. --[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
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The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
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In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)<br />
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===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
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There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)<br />
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Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
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===2. Literary Review===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
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===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
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The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. <br />
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At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
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Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
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It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
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===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===<br />
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Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
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With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
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First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
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On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
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===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
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Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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===3.1 Free Translation===<br />
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The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
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===3.2 Addition of Message===<br />
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Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
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===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===<br />
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As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
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The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. <br />
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Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)<br />
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The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
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*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-166.<br />
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*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
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*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
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*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
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*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.<br />
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* Mao Yueyue, Liu Fan. 毛新月, 刘帆. (2018). 释意理论指导下的会议口译中四字词语的翻译——以习近平总书记十九届中共中央政治局常委同中外记者见面会讲话为例. [Translation of four-letter words in conference interpretation under the guidance of interpretation theory - taking the speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the meeting between the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the 19th CPC Central Committee and Chinese and foreign journalists as an example]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](12): 230-231.<br />
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* Ouyang Changyi. 欧阳长怡. (2010). 论释意理论指导下的记者招待会口译策略及释意训练. [On Interpretation Strategies and Interpretation Training of Press Conference under the Guidance of Interpretation Theory]. 福建省外国语文学会.福建省外国语文学会2010年年会论文集. [Fujian Foreign Language Society. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference of Fujian Foreign Language Society]. 福建省外国语文学会: 福建省外国语文学会[Fujian Foreign Language Society: Fujian Foreign Language Society]<br />
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* Xiong Wen. 熊雯. (2014). 释意理论视阙下的口译过程研究. [A study of interpretation process under the view of interpretation theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](24): 154-155.<br />
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*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
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*Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe. 张杨,李灵哲. (2018). 释意理论指导下的翻译语义策略运用. [The use of translation semantic strategies under the guidance of interpretation theory]. ''佳木斯职业学院学报'' [Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10): 334-336.<br />
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='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
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==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
The “article” would better to be “paper” The “problem” would better to be “ disputation” or “controversy”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 09:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being.<br />
Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time, until they entered China along trade routes from Central Asia in the first century AD.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
Chnese—Chinese please keep your tense consistency. There should be some conjunctions to make it more logical.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
adhere strictly to — strictly adhere to; the form similarity— the similarity in form--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
three period —three periods. Please keep your tense consistency. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
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it was not so widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier that it is of great …into Chinese, hence translators of Buddhist scriptures Constantly emerge. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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He translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures in total. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
“Transliteration” “ the same as”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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Please keep the tense consistency. “while ignoring”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures.<br />
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“mainstream” —“dominant”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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“then can only…”—“they” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
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=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
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Buddhism believer is not “only”limited to--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
Please keep your tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The principle of “Five Losses…” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
“by private”—“privately”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. <br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25).<br />
India— Indian--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness.<br />
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Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
“arrived”—“reached” “under his efforts”—“with his efforts” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
There is some overlaps “at the beginning” and “at the early days”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
metaphysics— and metaphysics--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
There are many commas without conjunctions.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
The words with mystery? Can it be the words with the sense of mystery?--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
but also has — but also had --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
The —the translation workshop system please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
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=== References ===<br />
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223<br />
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Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308<br />
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Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.<br />
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Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University <br />
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Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.<br />
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Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.<br />
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Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70. <br />
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Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press<br />
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Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.<br />
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WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
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He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
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Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
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Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
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==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi ==<br />
<center>成于思 Cheng Yusi No.202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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André Lefevere; ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook''; Liu Miqing; ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''; “cultural turn”; John Dryden; translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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安德烈·勒菲弗尔;《翻译，历史和文化论集》; 刘宓庆;《中西翻译思想对比研究》;文化转向;约翰·德莱登;翻译原则<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. Dryden's comparison of a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
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===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
<br />
''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies. <br />
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In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii) <br />
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Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)<br />
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If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.<br />
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The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements, which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)<br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it brings those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others. <br />
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I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47) <br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "an author and a translator" to "a master and a slave" through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.(Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)<br />
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Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
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Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracts an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)<br />
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In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102) <br />
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Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating poems in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103) <br />
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As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Dryden proposes a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)<br />
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It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. <br />
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Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compares a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)<br />
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Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars, like Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014) <br />
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A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works were with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)<br />
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Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73) <br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)<br />
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===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
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In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2) <br />
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In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. <br />
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Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
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The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33) <br />
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He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)<br />
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Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)<br />
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Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179) <br />
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The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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However, he also recognizes that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School and New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented", and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories which can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current superficial, assertive and rational views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)<br />
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The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)<br />
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Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)<br />
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Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulated that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)<br />
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Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987) <br />
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In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation principles that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the feature of the tradition of Chinese translation changes from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)<br />
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As such, the flourishing of translation is bound to be our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) <br />
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The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51) <br />
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The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
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The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)<br />
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Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem.(Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate Chinese poems, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility, it expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
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Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
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Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argues that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provides a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)<br />
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===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
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===4.1 From the aspect of the content===<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
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Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
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===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===<br />
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Both of these two books are arranged in theme rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters, which are concerned with the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. As to the longer essays, they are collected in the last chapter. <br />
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Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includs the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps readers understanding translation principles.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have better understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of a translator to a slave. Then, it figures out the reasons of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
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Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
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Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
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Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
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==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
===关键词===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
===Introuction===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.<br />
<br />
Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（quotation missing）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（paragraph too long）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: <br />
<br />
(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
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Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
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Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
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Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
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Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. ) <br />
<br />
Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. <br />
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The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)<br />
<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.<br />
<br />
Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. <br />
<br />
The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. <br />
<br />
These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. <br />
<br />
Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. <br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. <br />
<br />
The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
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As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. <br />
<br />
Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)<br />
<br />
===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)<br />
<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. <br />
<br />
The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. <br />
<br />
Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. <br />
<br />
This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
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Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).<br />
<br />
The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. <br />
<br />
The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
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===Trends in Translation Theory Research===<br />
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Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. <br />
<br />
In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980.<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
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[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
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[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
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[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
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[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
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[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
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[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
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[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
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==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645==<br />
<br />
吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
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归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
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===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
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On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
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For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
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==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
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Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
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Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
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1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
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Example 1:<br />
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路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 2<br />
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云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 3<br />
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花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 4 <br />
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Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
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With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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Example 7<br />
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番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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Example 10<br />
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Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
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Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 11<br />
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我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 12<br />
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“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 13<br />
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耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 14<br />
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“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
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"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 15<br />
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我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
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===''' References '''===<br />
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* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==<br />
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center><br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence on the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation was regarded as a linguistic phenomena before. But later, with the development of the translation theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science, especially linguistics, can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology at home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recording two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and regarded seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure. (J.A Catford , 1965)<br />
<br />
Holmes published The Name and Nature of Translation Studies at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation, which directly promoted the construction of translation studies. ( James Holmes,1975)<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from several aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing the translation practice. (Wolfram Wilss, 1982)<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is Discourse and the Translator (1990), which is the first book to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers. (Hatim & Mason,1990 )<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believed that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies. (Mona Baker, 2006) <br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were using correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books would be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe. (Dong Qiusi, 1951)<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the viewpoint that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
<br />
In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published On Approaches to Translation Studies. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' the awareness of the subject of translation studies. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
<br />
In the thesis An Overview of Western Translation Theory (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, translatology could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. ( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）<br />
<br />
Subsequently, Lv published Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new perspective for the study of the construction of translation studies and promoted the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)<br />
<br />
Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the development of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies. (Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012) <br />
<br />
Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)<br />
<br />
Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple approaches of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation. (Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020)<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rising of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precedes translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. (Wang Yin,2017)<br />
<br />
Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western translation studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward west, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation. (Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)<br />
<br />
Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies of the researches. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the awareness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies. <br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often be confused. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definitions of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is also used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the rules of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995） <br />
<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic, literature, philosophy etc. ( Kong Xiangli,2009)<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline and to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translator appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei etc. (Yi Jing,2009)<br />
<br />
The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated texts. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an independent discipline'''<br />
<br />
Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of an independent discipline and proposed a classification of the research field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a merely a technical activity. (Tan Zaixi, 1987 )<br />
<br />
Such a group of people also appeared the independence of translation in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, many famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
<br />
'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
<br />
Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies have shown a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018) <br />
<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its research field, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation by early linguists; second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
<br />
As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
<br />
As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists began to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology were linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 ) <br />
<br />
Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
<br />
These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )<br />
<br />
These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their researches inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, their contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
<br />
In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )<br />
<br />
In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, systematic-functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
<br />
Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
<br />
Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists took Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regarded linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the assistance of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
<br />
Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts that are "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has exerted a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
<br />
Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural context of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
<br />
For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the development of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.(Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics theory. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
<br />
As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
<br />
As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
<br />
Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and materials for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool and new research perspectives for translation studies and provides great convenience for translation studies. ( Liao Qiyi，2000)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
<br />
In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
<br />
In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The publication of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
<br />
Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is quite similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, publishing cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
<br />
Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.(Yang Zijian,1993)<br />
<br />
Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good example. (Yang Zijian,1993)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study. Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
<br />
Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be learned from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together. In the process of development, linguistics has absorbed the experience of many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., formed many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
Linguistics has gone through several stages of development, and it has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics provided experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators should only take other disciplines for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely. ( (Liu Miqing, 1989))--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
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Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
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Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析翻译学科学习目前存在的问题，并提出相应的建议。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''=== <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies", is a basic statement of translation studies，which calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) <br />
<br />
Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, such as comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)<br />
<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation studies can examine the practices and context of translating texts that are specialist (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these knowledge enables students to apply their understanding of theories to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually includes the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills that are necessary elements solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. With the requirement of effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures in today's multicultural and multilingual society, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
<br />
As a science, Translation Studies always has its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. <br />
<br />
Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can have a good understanding about the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. It is necessary for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
Translation activities appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, and the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. <br />
<br />
The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared on the scene.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have been single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, as well as translation criticism, translation publishing, and translation management, etc.<br />
<br />
At that time, because a large number of people who master foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to improve foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under Foreign Language and Literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
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2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies <br />
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At the beginning of this period, translation studies explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. <br />
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At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the team to construct translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation in succession. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of “China Translator" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)<br />
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Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge. Translation research ideas, methods, field and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)<br />
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2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
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In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) <br />
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In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Translation studies have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.<br />
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There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers should help students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments that required by the language service market. Teachers can invite industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
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==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
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The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
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The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. Translation discipline in China has entered a new stage now, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.1. Translation Education<br />
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With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018） <br />
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With the establishment of the autonomy of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the cultivation of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
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However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, so it is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction history of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, so systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
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At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
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At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to bluring and confusing educational goal of translation major. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation major teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition,due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
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In addition,due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them are lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
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The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. <br />
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The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) <br />
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The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data shows that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)<br />
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3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
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Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018) <br />
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This kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
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This kinds of teaching method that is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model ignore student autonomy, which will pay too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
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The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare.（Ou Yonghua 2019） <br />
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The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is inconsiderable.（Ou Yonghua 2019） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)<br />
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Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, according to the actual situation of translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but do not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.2. Students<br />
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The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, so it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
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Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. <br />
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Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
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As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
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As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
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Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information. <br />
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Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not gain sufficient background information. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015) <br />
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3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
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At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
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At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless to some extent or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
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In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.<br />
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In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved over time. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote Translation Studies in China.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1. Translation Education<br />
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4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
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The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
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The teaching model is an important guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation. (Wang Baigula 2018)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
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Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to innovate. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019) <br />
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The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching,which attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. It is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019) --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
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Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. <br />
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Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） <br />
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Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
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4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
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Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of roadmap for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)<br />
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Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and to reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of landmark for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
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The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
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4.2. Students <br />
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The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
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Translation talents play a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
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Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009) <br />
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Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future.Not only should they have a solid foundation in language ability, but also they should take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009) --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
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A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students are urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
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Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. <br />
<br />
Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics and the skills and theories of translation，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. <br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the objection of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Therefore, translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and professional knowledge. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies are still not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, learn from the latest foreign translation theories, and combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hope that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
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Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
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Chen Cheng.陈诚. (2020).高校英语翻译课程教学现状及改革研究.[ Research on the Teaching Status and Reform of College English Translation Course].淮南职业技术学院学报[''Journal of Huainan Vocational &Technology''] 97-98.<br />
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Chu Xizhi.褚喜之(2009).翻译理论在翻译教学中的重要性.[The Importance of Translation Theory in Translation Teaching].经济研究导刊[''Economic Research Guide'']237-238.<br />
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Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
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Huang Youyi.黄友义.(2018).服务改革开放40年,翻译实践与翻译教育迎来转型发展的新时代.[Servicing Reform and Opening for 40 Years, Translation Practice and Translation Education Usher in a New Era of Transformation and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']5-8.<br />
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Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
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Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
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Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
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Linlin.林琳.(2016).英语文学翻译学习现状及改善措施.[ The Status Quo and Improvement Measures of English Literature Translation Learning].西部素质教育[''Western China Quality Education''] 65.<br />
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Luo Feng.罗峰.(2011).从翻译学学科建设看翻译学在中国的发展.[On the Development of Translation Studies As A Discipline in China].琼州学院学报[''Journal of Qiongzhou University]''115-116.<br />
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Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
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Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
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Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
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Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei. 许钧, 穆雷.(2009).中国翻译学研究30年 (1978 -2007).[30 years of Chinese Translation Studies (1978 -2007)].外国语[''Journal of Foreign Languages'']77-87.<br />
<br />
Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
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Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan== <br />
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center><br />
<br />
<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays<br />
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===题目===<br />
译者文化身份对翻译的影响<br />
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===摘要===<br />
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translating a work is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important active role in both translating the content and interpreting it, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.<br />
<br />
Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)<br />
<br />
There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.<br />
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=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===<br />
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.<br />
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Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.<br />
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(While your first quote here may be intended to explain to the reader where the concept of cultural identity came from, I suggest you explain the meaning of the concept proposed by the cited author.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)<br />
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====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====<br />
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.<br />
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In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.<br />
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Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on naturalization strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.<br />
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（Be clear about what exactly domestication or foreignization in your text means and who defines it. Use word “domestication” instead of “naturalization”in general.）--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====<br />
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.<br />
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However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." <br />
<br />
However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12) <br />
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We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese literary world. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.<br />
<br />
We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)<br />
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According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
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The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.<br />
(Here you used foreignization ,but above the paper,you use alienation,The specific concepts of context should be unified.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The cultural identity of translators in translation===<br />
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.<br />
(Here world literature is not very accurate, maybe you can say world translation)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====In terms of the original intention of translation====<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao himself said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much and so only that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's love for Shakespeare is so strong that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading Shakespeare, not eating it. <br />
<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu believes that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius is to appreciate literature, the general public to read are popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "the highest art only a few people can understand ......, literature and art is not the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Byrd Byrd, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)<br />
(Here maybe you want to say Irving Babbitt not Byrd, plz check it again)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "My aim in translating this book is, first, to maintain the charm of the original work to the greatest extent possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey faithfully the meaning and feelings of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha plays more attention to the performance function of drama.<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)<br />
<br />
EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，<br />
伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，<br />
<br />
This man hath my consent to marry her．<br />
是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的<br />
<br />
Stand forth，Lysander．<br />
走上前来，拉山德。<br />
<br />
And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）<br />
殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子 （朱生豪. 2013：9）<br />
<br />
In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work. <br />
For example, his translation. <br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)<br />
<br />
拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!<br />
否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.<br />
<br />
First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:<br />
<br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)<br />
<br />
Translation of Liang Shiqiu:<br />
<br />
赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，<br />
<br />
否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。<br />
<br />
HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool: <br />
<br />
And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)<br />
<br />
海 上学时她就是个狐狸精。<br />
<br />
她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。<br />
<br />
Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966) <br />
Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature. <br />
<br />
For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.<br />
<br />
Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,<br />
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;<br />
There with fantastic garlands did she come,<br />
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,<br />
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.<br />
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:<br />
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds<br />
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,<br />
When down her weedy trophies and herself<br />
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;<br />
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;<br />
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one<br />
incapable of her own distress,<br />
Or like a creature native and indu’d<br />
Unto that element: but long it could not be<br />
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,<br />
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay<br />
To muddy death.<br />
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）<br />
<br />
The translation of Liang Shiqiu：<br />
(You can say Liang’s version :)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。 就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。 她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works. <br />
<br />
For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion. <br />
<br />
By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Fu Wenhui付文慧．多重文化身份下之戴乃迭英译阐释［The Interpretation of Dai Naidian's English Translation under Multiple Cultural Identities］中国翻译[ Chinese Translation]，2011，32(6):16—20．<br />
<br />
Yan Xiaojiang严晓江． 梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.<br />
<br />
Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.<br />
<br />
Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128.. <br />
<br />
Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.<br />
<br />
Wu Delu.吴得禄.译者文化身份对翻译的影响[The influence of translators' cultural identity on translation].读书文摘[Reading Digest].2016(08):211.<br />
<br />
Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．<br />
<br />
Liu Shuang刘双．文化身份与跨文化传播[Cultural identity and cross-cultural communication]外语学刊[Journal of Foreign Languages]，2000(1):87—91．<br />
<br />
Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪.译者自序[Translator's Preface].文学界(专辑版)[Literature (album edition)].2010(09):36.<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚 四大喜剧 梁实秋译[The Four Great Comedies translated by Liang Shiqiu].北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press].2001<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚． 仲夏夜之梦 朱生豪译．[A Midsummer Night's Dream translated by Zhu Shenghao].上海:上海世界图书出版公司 [Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company],2013．<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋 文学与革命.偏见集[Literature and Revolution. The collection of prejudices].南京:正中书局[Nanjing: Zhengzhong Shuji].中华民国二十三年七月.<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Toury's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Toury and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Toury also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Toury proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Toury describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Toury's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Toury concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Toury believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Toury is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Toury has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Toury emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Toury's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Toury's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Li Hongman 李红满. (2002). 论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J]. [On the Paradigm Shift in Contemporary Western Translation Studies]. 外语与翻译. [Foreign Languages and Translations]. <br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang 张美芳. (2000). 翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J]. [The Objectives and Structure of Translation Studies - A Review of Holmes' Vision of Translation Studies]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Toury Gideon. (2001). ''Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond''[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J]. [Translation Studies: From Specification to Description]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1996). A Skopos Theory of Translation[M]. Heidellburg:TEXT-con.<br />
<br />
Venuti Lawrence. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge.<br />
<br />
Snell-Homby Mary. (1995). Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M]. Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Hemans Theo (1985). ed.The manipulation of Literature[M]. London&Sydney:Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman, Liu Fang 韩子满, 刘芳. （2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J]. [Describe the achievements and shortcomings of translation studies]. 外语学刊. [Journal of Foreign Languages].<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M]. [New Horizons in Translation Studies]. 青岛:青岛出版社. [Qingdao:Qingdao Publishing House].<br />
<br />
==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==<br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655</center><br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655 亚非语言文学</center>--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract:=== <br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and deeply understand the status of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and helps the readers to understand deeply the status of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。<br />
<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，并深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.<br />
<br />
===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities of translation, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives have contributed to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of tranlation experience. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the translation study has became more systematic. Some researchers regard translation study as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered as "misleading reader" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements on translation theories varied all the time. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation activities. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 John MacFarlane====<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the Durhram University Journal. In his thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation, just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that there are often different reading methods when reading the same work even at the same time.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translated version. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something that it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic. Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention translation field at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Firth====<br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) <br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and this concept has produced the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context. Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 James Holmes====<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54） <br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. <br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship among descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text. Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out. After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches." Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, you have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. Taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to "a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Polysystem Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundary between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Gideon Toury<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations who are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, thus makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published in his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description. From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. <br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)<br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications, which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have been often taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.6 Snell-Hornby<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. <br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined，presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)<br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types. Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97) <br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：<br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts. <br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited by the study of equivalence between texts. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation". In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion (translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) <br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "a wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)'' with Li Yeguang and others' translations, and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56) This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) <br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect yet. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36) <br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury believes clearly that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6) In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Conclusion=== <br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.<br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short. There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro-analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Reference===<br />
Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.<br />
<br />
J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.<br />
<br />
Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Snell-Hornby.(1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman 韩子满，Liu Fang 刘芳（2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001).翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive <br />
to the Descriptive Approach].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).<br />
<br />
Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]<br />
<br />
Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰.(2002).多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).<br />
<br />
==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies== <br />
<br />
Translation Strategies <br />
<br />
===Abstract === <br />
<br />
Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.<br />
<br />
Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.<br />
<br />
This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers define them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical significance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)<br />
<br />
===Content===<br />
<br />
Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classifications from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classification is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classifications. It seems that clear-cut definitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype definitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)<br />
<br />
The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reflect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reflects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)<br />
<br />
The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp fiction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)<br />
<br />
Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the definitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few defining characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difficulty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).<br />
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or specific) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “specific activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle specific problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by specific techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classified by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
<br />
As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural filtering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
However, this is not consonant with the dictionary definitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is defined as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) defines translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will influence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identified the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identification, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal significant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can find out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) ==<br />
<br />
Darwish (2008) identifies four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70<br />
<br />
<br />
However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might influence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difficulty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Laffling(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.<br />
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== The Comparison of Machine Translation and Human Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory---A Case Study of E-C Translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example - 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan 202020080630==<br />
<br />
<center>欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Abstract (delete "Abstract here"):With the rapid development of globalization and (add "the" here) Internet, international communication is expanding, and a lot of information needs to be translated. Due to the low efficiency of human translation, machine translation is indispensable in (delete "in") today. However, due to the limitations of machine translation, the quality of machine translation is still worrying. Therefore, from the perspective of Skopos theory, this paper takes the E-C translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example to analyze the machine translation of Google translation and Baidu translation, and compare it with the translation of Song Zhaolin, so as to explore the characteristics of machine translation and human translation, try to discuss the irreplaceable nature of human translation, and discuss how to combine machine translation with human translation to improve the quality and efficiency of translation. This paper is divided into five parts: the first part introduces the background of the current translation environment; the second part introduces Skopos Theory and discusses the feasibility of Skopos Theory in analyzing machine translation and human translation; the third part introduces the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation and human translation, and discusses the relationship between them; the fourth part is a case study to see machine translation from the perspective of Skopos theory Compared with manual translation, it is concluded that machine translation and manual translation must be combined to improve the efficiency and quality of translation. The fifth part is a summary to (change "to" into "of") this paper.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaoliu<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Skopos Theory, machine translation, human translation<br />
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===题目===<br />
目的论视角下机器翻译和人工翻译的对比---以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着全球化和互联网的迅速发展，国际的交流日益扩大，大量信息需要翻译。由于人工翻译效率低下，在越来越强调效率和质量的今天，机器翻译必不可少。然而，由于机器翻译的局限性，机器翻译的质量仍然堪忧。因此,本文以目的论视角, 以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例，分析谷歌翻译和百度翻译的机器译文, 与宋兆霖版本的中文译本对比，由此探析机器翻译与人工翻译的特点,尝试论述人工翻译的不可替代性, 并讨论如何将机器翻译与人工翻译结合提高翻译的质量和效率。本文分为五个部分，第一部分对当前翻译环境背景的介绍；第二部分对目的论进行简介，并讨论目的论用于分析机器翻译和人工翻译的可行性；第三部分介绍机器翻译和人工翻译的优缺点，并讨论他们之间的关系；第四部分进行案例分析，从目的论视角下看机器翻译与人工翻译的对比，得出提高翻译效率与质量必须将机器翻译与人工翻译相结合。第五部分对全文进行总结。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
目的论 机器翻译 人工翻译 <br />
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===1. Introduction ===<br />
With the development of globalization, the growth of Internet and artificial intelligence, machine translation becomes an indispensable choice in today’s society. Compared with human translation, machine translation has the advantages of efficiency. As the traditional translation method, human translation can guarantee the accuracy of the text. In this information era, many people are thinking if（change "if" into "whether"）human translation will be replaced by machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
In September 2016, Google released the neural network translation system, which greatly improved the quality of machine translation. In November, Baidu CEO Robin Li stated at the Wuzhen Summit of the 3rd World Internet Conference that Baidu's artificial intelligence product "automatic translation" will enter a practical state. Therefore, this paper will put the original text of Tale of Two Cities in two representative public machine translation engines at home and abroad, "Google" and "Baidu", to obtain the machine translation. Selecting texts from the famous classical novel ''A Tale of Two Cities'', and comparing machine translations and human translations based on this novel from the perspective of Skopos theory. (change "." into ",") This (change "This" into "this") paper aims to investigate the relationship between human translation and machine translation and their developments in the future. (Hu Kaibao 2016, 10)--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:21, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
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=== 2. Overview of Skopos Theory ===<br />
In the 1970s, some eminent German translation theory scholars first proposed functional translation theory. Translation theorist Katharina reiss divides text into three types: informative, expressive and operational. She suggested that according to different text types, different translation methods should be used for analysis, and different translation criticism standards should be adopted, that is, text types, language functions and translation strategies should be combined. In the translation process, it’s essential to focus on the functional characteristics of the target text. Her text type theory and translation criticism mode can be regarded as the beginning of functionalist Skopos theory. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
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Hans Vermeer is Reiss's student. He further developed Reiss's theory and proposed Skopos theory. He believed that Skopos theory is based on the source text, and then may produce a series of purposeful and effective behaviors. The core of this theory is that "the purpose of translation determines translation strategies and method to achieve the expected purpose of translation" (Reiss & Vermeer 1984), German scholars Justa Holz Manttari and Christian Nord further developed this theory which based on the theory of communication and behavior, he proposed that translation theory is not a simple translation between words and sentences, but a kind of conscious behavior for the purpose of cultural communication. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
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====2.1 Three Rules of Skopos Theory====<br />
The word “Skopos” is originated from the Greek language and means purpose. Skopos theory refers to the process of translation is determined by the purpose of the translation, so the purpose rule is the highest one of translation. Generally speaking, skopos theory includes three principles: Skopos rule, coherence rule (intra-textual coherence) and fidelity rule (also known as "inter-textual coherence"). (Nord 2001, 20)<br />
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Skopos theory believes that the important principle to be followed is the "purpose" rule, it is the core rule of Skopos Theory: the process of translation should be based on the realization of the communicative function in the target language culture, and the goal to be achieved determines the entire process of translation, that is, the method determines the result. Vermeer differentiated the purpose of translation. He believes that the purpose of translation should include three levels: the purpose of the translator; the purpose of communicative; the purpose of specific translation strategies.In most cases, any translator has a certain purpose before translation, such as being entrusted by a translation company, market demand or the need to introduce technology. In most cases, "purpose" refers to the communicative purpose of translation. Under the guidance of the purpose of communication, the translator can have more space to interpret and adjust the original text. (Nord 2001, 78)<br />
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To achieve the communicative and interative function between the target text and the target receptor, the target text needs to conform to the linguistic coherence, and be understood and accepted by the readers in the context of the target language and culture. The principle of coherence means that the target text must conform to the intra-textual coherence, that is, the translation must be understood by the target reader and meaningful in the culture of the target language and the communication environment in which the translation is used. “The principle of coherence requires that the information generated by the translator (target text) must be interpreted in a manner consistent with the context of the target reader.” (Shuttleworth 2004: 75) This means the translator should maximize the translation Semantic coherence and makes the translation understandable and acceptable to the target readers. The target text can help target readers understand and successfully exchange information.<br />
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The fidelity rule refers to the inter-textual coherence between the original text and the target text, which requires "consistency between the target text and the original text" (Munday, 2010: 79). Therefore, in the translation process, the translator should not only be faithful to the original text, but also transfer the writing style and cultural factors existed in the source text. This principle requires translator to follow the purpose of translation.<br />
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In the process of translation, translators should follow three principles according to Skopos Theory: the Skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. Among these three rules in Skopos Theory, the skopos rule is the primary principle translators should adopt in the process of translation, and the coherence rule and the fidelity rule must follow the skopos rule. So in the case of translation practice, fidelity rule is subordinate to coherence rule, and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule. In a word, Skopos rule plays a decisive role in translation process, which should be considered first in translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011, 20)<br />
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====2.3 Application of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory is different from traditional theories which overemphasize the features of language rules. With regard to Skopos Theory, it requires that translators should not only consider the language but also take account of factors beyond texts and language like the purpose of translation. As for ''A Tale of Two Cities'', the purpose is to make the target reader feel the same as the source target reader. Since this is a literary text, the cultural factors and rhetorical methods used in the source texts should be reflected on the target text. In addition, the feeling of the target text reader should be taken into consideration in the process of translation. Therefore, the translation should conform to habits of the target language. But guided by Skopos Theory, the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation can be easily analyzed, so that a better solution can be founded between human translation and machine translation. <br />
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===3. Machine Translation and Human Translation===<br />
Translation activities have a long history. As far as China is concerned, translation has a history of more than two thousand years. However, the translation tools have rarely changed, and the translations are always been done by "translators". With the development of science and technology and the acceleration of globalization, there is an increasing need for translation, and "machine" translation has emerged. The advantages of high efficiency and low cost of machine translation make people think about whether machine translation will replace human translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of human translation====<br />
Human translation has both advantages and disadvantages. For example, human translation has the characteristics of flexibility, accuracy, high readability and humanization of language. At the same time, however, compared with machine translation, human translation is less efficient and easy to be influenced by translator's own cultural background and translation capacity so it is difficult to achieve rapid development. Before the advent of machine translation, all translation activities were done by human. Compared with machine translation, translators, as a bridge of cross-cultural communication, are more flexible. Translation itself is a complex activity. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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Professional translators who have certain cultural background knowledge can choose different translation methods and strategies according to the similarities and differences between the two languages and cultures, so it is more flexible and accurate. The flexibility of human language enables the translator to express the meaning of the original text in a more abundant language, and accurately handle the rhetorical devices in the original text. Therefore, the target text of human translation must be more readable than machine translation. Human translation has a long history, and people's research on translation has never stopped. Many excellent translators have emerged in the world and put forward various translation ideas and strategies. Translation has established a relatively mature and complete theory. With the rapid development of China's economy and the increasing number of foreign exchanges, the demand for translation is on the rise. At the same time, the time spend on translation needs to be shortened. Therefore, manual translation alone cannot meet the needs of the translation market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of machine translation====<br />
Machine translation refers to a language can be transferred into another language automatically with the help of machine. The idea of machine translation was firstly put forward by Weaver in his book Translation in 1949(Weaver, 1955). Since the end of the 20th century, the development of the Internet and computer technology has provided more optional software and engines for machine translation. At the same time, the corpus has become richer and more complete, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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The current machine translation is based on the "Neural Machine Translation" (NMT) model of artificial intelligence. Currently, the popular web page machine translations include Youdao Translation, Baidu Translation, Google Translation and so on. Google is currently in a leading position in both voice translation and text translation. Google Translation is a service provided by Google to translate texts and web pages, providing instant translation between more than 100 languages. It can provide translations of words, sentences and web pages between any two languages it supports. The more human translation documents that can be analyzed for a particular language, the higher the quality of the translation. In addition, Google's web page translation is fast, especially free to use, so it has a considerable number of users in translation activities, especially among students. Therefore, this paper will take Google Translation and Baidu Translation as an example to analyze the translation quality, which is representative in the market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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Generally speaking, machine translation has the characteristics of high efficiency, low cost, accuracy of terminology translation, and great development potential. Machine translation is fast and efficient, which is unmatched by human translation. Secondly, the price of machine translation is low, even free, which greatly reduces the economic cost and time cost for those who do not require high translation quality. In addition, compared to human translation, the huge corpus established by machine translation makes the translation of some terms, especially the latest scientific and technological terms, faster and more accurate. The accurate translation of these terms requires continuous learning by the translator, and learning requires a process, which has a certain test of the translator's learning ability and learning speed. At this point, human translation has uncertainty and lag. Finally, although the history of machine translation is short, it has achieved rapid development. With the advancement of science and technology and the development of society, the functions of machine translation will be more perfect and the quality of translation will be better. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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First of all, from a microscopic point of view, machine translation often has problems in the choice of word meaning, especially when there is one word with different meaning. It needs the translator to select the meaning based on the context, while machine translation cannot accurately choose the meaning of a word in combination with the context. What’s more, the word order of the translated sentence often does not conform to the word order and expression habits of the target language. From the aspect of tense, it is more accurate when translating English into Chinese, because words in English can directly change tense. However, there are sometimes problems such as no corresponding tenses when translating Chinese into English. From a macro point of view, machine translation does not have cultural sensitivity and is not accurate enough for the translation of some idioms and proverbs with strong cultural color. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.3 Relationship between machine translation and human translation====<br />
Machine translation is based on human translation, and the establishment of corpus that machine translation relies on needs human participation. When translating technical terms, machine translation corpus and parallel text can greatly reduce the time when find and determine proper equivalent terms. However, the establishment of these corpora needs to rely on well translated materials. The accuracy and usability of corpus are also affected by the quality of human translation. Therefore, they restrict and influence each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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There are more or less defects in the micro and macro aspects of machine translation. At the micro level, it mainly includes vocabulary, syntax, tense, and so on. However, at the macro level, it mainly includes text cohesion and cultural background. Therefore, human translation is essential. In addition, all machine translation inspection, modification, sorting and other work must also be carried out manually, so as to make the translation quality better and meet the requirements of communication. It can be seen that machine translation alone cannot meet the requirements of high quality translation. Translation activities cannot be separated from human participation. Therefore, with the development of machine translation, translation should be completed by both machine and human. The two are related, influenced with each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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===4. Case Study from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===<br />
A Tale of Two Cities is a long historical novel by British writer Charles Dickens, first published in 1859. The story is set in the French Revolution and has a touching plot. It is one of the world's literary classics. The twin cities refer to Paris and London. The story connects these two cities and tells the story of the Parisian doctor Manette. He was persecuted by the brothers of the Marquis St. Evremonde due to injustice and was detained in the Bastille prison for 18 years. After being released from prison, Mannette's daughter Lucie fell in love with the enemy's son Darney. Thus, in the whirlpool of the French Revolution, scenes of family grievances and hatred were staged grandly. Life and death, good and evil are blended in conflict and changed in an instant. On the guillotine, Carton calmly sacrificed his life for love. （Dickens 2016）<br />
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A Tale of Two Cities has a rigorous structure and condensed language. Dickens's profound thinking on revolution and humanity and his breathtaking writing talent are fully demonstrated. This paper selects the most representative classic sentences in the text for comparative analysis of translation, studies whether neural network machine translation software can accurately translate classic literary works, and explores whether neural network machine translation replaces manual translation in the context of artificial intelligence. The human translation was by Zhaolin Song. Among the many translation versions in China, Song’s translation was regarded as the version which closes to the source text most. (Feng Baoyin 2018, 232)<br />
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====4.1 Case Study from the perspective of Skopos Rule====<br />
In Vermeer’ opinion, the dominant rule for any translation should be the skopos rule, which means that a translation action is determined by its purposes. That is to say, the translation action should be in accordance with the target context and culture. The purposes of target text determine the translation strategies and methods used in translation process. A good translation should conform to the target culture and target audiences’ expectations. According to Nord, “Skopos of a particular translation task may require a ‘free’ or a ‘faithful’ translation, or anything between these two extremes, depending on the purpose for which the translation is needed”. Once the intended purposes are achieved, the translation will be considered as reasonable and proper. It is unnecessary for the translation to be equivalent to the source text. (Nord 1997, 102 )<br />
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Example 1: We were all going direct to heaven, we were all going direct the other way--in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
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Google translation: 我们都直接去天堂，我们都直接去天堂- -简而言之，这一时期与目前的时期如此遥远，以至于它的一些最吵闹的当局坚持以最高的比较程度来接受它是好是坏。<br />
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Baidu translation: 我们是所有的人都直接去天堂，我们都朝着另一个方向去——简而言之，这个时期和现在的时代非常相似，以至于一些最吵闹的权威坚持要接受它，不管是好是坏，只是在最高级的比较中。<br />
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Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 我们大家都在直升天堂，我们大家都在直下地狱——简而言之，那个时代和当今这个时代是如此相似，因而一些吵嚷不休的权威们也坚持认为，不管它是好是坏，都只能用“ 最……”来评价它。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 20)<br />
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Analysis: <br />
Since this is selected from a novel, the purpose of translation should be express the meaning and beauty of the source text. According to the Google translation, it made a mistake in translating "We were all going directly the other way". The translated meaning is totally different from the original. As to Baidu translation, it expressed the meaning of the original text, while the expression way will confuse the target text reader. In regards to human translation, the translator of this edition adopts the combination of literal translation and free translation. In this way, the translation not only clearly expresses the original meaning, but also takes into account the literariness of the work, so that readers can feel the characteristics of the times more vividly.<br />
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====4.2 Case study from the perspective of coherence rule====<br />
Coherence rule is also called “intra-textual coherence”, which means that the translation should be acceptable and understandable for the target audiences and be meaningful in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received. In other words, the target text should conform to the target receivers’ situation, including their given knowledge, background culture and specific circumstances. (Nord 1997, 120)<br />
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Example 2: Questions, questions, questions! (Charles Dickens 2016, 56)<br />
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Google Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
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Baidu Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
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Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 问题一个接一个地提出来！(Song Zhaolin 2005, 68)<br />
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Analysis: In this sentence, the original text uses three "questions" in a row to enhance the tone. However, Google and Baidu Translation directly translated it to "问题，问题，问题！". It sounds too blunt to read. The target text translated by Google and Baidu cannot reflect the meaning of the original text. What's more, it makes target readers hard to get meaning of the text. While the translator chose the free translation method to make the translation more natural and smooth. The translated text followed the coherence rule in the process of translation.<br />
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Example 3: But just because he had a powerful enemy---an enemy with the power to send him to prison and to keep him there, hidden and forgotten, for eighteen years. (Charles Dickens 2016, 102)<br />
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Google translation: 但是仅仅因为他有一个强大的敌人-一个有能力将他送进监狱并将其隐藏和遗忘在监狱里长达十八年的敌人。<br />
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Baidu translation:只是因为他有一个强大的敌人，一个有能力把他送进监狱，把他关在那里，隐藏起来，被遗忘18年。<br />
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Human translation(Song Zhaolin): 而只是因为他有一个强大的敌人-这个敌人拥有权势将他投进监狱，而且把他在那里与世隔绝、被人遗忘地关了18年。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 130)<br />
<br />
<br />
Analysis: In terms of grammar, English uses long sentences, which are connected by functional words, such as conjunctions, prepositions and relative words. The syntactic structure is relatively complex and it is a hypotactic language. Chinese is a paratactic language. In the process of E-C translation, we often use disassembly syntax to translate a long and complex English sentence into several short and simple Chinese short sentences. From Google Translation, it directly translated the structure of the original text. The target text created by Google translation doesn't conform to target language structure. While the translation of Baidu almost in accordance with the target language structure. As to the human translation, not only was the structure, but also the meaning was perfectly expressed.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Case study from the perspective of fidelity rule====<br />
Fidelity rule is also named by Vermeer as “intertextual coherence”, which puts emphasis on the relationship between the source text and target text. Based on Skopos theory, fidelity rule requires that the target text should be in accordance with the source text, which means the information contained in the source text should be exactly conveyed by the target text under the translators’ efforts. (Nord 1997, 140)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 1: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
<br />
Google Translation: 那是最美好的时光，那是最糟糕的时光，那是智慧的时代，那是愚昧的时代，那是信仰的时代，那是轻信的时代，那是光明的季节， 是黑暗的季节，是希望的春天，是绝望的冬天，我们眼前的一切，眼前的一切。<br />
<br />
Baidu Translation: 那是最好的时代，最坏的时代，智慧的时代，愚昧的时代，信仰的时代，不信的时代，光明的季节，黑暗的季节，希望的春天，绝望的冬天，我们面前什么都有，面前什么都没有。 <br />
<br />
Human Translation (Zhaolin Song): : 那是最美好的时代，那是最糟糕的时代；那是个睿智的年月，那是个蒙昧的年月；那是信心百倍的时期，那是疑虑重重的时期；那是阳光普照的季节，那是黑暗笼罩的季节；那是充满希望的春天，那是让人绝望的冬天；我们面前无所不有，我们面前一无所有。（Song Zhaolin 2005, 20）<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is the classic opening paragraph in "A Tale of Two Cities", and it can be said to be very popular. On the whole, because of the simple structure of this paragraph, the three machine-translated translations all accurately express the content of the original text, but one shortcoming is that it is difficult for machine translation to express the unique beauty of rhythm of the original text.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the translation of commonly used machine translation software and human translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, we can conclude that for the translation of literary works, machine translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text, even equal to manual translation if it is some simple sentence expression. However, the quality of machine translation needs to be improved some sentences with complex sentence patterns and difficult grammatical structures. Therefore, the translation of literary works by machine translation still has a long way to go.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
The main purpose of this paper is to find a better solution between machine translation and human translation under the guidance of the Skopos Theory for optimizing weaknesses of machine translation platforms, which not only generates solutions to errors, but also improves the quality of machine translation. <br />
<br />
Theoretically, this paper applies Skopos Theory to guide human translation and machine translation of literary texts. Machine translation can be regarded as a basis of human translation, while those errors caused by machine translation can be improved manually after the completion of machine translation. Meanwhile, human translation by employing appropriate translation methods and techniques, such as semantic conversion, amplification, omission and so on, human translation based on machine translation enormously solves errors of machine translation which further optimizes weaknesses of machine translation. Human translation process also becomes more efficient with the help of machine. <br />
As for machine translation, firstly, machine translation platforms can’t replace translators on account of its incomplete corpus and limitations in transferring the cultural meaning. Secondly, errors at lexical level caused by defects of machine translation are much more than that at syntactical level in F396P Aircraft Tow Tractor Maintenance Instruction. Lastly, machine translation platforms are restricted to contexts of language, situation and culture which lead to incorrect target text. <br />
<br />
In regard with human translation, from the perspective of Skopos theory, human translation is more understandable and readable to target readers than that of machine translation. It’s essential for the translator to know typical errors in machine translation, features of chose machine translation platforms and characteristics of source text, which could fascinate the efficiency of translation. All in all, machine translation platforms enhance the efficiency of translating large amount of material and human translation provides a solution for machine translation of poor quality. Machine translation and human translation are complement to each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2016). A Tale of Two Cities. Macmillian.<br />
<br />
* Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2011). 中国译学大辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China] 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
* Feng Baoyin冯宝茵 (2018). 从读者反应论对比两个《双城记》译本 [A comparative study of two versions of a tale of two cities from the perspective of reader response theory]. 北方文学, Northern Literature (36):232.<br />
<br />
* Hu Kaibao & Li Yi胡开宝 & 李翼. (2016). 机器翻译特征及其与人工翻译关系的研究. [Research on the characteristics of machine translation and its relationship with human translation] 中国翻译 Chinese Translation (05),10-14. <br />
<br />
* Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
<br />
* Mark Shuttleworth (2004). Dictionary of Translation Studies. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 75.<br />
<br />
* Munday, J. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application. London: Routeledge. 78.<br />
<br />
* Reiss, K & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
* Song Zhaolin宋兆霖 (2005). 双城记 A Tale of Two Cities 中国戏剧出版社, China Drama Press.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=116765History of Translation Studies 102020-12-20T14:18:10Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 1. Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing 英语笔译 202070080581==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of original language and target language, but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, have not been covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. <br />
<br />
During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also made a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, one needs to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. <br />
<br />
The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures.Similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language.<br />
<br />
In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis.That is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, in which verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator is not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which is direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, translators are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word, which makes it even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence in form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with are going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, translators have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example,“Take care. Hope to see you soon.” is polite and emotional way to express our feelin .<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , translators have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, translators have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to translator's mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, translators can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, translators have to consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore,proper translation skills are needed to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes translators can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases they will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
It is obvious that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, translators can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or free translation based on functional equivalence. In daily life, Chinese people often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus the sentence will be translated into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, it can be seen that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, translators need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but trasnslators have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, translators need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, translators can figure out exactly his characteristics and reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. Translators will find different types of texts in the process of translation and must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.<br />
<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. <br />
<br />
According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, can the translation be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654 法语语言文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
The success of Hao Jingfang's science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", which won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016, could not have been achieved without the rigorous translation work of Ken Liu. The translation of this novel takes the response of the readers of the translated text as the starting point, preserving the meaning and style of the novel while effectively conveying Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of functional equivalence theory that "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". Nida's functional equivalence theory, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has had a profound influence on the translation studies of various literary genres in China. This paper examines the English translation of "Folding Beijing", analyzes Ken Liu's use of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory in his translation, and shows the value of functional equivalence theory for the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
In the science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", the future Beijing is overpopulated. To solve this crisis, it is transformed into a hierarchical Folding City. The Folding City is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours. The first space is occupied by the upper class of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; the second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; and the third space is occupied by the lower class, who have only eight hours of night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants to send his daughter to a good school, and in order to earn money, he ventures into the first, second and third spaces to deliver letters to others. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and many Chinese native words. The cultural differences between China and the West due to regional factors and customs are a major challenge for translation. The translator must not only consider the reader's understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local color in the work is not removed. The theory of functional equivalence suggests that translation should not be confined to form, and the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text in order to achieve equivalence of content and information.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory has had a profound impact on China and has brought translators new and effective methods of translation guidance. We can see that Ken Liu is also trying to achieve balance and harmony between the translation and the original text when he translates science fiction novels. This paper analyzes the English translation of "Folding Beijing" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory and explores how translators achieve the closest equivalence to the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:11）<br />
<br />
===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work Toward a Science of Translating. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. （Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, explained dynamic equivalence translation in his influential book,Toward a Science of Translating. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, focusing on the equivalence of the reader's response, not just the equivalence of content and form.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his book The Theory and Practice of Translation, Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. （Nida,2004:24） <br />
<br />
In "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defines dynamic equivalence as follows. Dynamic equivalence is defined as the degree to which the receptors of information in the receptor language react to the information in essentially the same way as the receptors in the source language react to the information (Nida, 2004: 24) Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translated reader's reaction to the translation should be the same as the original reader's reaction.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did" (Nida 1993:118). <br />
<br />
Because dynamic equivalence was controversial in some respects, Nida replaced it with a more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment required to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. Since a functionally equivalent translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language message, the translator's achievement of functional equivalence follows three principles.In his book Language, Culture and Translation, Nida divides functional equivalence into two levels of categories:the minimal level and the maximum level.The minimal level,as a realistic definition of functional equivalence, is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did".(Nida 1993:118)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation conform to (1) the context of the source language message, (2) the response of the reader of the recipient language, and (3) the recipient language and culture as a whole. Nida defines the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory,namely from the form and content of the message to the reader's response. It differs from traditional translation theory, which emphasizes verbal comparison between the original and the target text. Functional equivalence involves the reader's response. If the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the readers of the original text, it can be regarded as functional equivalence of the target language. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader's reaction to translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida and Taber stated that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.(Nida,2004:12)<br />
<br />
Nida and Taber point out that "translation consists in reproducing the closest natural equivalence of source language information in the receptor language, above all in terms of meaning." Meaning will be discussed in this chapter at three levels: word, sentence, and segment, in other words, these are the three levels of detailed analysis of lexicon, syntax, and discourse. According to the theory of functional equivalence, translation is not only about word-for-word equivalence, but also about discovering the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of lexis, syntax and discourse (Nida, 2004:12).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:（Din Juan,2011:22）<br />
<br />
In literary translation, it is always a challenge to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, and they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is the most appropriate. In the English translation of Beijing Folding, there are many examples of how the translation can achieve functional equivalence with the original at the lexical level, as follows: (Ding Juan, 2011:22)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
<br />
"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）<br />
<br />
"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", In this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention and conveys what appears to be a bad temper. --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）<br />
<br />
"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to show the original meaning.<br />
<br />
The author did not literally translate “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is owing to the translator's own understanding of the text, he hopes readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to convey the original meaning.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
<br />
Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
Syntax, as a rule, refers to the study of how to construct sentences correctly with the words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the readers. Translators should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.（Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
The differences between English and Chinese grammar are mainly reflected in three aspects. First, the use of conjunctions and relational words in English is very frequent. Secondly, English speakers focus on object consciousness and are accustomed to the order from small to large objects and from specific to general; in Chinese texts, there is usually a chronological order of time, space or cause and effect. Finally, English usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while Chinese tends to process information from the stale to the fresh in order to impress (Ding Juan, 2011: 24).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original, we must not only translate the meaning of the words, but also translate the syntactic structure into the appropriate form. The following are examples of how the English translation of Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence with the original at the syntactic level:（Din Juan,2011:24）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
" 现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。'他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。'他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’" （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）<br />
<br />
"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this passage, the translator clearly adjusted the word order, pushing what the same person said before the pause to the next sentence to fit the logic of the English reader." Selection should also be liberalized" ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the reader, so the reader adds to this sentence and translates it as "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", the translator perfectly explains the meaning of "放开".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015) <br />
<br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like "…childhood that…".<br />
<br />
In this passage, the text emphasizes "the past" twice. To achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order by placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences instead of using subordinate clause like"... childhood that...".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, such as "as if", "from where", "that", etc. This is because the syntax of the two languages is different.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.(Din Juan,2011:27）<br />
<br />
Nida argues that readers may have difficulty accepting an approximate formal translation due to the intricacies of the discourse structure and the preconceived knowledge of the original content. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a "rewriting" approach to make the translation acceptable to the reader. In literary translation, the translator must pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be comparable to the original text in terms of discourse level. A dialogue from Folding Beijing and its English translation is selected below as an example of literary translation achieving functional equivalence at the discourse level:(Ding Juan,2011:27)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself." <br />
<br />
Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
<br />
"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.<br />
<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
<br />
Conversational conventions in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made in translation. The form of the dialogue is not exactly translated from Chinese, but the understanding of the text is the same for the readers. For example, "夹了新上来的热菜" is translated as "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", and the translator changes the action to "spoon", which is more in line with Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as the girl in the first space to spoon the dish to the old knife."推给老刀" is translated as "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", which adds some actions to make it more vivid.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
<br />
Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Each writer has his or her own writing style, which no one can imitate perfectly. In other words, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows linguistic characteristics, and the English translation shows the translator's attempt to achieve functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
<br />
First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form, the counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vibrant scenes, and enhance the effectiveness of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
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"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
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In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to "深渊", and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalent.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated, only translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
<br />
It is a metaphorical sentence and words like "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated. They are translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
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"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks and arms", and "like the humblest servants", the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
<br />
This paragraph has a personification that "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks, and arms" and are "like the humblest of servants," and the use of rhetoric allows people to imagine the folding diagram of the city through the image of a person. By comparing the buildings to a herd of beasts, it shows its scale and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)<br />
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"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
<br />
In this sentence, "怪胎" is translated as "monster" and "born" conveys the same meaning, so the translator did not have any trouble.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
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Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.（Din Juan,2011:33）<br />
<br />
The dialect reflects the local characteristics and is the author's own writing style. Sometimes this is a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator deals with this problem. (Dingjuan, 2011:33)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the use of either rhetoric or dialect in literary works fully reflects the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, translators should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the way of expressing stylistic differences and find out the best way to compensate for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve the maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:47）<br />
<br />
Cultural differences between two languages are also issues that translators should be aware of in the translation process. People who are exposed to different cultures have different ways of thinking, values, social customs, etc. Translators need to understand both cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this point, translation plays a role in intercultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the reader so that the translation achieves cultural equivalence with the original text. This chapter will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of food culture, folk culture, and idiom culture to show how it achieves functional equivalence with the original text. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:47)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
<br />
The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.（Din Juan,2011:39）<br />
<br />
The city described in Folding Beijing is the political and cultural center of China, a city with deep cultural accumulation. In the novel, there are many elements belonging to traditional Chinese food culture. This part will analyze how the translator managed to translate these cuisines into a successful counterpart.（Din Juan,2011:39）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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"炒面"is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
<br />
"炒面" is a famous traditional Chinese snack. Translators translate it as "chow mein" instead of "Chinese chow mein". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means Chinese-style fried noodles with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also gives the reader a more intuitive idea of what the dish is.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)<br />
<br />
"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, "白酒" is translated into "baijiu" , the translator doesn't use the word like "spirits", it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
<br />
Here, foreignization method is used, and "白酒" is translated as "baijiu". The translator does not use words like "spirits", which retains Chinese cultural characteristics and achieves a communicative effect at the same time.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）<br />
<br />
The characteristic of this dish is that it is first boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator has captured this feature in his translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", which is made with pork, and he hopes that readers of the English translation will see the image of this dish in their minds, just like the Chinese do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
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Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique lifestyles, customs, behavior patterns, etc. in terms of vocabulary. The following will analyze the functional equivalence of translation in folk culture. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:52).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he uses the word "shared" and he adds the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where friends and relatives share several dishes among themselves. The purpose of the passage is to show the boy's poverty. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, where Westerners behave differently, so he uses the word "sharing" and adds the word "family style" to make it easier for the reader to understand this behavior.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)<br />
<br />
"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is one of the major characteristics of Chinese culture. People from the same hometown share similar living habits, upbringing and cultural background, so even strangers can get acquainted quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao are from the third dimension, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective." 管事儿" means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word to make it easy for readers to understand.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. "心意" means money, which is an euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In translation, the translator also considered an euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word "appreciation".<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan says that she hopes Lao Dao will help her keep her secret, so she wants to use money to give Lao Dao." 心意" means money, which is a Chinese euphemism when it is not convenient to give money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered it a euphemism, so the word "appreciation" was used.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the vast and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people use these idioms in their daily life and writing, but some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and it is important to pay attention to the differences between the two cultures when translating them.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", the translator translated it into "ate heartily", although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
The author uses many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", which the translator translates as "to eat in a heartbeat". Although the translation is easy to understand, without the image of a person eating very hungry, it seems that English readers cannot achieve the same understanding and reaction as Chinese readers from the perspective of functional equivalence.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And "（盘子）一片狼藉"translated into "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" translated into "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
<br />
And "(盘子)一片狼藉" is translated as "the plate is a mess", which is a description of a messy situation on the plate. And "the beauty of adulthood" is translated as "in that case, I am doing a good deed by keeping quiet", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe how Lao Dao felt that he kept the secret that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might be together in the future. The translator translated the phrase abstractly into the English translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）<br />
<br />
The English translation of Folding Beijing is analyzed from three aspects of meaning, style, and culture using this paper's functional equivalence theory, and it is concluded that the English translation meets the English readers' understanding of the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and reciprocal Chinese translation of Folding Beijing for English readers. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:56)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyze from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Folding Beijing" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western cultures, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functionally equivalent translation. Analyzing the English version of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture, we can see that linguistically, although Chinese and English are very different in logic and grammar, and there are many differences between Chinese and Western cultures, the translator still tries to keep the original content and find more suitable words in the translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）<br />
<br />
In some specific contents, the translators do not translate into exactly the same form, which is also in line with Nida's theory of functional equivalence, because Nida also suggests that translation should not be limited to form, and the translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's functional equivalence theory does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction novels, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang.(2015).Folding Beijing[J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang郝景芳.(2016).孤独深处[The Depth of Loneliness].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社[Nanjing:Jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing,LTD]：1-40<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(1993)Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：118<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(2001)Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A. & Taber.(2004) Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：12-24<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999).新编奈达论翻译[A new version of Nida's theory on translation].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation]<br />
<br />
Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009).翻译学概论[Introduction to translatology].南京：译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press]<br />
<br />
Zhao Dandan赵丹丹.(2011).浅论奈达的功能对等理论[Nida's theory of functional equivalence].湖北：文学教育[Hubei:Literature Education]<br />
<br />
Zhou Xingyang周兴阳.(2018).从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[Chinese Science Fiction Translation in the Perspective of Functional Equivalence-A case Study of Beijing Zhe Die and its English Version-Folding Beijing].新疆大学[Xinjiang University]<br />
<br />
Wang Guiyuan王桂圆.(2018)系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[A Study on The Translation of Folding Beijing from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics].安徽：海外英语[Anhui：Overseas English]<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
<center>余妮 Yu Ni No.202070080620</center><br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s version has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. <br />
<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
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The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) which was co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable, for it has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. With the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The following chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author makes a conclusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.<br />
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In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, according to the nature of translation. He pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).<br />
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The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, we should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural reaction of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
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Firstly, we should create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully displays the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture concepts cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost not much snow in southern China all year round. Therefore, based on their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabularies. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Re-creation” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, born in Dublin, Ireland, is a “born for art” writer. He was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.<br />
<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In this play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies, revealing the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)<br />
<br />
Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared to previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
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Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections. Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
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He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was first published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, his translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest—Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. <br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.<br />
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“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but in different meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)<br />
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It not only facilitated the needs of the audience but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience would be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. <br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same. <br />
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In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language remain the same.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.<br />
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In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
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“There are many allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
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(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
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(1) ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
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In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. <br />
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(2) CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack. Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. <br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can still benefit from them. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’ s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).<br />
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An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
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======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012). <br />
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Paradox is a device favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed. Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
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(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. <br />
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In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect. In example 4, what amused the audience was the conclusion contrary to the reasons.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)<br />
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Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With it, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the readers will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Antithesis======<br />
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(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. <br />
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"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators. Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty. Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).<br />
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As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than the source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in the target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.<br />
<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we may have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is the most popular one among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is the variety of rhetorical devices. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, too. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019). <br />
<br />
<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we can have a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”. In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce better translation. Even though we can gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
<br />
Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
<br />
Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
<br />
Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
<br />
Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
<br />
Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
<br />
Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen 202020080603== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
With the development of economic globalization,exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand.The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice. Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
<br />
===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. <br />
<br />
The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)<br />
<br />
The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicit, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)<br />
<br />
The first is the implied meaning(implictit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is explicit, which the speaker actually says content.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. <br />
<br />
Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understanding:the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
<br />
understanding: the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and though contend to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. --[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)<br />
<br />
===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)<br />
<br />
Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
<br />
===2. Literary Review===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
<br />
===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. <br />
<br />
At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
<br />
Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===<br />
<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
<br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
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On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
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===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
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Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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===3.1 Free Translation===<br />
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The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
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===3.2 Addition of Message===<br />
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Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
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===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===<br />
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As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
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The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. <br />
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Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)<br />
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The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
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*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-166.<br />
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*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
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*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
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*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
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*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.<br />
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* Mao Yueyue, Liu Fan. 毛新月, 刘帆. (2018). 释意理论指导下的会议口译中四字词语的翻译——以习近平总书记十九届中共中央政治局常委同中外记者见面会讲话为例. [Translation of four-letter words in conference interpretation under the guidance of interpretation theory - taking the speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the meeting between the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the 19th CPC Central Committee and Chinese and foreign journalists as an example]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](12): 230-231.<br />
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* Ouyang Changyi. 欧阳长怡. (2010). 论释意理论指导下的记者招待会口译策略及释意训练. [On Interpretation Strategies and Interpretation Training of Press Conference under the Guidance of Interpretation Theory]. 福建省外国语文学会.福建省外国语文学会2010年年会论文集. [Fujian Foreign Language Society. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference of Fujian Foreign Language Society]. 福建省外国语文学会: 福建省外国语文学会[Fujian Foreign Language Society: Fujian Foreign Language Society]<br />
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* Xiong Wen. 熊雯. (2014). 释意理论视阙下的口译过程研究. [A study of interpretation process under the view of interpretation theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](24): 154-155.<br />
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*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
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*Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe. 张杨,李灵哲. (2018). 释意理论指导下的翻译语义策略运用. [The use of translation semantic strategies under the guidance of interpretation theory]. ''佳木斯职业学院学报'' [Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10): 334-336.<br />
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='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
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<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
The “article” would better to be “paper” The “problem” would better to be “ disputation” or “controversy”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 09:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being.<br />
Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time, until they entered China along trade routes from Central Asia in the first century AD.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
Chnese—Chinese please keep your tense consistency. There should be some conjunctions to make it more logical.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
adhere strictly to — strictly adhere to; the form similarity— the similarity in form--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
three period —three periods. Please keep your tense consistency. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
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it was not so widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier that it is of great …into Chinese, hence translators of Buddhist scriptures Constantly emerge. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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He translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures in total. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
“Transliteration” “ the same as”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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Please keep the tense consistency. “while ignoring”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures.<br />
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“mainstream” —“dominant”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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“then can only…”—“they” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
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=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
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Buddhism believer is not “only”limited to--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
Please keep your tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The principle of “Five Losses…” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
“by private”—“privately”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. <br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25).<br />
India— Indian--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness.<br />
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Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
“arrived”—“reached” “under his efforts”—“with his efforts” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
There is some overlaps “at the beginning” and “at the early days”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
metaphysics— and metaphysics--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
There are many commas without conjunctions.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
The words with mystery? Can it be the words with the sense of mystery?--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
but also has — but also had --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
The —the translation workshop system please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
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=== References ===<br />
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223<br />
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Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308<br />
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Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.<br />
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Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University <br />
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Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.<br />
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Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.<br />
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Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70. <br />
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Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press<br />
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Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.<br />
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WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
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He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
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Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
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Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
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==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi ==<br />
<center>成于思 Cheng Yusi No.202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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André Lefevere; ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook''; Liu Miqing; ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''; “cultural turn”; John Dryden; translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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安德烈·勒菲弗尔;《翻译，历史和文化论集》; 刘宓庆;《中西翻译思想对比研究》;文化转向;约翰·德莱登;翻译原则<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. Dryden's comparison of a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
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===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
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''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies. <br />
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In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii) <br />
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Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)<br />
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If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.<br />
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The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements, which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)<br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it brings those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others. <br />
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I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47) <br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "an author and a translator" to "a master and a slave" through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.(Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)<br />
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Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
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Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracts an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)<br />
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In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102) <br />
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Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating poems in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103) <br />
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As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Dryden proposes a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)<br />
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It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. <br />
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Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compares a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)<br />
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Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars, like Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014) <br />
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A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works were with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)<br />
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Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73) <br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)<br />
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===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
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In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2) <br />
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In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. <br />
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Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
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The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33) <br />
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He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)<br />
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Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)<br />
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Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179) <br />
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The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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However, he also recognizes that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School and New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented", and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories which can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current superficial, assertive and rational views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)<br />
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The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)<br />
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Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)<br />
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Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulated that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)<br />
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Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987) <br />
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In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation principles that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the feature of the tradition of Chinese translation changes from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)<br />
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As such, the flourishing of translation is bound to be our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) <br />
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The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51) <br />
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The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
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The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)<br />
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Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem.(Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate Chinese poems, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility, it expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
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Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
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Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argues that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provides a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)<br />
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===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
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===4.1 From the aspect of the content===<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
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Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
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===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===<br />
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Both of these two books are arranged in theme rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters, which are concerned with the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. As to the longer essays, they are collected in the last chapter. <br />
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Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includs the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps readers understanding translation principles.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have better understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of a translator to a slave. Then, it figures out the reasons of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
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André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
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Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
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Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
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Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
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Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
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==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
===关键词===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
===Introuction===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.<br />
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Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
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Ancient Translation Period<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（quotation missing）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
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A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（paragraph too long）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
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Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: <br />
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(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
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Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
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Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
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The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
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Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
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Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
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Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
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“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
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In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
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Innovation of ontology<br />
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Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. ) <br />
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Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
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According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
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The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
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===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===<br />
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Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. <br />
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The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)<br />
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The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
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Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.<br />
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Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. <br />
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The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. <br />
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These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. <br />
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Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. <br />
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Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. <br />
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The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)<br />
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The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
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As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. <br />
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Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)<br />
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===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===<br />
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Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
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First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)<br />
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Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. <br />
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The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
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First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
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Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
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Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
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Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. <br />
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Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. <br />
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This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
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Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).<br />
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The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. <br />
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The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
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===Trends in Translation Theory Research===<br />
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Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
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Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. <br />
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In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
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Return to culture development<br />
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The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
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Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
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Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980.<br />
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[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
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[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
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[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
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[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
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[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
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[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
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[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
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[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
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==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645==<br />
<br />
吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
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归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
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===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
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On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
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For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
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==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
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Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
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Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
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1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
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Example 1:<br />
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路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 2<br />
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云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 3<br />
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花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 4 <br />
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Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
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With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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Example 7<br />
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番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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Example 10<br />
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Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
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Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 11<br />
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我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 12<br />
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“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 13<br />
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耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 14<br />
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“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
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"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 15<br />
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我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
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===''' References '''===<br />
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* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
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='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
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==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==<br />
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center><br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence on the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
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For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation was regarded as a linguistic phenomena before. But later, with the development of the translation theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science, especially linguistics, can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
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This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
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==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology at home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
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'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
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In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recording two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)<br />
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Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)<br />
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J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and regarded seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure. (J.A Catford , 1965)<br />
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Holmes published The Name and Nature of Translation Studies at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation, which directly promoted the construction of translation studies. ( James Holmes,1975)<br />
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In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from several aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing the translation practice. (Wolfram Wilss, 1982)<br />
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Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is Discourse and the Translator (1990), which is the first book to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers. (Hatim & Mason,1990 )<br />
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Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believed that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
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Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies. (Mona Baker, 2006) <br />
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'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
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In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were using correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books would be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe. (Dong Qiusi, 1951)<br />
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In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the viewpoint that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
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In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published On Approaches to Translation Studies. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' the awareness of the subject of translation studies. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
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In the thesis An Overview of Western Translation Theory (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, translatology could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
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In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
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In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)<br />
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At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. ( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)<br />
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Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）<br />
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Subsequently, Lv published Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new perspective for the study of the construction of translation studies and promoted the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)<br />
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Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)<br />
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Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the development of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies. (Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
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Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012) <br />
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Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)<br />
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Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple approaches of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation. (Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020)<br />
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In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rising of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precedes translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. (Wang Yin,2017)<br />
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Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western translation studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward west, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation. (Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)<br />
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Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)<br />
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Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies of the researches. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)<br />
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From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the awareness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
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==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
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In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies. <br />
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'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
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"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often be confused. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definitions of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
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In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is also used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the rules of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995） <br />
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Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic, literature, philosophy etc. ( Kong Xiangli,2009)<br />
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'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
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Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline and to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)<br />
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'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
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Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translator appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei etc. (Yi Jing,2009)<br />
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The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated texts. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
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'''3.2.2 The awareness of an independent discipline'''<br />
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Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of an independent discipline and proposed a classification of the research field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a merely a technical activity. (Tan Zaixi, 1987 )<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared the independence of translation in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, many famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
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'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
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Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies have shown a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018) <br />
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Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its research field, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
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==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation by early linguists; second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists began to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology were linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 ) <br />
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Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their researches inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, their contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, systematic-functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists took Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regarded linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the assistance of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts that are "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has exerted a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural context of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the development of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.(Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics theory. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
<br />
As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
<br />
As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
<br />
Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and materials for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool and new research perspectives for translation studies and provides great convenience for translation studies. ( Liao Qiyi，2000)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
<br />
In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
<br />
In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The publication of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
<br />
Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is quite similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, publishing cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
<br />
Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.(Yang Zijian,1993)<br />
<br />
Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good example. (Yang Zijian,1993)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study. Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
<br />
Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be learned from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together. In the process of development, linguistics has absorbed the experience of many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., formed many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
Linguistics has gone through several stages of development, and it has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics provided experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators should only take other disciplines for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely. ( (Liu Miqing, 1989))--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
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Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
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Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
<br />
Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析翻译学科学习目前存在的问题，并提出相应的建议。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''=== <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies", is a basic statement of translation studies，which calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) <br />
<br />
Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, such as comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)<br />
<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation studies can examine the practices and context of translating texts that are specialist (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these knowledge enables students to apply their understanding of theories to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually includes the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills that are necessary elements solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. With the requirement of effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures in today's multicultural and multilingual society, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
<br />
As a science, Translation Studies always has its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. <br />
<br />
Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can have a good understanding about the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. It is necessary for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
Translation activities appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, and the flourishing period of Translation Studies.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. <br />
<br />
The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.<br />
<br />
The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared on the scene.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have been single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
<br />
At that time, because a large number of people who master foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to improve foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under Foreign Language and Literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies<br />
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At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. <br />
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At the beginning of this period, translation studies was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)<br />
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At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the team to construct translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation in succession. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of “China Translator" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) <br />
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Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.Translation research ideas, methods, field and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
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In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) <br />
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In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training. <br />
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In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Translation studies have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
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There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.（quotation missing）<br />
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==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
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The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
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The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. Translation discipline in China has entered a new stage now, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.1. Translation Education<br />
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With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018） <br />
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With the establishment of the autonomy of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the cultivation of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
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However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, so it is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction history of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, so systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
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At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
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At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to bluring and confusing educational goal of translation major. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation major teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition,due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
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In addition,due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them are lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
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The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. <br />
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The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) <br />
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The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data shows that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)<br />
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3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
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Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018) <br />
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This kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
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This kinds of teaching method that is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model ignore student autonomy, which will pay too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
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The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare.（Ou Yonghua 2019） <br />
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The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is inconsiderable.（Ou Yonghua 2019） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)<br />
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Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, according to the actual situation of translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but do not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.2. Students<br />
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The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, so it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
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Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. <br />
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Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
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As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
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As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
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Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information. <br />
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Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not gain sufficient background information. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015) <br />
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3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
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At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
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At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless to some extent or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
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In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.<br />
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In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved over time. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote Translation Studies in China.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1. Translation Education<br />
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4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
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The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
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The teaching model is an important guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation. (Wang Baigula 2018)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
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Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to innovate. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019) <br />
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The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching,which attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. It is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019) --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
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Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. <br />
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Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） <br />
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Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
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4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
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Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of roadmap for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)<br />
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Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and to reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of landmark for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
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The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
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4.2. Students <br />
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The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
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Translation talents play a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009) <br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future.Not only should they have a solid foundation in language ability, but also they should take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009) --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students are urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
<br />
Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. <br />
<br />
Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics and the skills and theories of translation，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. <br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the objection of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Therefore, translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and professional knowledge. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
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President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies are still not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, learn from the latest foreign translation theories, and combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hope that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
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Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
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Chen Cheng.陈诚. (2020).高校英语翻译课程教学现状及改革研究.[ Research on the Teaching Status and Reform of College English Translation Course].淮南职业技术学院学报[''Journal of Huainan Vocational &Technology''] 97-98.<br />
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Chu Xizhi.褚喜之(2009).翻译理论在翻译教学中的重要性.[The Importance of Translation Theory in Translation Teaching].经济研究导刊[''Economic Research Guide'']237-238.<br />
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Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
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Huang Youyi.黄友义.(2018).服务改革开放40年,翻译实践与翻译教育迎来转型发展的新时代.[Servicing Reform and Opening for 40 Years, Translation Practice and Translation Education Usher in a New Era of Transformation and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']5-8.<br />
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Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
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Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
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Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
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Linlin.林琳.(2016).英语文学翻译学习现状及改善措施.[ The Status Quo and Improvement Measures of English Literature Translation Learning].西部素质教育[''Western China Quality Education''] 65.<br />
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Luo Feng.罗峰.(2011).从翻译学学科建设看翻译学在中国的发展.[On the Development of Translation Studies As A Discipline in China].琼州学院学报[''Journal of Qiongzhou University]''115-116.<br />
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Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
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Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
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Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
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Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei. 许钧, 穆雷.(2009).中国翻译学研究30年 (1978 -2007).[30 years of Chinese Translation Studies (1978 -2007)].外国语[''Journal of Foreign Languages'']77-87.<br />
<br />
Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
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Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan== <br />
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center><br />
<br />
<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays<br />
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===题目===<br />
译者文化身份对翻译的影响<br />
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===摘要===<br />
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translating a work is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important active role in both translating the content and interpreting it, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.<br />
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Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)<br />
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There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.<br />
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=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===<br />
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.<br />
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Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.<br />
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(While your first quote here may be intended to explain to the reader where the concept of cultural identity came from, I suggest you explain the meaning of the concept proposed by the cited author.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)<br />
<br />
====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====<br />
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.<br />
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In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.<br />
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Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on naturalization strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.<br />
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（Be clear about what exactly domestication or foreignization in your text means and who defines it. Use word “domestication” instead of “naturalization”in general.）--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====<br />
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.<br />
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However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." <br />
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However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12) <br />
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We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese literary world. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.<br />
<br />
We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)<br />
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According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
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The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.<br />
(Here you used foreignization ,but above the paper,you use alienation,The specific concepts of context should be unified.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The cultural identity of translators in translation===<br />
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.<br />
(Here world literature is not very accurate, maybe you can say world translation)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====In terms of the original intention of translation====<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao himself said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much and so only that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's love for Shakespeare is so strong that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading Shakespeare, not eating it. <br />
<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believes that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius is to appreciate literature, the general public to read are popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "the highest art only a few people can understand ......, literature and art is not the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Byrd Byrd, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)<br />
(Here maybe you want to say Irving Babbitt not Byrd, plz check it again)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "My aim in translating this book is, first, to maintain the charm of the original work to the greatest extent possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey faithfully the meaning and feelings of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha plays more attention to the performance function of drama.<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)<br />
<br />
EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，<br />
伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，<br />
<br />
This man hath my consent to marry her．<br />
是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的<br />
<br />
Stand forth，Lysander．<br />
走上前来，拉山德。<br />
<br />
And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）<br />
殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子 （朱生豪. 2013：9）<br />
<br />
In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work. <br />
For example, his translation. <br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)<br />
<br />
拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!<br />
否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.<br />
<br />
First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:<br />
<br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)<br />
<br />
Translation of Liang Shiqiu:<br />
<br />
赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，<br />
<br />
否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。<br />
<br />
HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool: <br />
<br />
And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)<br />
<br />
海 上学时她就是个狐狸精。<br />
<br />
她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。<br />
<br />
Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966) <br />
Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature. <br />
<br />
For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.<br />
<br />
Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,<br />
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;<br />
There with fantastic garlands did she come,<br />
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,<br />
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.<br />
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:<br />
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds<br />
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,<br />
When down her weedy trophies and herself<br />
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;<br />
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;<br />
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one<br />
incapable of her own distress,<br />
Or like a creature native and indu’d<br />
Unto that element: but long it could not be<br />
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,<br />
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay<br />
To muddy death.<br />
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）<br />
<br />
The translation of Liang Shiqiu：<br />
(You can say Liang’s version :)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。 就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。 她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works. <br />
<br />
For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion. <br />
<br />
By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Fu Wenhui付文慧．多重文化身份下之戴乃迭英译阐释［The Interpretation of Dai Naidian's English Translation under Multiple Cultural Identities］中国翻译[ Chinese Translation]，2011，32(6):16—20．<br />
<br />
Yan Xiaojiang严晓江． 梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.<br />
<br />
Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.<br />
<br />
Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128.. <br />
<br />
Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.<br />
<br />
Wu Delu.吴得禄.译者文化身份对翻译的影响[The influence of translators' cultural identity on translation].读书文摘[Reading Digest].2016(08):211.<br />
<br />
Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．<br />
<br />
Liu Shuang刘双．文化身份与跨文化传播[Cultural identity and cross-cultural communication]外语学刊[Journal of Foreign Languages]，2000(1):87—91．<br />
<br />
Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪.译者自序[Translator's Preface].文学界(专辑版)[Literature (album edition)].2010(09):36.<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚 四大喜剧 梁实秋译[The Four Great Comedies translated by Liang Shiqiu].北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press].2001<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚． 仲夏夜之梦 朱生豪译．[A Midsummer Night's Dream translated by Zhu Shenghao].上海:上海世界图书出版公司 [Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company],2013．<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋 文学与革命.偏见集[Literature and Revolution. The collection of prejudices].南京:正中书局[Nanjing: Zhengzhong Shuji].中华民国二十三年七月.<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Toury's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Toury and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Toury also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Toury proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Toury describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Toury's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to Toury, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Toury concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Toury believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Toury is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Toury has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Toury emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Toury's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Toury's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Li Hongman 李红满. (2002). 论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J]. [On the Paradigm Shift in Contemporary Western Translation Studies]. 外语与翻译. [Foreign Languages and Translations]. <br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang 张美芳. (2000). 翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J]. [The Objectives and Structure of Translation Studies - A Review of Holmes' Vision of Translation Studies]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Toury Gideon. (2001). ''Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond''[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J]. [Translation Studies: From Specification to Description]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1996). A Skopos Theory of Translation[M]. Heidellburg:TEXT-con.<br />
<br />
Venuti Lawrence. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge.<br />
<br />
Snell-Homby Mary. (1995). Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M]. Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Hemans Theo (1985). ed.The manipulation of Literature[M]. London&Sydney:Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman, Liu Fang 韩子满, 刘芳. （2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J]. [Describe the achievements and shortcomings of translation studies]. 外语学刊. [Journal of Foreign Languages].<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M]. [New Horizons in Translation Studies]. 青岛:青岛出版社. [Qingdao:Qingdao Publishing House].<br />
<br />
==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==<br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655</center><br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655 亚非语言文学</center>--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract:=== <br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and deeply understand the status of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and helps the readers to understand deeply the status of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。<br />
<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，并深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.<br />
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===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities of translation, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives have contributed to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of tranlation experience. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the translation study has became more systematic. Some researchers regard translation study as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered as "misleading reader" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements on translation theories varied all the time. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation activities. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===<br />
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In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.<br />
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In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.1 John MacFarlane====<br />
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In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
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In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the Durhram University Journal. In his thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation, just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that there are often different reading methods when reading the same work even at the same time.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translated version. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something that it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic. Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention translation field at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2 Firth====<br />
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Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) <br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and this concept has produced the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context. Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3 James Holmes====<br />
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With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54） <br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. <br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship among descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text. Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out. After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches." Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, you have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. Taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to "a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4 Polysystem Theory====<br />
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In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundary between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）<br />
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Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5 Gideon Toury<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations who are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, thus makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published in his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description. From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. <br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)<br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications, which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have been often taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.6 Snell-Hornby<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. <br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined，presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)<br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types. Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97) <br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：<br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts. <br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited by the study of equivalence between texts. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation". In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion (translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) <br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "a wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)'' with Li Yeguang and others' translations, and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56) This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) <br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect yet. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36) <br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury believes clearly that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6) In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Conclusion=== <br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.<br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short. There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro-analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Reference===<br />
Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.<br />
<br />
J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.<br />
<br />
Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Snell-Hornby.(1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman 韩子满，Liu Fang 刘芳（2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001).翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive <br />
to the Descriptive Approach].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).<br />
<br />
Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]<br />
<br />
Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰.(2002).多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).<br />
<br />
==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies== <br />
<br />
Translation Strategies <br />
<br />
===Abstract === <br />
<br />
Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.<br />
<br />
Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.<br />
<br />
This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers define them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical significance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)<br />
<br />
===Content===<br />
<br />
Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classifications from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classification is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classifications. It seems that clear-cut definitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype definitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)<br />
<br />
The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reflect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reflects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)<br />
<br />
The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp fiction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)<br />
<br />
Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the definitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few defining characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difficulty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).<br />
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or specific) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “specific activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle specific problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by specific techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classified by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
<br />
As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural filtering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
However, this is not consonant with the dictionary definitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is defined as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) defines translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will influence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identified the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identification, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal significant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can find out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) ==<br />
<br />
Darwish (2008) identifies four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70<br />
<br />
<br />
However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might influence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difficulty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Laffling(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.<br />
<br />
== The Comparison of Machine Translation and Human Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory---A Case Study of E-C Translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example - 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan 202020080630==<br />
<br />
<center>欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Abstract:With the rapid development of globalization and Internet, international communication is expanding, and a lot of information needs to be translated. Due to the low efficiency of human translation, machine translation is indispensable in today. However, due to the limitations of machine translation, the quality of machine translation is still worrying. Therefore, from the perspective of Skopos theory, this paper takes the E-C translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example to analyze the machine translation of Google translation and Baidu translation, and compare it with the translation of Song Zhaolin, so as to explore the characteristics of machine translation and human translation, try to discuss the irreplaceable nature of human translation, and discuss how to combine machine translation with human translation to improve the quality and efficiency of translation. This paper is divided into five parts: the first part introduces the background of the current translation environment; the second part introduces Skopos Theory and discusses the feasibility of Skopos Theory in analyzing machine translation and human translation; the third part introduces the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation and human translation, and discusses the relationship between them; the fourth part is a case study to see machine translation from the perspective of Skopos theory Compared with manual translation, it is concluded that machine translation and manual translation must be combined to improve the efficiency and quality of translation. The fifth part is a summary to this paper.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Skopos Theory, machine translation, human translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下机器翻译和人工翻译的对比---以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着全球化和互联网的迅速发展，国际的交流日益扩大，大量信息需要翻译。由于人工翻译效率低下，在越来越强调效率和质量的今天，机器翻译必不可少。然而，由于机器翻译的局限性，机器翻译的质量仍然堪忧。因此,本文以目的论视角, 以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例，分析谷歌翻译和百度翻译的机器译文, 与宋兆霖版本的中文译本对比，由此探析机器翻译与人工翻译的特点,尝试论述人工翻译的不可替代性, 并讨论如何将机器翻译与人工翻译结合提高翻译的质量和效率。本文分为五个部分，第一部分对当前翻译环境背景的介绍；第二部分对目的论进行简介，并讨论目的论用于分析机器翻译和人工翻译的可行性；第三部分介绍机器翻译和人工翻译的优缺点，并讨论他们之间的关系；第四部分进行案例分析，从目的论视角下看机器翻译与人工翻译的对比，得出提高翻译效率与质量必须将机器翻译与人工翻译相结合。第五部分对全文进行总结。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论 机器翻译 人工翻译 <br />
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===1. Introduction ===<br />
With the development of globalization, the growth of Internet and artificial intelligence, machine translation becomes an indispensable choice in today’s society. Compared with human translation, machine translation has the advantages of efficiency. As the traditional translation method, human translation can guarantee the accuracy of the text. In this information era, many people are thinking if human translation will be replaced by machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
In September 2016, Google released the neural network translation system, which greatly improved the quality of machine translation. In November, Baidu CEO Robin Li stated at the Wuzhen Summit of the 3rd World Internet Conference that Baidu's artificial intelligence product "automatic translation" will enter a practical state. Therefore, this paper will put the original text of Tale of Two Cities in two representative public machine translation engines at home and abroad, "Google" and "Baidu", to obtain the machine translation. Selecting texts from the famous classical novel ''A Tale of Two Cities'', and comparing machine translations and human translations based on this novel from the perspective of Skopos theory. This paper aims to investigate the relationship between human translation and machine translation and their developments in the future. (Hu Kaibao 2016, 10)<br />
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=== 2. Overview of Skopos Theory ===<br />
In the 1970s, some eminent German translation theory scholars first proposed functional translation theory. Translation theorist Katharina reiss divides text into three types: informative, expressive and operational. She suggested that according to different text types, different translation methods should be used for analysis, and different translation criticism standards should be adopted, that is, text types, language functions and translation strategies should be combined. In the translation process, it’s essential to focus on the functional characteristics of the target text. Her text type theory and translation criticism mode can be regarded as the beginning of functionalist Skopos theory. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
<br />
Hans Vermeer is Reiss's student. He further developed Reiss's theory and proposed Skopos theory. He believed that Skopos theory is based on the source text, and then may produce a series of purposeful and effective behaviors. The core of this theory is that "the purpose of translation determines translation strategies and method to achieve the expected purpose of translation" (Reiss & Vermeer 1984), German scholars Justa Holz Manttari and Christian Nord further developed this theory which based on the theory of communication and behavior, he proposed that translation theory is not a simple translation between words and sentences, but a kind of conscious behavior for the purpose of cultural communication. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
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====2.1 Three Rules of Skopos Theory====<br />
The word “Skopos” is originated from the Greek language and means purpose. Skopos theory refers to the process of translation is determined by the purpose of the translation, so the purpose rule is the highest one of translation. Generally speaking, skopos theory includes three principles: Skopos rule, coherence rule (intra-textual coherence) and fidelity rule (also known as "inter-textual coherence"). (Nord 2001, 20)<br />
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Skopos theory believes that the important principle to be followed is the "purpose" rule, it is the core rule of Skopos Theory: the process of translation should be based on the realization of the communicative function in the target language culture, and the goal to be achieved determines the entire process of translation, that is, the method determines the result. Vermeer differentiated the purpose of translation. He believes that the purpose of translation should include three levels: the purpose of the translator; the purpose of communicative; the purpose of specific translation strategies.In most cases, any translator has a certain purpose before translation, such as being entrusted by a translation company, market demand or the need to introduce technology. In most cases, "purpose" refers to the communicative purpose of translation. Under the guidance of the purpose of communication, the translator can have more space to interpret and adjust the original text. (Nord 2001, 78)<br />
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To achieve the communicative and interative function between the target text and the target receptor, the target text needs to conform to the linguistic coherence, and be understood and accepted by the readers in the context of the target language and culture. The principle of coherence means that the target text must conform to the intra-textual coherence, that is, the translation must be understood by the target reader and meaningful in the culture of the target language and the communication environment in which the translation is used. “The principle of coherence requires that the information generated by the translator (target text) must be interpreted in a manner consistent with the context of the target reader.” (Shuttleworth 2004: 75) This means the translator should maximize the translation Semantic coherence and makes the translation understandable and acceptable to the target readers. The target text can help target readers understand and successfully exchange information.<br />
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The fidelity rule refers to the inter-textual coherence between the original text and the target text, which requires "consistency between the target text and the original text" (Munday, 2010: 79). Therefore, in the translation process, the translator should not only be faithful to the original text, but also transfer the writing style and cultural factors existed in the source text. This principle requires translator to follow the purpose of translation.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, translators should follow three principles according to Skopos Theory: the Skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. Among these three rules in Skopos Theory, the skopos rule is the primary principle translators should adopt in the process of translation, and the coherence rule and the fidelity rule must follow the skopos rule. So in the case of translation practice, fidelity rule is subordinate to coherence rule, and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule. In a word, Skopos rule plays a decisive role in translation process, which should be considered first in translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011, 20)<br />
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====2.3 Application of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory is different from traditional theories which overemphasize the features of language rules. With regard to Skopos Theory, it requires that translators should not only consider the language but also take account of factors beyond texts and language like the purpose of translation. As for ''A Tale of Two Cities'', the purpose is to make the target reader feel the same as the source target reader. Since this is a literary text, the cultural factors and rhetorical methods used in the source texts should be reflected on the target text. In addition, the feeling of the target text reader should be taken into consideration in the process of translation. Therefore, the translation should conform to habits of the target language. But guided by Skopos Theory, the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation can be easily analyzed, so that a better solution can be founded between human translation and machine translation. <br />
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===3. Machine Translation and Human Translation===<br />
Translation activities have a long history. As far as China is concerned, translation has a history of more than two thousand years. However, the translation tools have rarely changed, and the translations are always been done by "translators". With the development of science and technology and the acceleration of globalization, there is an increasing need for translation, and "machine" translation has emerged. The advantages of high efficiency and low cost of machine translation make people think about whether machine translation will replace human translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of human translation====<br />
Human translation has both advantages and disadvantages. For example, human translation has the characteristics of flexibility, accuracy, high readability and humanization of language. At the same time, however, compared with machine translation, human translation is less efficient and easy to be influenced by translator's own cultural background and translation capacity so it is difficult to achieve rapid development. Before the advent of machine translation, all translation activities were done by human. Compared with machine translation, translators, as a bridge of cross-cultural communication, are more flexible. Translation itself is a complex activity. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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Professional translators who have certain cultural background knowledge can choose different translation methods and strategies according to the similarities and differences between the two languages and cultures, so it is more flexible and accurate. The flexibility of human language enables the translator to express the meaning of the original text in a more abundant language, and accurately handle the rhetorical devices in the original text. Therefore, the target text of human translation must be more readable than machine translation. Human translation has a long history, and people's research on translation has never stopped. Many excellent translators have emerged in the world and put forward various translation ideas and strategies. Translation has established a relatively mature and complete theory. With the rapid development of China's economy and the increasing number of foreign exchanges, the demand for translation is on the rise. At the same time, the time spend on translation needs to be shortened. Therefore, manual translation alone cannot meet the needs of the translation market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of machine translation====<br />
Machine translation refers to a language can be transferred into another language automatically with the help of machine. The idea of machine translation was firstly put forward by Weaver in his book Translation in 1949(Weaver, 1955). Since the end of the 20th century, the development of the Internet and computer technology has provided more optional software and engines for machine translation. At the same time, the corpus has become richer and more complete, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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The current machine translation is based on the "Neural Machine Translation" (NMT) model of artificial intelligence. Currently, the popular web page machine translations include Youdao Translation, Baidu Translation, Google Translation and so on. Google is currently in a leading position in both voice translation and text translation. Google Translation is a service provided by Google to translate texts and web pages, providing instant translation between more than 100 languages. It can provide translations of words, sentences and web pages between any two languages it supports. The more human translation documents that can be analyzed for a particular language, the higher the quality of the translation. In addition, Google's web page translation is fast, especially free to use, so it has a considerable number of users in translation activities, especially among students. Therefore, this paper will take Google Translation and Baidu Translation as an example to analyze the translation quality, which is representative in the market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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Generally speaking, machine translation has the characteristics of high efficiency, low cost, accuracy of terminology translation, and great development potential. Machine translation is fast and efficient, which is unmatched by human translation. Secondly, the price of machine translation is low, even free, which greatly reduces the economic cost and time cost for those who do not require high translation quality. In addition, compared to human translation, the huge corpus established by machine translation makes the translation of some terms, especially the latest scientific and technological terms, faster and more accurate. The accurate translation of these terms requires continuous learning by the translator, and learning requires a process, which has a certain test of the translator's learning ability and learning speed. At this point, human translation has uncertainty and lag. Finally, although the history of machine translation is short, it has achieved rapid development. With the advancement of science and technology and the development of society, the functions of machine translation will be more perfect and the quality of translation will be better. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
First of all, from a microscopic point of view, machine translation often has problems in the choice of word meaning, especially when there is one word with different meaning. It needs the translator to select the meaning based on the context, while machine translation cannot accurately choose the meaning of a word in combination with the context. What’s more, the word order of the translated sentence often does not conform to the word order and expression habits of the target language. From the aspect of tense, it is more accurate when translating English into Chinese, because words in English can directly change tense. However, there are sometimes problems such as no corresponding tenses when translating Chinese into English. From a macro point of view, machine translation does not have cultural sensitivity and is not accurate enough for the translation of some idioms and proverbs with strong cultural color. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.3 Relationship between machine translation and human translation====<br />
Machine translation is based on human translation, and the establishment of corpus that machine translation relies on needs human participation. When translating technical terms, machine translation corpus and parallel text can greatly reduce the time when find and determine proper equivalent terms. However, the establishment of these corpora needs to rely on well translated materials. The accuracy and usability of corpus are also affected by the quality of human translation. Therefore, they restrict and influence each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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There are more or less defects in the micro and macro aspects of machine translation. At the micro level, it mainly includes vocabulary, syntax, tense, and so on. However, at the macro level, it mainly includes text cohesion and cultural background. Therefore, human translation is essential. In addition, all machine translation inspection, modification, sorting and other work must also be carried out manually, so as to make the translation quality better and meet the requirements of communication. It can be seen that machine translation alone cannot meet the requirements of high quality translation. Translation activities cannot be separated from human participation. Therefore, with the development of machine translation, translation should be completed by both machine and human. The two are related, influenced with each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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===4. Case Study from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===<br />
A Tale of Two Cities is a long historical novel by British writer Charles Dickens, first published in 1859. The story is set in the French Revolution and has a touching plot. It is one of the world's literary classics. The twin cities refer to Paris and London. The story connects these two cities and tells the story of the Parisian doctor Manette. He was persecuted by the brothers of the Marquis St. Evremonde due to injustice and was detained in the Bastille prison for 18 years. After being released from prison, Mannette's daughter Lucie fell in love with the enemy's son Darney. Thus, in the whirlpool of the French Revolution, scenes of family grievances and hatred were staged grandly. Life and death, good and evil are blended in conflict and changed in an instant. On the guillotine, Carton calmly sacrificed his life for love. （Dickens 2016）<br />
<br />
A Tale of Two Cities has a rigorous structure and condensed language. Dickens's profound thinking on revolution and humanity and his breathtaking writing talent are fully demonstrated. This paper selects the most representative classic sentences in the text for comparative analysis of translation, studies whether neural network machine translation software can accurately translate classic literary works, and explores whether neural network machine translation replaces manual translation in the context of artificial intelligence. The human translation was by Zhaolin Song. Among the many translation versions in China, Song’s translation was regarded as the version which closes to the source text most. (Feng Baoyin 2018, 232)<br />
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====4.1 Case Study from the perspective of Skopos Rule====<br />
In Vermeer’ opinion, the dominant rule for any translation should be the skopos rule, which means that a translation action is determined by its purposes. That is to say, the translation action should be in accordance with the target context and culture. The purposes of target text determine the translation strategies and methods used in translation process. A good translation should conform to the target culture and target audiences’ expectations. According to Nord, “Skopos of a particular translation task may require a ‘free’ or a ‘faithful’ translation, or anything between these two extremes, depending on the purpose for which the translation is needed”. Once the intended purposes are achieved, the translation will be considered as reasonable and proper. It is unnecessary for the translation to be equivalent to the source text. (Nord 1997, 102 )<br />
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Example 1: We were all going direct to heaven, we were all going direct the other way--in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
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Google translation: 我们都直接去天堂，我们都直接去天堂- -简而言之，这一时期与目前的时期如此遥远，以至于它的一些最吵闹的当局坚持以最高的比较程度来接受它是好是坏。<br />
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Baidu translation: 我们是所有的人都直接去天堂，我们都朝着另一个方向去——简而言之，这个时期和现在的时代非常相似，以至于一些最吵闹的权威坚持要接受它，不管是好是坏，只是在最高级的比较中。<br />
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Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 我们大家都在直升天堂，我们大家都在直下地狱——简而言之，那个时代和当今这个时代是如此相似，因而一些吵嚷不休的权威们也坚持认为，不管它是好是坏，都只能用“ 最……”来评价它。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 20)<br />
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Analysis: <br />
Since this is selected from a novel, the purpose of translation should be express the meaning and beauty of the source text. According to the Google translation, it made a mistake in translating "We were all going directly the other way". The translated meaning is totally different from the original. As to Baidu translation, it expressed the meaning of the original text, while the expression way will confuse the target text reader. In regards to human translation, the translator of this edition adopts the combination of literal translation and free translation. In this way, the translation not only clearly expresses the original meaning, but also takes into account the literariness of the work, so that readers can feel the characteristics of the times more vividly.<br />
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====4.2 Case study from the perspective of coherence rule====<br />
Coherence rule is also called “intra-textual coherence”, which means that the translation should be acceptable and understandable for the target audiences and be meaningful in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received. In other words, the target text should conform to the target receivers’ situation, including their given knowledge, background culture and specific circumstances. (Nord 1997, 120)<br />
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<br />
Example 2: Questions, questions, questions! (Charles Dickens 2016, 56)<br />
)<br />
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Google Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
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Baidu Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
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Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 问题一个接一个地提出来！(Song Zhaolin 2005, 68)<br />
<br />
Analysis: In this sentence, the original text uses three "questions" in a row to enhance the tone. However, Google and Baidu Translation directly translated it to "问题，问题，问题！". It sounds too blunt to read. The target text translated by Google and Baidu cannot reflect the meaning of the original text. What's more, it makes target readers hard to get meaning of the text. While the translator chose the free translation method to make the translation more natural and smooth. The translated text followed the coherence rule in the process of translation.<br />
<br />
Example 3: But just because he had a powerful enemy---an enemy with the power to send him to prison and to keep him there, hidden and forgotten, for eighteen years. (Charles Dickens 2016, 102)<br />
<br />
Google translation: 但是仅仅因为他有一个强大的敌人-一个有能力将他送进监狱并将其隐藏和遗忘在监狱里长达十八年的敌人。<br />
<br />
Baidu translation:只是因为他有一个强大的敌人，一个有能力把他送进监狱，把他关在那里，隐藏起来，被遗忘18年。<br />
<br />
Human translation(Song Zhaolin): 而只是因为他有一个强大的敌人-这个敌人拥有权势将他投进监狱，而且把他在那里与世隔绝、被人遗忘地关了18年。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 130)<br />
<br />
<br />
Analysis: In terms of grammar, English uses long sentences, which are connected by functional words, such as conjunctions, prepositions and relative words. The syntactic structure is relatively complex and it is a hypotactic language. Chinese is a paratactic language. In the process of E-C translation, we often use disassembly syntax to translate a long and complex English sentence into several short and simple Chinese short sentences. From Google Translation, it directly translated the structure of the original text. The target text created by Google translation doesn't conform to target language structure. While the translation of Baidu almost in accordance with the target language structure. As to the human translation, not only was the structure, but also the meaning was perfectly expressed.<br />
<br />
====4.3 Case study from the perspective of fidelity rule====<br />
Fidelity rule is also named by Vermeer as “intertextual coherence”, which puts emphasis on the relationship between the source text and target text. Based on Skopos theory, fidelity rule requires that the target text should be in accordance with the source text, which means the information contained in the source text should be exactly conveyed by the target text under the translators’ efforts. (Nord 1997, 140)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 1: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
<br />
Google Translation: 那是最美好的时光，那是最糟糕的时光，那是智慧的时代，那是愚昧的时代，那是信仰的时代，那是轻信的时代，那是光明的季节， 是黑暗的季节，是希望的春天，是绝望的冬天，我们眼前的一切，眼前的一切。<br />
<br />
Baidu Translation: 那是最好的时代，最坏的时代，智慧的时代，愚昧的时代，信仰的时代，不信的时代，光明的季节，黑暗的季节，希望的春天，绝望的冬天，我们面前什么都有，面前什么都没有。 <br />
<br />
Human Translation (Zhaolin Song): : 那是最美好的时代，那是最糟糕的时代；那是个睿智的年月，那是个蒙昧的年月；那是信心百倍的时期，那是疑虑重重的时期；那是阳光普照的季节，那是黑暗笼罩的季节；那是充满希望的春天，那是让人绝望的冬天；我们面前无所不有，我们面前一无所有。（Song Zhaolin 2005, 20）<br />
<br />
Analysis: This is the classic opening paragraph in "A Tale of Two Cities", and it can be said to be very popular. On the whole, because of the simple structure of this paragraph, the three machine-translated translations all accurately express the content of the original text, but one shortcoming is that it is difficult for machine translation to express the unique beauty of rhythm of the original text.<br />
<br />
Through the analysis of the translation of commonly used machine translation software and human translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, we can conclude that for the translation of literary works, machine translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text, even equal to manual translation if it is some simple sentence expression. However, the quality of machine translation needs to be improved some sentences with complex sentence patterns and difficult grammatical structures. Therefore, the translation of literary works by machine translation still has a long way to go.<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
The main purpose of this paper is to find a better solution between machine translation and human translation under the guidance of the Skopos Theory for optimizing weaknesses of machine translation platforms, which not only generates solutions to errors, but also improves the quality of machine translation. <br />
<br />
Theoretically, this paper applies Skopos Theory to guide human translation and machine translation of literary texts. Machine translation can be regarded as a basis of human translation, while those errors caused by machine translation can be improved manually after the completion of machine translation. Meanwhile, human translation by employing appropriate translation methods and techniques, such as semantic conversion, amplification, omission and so on, human translation based on machine translation enormously solves errors of machine translation which further optimizes weaknesses of machine translation. Human translation process also becomes more efficient with the help of machine. <br />
As for machine translation, firstly, machine translation platforms can’t replace translators on account of its incomplete corpus and limitations in transferring the cultural meaning. Secondly, errors at lexical level caused by defects of machine translation are much more than that at syntactical level in F396P Aircraft Tow Tractor Maintenance Instruction. Lastly, machine translation platforms are restricted to contexts of language, situation and culture which lead to incorrect target text. <br />
<br />
In regard with human translation, from the perspective of Skopos theory, human translation is more understandable and readable to target readers than that of machine translation. It’s essential for the translator to know typical errors in machine translation, features of chose machine translation platforms and characteristics of source text, which could fascinate the efficiency of translation. All in all, machine translation platforms enhance the efficiency of translating large amount of material and human translation provides a solution for machine translation of poor quality. Machine translation and human translation are complement to each other.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2016). A Tale of Two Cities. Macmillian.<br />
<br />
* Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2011). 中国译学大辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China] 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
* Feng Baoyin冯宝茵 (2018). 从读者反应论对比两个《双城记》译本 [A comparative study of two versions of a tale of two cities from the perspective of reader response theory]. 北方文学, Northern Literature (36):232.<br />
<br />
* Hu Kaibao & Li Yi胡开宝 & 李翼. (2016). 机器翻译特征及其与人工翻译关系的研究. [Research on the characteristics of machine translation and its relationship with human translation] 中国翻译 Chinese Translation (05),10-14. <br />
<br />
* Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
<br />
* Mark Shuttleworth (2004). Dictionary of Translation Studies. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 75.<br />
<br />
* Munday, J. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application. London: Routeledge. 78.<br />
<br />
* Reiss, K & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
* Song Zhaolin宋兆霖 (2005). 双城记 A Tale of Two Cities 中国戏剧出版社, China Drama Press.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=116748History of Translation Studies 102020-12-20T14:06:43Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 摘要 */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing 英语笔译 202070080581==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of original language and target language, but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, have not been covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. <br />
<br />
During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also made a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, one needs to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. <br />
<br />
The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures.Similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language.<br />
<br />
In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
<br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis.That is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, in which verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator is not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which is direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, translators are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word, which makes it even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence in form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with are going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, translators have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example,“Take care. Hope to see you soon.” is polite and emotional way to express our feelin .<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , translators have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, translators have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to translator's mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, translators can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, translators have to consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore,proper translation skills are needed to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes translators can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases they will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
It is obvious that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, translators can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or free translation based on functional equivalence. In daily life, Chinese people often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus the sentence will be translated into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, it can be seen that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, translators need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but trasnslators have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, translators need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, translators can figure out exactly his characteristics and reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. Translators will find different types of texts in the process of translation and must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.<br />
<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. <br />
<br />
According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, can the translation be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654 法语语言文学</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
The success of Hao Jingfang's science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", which won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016, could not have been achieved without the rigorous translation work of Ken Liu. The translation of this novel takes the response of the readers of the translated text as the starting point, preserving the meaning and style of the novel while effectively conveying Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of functional equivalence theory that "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". Nida's functional equivalence theory, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has had a profound influence on the translation studies of various literary genres in China. This paper examines the English translation of "Folding Beijing", analyzes Ken Liu's use of Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory in his translation, and shows the value of functional equivalence theory for the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
<br />
In the science fiction novel "Folding Beijing", the future Beijing is overpopulated. To solve this crisis, it is transformed into a hierarchical Folding City. The Folding City is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours. The first space is occupied by the upper class of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; the second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; and the third space is occupied by the lower class, who have only eight hours of night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants to send his daughter to a good school, and in order to earn money, he ventures into the second and third spaces to deliver letters to others. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers' understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information.<br />
<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and many Chinese native words. The cultural differences between China and the West due to regional factors and customs are a major challenge for translation. The translator must not only consider the reader's understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local color in the work is not removed. The theory of functional equivalence suggests that translation should not be confined to form, and the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text in order to achieve equivalence of content and information.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence are achieved.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:11）<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory has had a profound impact on China and has brought translators new and effective methods of translation guidance. We can see that Ken Liu is also trying to achieve balance and harmony between the translation and the original text when he translates science fiction novels. This paper analyzes the English translation of "Folding Beijing" from the perspective of functional equivalence theory and explores how translators achieve the closest equivalence to the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved from the perspectives of meaning, genre and culture.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work Toward a Science of Translating. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. （Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, explained dynamic equivalence translation in his influential book,Toward a Science of Translating. The aim of dynamic equivalence is the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, focusing on the equivalence of the reader's response, not just the equivalence of content and form.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his book The Theory and Practice of Translation, Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. （Nida,2004:24） <br />
<br />
In "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defines dynamic equivalence as follows. Dynamic equivalence is defined as the degree to which the receptors of information in the receptor language react to the information in essentially the same way as the receptors in the source language react to the information (Nida, 2004: 24) Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translated reader's reaction to the translation should be the same as the original reader's reaction.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did" (Nida 1993:118). <br />
<br />
Because dynamic equivalence was controversial in some respects, Nida replaced it with a more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment required to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. Since a functionally equivalent translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language message, the translator's achievement of functional equivalence follows three principles.In his book Language, Culture and Translation, Nida divides functional equivalence into two levels of categories:the minimal level and the maximum level.The minimal level,as a realistic definition of functional equivalence, is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did".(Nida 1993:118)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation conform to (1) the context of the source language message, (2) the response of the reader of the recipient language, and (3) the recipient language and culture as a whole. Nida defines the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory,namely from the form and content of the message to the reader's response. It differs from traditional translation theory, which emphasizes verbal comparison between the original and the target text. Functional equivalence involves the reader's response. If the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the readers of the original text, it can be regarded as functional equivalence of the target language. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader's reaction to translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:28, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida and Taber stated that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.(Nida,2004:12)<br />
<br />
Nida and Taber point out that "translation consists in reproducing the closest natural equivalence of source language information in the receptor language, above all in terms of meaning." Meaning will be discussed in this chapter at three levels: word, sentence, and segment, in other words, these are the three levels of detailed analysis of lexicon, syntax, and discourse. According to the theory of functional equivalence, translation is not only about word-for-word equivalence, but also about discovering the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of lexis, syntax and discourse (Nida, 2004:12).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:（Din Juan,2011:22）<br />
<br />
In literary translation, it is always a challenge to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, and they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is the most appropriate. In the English translation of Beijing Folding, there are many examples of how the translation can achieve functional equivalence with the original at the lexical level, as follows: (Ding Juan, 2011:22)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
<br />
"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）<br />
<br />
"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", In this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention and conveys what appears to be a bad temper. --[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）<br />
<br />
"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to show the original meaning.<br />
<br />
The author did not literally translate “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is owing to the translator's own understanding of the text, he hopes readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to convey the original meaning.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
<br />
Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
Syntax, as a rule, refers to the study of how to construct sentences correctly with the words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the readers. Translators should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.（Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
The differences between English and Chinese grammar are mainly reflected in three aspects. First, the use of conjunctions and relational words in English is very frequent. Secondly, English speakers focus on object consciousness and are accustomed to the order from small to large objects and from specific to general; in Chinese texts, there is usually a chronological order of time, space or cause and effect. Finally, English usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while Chinese tends to process information from the stale to the fresh in order to impress (Ding Juan, 2011: 24).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: （Din Juan,2011:24）<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original, we must not only translate the meaning of the words, but also translate the syntactic structure into the appropriate form. The following are examples of how the English translation of Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence with the original at the syntactic level:（Din Juan,2011:24）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
" 现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。'他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。'他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’" （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）<br />
<br />
"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
<br />
We can see that in the translation of this passage, the translator clearly adjusted the word order, pushing what the same person said before the pause to the next sentence to fit the logic of the English reader." Selection should also be liberalized" ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the reader, so the reader adds to this sentence and translates it as "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", the translator perfectly explains the meaning of "放开".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015) <br />
<br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like "…childhood that…".<br />
<br />
In this passage, the text emphasizes "the past" twice. To achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order by placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences instead of using subordinate clause like"... childhood that...".--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, such as "as if", "from where", "that", etc. This is because the syntax of the two languages is different.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.(Din Juan,2011:27）<br />
<br />
Nida argues that readers may have difficulty accepting an approximate formal translation due to the intricacies of the discourse structure and the preconceived knowledge of the original content. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a "rewriting" approach to make the translation acceptable to the reader. In literary translation, the translator must pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be comparable to the original text in terms of discourse level. A dialogue from Folding Beijing and its English translation is selected below as an example of literary translation achieving functional equivalence at the discourse level:(Ding Juan,2011:27)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself." <br />
<br />
Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
<br />
"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.<br />
<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
<br />
Conversational conventions in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made in translation. The form of the dialogue is not exactly translated from Chinese, but the understanding of the text is the same for the readers. For example, "夹了新上来的热菜" is translated as "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", and the translator changes the action to "spoon", which is more in line with Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as the girl in the first space to spoon the dish to the old knife."推给老刀" is translated as "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", which adds some actions to make it more vivid.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 09:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
<br />
Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Each writer has his or her own writing style, which no one can imitate perfectly. In other words, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows linguistic characteristics, and the English translation shows the translator's attempt to achieve functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
<br />
First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form, the counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vibrant scenes, and enhance the effectiveness of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to "深渊", and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalent.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated, only translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
<br />
It is a metaphorical sentence and words like "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated. They are translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
<br />
"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks and arms", and "like the humblest servants", the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
<br />
This paragraph has a personification that "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks, and arms" and are "like the humblest of servants," and the use of rhetoric allows people to imagine the folding diagram of the city through the image of a person. By comparing the buildings to a herd of beasts, it shows its scale and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)<br />
<br />
"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
<br />
In this sentence, "怪胎" is translated as "monster" and "born" conveys the same meaning, so the translator did not have any trouble.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
<br />
Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.（Din Juan,2011:33）<br />
<br />
The dialect reflects the local characteristics and is the author's own writing style. Sometimes this is a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator deals with this problem. (Dingjuan, 2011:33)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the use of either rhetoric or dialect in literary works fully reflects the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, translators should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the way of expressing stylistic differences and find out the best way to compensate for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve the maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:07, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:47）<br />
<br />
Cultural differences between two languages are also issues that translators should be aware of in the translation process. People who are exposed to different cultures have different ways of thinking, values, social customs, etc. Translators need to understand both cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this point, translation plays a role in intercultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the reader so that the translation achieves cultural equivalence with the original text. This chapter will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of food culture, folk culture, and idiom culture to show how it achieves functional equivalence with the original text. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:47)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
<br />
The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.（Din Juan,2011:39）<br />
<br />
The city described in Folding Beijing is the political and cultural center of China, a city with deep cultural accumulation. In the novel, there are many elements belonging to traditional Chinese food culture. This part will analyze how the translator managed to translate these cuisines into a successful counterpart.（Din Juan,2011:39）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"炒面"is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
<br />
"炒面" is a famous traditional Chinese snack. Translators translate it as "chow mein" instead of "Chinese chow mein". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means Chinese-style fried noodles with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also gives the reader a more intuitive idea of what the dish is.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)<br />
<br />
"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, "白酒" is translated into "baijiu" , the translator doesn't use the word like "spirits", it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
<br />
Here, foreignization method is used, and "白酒" is translated as "baijiu". The translator does not use words like "spirits", which retains Chinese cultural characteristics and achieves a communicative effect at the same time.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 3:<br />
<br />
"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）<br />
<br />
The characteristic of this dish is that it is first boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator has captured this feature in his translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", which is made with pork, and he hopes that readers of the English translation will see the image of this dish in their minds, just like the Chinese do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique lifestyles, customs, behavior patterns, etc. in terms of vocabulary. The following will analyze the functional equivalence of translation in folk culture. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:52).--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he uses the word "shared" and he adds the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where friends and relatives share several dishes among themselves. The purpose of the passage is to show the boy's poverty. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, where Westerners behave differently, so he uses the word "sharing" and adds the word "family style" to make it easier for the reader to understand this behavior.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Example 2:<br />
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)<br />
<br />
"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is one of the major characteristics of Chinese culture. People from the same hometown share similar living habits, upbringing and cultural background, so even strangers can get acquainted quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao are from the third dimension, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective." 管事儿" means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word to make it easy for readers to understand.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. "心意" means money, which is an euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In translation, the translator also considered an euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word "appreciation".<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan says that she hopes Lao Dao will help her keep her secret, so she wants to use money to give Lao Dao." 心意" means money, which is a Chinese euphemism when it is not convenient to give money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered it a euphemism, so the word "appreciation" was used.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the vast and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people use these idioms in their daily life and writing, but some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and it is important to pay attention to the differences between the two cultures when translating them.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", the translator translated it into "ate heartily", although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers.<br />
<br />
The author uses many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", which the translator translates as "to eat in a heartbeat". Although the translation is easy to understand, without the image of a person eating very hungry, it seems that English readers cannot achieve the same understanding and reaction as Chinese readers from the perspective of functional equivalence.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
And "（盘子）一片狼藉"translated into "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" translated into "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
<br />
And "(盘子)一片狼藉" is translated as "the plate is a mess", which is a description of a messy situation on the plate. And "the beauty of adulthood" is translated as "in that case, I am doing a good deed by keeping quiet", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe how Lao Dao felt that he kept the secret that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might be together in the future. The translator translated the phrase abstractly into the English translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:22, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）<br />
<br />
The English translation of Folding Beijing is analyzed from three aspects of meaning, style, and culture using this paper's functional equivalence theory, and it is concluded that the English translation meets the English readers' understanding of the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and reciprocal Chinese translation of Folding Beijing for English readers. (Zhou Xingyang,2018:56)--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyze from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Folding Beijing" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western cultures, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is basically the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functionally equivalent translation. Analyzing the English version of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture, we can see that linguistically, although Chinese and English are very different in logic and grammar, and there are many differences between Chinese and Western cultures, the translator still tries to keep the original content and find more suitable words in the translation.--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）<br />
<br />
In some specific contents, the translators do not translate into exactly the same form, which is also in line with Nida's theory of functional equivalence, because Nida also suggests that translation should not be limited to form, and the translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's functional equivalence theory does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction novels, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 10:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang.(2015).Folding Beijing[J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy<br />
<br />
Hao Jingfang郝景芳.(2016).孤独深处[The Depth of Loneliness].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社[Nanjing:Jiangsu phoenix literature and art publishing,LTD]：1-40<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(1993)Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：118<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A.(2001)Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press<br />
<br />
Nida,Eugene A. & Taber.(2004) Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press：12-24<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999).新编奈达论翻译[A new version of Nida's theory on translation].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation]<br />
<br />
Xu Jun,Mu Lei许钧,穆雷.(2009).翻译学概论[Introduction to translatology].南京：译林出版社[Nanjing: Yilin Press]<br />
<br />
Zhao Dandan赵丹丹.(2011).浅论奈达的功能对等理论[Nida's theory of functional equivalence].湖北：文学教育[Hubei:Literature Education]<br />
<br />
Zhou Xingyang周兴阳.(2018).从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[Chinese Science Fiction Translation in the Perspective of Functional Equivalence-A case Study of Beijing Zhe Die and its English Version-Folding Beijing].新疆大学[Xinjiang University]<br />
<br />
Wang Guiyuan王桂圆.(2018)系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[A Study on The Translation of Folding Beijing from the Perspective of Systemic Functional Linguistics].安徽：海外英语[Anhui：Overseas English]<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
<center>余妮 Yu Ni No.202070080620</center><br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s version has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. <br />
<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
<br />
The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) which was co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable, for it has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. With the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The following chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author makes a conclusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.<br />
<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, according to the nature of translation. He pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).<br />
<br />
The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, we should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural reaction of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
<br />
Firstly, we should create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully displays the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?<br />
<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture concepts cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost not much snow in southern China all year round. Therefore, based on their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)<br />
<br />
In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabularies. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Re-creation” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, born in Dublin, Ireland, is a “born for art” writer. He was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.<br />
<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In this play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)<br />
<br />
Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies, revealing the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)<br />
<br />
Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).<br />
<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
<br />
Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared to previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
<br />
Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).<br />
<br />
From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
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Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections. Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
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He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was first published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, his translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest—Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. <br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.<br />
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“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but in different meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)<br />
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It not only facilitated the needs of the audience but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience would be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. <br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same. <br />
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In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language remain the same.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.<br />
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In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
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“There are many allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
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(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
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(1) ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
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In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. <br />
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(2) CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack. Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. <br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can still benefit from them. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’ s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).<br />
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An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
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======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012). <br />
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Paradox is a device favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed. Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
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(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. <br />
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In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect. In example 4, what amused the audience was the conclusion contrary to the reasons.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)<br />
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Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With it, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the readers will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Antithesis======<br />
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(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. <br />
<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators. Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty. Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than the source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in the target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.<br />
<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we may have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is the most popular one among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is the variety of rhetorical devices. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, too. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019). <br />
<br />
<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we can have a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”. In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce better translation. Even though we can gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
<br />
Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
<br />
Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
<br />
Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
<br />
Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
<br />
Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
<br />
Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen 202020080603== <br />
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===Abstract===<br />
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
With the development of economic globalization,exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand.The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice. Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
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===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. <br />
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The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)<br />
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The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicit, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)<br />
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The first is the implied meaning(implictit), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is explicit, which the speaker actually says content.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. <br />
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Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
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The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understanding:the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
<br />
understanding: the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and though contend to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. --[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
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The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
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In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)<br />
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===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
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There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)<br />
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Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
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===2. Literary Review===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
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===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
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The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. <br />
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At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
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Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
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It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
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===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===<br />
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Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
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With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
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First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
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On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
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===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
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Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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===3.1 Free Translation===<br />
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The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
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===3.2 Addition of Message===<br />
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Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
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===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===<br />
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As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
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The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. <br />
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Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)<br />
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The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
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*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-166.<br />
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*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
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*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
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*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
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*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.<br />
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* Mao Yueyue, Liu Fan. 毛新月, 刘帆. (2018). 释意理论指导下的会议口译中四字词语的翻译——以习近平总书记十九届中共中央政治局常委同中外记者见面会讲话为例. [Translation of four-letter words in conference interpretation under the guidance of interpretation theory - taking the speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the meeting between the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the 19th CPC Central Committee and Chinese and foreign journalists as an example]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](12): 230-231.<br />
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* Ouyang Changyi. 欧阳长怡. (2010). 论释意理论指导下的记者招待会口译策略及释意训练. [On Interpretation Strategies and Interpretation Training of Press Conference under the Guidance of Interpretation Theory]. 福建省外国语文学会.福建省外国语文学会2010年年会论文集. [Fujian Foreign Language Society. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference of Fujian Foreign Language Society]. 福建省外国语文学会: 福建省外国语文学会[Fujian Foreign Language Society: Fujian Foreign Language Society]<br />
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* Xiong Wen. 熊雯. (2014). 释意理论视阙下的口译过程研究. [A study of interpretation process under the view of interpretation theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](24): 154-155.<br />
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*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
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*Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe. 张杨,李灵哲. (2018). 释意理论指导下的翻译语义策略运用. [The use of translation semantic strategies under the guidance of interpretation theory]. ''佳木斯职业学院学报'' [Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10): 334-336.<br />
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='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
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==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
The “article” would better to be “paper” The “problem” would better to be “ disputation” or “controversy”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 09:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being.<br />
Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time, until they entered China along trade routes from Central Asia in the first century AD.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
Chnese—Chinese please keep your tense consistency. There should be some conjunctions to make it more logical.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
adhere strictly to — strictly adhere to; the form similarity— the similarity in form--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
three period —three periods. Please keep your tense consistency. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
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it was not so widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier that it is of great …into Chinese, hence translators of Buddhist scriptures Constantly emerge. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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He translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures in total. --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
“Transliteration” “ the same as”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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Please keep the tense consistency. “while ignoring”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures.<br />
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“mainstream” —“dominant”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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“then can only…”—“they” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 03:38, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
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=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
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Buddhism believer is not “only”limited to--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
Please keep your tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The principle of “Five Losses…” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
“by private”—“privately”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. <br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 04:10, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25).<br />
India— Indian--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness.<br />
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Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
“arrived”—“reached” “under his efforts”—“with his efforts” --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:46, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
There is some overlaps “at the beginning” and “at the early days”--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
metaphysics— and metaphysics--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 05:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
There are many commas without conjunctions.--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
The words with mystery? Can it be the words with the sense of mystery?--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
but also has — but also had --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
The —the translation workshop system please keep the tense consistency--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
Please keep the tense consistency --[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 06:41, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
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=== References ===<br />
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223<br />
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Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308<br />
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Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.<br />
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Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University <br />
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Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.<br />
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Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.<br />
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Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70. <br />
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Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press<br />
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Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.<br />
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WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
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He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
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Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
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Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
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==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi ==<br />
<center>成于思 Cheng Yusi No.202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究</center><br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
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André Lefevere; ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook''; Liu Miqing; ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''; “cultural turn”; John Dryden; translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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安德烈·勒菲弗尔;《翻译，历史和文化论集》; 刘宓庆;《中西翻译思想对比研究》;文化转向;约翰·德莱登;翻译原则<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. Dryden's comparison of a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
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===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
<br />
''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies. <br />
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In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii) <br />
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Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)<br />
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If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.<br />
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The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements, which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)<br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it brings those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others. <br />
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I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47) <br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "an author and a translator" to "a master and a slave" through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.(Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)<br />
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Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
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Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracts an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)<br />
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In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102) <br />
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Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating poems in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103) <br />
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As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Dryden proposes a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)<br />
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It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. <br />
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Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compares a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)<br />
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Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars, like Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014) <br />
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A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works were with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)<br />
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Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73) <br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)<br />
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===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
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In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2) <br />
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In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. <br />
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Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
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The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33) <br />
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He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)<br />
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Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)<br />
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Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179) <br />
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The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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However, he also recognizes that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School and New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented", and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories which can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current superficial, assertive and rational views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)<br />
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The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)<br />
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Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)<br />
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Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulated that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)<br />
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Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987) <br />
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In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation principles that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the feature of the tradition of Chinese translation changes from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)<br />
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As such, the flourishing of translation is bound to be our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) <br />
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The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51) <br />
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The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
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The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)<br />
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Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem.(Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate Chinese poems, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility, it expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
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Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
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Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argues that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provides a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)<br />
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===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
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===4.1 From the aspect of the content===<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
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Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
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===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===<br />
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Both of these two books are arranged in theme rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters, which are concerned with the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. As to the longer essays, they are collected in the last chapter. <br />
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Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includs the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps readers understanding translation principles.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have better understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of a translator to a slave. Then, it figures out the reasons of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 12:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
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Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
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Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
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Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
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==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
===关键词===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
===Introuction===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.<br />
<br />
Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（quotation missing）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（paragraph too long）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: <br />
<br />
(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
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Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
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Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
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Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
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Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. ) <br />
<br />
Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. <br />
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The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)<br />
<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.<br />
<br />
Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. <br />
<br />
The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. <br />
<br />
These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. <br />
<br />
Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. <br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. <br />
<br />
The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
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As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. <br />
<br />
Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)<br />
<br />
===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)<br />
<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. <br />
<br />
The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. <br />
<br />
Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. <br />
<br />
This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
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Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).<br />
<br />
The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. <br />
<br />
The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
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===Trends in Translation Theory Research===<br />
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Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. <br />
<br />
In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980.<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
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[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
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[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
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[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
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[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
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[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
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[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
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[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
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==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645==<br />
<br />
吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
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归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
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===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
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On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
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For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
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==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
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Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
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Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
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1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
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Example 1:<br />
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路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 2<br />
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云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 3<br />
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花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 4 <br />
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Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
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With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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Example 7<br />
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番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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Example 10<br />
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Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
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Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 11<br />
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我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 12<br />
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“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 13<br />
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耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 14<br />
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“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
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"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 15<br />
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我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
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===''' References '''===<br />
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* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==<br />
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center><br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence on the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation was regarded as a linguistic phenomena before. But later, with the development of the translation theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science, especially linguistics, can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology at home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recording two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and regarded seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure. (J.A Catford , 1965)<br />
<br />
Holmes published The Name and Nature of Translation Studies at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation, which directly promoted the construction of translation studies. ( James Holmes,1975)<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from several aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing the translation practice. (Wolfram Wilss, 1982)<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is Discourse and the Translator (1990), which is the first book to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers. (Hatim & Mason,1990 )<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believed that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies. (Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies. (Mona Baker, 2006) <br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were using correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books would be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe. (Dong Qiusi, 1951)<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the viewpoint that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
<br />
In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published On Approaches to Translation Studies. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' the awareness of the subject of translation studies. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
<br />
In the thesis An Overview of Western Translation Theory (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, translatology could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. ( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）<br />
<br />
Subsequently, Lv published Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new perspective for the study of the construction of translation studies and promoted the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)<br />
<br />
Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the development of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies. (Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012) <br />
<br />
Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)<br />
<br />
Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple approaches of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation. (Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020)<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rising of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precedes translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. (Wang Yin,2017)<br />
<br />
Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western translation studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward west, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation. (Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)<br />
<br />
Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies of the researches. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the awareness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.（Yang Zijian，1993）<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies. ( quotation missing)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often be confused. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definitions of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is also used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the rules of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.( Kong Xiangli,2009)<br />
<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic, literature, philosophy etc. ( Kong Xiangli,2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline and to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.(Yi Jing,2009)<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translator appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei ect. (Yi Jing,2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
<br />
The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated texts. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an independent academic discipline'''--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.(Tan Zaixi, 1987 )<br />
<br />
Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of an independent discipline and proposed a classification of the research field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a merely a technical activity. (Tan Zaixi, 1987 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
<br />
Such a group of people also appeared the independence of translation in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, many famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
<br />
Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
<br />
Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies have shown a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018) --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its research field, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation by early linguists; second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
<br />
As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists began to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology were linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 ) <br />
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Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their researches inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, their contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, systematic-functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists took Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regarded linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the assistance of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts that are "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has exerted a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural context of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the development of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002） --[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.(Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
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Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics theory. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and materials for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool and new research perspectives for translation studies and provides great convenience for translation studies. ( Liao Qiyi，2000)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The publication of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is quite similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories. (Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
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The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, publishing cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge. (Kong Xiangli，2009 )--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:47, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.(Yang Zijian,1993)<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good example. (Yang Zijian,1993)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
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From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study. Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be learned from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together. In the process of development, linguistics has absorbed the experience of many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., formed many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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Linguistics has gone through several stages of development, and it has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics provided experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
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Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators should only take other disciplines for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely. ( (Liu Miqing, 1989))--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 08:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
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Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
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Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
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==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
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==='''题目'''===<br />
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对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析翻译学科学习目前存在的问题，并提出相应的建议。<br />
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==='''关键词'''=== <br />
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翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
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==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
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1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
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Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) <br />
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Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)<br />
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Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
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Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies", is a basic statement of translation studies，which calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) <br />
<br />
Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, such as comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)<br />
<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation studies can examine the practices and context of translating texts that are specialist (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
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Learning these knowledge enables students to apply their understanding of theories to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually includes the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills that are necessary elements solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:49, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies<br />
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With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
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As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. <br />
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Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)<br />
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1.2. The Significance of Translation Studies<br />
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With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. With the requirement of effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures in today's multicultural and multilingual society, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
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As a science, Translation Studies always has its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. <br />
<br />
Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can have a good understanding about the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. It is necessary for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 04:45, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
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Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
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Translation activities appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, and the flourishing period of Translation Studies.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
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In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. <br />
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In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. <br />
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The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.<br />
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The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared on the scene.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc.<br />
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However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have been single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
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At that time, because a large number of people who master foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to improve foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under Foreign Language and Literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies<br />
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At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. <br />
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At the beginning of this period, translation studies was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)<br />
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At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the team to construct translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation in succession. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of “China Translator" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) <br />
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Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.Translation research ideas, methods, field and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
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In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) <br />
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In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training. <br />
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In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Translation studies have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:02, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
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There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.（quotation missing）<br />
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==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
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The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
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The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. Translation discipline in China has entered a new stage now, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.1. Translation Education<br />
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With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018） <br />
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With the establishment of the autonomy of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the cultivation of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
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However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, so it is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction history of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, so systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
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At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
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At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to bluring and confusing educational goal of translation major. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation major teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition,due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
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In addition,due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them are lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
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The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. <br />
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The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) <br />
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The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data shows that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)<br />
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3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
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Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018) <br />
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This kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
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This kinds of teaching method that is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model ignore student autonomy, which will pay too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
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The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare.（Ou Yonghua 2019） <br />
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The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is inconsiderable.（Ou Yonghua 2019） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)<br />
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Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, according to the actual situation of translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but do not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.2. Students<br />
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The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, so it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
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Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. <br />
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Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
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As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
<br />
As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
<br />
Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information. <br />
<br />
Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not gain sufficient background information. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015) <br />
<br />
3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
<br />
At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
<br />
At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless to some extent or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved over time. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote Translation Studies in China.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
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The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
The teaching model is an important guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation. (Wang Baigula 2018)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
<br />
Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to innovate. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019) <br />
<br />
The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching,which attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. It is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019) --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
<br />
Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. <br />
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Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） <br />
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Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
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4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
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Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of roadmap for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)<br />
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Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and to reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of landmark for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
<br />
The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
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4.2. Students <br />
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The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
<br />
Translation talents play a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009) <br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future.Not only should they have a solid foundation in language ability, but also they should take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009) --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students are urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
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Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. <br />
<br />
Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics and the skills and theories of translation，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. <br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the objection of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Therefore, translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and professional knowledge. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
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President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies are still not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
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Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, learn from the latest foreign translation theories, and combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hope that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
<br />
Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
<br />
Chen Cheng.陈诚. (2020).高校英语翻译课程教学现状及改革研究.[ Research on the Teaching Status and Reform of College English Translation Course].淮南职业技术学院学报[''Journal of Huainan Vocational &Technology''] 97-98.<br />
<br />
Chu Xizhi.褚喜之(2009).翻译理论在翻译教学中的重要性.[The Importance of Translation Theory in Translation Teaching].经济研究导刊[''Economic Research Guide'']237-238.<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
<br />
Huang Youyi.黄友义.(2018).服务改革开放40年,翻译实践与翻译教育迎来转型发展的新时代.[Servicing Reform and Opening for 40 Years, Translation Practice and Translation Education Usher in a New Era of Transformation and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']5-8.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
<br />
Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
<br />
Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
<br />
Linlin.林琳.(2016).英语文学翻译学习现状及改善措施.[ The Status Quo and Improvement Measures of English Literature Translation Learning].西部素质教育[''Western China Quality Education''] 65.<br />
<br />
Luo Feng.罗峰.(2011).从翻译学学科建设看翻译学在中国的发展.[On the Development of Translation Studies As A Discipline in China].琼州学院学报[''Journal of Qiongzhou University]''115-116.<br />
<br />
Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
<br />
Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
<br />
Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
<br />
Xu Jun, Mu Lei. 许钧, 穆雷.(2009).中国翻译学研究30年 (1978 -2007).[30 years of Chinese Translation Studies (1978 -2007)].外国语[''Journal of Foreign Languages'']77-87.<br />
<br />
Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
<br />
Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan== <br />
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center><br />
<br />
<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
译者文化身份对翻译的影响<br />
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===摘要===<br />
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translating a work is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important active role in both translating the content and interpreting it, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.<br />
<br />
Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)<br />
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There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.<br />
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=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===<br />
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.<br />
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Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.<br />
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(While your first quote here may be intended to explain to the reader where the concept of cultural identity came from, I suggest you explain the meaning of the concept proposed by the cited author.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)<br />
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====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====<br />
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.<br />
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In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.<br />
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Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on naturalization strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.<br />
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（Be clear about what exactly domestication or foreignization in your text means and who defines it. Use word “domestication” instead of “naturalization”in general.）--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====<br />
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.<br />
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However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." <br />
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However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12) <br />
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We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese literary world. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.<br />
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We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)<br />
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According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
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The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.<br />
(Here you used foreignization ,but above the paper,you use alienation,The specific concepts of context should be unified.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The cultural identity of translators in translation===<br />
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.<br />
(Here world literature is not very accurate, maybe you can say world translation)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====In terms of the original intention of translation====<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao himself said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much and so only that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's love for Shakespeare is so strong that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading Shakespeare, not eating it. <br />
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The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu believes that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius is to appreciate literature, the general public to read are popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "the highest art only a few people can understand ......, literature and art is not the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".<br />
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Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Byrd Byrd, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)<br />
(Here maybe you want to say Irving Babbitt not Byrd, plz check it again)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "My aim in translating this book is, first, to maintain the charm of the original work to the greatest extent possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey faithfully the meaning and feelings of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha plays more attention to the performance function of drama.<br />
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Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)<br />
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EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，<br />
伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，<br />
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This man hath my consent to marry her．<br />
是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的<br />
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Stand forth，Lysander．<br />
走上前来，拉山德。<br />
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And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）<br />
殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子 （朱生豪. 2013：9）<br />
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In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work. <br />
For example, his translation. <br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)<br />
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拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!<br />
否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。<br />
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Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.<br />
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First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:<br />
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LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)<br />
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Translation of Liang Shiqiu:<br />
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赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，<br />
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否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。<br />
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HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool: <br />
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And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)<br />
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海 上学时她就是个狐狸精。<br />
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她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。<br />
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Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966) <br />
Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature. <br />
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For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.<br />
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Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,<br />
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;<br />
There with fantastic garlands did she come,<br />
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,<br />
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.<br />
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:<br />
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds<br />
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,<br />
When down her weedy trophies and herself<br />
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;<br />
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;<br />
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one<br />
incapable of her own distress,<br />
Or like a creature native and indu’d<br />
Unto that element: but long it could not be<br />
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,<br />
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay<br />
To muddy death.<br />
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）<br />
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The translation of Liang Shiqiu：<br />
(You can say Liang’s version :)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。 就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。 她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works. <br />
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For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion. <br />
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By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
Fu Wenhui付文慧．多重文化身份下之戴乃迭英译阐释［The Interpretation of Dai Naidian's English Translation under Multiple Cultural Identities］中国翻译[ Chinese Translation]，2011，32(6):16—20．<br />
<br />
Yan Xiaojiang严晓江． 梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.<br />
<br />
Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.<br />
<br />
Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128.. <br />
<br />
Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.<br />
<br />
Wu Delu.吴得禄.译者文化身份对翻译的影响[The influence of translators' cultural identity on translation].读书文摘[Reading Digest].2016(08):211.<br />
<br />
Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．<br />
<br />
Liu Shuang刘双．文化身份与跨文化传播[Cultural identity and cross-cultural communication]外语学刊[Journal of Foreign Languages]，2000(1):87—91．<br />
<br />
Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪.译者自序[Translator's Preface].文学界(专辑版)[Literature (album edition)].2010(09):36.<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚 四大喜剧 梁实秋译[The Four Great Comedies translated by Liang Shiqiu].北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press].2001<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚． 仲夏夜之梦 朱生豪译．[A Midsummer Night's Dream translated by Zhu Shenghao].上海:上海世界图书出版公司 [Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company],2013．<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋 文学与革命.偏见集[Literature and Revolution. The collection of prejudices].南京:正中书局[Nanjing: Zhengzhong Shuji].中华民国二十三年七月.<br />
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==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Toury's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
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===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
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===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
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Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
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Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
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In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Toury and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Toury also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
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The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Toury proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
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Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Toury describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
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In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Toury, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
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According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
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He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Toury, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Toury's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
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According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
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Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
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Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Toury, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Toury concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Toury believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Toury is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Toury has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
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According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
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Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In his study of descriptive translation, Toury emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Toury's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Toury's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
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In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
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The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
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Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 11:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Li Hongman 李红满. (2002). 论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J]. [On the Paradigm Shift in Contemporary Western Translation Studies]. 外语与翻译. [Foreign Languages and Translations]. <br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang 张美芳. (2000). 翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J]. [The Objectives and Structure of Translation Studies - A Review of Holmes' Vision of Translation Studies]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Toury Gideon. (2001). ''Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond''[M]. Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001). 翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J]. [Translation Studies: From Specification to Description]. 中国翻译. [China Traslation].<br />
<br />
Vermeer Hans J. (1996). A Skopos Theory of Translation[M]. Heidellburg:TEXT-con.<br />
<br />
Venuti Lawrence. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility[M]. A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge.<br />
<br />
Snell-Homby Mary. (1995). Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M]. Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Hemans Theo (1985). ed.The manipulation of Literature[M]. London&Sydney:Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman, Liu Fang 韩子满, 刘芳. （2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J]. [Describe the achievements and shortcomings of translation studies]. 外语学刊. [Journal of Foreign Languages].<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2003). 翻译研究新视野[M]. [New Horizons in Translation Studies]. 青岛:青岛出版社. [Qingdao:Qingdao Publishing House].<br />
<br />
==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==<br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655</center><br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655 亚非语言文学</center>--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract:=== <br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and deeply understand the status of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and helps the readers to understand deeply the status of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。<br />
<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，并深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.<br />
<br />
===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities of translation, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives have contributed to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of tranlation experience. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) <br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the translation study has became more systematic. Some researchers regard translation study as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered as "misleading reader" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements on translation theories varied all the time. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation activities. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.1 John MacFarlane====<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the Durhram University Journal. In his thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation, just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that there are often different reading methods when reading the same work even at the same time.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translated version. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something that it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic. Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention translation field at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
====2.2 Firth====<br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) <br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and this concept has produced the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context. Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.3 James Holmes====<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54） <br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. <br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship among descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text. Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out. After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches." Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, you have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. Taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to "a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Polysystem Theory====<br />
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In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundary between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）<br />
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Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.5 Gideon Toury<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations who are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, thus makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published in his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description. From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. <br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)<br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications, which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have been often taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====2.6 Snell-Hornby<br />
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In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. <br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined，presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)<br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types. Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===<br />
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====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====<br />
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In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
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Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97) <br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：<br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts. <br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited by the study of equivalence between texts. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)<br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation". In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion (translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) <br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "a wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)'' with Li Yeguang and others' translations, and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56) This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) <br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect yet. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36) <br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury believes clearly that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)<br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. <br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. --[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)<br />
<br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6) In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Conclusion=== <br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.<br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short. There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro-analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 04:03, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Reference===<br />
Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.<br />
<br />
J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.<br />
<br />
Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Snell-Hornby.(1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman 韩子满，Liu Fang 刘芳（2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001).翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive <br />
to the Descriptive Approach].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).<br />
<br />
Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]<br />
<br />
Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰.(2002).多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).<br />
<br />
==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies== <br />
<br />
Translation Strategies <br />
<br />
===Abstract === <br />
<br />
Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.<br />
<br />
Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.<br />
<br />
This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers define them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical significance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)<br />
<br />
===Content===<br />
<br />
Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classifications from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classification is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classifications. It seems that clear-cut definitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype definitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)<br />
<br />
The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reflect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reflects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)<br />
<br />
The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp fiction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)<br />
<br />
Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the definitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few defining characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difficulty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).<br />
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or specific) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “specific activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle specific problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by specific techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classified by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
<br />
As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural filtering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
However, this is not consonant with the dictionary definitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is defined as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) defines translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will influence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identified the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identification, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal significant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can find out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) ==<br />
<br />
Darwish (2008) identifies four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70<br />
<br />
<br />
However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might influence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difficulty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Laffling(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.<br />
<br />
== The Comparison of Machine Translation and Human Translation from the Perspective of Skopos Theory---A Case Study of E-C Translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example - 欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan 202020080630==<br />
<br />
<center>欧阳静兰 OuYang Jinglan </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Abstract:With the rapid development of globalization and Internet, international communication is expanding, and a lot of information needs to be translated. Due to the low efficiency of human translation, machine translation is indispensable in today. However, due to the limitations of machine translation, the quality of machine translation is still worrying. Therefore, from the perspective of Skopos theory, this paper takes the E-C translation of ''A Tale of Two Cities'' as an example to analyze the machine translation of Google translation and Baidu translation, and compare it with the translation of Song Zhaolin, so as to explore the characteristics of machine translation and human translation, try to discuss the irreplaceable nature of human translation, and discuss how to combine machine translation with human translation to improve the quality and efficiency of translation. This paper is divided into five parts: the first part introduces the background of the current translation environment; the second part introduces Skopos Theory and discusses the feasibility of Skopos Theory in analyzing machine translation and human translation; the third part introduces the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation and human translation, and discusses the relationship between them; the fourth part is a case study to see machine translation from the perspective of Skopos theory Compared with manual translation, it is concluded that machine translation and manual translation must be combined to improve the efficiency and quality of translation. The fifth part is a summary to this paper.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Skopos Theory, machine translation, human translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
目的论视角下机器翻译和人工翻译的对比---以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着全球化和互联网的迅速发展，国际的交流日益扩大，大量信息需要翻译。由于人工翻译效率低下，在越来越强调效率和质量的今天，机器翻译必不可少。然而，由于机器翻译的局限性，机器翻译的质量仍然堪忧。因此,本文以目的论视角, 以《双城记》的英汉翻译为例，分析谷歌翻译和百度翻译的机器译文, 与宋兆霖版本的中文译本对比，由此探析机器翻译与人工翻译的特点,尝试论述人工翻译的不可替代性, 并讨论如何将机器翻译与人工翻译结合提高翻译的质量和效率。本文分为五个部分，第一部分对当前翻译环境背景的介绍；第二部分对目的论进行简介，并讨论目的论用于分析机器翻译和人工翻译的可行性；第三部分介绍机器翻译和人工翻译的优缺点，并讨论他们之间的关系；第四部分进行案例分析，从目的论视角下看机器翻译与人工翻译的对比，得出提高翻译效率与质量必须将机器翻译与人工翻译相结合。第五部分对全文进行总结。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
目的论 机器翻译 人工翻译 <br />
<br />
===1. Introduction ===<br />
With the development of globalization, the growth of Internet and artificial intelligence, machine translation becomes an indispensable choice in today’s society. Compared with human translation, machine translation has the advantages of efficiency. As the traditional translation method, human translation can guarantee the accuracy of the text. In this information era, many people are thinking if human translation will be replaced by machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
<br />
In September 2016, Google released the neural network translation system, which greatly improved the quality of machine translation. In November, Baidu CEO Robin Li stated at the Wuzhen Summit of the 3rd World Internet Conference that Baidu's artificial intelligence product "automatic translation" will enter a practical state. Therefore, this paper will put the original text of Tale of Two Cities in two representative public machine translation engines at home and abroad, "Google" and "Baidu", to obtain the machine translation. Selecting texts from the famous classical novel ''A Tale of Two Cities'', and comparing machine translations and human translations based on this novel from the perspective of Skopos theory. This paper aims to investigate the relationship between human translation and machine translation and their developments in the future. (Hu Kaibao 2016, 10)<br />
<br />
=== 2. Overview of Skopos Theory ===<br />
In the 1970s, some eminent German translation theory scholars first proposed functional translation theory. Translation theorist Katharina reiss divides text into three types: informative, expressive and operational. She suggested that according to different text types, different translation methods should be used for analysis, and different translation criticism standards should be adopted, that is, text types, language functions and translation strategies should be combined. In the translation process, it’s essential to focus on the functional characteristics of the target text. Her text type theory and translation criticism mode can be regarded as the beginning of functionalist Skopos theory. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
<br />
Hans Vermeer is Reiss's student. He further developed Reiss's theory and proposed Skopos theory. He believed that Skopos theory is based on the source text, and then may produce a series of purposeful and effective behaviors. The core of this theory is that "the purpose of translation determines translation strategies and method to achieve the expected purpose of translation" (Reiss & Vermeer 1984), German scholars Justa Holz Manttari and Christian Nord further developed this theory which based on the theory of communication and behavior, he proposed that translation theory is not a simple translation between words and sentences, but a kind of conscious behavior for the purpose of cultural communication. (Reiss, K, & Vermeer 1984)<br />
<br />
====2.1 Three Rules of Skopos Theory====<br />
The word “Skopos” is originated from the Greek language and means purpose. Skopos theory refers to the process of translation is determined by the purpose of the translation, so the purpose rule is the highest one of translation. Generally speaking, skopos theory includes three principles: Skopos rule, coherence rule (intra-textual coherence) and fidelity rule (also known as "inter-textual coherence"). (Nord 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
Skopos theory believes that the important principle to be followed is the "purpose" rule, it is the core rule of Skopos Theory: the process of translation should be based on the realization of the communicative function in the target language culture, and the goal to be achieved determines the entire process of translation, that is, the method determines the result. Vermeer differentiated the purpose of translation. He believes that the purpose of translation should include three levels: the purpose of the translator; the purpose of communicative; the purpose of specific translation strategies.In most cases, any translator has a certain purpose before translation, such as being entrusted by a translation company, market demand or the need to introduce technology. In most cases, "purpose" refers to the communicative purpose of translation. Under the guidance of the purpose of communication, the translator can have more space to interpret and adjust the original text. (Nord 2001, 78)<br />
<br />
To achieve the communicative and interative function between the target text and the target receptor, the target text needs to conform to the linguistic coherence, and be understood and accepted by the readers in the context of the target language and culture. The principle of coherence means that the target text must conform to the intra-textual coherence, that is, the translation must be understood by the target reader and meaningful in the culture of the target language and the communication environment in which the translation is used. “The principle of coherence requires that the information generated by the translator (target text) must be interpreted in a manner consistent with the context of the target reader.” (Shuttleworth 2004: 75) This means the translator should maximize the translation Semantic coherence and makes the translation understandable and acceptable to the target readers. The target text can help target readers understand and successfully exchange information.<br />
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The fidelity rule refers to the inter-textual coherence between the original text and the target text, which requires "consistency between the target text and the original text" (Munday, 2010: 79). Therefore, in the translation process, the translator should not only be faithful to the original text, but also transfer the writing style and cultural factors existed in the source text. This principle requires translator to follow the purpose of translation.<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, translators should follow three principles according to Skopos Theory: the Skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. Among these three rules in Skopos Theory, the skopos rule is the primary principle translators should adopt in the process of translation, and the coherence rule and the fidelity rule must follow the skopos rule. So in the case of translation practice, fidelity rule is subordinate to coherence rule, and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule. In a word, Skopos rule plays a decisive role in translation process, which should be considered first in translation. (Fang Mengzhi 2011, 20)<br />
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====2.3 Application of Skopos Theory====<br />
Skopos Theory is different from traditional theories which overemphasize the features of language rules. With regard to Skopos Theory, it requires that translators should not only consider the language but also take account of factors beyond texts and language like the purpose of translation. As for ''A Tale of Two Cities'', the purpose is to make the target reader feel the same as the source target reader. Since this is a literary text, the cultural factors and rhetorical methods used in the source texts should be reflected on the target text. In addition, the feeling of the target text reader should be taken into consideration in the process of translation. Therefore, the translation should conform to habits of the target language. But guided by Skopos Theory, the advantages and disadvantages of machine translation can be easily analyzed, so that a better solution can be founded between human translation and machine translation. <br />
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===3. Machine Translation and Human Translation===<br />
Translation activities have a long history. As far as China is concerned, translation has a history of more than two thousand years. However, the translation tools have rarely changed, and the translations are always been done by "translators". With the development of science and technology and the acceleration of globalization, there is an increasing need for translation, and "machine" translation has emerged. The advantages of high efficiency and low cost of machine translation make people think about whether machine translation will replace human translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of human translation====<br />
Human translation has both advantages and disadvantages. For example, human translation has the characteristics of flexibility, accuracy, high readability and humanization of language. At the same time, however, compared with machine translation, human translation is less efficient and easy to be influenced by translator's own cultural background and translation capacity so it is difficult to achieve rapid development. Before the advent of machine translation, all translation activities were done by human. Compared with machine translation, translators, as a bridge of cross-cultural communication, are more flexible. Translation itself is a complex activity. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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Professional translators who have certain cultural background knowledge can choose different translation methods and strategies according to the similarities and differences between the two languages and cultures, so it is more flexible and accurate. The flexibility of human language enables the translator to express the meaning of the original text in a more abundant language, and accurately handle the rhetorical devices in the original text. Therefore, the target text of human translation must be more readable than machine translation. Human translation has a long history, and people's research on translation has never stopped. Many excellent translators have emerged in the world and put forward various translation ideas and strategies. Translation has established a relatively mature and complete theory. With the rapid development of China's economy and the increasing number of foreign exchanges, the demand for translation is on the rise. At the same time, the time spend on translation needs to be shortened. Therefore, manual translation alone cannot meet the needs of the translation market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of machine translation====<br />
Machine translation refers to a language can be transferred into another language automatically with the help of machine. The idea of machine translation was firstly put forward by Weaver in his book Translation in 1949(Weaver, 1955). Since the end of the 20th century, the development of the Internet and computer technology has provided more optional software and engines for machine translation. At the same time, the corpus has become richer and more complete, greatly improving the efficiency and quality of machine translation. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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The current machine translation is based on the "Neural Machine Translation" (NMT) model of artificial intelligence. Currently, the popular web page machine translations include Youdao Translation, Baidu Translation, Google Translation and so on. Google is currently in a leading position in both voice translation and text translation. Google Translation is a service provided by Google to translate texts and web pages, providing instant translation between more than 100 languages. It can provide translations of words, sentences and web pages between any two languages it supports. The more human translation documents that can be analyzed for a particular language, the higher the quality of the translation. In addition, Google's web page translation is fast, especially free to use, so it has a considerable number of users in translation activities, especially among students. Therefore, this paper will take Google Translation and Baidu Translation as an example to analyze the translation quality, which is representative in the market. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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Generally speaking, machine translation has the characteristics of high efficiency, low cost, accuracy of terminology translation, and great development potential. Machine translation is fast and efficient, which is unmatched by human translation. Secondly, the price of machine translation is low, even free, which greatly reduces the economic cost and time cost for those who do not require high translation quality. In addition, compared to human translation, the huge corpus established by machine translation makes the translation of some terms, especially the latest scientific and technological terms, faster and more accurate. The accurate translation of these terms requires continuous learning by the translator, and learning requires a process, which has a certain test of the translator's learning ability and learning speed. At this point, human translation has uncertainty and lag. Finally, although the history of machine translation is short, it has achieved rapid development. With the advancement of science and technology and the development of society, the functions of machine translation will be more perfect and the quality of translation will be better. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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First of all, from a microscopic point of view, machine translation often has problems in the choice of word meaning, especially when there is one word with different meaning. It needs the translator to select the meaning based on the context, while machine translation cannot accurately choose the meaning of a word in combination with the context. What’s more, the word order of the translated sentence often does not conform to the word order and expression habits of the target language. From the aspect of tense, it is more accurate when translating English into Chinese, because words in English can directly change tense. However, there are sometimes problems such as no corresponding tenses when translating Chinese into English. From a macro point of view, machine translation does not have cultural sensitivity and is not accurate enough for the translation of some idioms and proverbs with strong cultural color. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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====3.3 Relationship between machine translation and human translation====<br />
Machine translation is based on human translation, and the establishment of corpus that machine translation relies on needs human participation. When translating technical terms, machine translation corpus and parallel text can greatly reduce the time when find and determine proper equivalent terms. However, the establishment of these corpora needs to rely on well translated materials. The accuracy and usability of corpus are also affected by the quality of human translation. Therefore, they restrict and influence each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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There are more or less defects in the micro and macro aspects of machine translation. At the micro level, it mainly includes vocabulary, syntax, tense, and so on. However, at the macro level, it mainly includes text cohesion and cultural background. Therefore, human translation is essential. In addition, all machine translation inspection, modification, sorting and other work must also be carried out manually, so as to make the translation quality better and meet the requirements of communication. It can be seen that machine translation alone cannot meet the requirements of high quality translation. Translation activities cannot be separated from human participation. Therefore, with the development of machine translation, translation should be completed by both machine and human. The two are related, influenced with each other. (Jin Wenlu 2019, 40)<br />
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===4. Case Study from the Perspective of Skopos Theory===<br />
A Tale of Two Cities is a long historical novel by British writer Charles Dickens, first published in 1859. The story is set in the French Revolution and has a touching plot. It is one of the world's literary classics. The twin cities refer to Paris and London. The story connects these two cities and tells the story of the Parisian doctor Manette. He was persecuted by the brothers of the Marquis St. Evremonde due to injustice and was detained in the Bastille prison for 18 years. After being released from prison, Mannette's daughter Lucie fell in love with the enemy's son Darney. Thus, in the whirlpool of the French Revolution, scenes of family grievances and hatred were staged grandly. Life and death, good and evil are blended in conflict and changed in an instant. On the guillotine, Carton calmly sacrificed his life for love. （Dickens 2016）<br />
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A Tale of Two Cities has a rigorous structure and condensed language. Dickens's profound thinking on revolution and humanity and his breathtaking writing talent are fully demonstrated. This paper selects the most representative classic sentences in the text for comparative analysis of translation, studies whether neural network machine translation software can accurately translate classic literary works, and explores whether neural network machine translation replaces manual translation in the context of artificial intelligence. The human translation was by Zhaolin Song. Among the many translation versions in China, Song’s translation was regarded as the version which closes to the source text most. (Feng Baoyin 2018, 232)<br />
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====4.1 Case Study from the perspective of Skopos Rule====<br />
In Vermeer’ opinion, the dominant rule for any translation should be the skopos rule, which means that a translation action is determined by its purposes. That is to say, the translation action should be in accordance with the target context and culture. The purposes of target text determine the translation strategies and methods used in translation process. A good translation should conform to the target culture and target audiences’ expectations. According to Nord, “Skopos of a particular translation task may require a ‘free’ or a ‘faithful’ translation, or anything between these two extremes, depending on the purpose for which the translation is needed”. Once the intended purposes are achieved, the translation will be considered as reasonable and proper. It is unnecessary for the translation to be equivalent to the source text. (Nord 1997, 102 )<br />
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Example 1: We were all going direct to heaven, we were all going direct the other way--in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
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Google translation: 我们都直接去天堂，我们都直接去天堂- -简而言之，这一时期与目前的时期如此遥远，以至于它的一些最吵闹的当局坚持以最高的比较程度来接受它是好是坏。<br />
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Baidu translation: 我们是所有的人都直接去天堂，我们都朝着另一个方向去——简而言之，这个时期和现在的时代非常相似，以至于一些最吵闹的权威坚持要接受它，不管是好是坏，只是在最高级的比较中。<br />
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Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 我们大家都在直升天堂，我们大家都在直下地狱——简而言之，那个时代和当今这个时代是如此相似，因而一些吵嚷不休的权威们也坚持认为，不管它是好是坏，都只能用“ 最……”来评价它。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 20)<br />
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Analysis: <br />
Since this is selected from a novel, the purpose of translation should be express the meaning and beauty of the source text. According to the Google translation, it made a mistake in translating "We were all going directly the other way". The translated meaning is totally different from the original. As to Baidu translation, it expressed the meaning of the original text, while the expression way will confuse the target text reader. In regards to human translation, the translator of this edition adopts the combination of literal translation and free translation. In this way, the translation not only clearly expresses the original meaning, but also takes into account the literariness of the work, so that readers can feel the characteristics of the times more vividly.<br />
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====4.2 Case study from the perspective of coherence rule====<br />
Coherence rule is also called “intra-textual coherence”, which means that the translation should be acceptable and understandable for the target audiences and be meaningful in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received. In other words, the target text should conform to the target receivers’ situation, including their given knowledge, background culture and specific circumstances. (Nord 1997, 120)<br />
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<br />
Example 2: Questions, questions, questions! (Charles Dickens 2016, 56)<br />
)<br />
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Google Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
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Baidu Translation: 问题，问题，问题！<br />
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Human translation（Zhaolin Song）: 问题一个接一个地提出来！(Song Zhaolin 2005, 68)<br />
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Analysis: In this sentence, the original text uses three "questions" in a row to enhance the tone. However, Google and Baidu Translation directly translated it to "问题，问题，问题！". It sounds too blunt to read. The target text translated by Google and Baidu cannot reflect the meaning of the original text. What's more, it makes target readers hard to get meaning of the text. While the translator chose the free translation method to make the translation more natural and smooth. The translated text followed the coherence rule in the process of translation.<br />
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Example 3: But just because he had a powerful enemy---an enemy with the power to send him to prison and to keep him there, hidden and forgotten, for eighteen years. (Charles Dickens 2016, 102)<br />
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Google translation: 但是仅仅因为他有一个强大的敌人-一个有能力将他送进监狱并将其隐藏和遗忘在监狱里长达十八年的敌人。<br />
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Baidu translation:只是因为他有一个强大的敌人，一个有能力把他送进监狱，把他关在那里，隐藏起来，被遗忘18年。<br />
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Human translation(Song Zhaolin): 而只是因为他有一个强大的敌人-这个敌人拥有权势将他投进监狱，而且把他在那里与世隔绝、被人遗忘地关了18年。(Song Zhaolin 2005, 130)<br />
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<br />
Analysis: In terms of grammar, English uses long sentences, which are connected by functional words, such as conjunctions, prepositions and relative words. The syntactic structure is relatively complex and it is a hypotactic language. Chinese is a paratactic language. In the process of E-C translation, we often use disassembly syntax to translate a long and complex English sentence into several short and simple Chinese short sentences. From Google Translation, it directly translated the structure of the original text. The target text created by Google translation doesn't conform to target language structure. While the translation of Baidu almost in accordance with the target language structure. As to the human translation, not only was the structure, but also the meaning was perfectly expressed.<br />
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====4.3 Case study from the perspective of fidelity rule====<br />
Fidelity rule is also named by Vermeer as “intertextual coherence”, which puts emphasis on the relationship between the source text and target text. Based on Skopos theory, fidelity rule requires that the target text should be in accordance with the source text, which means the information contained in the source text should be exactly conveyed by the target text under the translators’ efforts. (Nord 1997, 140)<br />
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Example 1: It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us. （Dickens 2016, 15）<br />
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Google Translation: 那是最美好的时光，那是最糟糕的时光，那是智慧的时代，那是愚昧的时代，那是信仰的时代，那是轻信的时代，那是光明的季节， 是黑暗的季节，是希望的春天，是绝望的冬天，我们眼前的一切，眼前的一切。<br />
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Baidu Translation: 那是最好的时代，最坏的时代，智慧的时代，愚昧的时代，信仰的时代，不信的时代，光明的季节，黑暗的季节，希望的春天，绝望的冬天，我们面前什么都有，面前什么都没有。 <br />
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Human Translation (Zhaolin Song): : 那是最美好的时代，那是最糟糕的时代；那是个睿智的年月，那是个蒙昧的年月；那是信心百倍的时期，那是疑虑重重的时期；那是阳光普照的季节，那是黑暗笼罩的季节；那是充满希望的春天，那是让人绝望的冬天；我们面前无所不有，我们面前一无所有。（Song Zhaolin 2005, 20）<br />
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Analysis: This is the classic opening paragraph in "A Tale of Two Cities", and it can be said to be very popular. On the whole, because of the simple structure of this paragraph, the three machine-translated translations all accurately express the content of the original text, but one shortcoming is that it is difficult for machine translation to express the unique beauty of rhythm of the original text.<br />
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Through the analysis of the translation of commonly used machine translation software and human translation from the perspective of Skopos Theory, we can conclude that for the translation of literary works, machine translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text, even equal to manual translation if it is some simple sentence expression. However, the quality of machine translation needs to be improved some sentences with complex sentence patterns and difficult grammatical structures. Therefore, the translation of literary works by machine translation still has a long way to go.<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
The main purpose of this paper is to find a better solution between machine translation and human translation under the guidance of the Skopos Theory for optimizing weaknesses of machine translation platforms, which not only generates solutions to errors, but also improves the quality of machine translation. <br />
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Theoretically, this paper applies Skopos Theory to guide human translation and machine translation of literary texts. Machine translation can be regarded as a basis of human translation, while those errors caused by machine translation can be improved manually after the completion of machine translation. Meanwhile, human translation by employing appropriate translation methods and techniques, such as semantic conversion, amplification, omission and so on, human translation based on machine translation enormously solves errors of machine translation which further optimizes weaknesses of machine translation. Human translation process also becomes more efficient with the help of machine. <br />
As for machine translation, firstly, machine translation platforms can’t replace translators on account of its incomplete corpus and limitations in transferring the cultural meaning. Secondly, errors at lexical level caused by defects of machine translation are much more than that at syntactical level in F396P Aircraft Tow Tractor Maintenance Instruction. Lastly, machine translation platforms are restricted to contexts of language, situation and culture which lead to incorrect target text. <br />
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In regard with human translation, from the perspective of Skopos theory, human translation is more understandable and readable to target readers than that of machine translation. It’s essential for the translator to know typical errors in machine translation, features of chose machine translation platforms and characteristics of source text, which could fascinate the efficiency of translation. All in all, machine translation platforms enhance the efficiency of translating large amount of material and human translation provides a solution for machine translation of poor quality. Machine translation and human translation are complement to each other.<br />
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===References===<br />
* Charles Dickens. (2016). A Tale of Two Cities. Macmillian.<br />
<br />
* Fang Mengzhi 方梦之. (2011). 中国译学大辞典 [A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China] 上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
* Feng Baoyin冯宝茵 (2018). 从读者反应论对比两个《双城记》译本 [A comparative study of two versions of a tale of two cities from the perspective of reader response theory]. 北方文学, Northern Literature (36):232.<br />
<br />
* Hu Kaibao & Li Yi胡开宝 & 李翼. (2016). 机器翻译特征及其与人工翻译关系的研究. [Research on the characteristics of machine translation and its relationship with human translation] 中国翻译 Chinese Translation (05),10-14. <br />
<br />
* Jin Wenlu 靳文璐. (2019). 机器翻译可以取代人工翻译吗? [Can machine translation replace human translation?]. 智库时代 Think Tank Times (40) 282-284.<br />
<br />
* Mark Shuttleworth (2004). Dictionary of Translation Studies. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 75.<br />
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* Munday, J. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Application. London: Routeledge. 78.<br />
<br />
* Reiss, K & Vermeer, H. J. (1984). Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation. Tubingen: Niemeyer.<br />
<br />
* Song Zhaolin宋兆霖 (2005). 双城记 A Tale of Two Cities 中国戏剧出版社, China Drama Press.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=11669120201221 trans2020-12-20T13:44:26Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Cheng Yusi 成于思 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br />
<br />
Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br />
<br />
<br />
在言语艺术中辨别出的音调会反映出人民与国家关系的情绪，这一观点通过中国文艺哲学频繁出现，并且频繁进入现代政治的世界，关于中国现代民俗运动的工作将证明这一点。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br />
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杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
当杂文最开始作为一种现代文体流行起来时，其明确的目的是为了无意识地表达随即反应的情感。1918年，胡适发行了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 10:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.<br />
胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。<br />
<br />
胡适的表述强调了杂文对“生活本身”的回应。 像大多数诗歌一样，但与大多数小说和戏剧不同的是，杂文本身就是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。 然而，与诗歌不同的是，诗歌是在大声朗读，重复和品尝中才能充分发挥作用，而杂文则是在报纸的背面短暂地出现，并伴随着诗歌的出现。 在任何人都可以“找到自己的座位并坐在座位上”或冒犯他人之前，令人迷惑不解的笑声，叹息声或打喷嚏然后迅速被扔掉。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br />
<br />
文章中的语调是一种讽刺性的表达手法；你如何通过印刷油墨来传达声音中所承载的一切?在本文中，我试图通过“铿锵的”作品来说明语调的隐喻，特别是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位诗人，退休后他将诗歌化为论战的杂文即他的杂文并因此闻名。在当代中国，杂文所处的独特而饱受困扰的社会和文化空间揭示了中文写作语调的体系，意识形态和意义。比其他文学体裁相比，杂文更依赖于用喜怒无常，固执己见的声音中蕴含的某种东西来传达其信息。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br />
<br />
'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br />
<br />
A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br />
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br />
<br />
附录：两大文本的翻译：《呸呸呸！？》和《东站》<br />
<br />
《呸呸呸！？》<br />
<br />
文坛外的一个朋友让我帮他找些关于“呸呸呸”的文章看。我呆呆地望着他，一言不发。接着，他解释说他在报纸上看到某地领导人举行了一场宴会，宴会上绝不能出现“呸呸呸”这样的话。可显而易见，当时的宴会上到处都是“呸呸呸”的声音。<br />
<br />
是我太迟钝了吗？我有点怀疑，又有点好奇，于是就想弄清楚这件事。结果确实是人们在哪都不能说“呸呸呸”。这绝不能成为一种过去常用来描述党派、国家和人们，并散布消极情绪的嘲弄、讥讽和鄙视性话语。就好像到处都能看到问题有多普遍，有多严重，并不限于某个特定的时间和某个特定的地方。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 13:35, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br />
<br />
很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br />
<br />
I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.<br />
<br />
读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。<br />
<br />
作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是按照约定俗成的惯例），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，更不用说天津和河北一带。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:44, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br />
<br />
我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.<br />
<br />
这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是出于礼貌客套。为了让文学艺术，报纸刊物和文学作品发挥更好的社会效果，也为了将时代特性与群众心灵结合起来，报纸编辑，读者，以及那些该领域的负责人应该直接表达自身观点，犯错误时，彼此应该互相纠正并弥补，这时谁也没必要客套了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br />
<br />
我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。如果你“纪律和纠正”越多，脑子里的“诸多新挑战和新问题”也越多，那为什么所有人还要去“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我还特别搞不懂“稳定人们思想”到底具体指什么，我也看不到提了什么具体要求。这就是我的要求，需要得到指导。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。人们总是认为如果“纪律和纠正”越多，“新挑战和新问题”也就越多，那为什么所有人还要去做“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我搞不懂“稳定人们的思想”具体指什么，我也看不到任何具体要求。所以，我需要指导。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br />
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br />
<br />
文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''East Station'''<br />
<br />
Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br />
<br />
'''东站'''<br />
<br />
在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br />
<br />
This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br />
<br />
Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br />
<br />
The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br />
<br />
而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。 当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。 想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br />
<br />
Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br />
<br />
1989. 9. 13 <br />
<br />
Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.<br />
<br />
但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？<br />
<br />
今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。<br />
<br />
1989.9.13<br />
<br />
请不要删除或改变这个日子。 这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。<br />
<br />
但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。 文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。 这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。 这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？ <br />
<br />
今天也将成为历史。 而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。 <br />
<br />
1989. 9. 13 <br />
<br />
请不要删减或更改这个日期。 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br />
In the Context of Fable of September''' <br />
<br />
Jie Lu<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br />
<br />
'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集<br />
以九月寓言为背景'''<br />
<br />
吕杰<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br />
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]<br />
<br />
在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br />
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.<br />
<br />
而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。<br />
《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br />
<br />
然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br />
<br />
当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.<br />
<br />
正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
正如丛书主编在序言中所说，该作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。这些文学英雄之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的旗帜（萧 1995，二），抨击了当时的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).<br />
<br />
在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br />
<br />
但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br />
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张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”<br />
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作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.<br />
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张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).<br />
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接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br />
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在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br />
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张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.<br />
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.<br />
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于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br />
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阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br />
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与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br />
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br />
然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜） 与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。 这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。 围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。 年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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讽刺的是，历史并不是一个描述村庄时间轮廓的正确术语，因为村庄生活突出的中心特征是“土地”/食物（更确切地说是番薯）、留在村子里的传统想法和一种村里常用的回忆过往苦难的特殊的讲故事的方式。就像村庄得以存在的典型标志，这些特征标志的是一个永恒的存在，而不是一个暂时的运动。以这三个要素为中心，村里的生活艰苦、简单、始终如一、并接近典型的村庄生活。夜里，在野外奔跑、玩耍成了年轻人将充沛且静不下来的精力耗尽的唯一的方法，而已经结婚的人则是通过殴打他们的妻子以及拔火罐来消耗其精力。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br />
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br />
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This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”<br />
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正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br />
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这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br />
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这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.<br />
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唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身"定时"的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br />
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br />
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如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
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小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
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小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br />
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The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses.<br />
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换句话说，魔法是每天都有的。 因此,本体论表示形式进一步否定了历史的时间性。<br />
小说中缺少的历史时间也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担着历史解释的功能。神话中解释了这个小村庄的起源，这个神话是关于一群流浪者的，这些流浪者经过漫长的旅程已经精疲力尽了，他们停下来，然后定居在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上。具有承载能力的猴子精神的故事成为对社会分层和剥削的神话解释，这进一步背离了历史语境。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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换句话说，魔法每天都有，而本体论表征层面的越轨，进一步否定了历史时间性。<br />
小说中历史时间的缺失也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担了历史解释的功能。小村子的由来在一个神话中得到了解释，这个神话讲述了一群流浪汉经过长途跋涉后疲惫不堪，停了下来，在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上定居下来。故事中具有承载能力的猴子精神成为社会分层和剥削的神话阐释，这进一步背离了历史和正面的论述。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br />
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As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br />
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这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br />
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正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br />
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br />
通过讲故事，叙述者个人经历与神话、魔法混合在一起，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的叙述者讲述过去。因此，叙述者在讲述他自己的经历和别人的经历时，同样也在讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，从而保持传统。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br />
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金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br />
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Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br />
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而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。 <br />
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因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种前现代的乡村生活只有通过讲故事的方式来进行叙述，因为与神话、传说、还有魔幻的事物混杂在一起的历史感和现实体验超越了我们现代化和理性表达模式下的正常感受。<br />
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因此，前现代主义以生活和讲述模式为特点，后现代主义方式拥有复杂叙事策略，这两者的结合也指向了讽刺，而只有通过讽刺才能通过风格化的手段重新呈现这个自然的前现代世界。这里张玮遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。尽管庄子怀疑语言，但是他也只能通过语言来想象一些又不能言表的道。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.<br />
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因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br />
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In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.<br />
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显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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很明显，这个原型村的创建体现了作者对前现代历史的深刻怀旧和他对理想状态的空想。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图重新定位中国当代地理和文化怀旧情怀，从商业刺激的怀旧情怀到农村作为中国人的根本根基。然而，在《小村庄》的呈现中缺乏直接的时空参考，使他的怀旧感更接近于想象，或者更接近于大卫·王所说的虚构怀旧（1993：107）。换句话说，他对小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏实际记忆。在他精心设计的时空叙事结构，对神话，传说和那些神奇事件的预言中，这尤其得到了证明。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br />
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Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br />
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The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br />
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最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br />
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So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br />
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村庄的社会习俗，思维方式和传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量简单地消除了静态和周期性的存在形式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统农村地区更广泛的历史影响力和缺乏文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地的意思是代表某种精神。但是，除非位于某个地方，否则这种精神只能保持一种空洞的结构。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br />
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''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.<br />
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......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。 这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。 事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。 毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.<br />
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然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。 在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。 商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.<br />
然而，对消费主义、全球主义和后现代主义的绝对排斥，未能认识到它们在当代中国社会重构中的力量和必然性。这些发展所造成的问题已经使得解决问题超越了道德论述的范畴。中国日益复杂和不断变化的社会和文化现实需要更加深刻和成熟的理解。最后，我认为，在今天的后冷战时代，社会主义与资本主义的对立，已经失去了其相关性和意义，对抗的思想范式必须被谈判的范式所取代。怀旧之情也许总是在吸引着我们，我们也许总是愿意沉浸在想象中的过去之旅中，讲一些像“九月寓言”这样的故事但作为一个批判的立场，它并没有装备我们有效地处理复杂的进程，文化改革发生在当代中国和世界。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 12:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)penguan<br />
<br />
Works Cited（不用翻）<br />
<br />
Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)<br />
<br />
Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) <br />
<br />
Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)<br />
<br />
Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)<br />
<br />
Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994) <br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105<br />
<br />
Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"''' <br />
<br />
''Xinmin Liu<br />
<br />
''<br />
'''Abstract<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br />
<br />
Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent.<br />
<br />
“”破译民粹：围绕张承志“宗教崇高”的文化论战”<br />
<br />
刘新民<br />
<br />
''<br />
'''摘要<br />
'''<br />
<br />
自1990年代中期以来，中国三文通过在期刊，富尔登报纸，系列丛书和论坛上对社会和文化问题的激烈争论而目睹了高涨。 在这场“口水战”中，没有哪个作家像张承志那样多产，挑衅和有问题。<br />
<br />
张的文章对中国知识分子缺乏精神信仰，他们屈服于全球消费主义和后现代主义提出了严厉的批评。 在民粹主义热心的推动下，张赞赞扬中国穆斯林对宗教信仰的热爱，对物质富足的蔑视，并与他们生硬但未受污染的生境联系在一起。 他的民粹主义对宗教超越的态度与他认为今天的知识界的对立是模棱两可和矛盾的。<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br />
<br />
In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”<br />
<br />
它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。<br />
<br />
在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。<br />
<br />
在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.<br />
<br />
想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?<br />
<br />
称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br />
<br />
Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br />
<br />
Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ]<br />
<br />
很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》 的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br />
<br />
On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br />
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br />
<br />
It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br />
<br />
Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br />
<br />
No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br />
<br />
但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。<br />
<br />
毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 "终极关怀 "的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 "原初之问 "的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br />
<br />
A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br />
Zhang 1999a, 37.<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br />
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br />
他问道:“当没有任何科学或意识形态来保护你逃避终极责任时，面对自己灵魂时你如何解释?”对他来说，对他来说，回族是他终极人文关怀的原因。迈克尔·菲舍尔(Michael Fischer)认为，种族“……是一种动态的东西，往往无法被压制或避免。”即使是没有意识地教育，它也可能是有效的;制度化的教学很容易造成沙文主义、无结果和肤浅的东西。因此，正是“类我”的知觉和心理奠定了一个人的种族/文化条件的基础，并反过来影响一个人的历史意识。<br />
一个中国化的伊斯兰术语，意为“虔诚的誓言”。它在中文中也被称为“Juyi”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br />
<br />
What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br />
<br />
作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。<br />
<br />
他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”<br />
<br />
那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐 的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br />
<br />
Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br />
<br />
Zhang 1994a, 125.<br />
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br />
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br />
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br />
<br />
这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
<br />
这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。<br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br />
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br />
<br />
The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.<br />
<br />
事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：<br />
<br />
这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：<br />
<br />
这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br />
<br />
One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br />
<br />
作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。<br />
<br />
有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br />
<br />
Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br />
<br />
其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br />
<br />
Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br />
<br />
For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。<br />
<br />
关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br />
<br />
'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br />
<br />
''King-Fai Tam''<br />
<br />
I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”<br />
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'''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''<br />
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''谭景辉''<br />
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首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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''谭景辉''<br />
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首先，我想对本章贡献原始资料的人表示感谢，这些论文研究深刻、表达清楚，不仅仅为着手研究散文提供了多个角度，还对散文体裁辩论本质拥有相同兴趣。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br />
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鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br />
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然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br />
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虽然一篇文章与论文确实存在区别，其简洁性使其不具备解决问题的深度，但是如张伟和张承志一类的作者产出颇丰，详尽探索一篇篇文章中不同深浅的问题，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者可以通过文章来讲述或复述一个故事，提出一个命题，对其进行修饰或否定。因此，它取代了小说，抓住了20世纪90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管一篇论文的确与论文有所不同，因为篇幅简洁，无法充分解决一个问题，但张炜和张承志等作者却可以求助于大量论文，详尽地探讨了不同层次的论文，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者用它来讲述和叙述一个故事，提出一个命题并加以修改或否认。 因此，它取代了小说，成为最能体现90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.<br />
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我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.<br />
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然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对<br />
唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br />
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br />
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即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br />
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即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br />
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In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.<br />
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在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.<br />
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这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，"冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情"。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br />
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'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br />
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''Martin Woesler''<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
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In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br />
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其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。<br />
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'''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''<br />
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''Martin Woesler''<br />
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'''摘要'''<br />
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本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。"Essay"，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br />
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In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br />
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In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br />
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我将会介绍我提出的假设，即中国和西方的散文都属于同一种国际体裁，并尝试通过展示两者在形式和内容上的跨文化相似点来证明这一假说。但是，我也会列举中国散文的一些特殊的本土特色。<br />
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在第二部分，我尝试讲述散文在1980年代的复现开始阶段的事情。1995年前，国际学术界开始运用常见的语言学方法来探索单篇散文和散文集，并撰写了中国散文的历史。之后，我将展示政治性散文和非政治性散文的主题发展。<br />
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在第三部分，我将提出我的问题，即谁是20世纪中国散文的代表人物？--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br />
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我介绍一下鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以仍然是作品传阅最广的作家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆文和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和 《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我将介绍鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以一直是读者最多的散文家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆录和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和 《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br />
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Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br />
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The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br />
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在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。<br />
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当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。<br />
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当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br />
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在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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在中国，我们能看到人们通过论文这一媒介，又有了讨论社会政治问题的兴致，就如同上世纪二三十年代那样。日常生活成为文学主题时，我们就会意识到它的平淡无味，就像在散文中表现的那样，散文通常描写的就是日常生活。中国社会的去意识形态化，让人们重新发现自民国时期，特别是1923至1928年以来的非政治性散文。20世纪90年代，80年代用散文进行政治批评的文化已经消失了，唯一留下来的政治痕迹是爱国主义，例如在1996年出版的专论《中国可以说不!-冷战后政治和情感的可能性》中传达的那样(见《中国可以说不！》)。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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'''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br />
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1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
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Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.<br />
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1. 特征<br />
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1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式<br />
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与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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'''1. 特征<br />
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1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''<br />
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和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
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“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
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该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。 这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。 这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。 散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。 形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
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Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.<br />
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不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。<br />
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地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
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In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br />
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The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br />
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当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和"短篇小说"的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br />
<br />
当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.<br />
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周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。 中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
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This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br />
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Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
<br />
这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br />
<br />
进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br />
<br />
Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br />
<br />
In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
<br />
'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''<br />
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。 <br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（ 关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''<br />
尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br />
<br />
Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br />
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文 《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br />
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br />
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br />
<br />
'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br />
<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br />
<br />
在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。<br />
“1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”<br />
政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br />
<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.<br />
<br />
而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。<br />
我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
划词翻译<br />
20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。<br />
<br />
我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
<br />
在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br />
<br />
在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
<br />
非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br />
<br />
Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br />
<br />
Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br />
<br />
One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.<br />
<br />
'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？<br />
<br />
这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。<br />
<br />
人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?<br />
<br />
这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。<br />
<br />
人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.<br />
<br />
在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br />
<br />
Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br />
<br />
Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br />
<br />
For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br />
<br />
余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br />
<br />
决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br />
<br />
因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。<br />
<br />
有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br />
<br />
决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br />
<br />
因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。<br />
<br />
有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br />
<br />
Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br />
<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br />
<br />
从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。<br />
<br />
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br />
<br />
王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931） ）和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。<br />
<br />
朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。<br />
<br />
1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.<br />
<br />
王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
'''3.Trends<br />
<br />
3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br />
<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br />
3.潮流与趋势<br />
“中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”<br />
它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。<br />
“文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。<br />
但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。<br />
这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.趋势<br />
3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文<br />
中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。<br />
<br />
“文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。 在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。 好方法”（王萌，1994年）。 这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
<br />
-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br />
- 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。<br />
- 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。<br />
- 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。<br />
<br />
- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。<br />
<br />
中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br />
<br />
-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br />
<br />
The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。<br />
<br />
从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br />
<br />
1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br />
<br />
2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br />
<br />
老舍，茅盾和沈从文作品中呈现的虚构现实主义也被证明有助于理解某些文章，例如文章《小狗包弟》（巴金，1981）中，作者不再像以前那样叙述事实，（如《萧山回忆录》，巴金，1984b）。两者都是对过去的回忆，也就是王在沈从文作品中提出的虚构的真相（David Wang，1992），它有助于阅读《昆明的雨》（王增琪[1984]）和《山西歌剧》（贾平瓦（1984）。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾和沈从文身上看到的虚构现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的。例如，在《小狗包弟》（巴金1981）一文中，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述性的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984b）。类似的还有想象的怀旧概念，如王家卫所说的沈从文作品中的虚构真相（王家卫1992），对《昆明的雨》（汪曾祺[1984]）以及《山西戏曲》（贾平凹1984）的阅读都有帮助。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1辛庄台小说新状态小说，由韩东，鲁羊，朱文，林白，陈梁，张梅代表。<br />
<br />
2后殖民主义思维（Williams等，1994）虽然被视为社会政治话语的一部分，却出现在文章中，特别是在1990年代批评性和政治性较弱但提倡爱国主义的论文中。卡夫卡主义可以帮助我们理解《梦m》（Si Yu 1995）一文，在那篇文章中作者是一位解构主义者，而主人公甚至被迫自杀。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br />
<br />
'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br />
<br />
施瓦茨的''个人悲伤''概念以''隐喻话语''的方式表达，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他所熟知的''存在的真相''，而只是通过对他的狗，宝迪，进行隐喻达到一个更有说服力的''虚构的真相'"（施瓦茨，1996）。<br />
<br />
'''20世纪中国散文--散文家巴金、周作人、朱自清的文体调查与新见解'''<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
文学史和选本建立的叙事，对20世纪的中国文学进行了歪曲的描绘。文章的体裁几乎被忽略了。在我的论文中将证明，如果我们考虑到他们的一些散文作品，三位作家的形象将如何变化。在此，我选择了批判性政治文章的例子。与小说或诗歌相比，散文更能让我们了解一个作者，因为在这种文体中，我们遇到的是没有格律限制的作者本人。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 11:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers". <br />
<br />
Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
<br />
The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br />
<br />
周作人<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周作人<br />
<br />
民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br />
<br />
3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br />
<br />
4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).<br />
<br />
5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br />
<br />
人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.<br />
<br />
The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.<br />
<br />
因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。<br />
第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br />
<br />
"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br />
<br />
'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br />
<br />
Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。<br />
<br />
'''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''<br />
<br />
巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br />
<br />
这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br />
<br />
狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
狗是个比喻。 一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者会想，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能如此，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br />
<br />
7 (Zhou 1923).<br />
<br />
8 (The Family in 1951)<br />
<br />
9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br />
<br />
10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..<br />
<br />
11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br />
<br />
2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br />
<br />
本文是对'文革'的控诉。 没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br />
<br />
"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]<br />
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."<br />
<br />
6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。<br />
<br />
正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样"过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，"相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。"[...]她还提到，"[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们"。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.<br />
<br />
综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=11666520201221 trans2020-12-20T13:34:29Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Xu Jing 许晶 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br />
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Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br />
<br />
<br />
在言语艺术中辨别出的音调会反映出人民与国家关系的情绪，这一观点通过中国文艺哲学频繁出现，并且频繁进入现代政治的世界，关于中国现代民俗运动的工作将证明这一点。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br />
<br />
杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
当杂文最开始作为一种现代文体流行起来时，其明确的目的是为了无意识地表达随即反应的情感。1918年，胡适发行了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 10:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.<br />
胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。<br />
<br />
胡适的表述强调了杂文对“生活本身”的回应。 像大多数诗歌一样，但与大多数小说和戏剧不同的是，杂文本身就是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。 然而，与诗歌不同的是，诗歌是在大声朗读，重复和品尝中才能充分发挥作用，而杂文则是在报纸的背面短暂地出现，并伴随着诗歌的出现。 在任何人都可以“找到自己的座位并坐在座位上”或冒犯他人之前，令人迷惑不解的笑声，叹息声或打喷嚏然后迅速被扔掉。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br />
<br />
文章中的语调是一种讽刺性的表达手法；你如何通过印刷油墨来传达声音中所承载的一切?在本文中，我试图通过“铿锵的”作品来说明语调的隐喻，特别是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位诗人，退休后他将诗歌化为论战的杂文即他的杂文并因此闻名。在当代中国，杂文所处的独特而饱受困扰的社会和文化空间揭示了中文写作语调的体系，意识形态和意义。比其他文学体裁相比，杂文更依赖于用喜怒无常，固执己见的声音中蕴含的某种东西来传达其信息。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br />
<br />
'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br />
<br />
A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br />
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br />
<br />
很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br />
<br />
I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.<br />
<br />
读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。<br />
<br />
作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br />
<br />
我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.<br />
<br />
这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是出于礼貌客套。为了让文学艺术，报纸刊物和文学作品发挥更好的社会效果，也为了将时代特性与群众心灵结合起来，报纸编辑，读者，以及那些该领域的负责人应该直接表达自身观点，犯错误时，彼此应该互相纠正并弥补，这时谁也没必要客套了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br />
<br />
我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。如果你“纪律和纠正”越多，脑子里的“诸多新挑战和新问题”也越多，那为什么所有人还要去“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我还特别搞不懂“稳定人们思想”到底具体指什么，我也看不到提了什么具体要求。这就是我的要求，需要得到指导。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。人们总是认为如果“纪律和纠正”越多，“新挑战和新问题”也就越多，那为什么所有人还要去做“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我搞不懂“稳定人们的思想”具体指什么，我也看不到任何具体要求。所以，我需要指导。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br />
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br />
<br />
文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''East Station'''<br />
<br />
Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br />
<br />
'''东站'''<br />
<br />
在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br />
<br />
This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br />
<br />
Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br />
<br />
The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br />
<br />
而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。 当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。 想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br />
<br />
Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br />
<br />
1989. 9. 13 <br />
<br />
Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.<br />
<br />
但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？<br />
<br />
今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。<br />
<br />
1989.9.13<br />
<br />
请不要删除或改变这个日子。 这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。<br />
<br />
但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。 文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。 这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。 这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？ <br />
<br />
今天也将成为历史。 而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。 <br />
<br />
1989. 9. 13 <br />
<br />
请不要删减或更改这个日期。 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br />
In the Context of Fable of September''' <br />
<br />
Jie Lu<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br />
<br />
'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集<br />
以九月寓言为背景'''<br />
<br />
吕杰<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br />
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]<br />
<br />
在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br />
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.<br />
<br />
而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。<br />
《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br />
<br />
然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br />
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当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.<br />
<br />
正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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正如丛书主编在序言中所说，该作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。这些文学英雄之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的旗帜（萧 1995，二），抨击了当时的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).<br />
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在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br />
<br />
但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br />
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张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”<br />
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作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.<br />
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张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).<br />
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接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br />
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在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br />
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张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.<br />
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.<br />
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于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br />
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阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br />
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与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br />
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br />
然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜） 与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。 这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。 围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。 年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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讽刺的是，历史并不是一个描述村庄时间轮廓的正确术语，因为村庄生活突出的中心特征是“土地”/食物（更确切地说是番薯）、留在村子里的传统想法和一种村里常用的回忆过往苦难的特殊的讲故事的方式。就像村庄得以存在的典型标志，这些特征标志的是一个永恒的存在，而不是一个暂时的运动。以这三个要素为中心，村里的生活艰苦、简单、始终如一、并接近典型的村庄生活。夜里，在野外奔跑、玩耍成了年轻人将充沛且静不下来的精力耗尽的唯一的方法，而已经结婚的人则是通过殴打他们的妻子以及拔火罐来消耗其精力。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br />
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br />
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This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”<br />
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正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br />
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这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br />
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这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.<br />
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唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身"定时"的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br />
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br />
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如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
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小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
<br />
小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br />
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The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses.<br />
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换句话说，魔法是每天都有的。 因此,本体论表示形式进一步否定了历史的时间性。<br />
小说中缺少的历史时间也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担着历史解释的功能。神话中解释了这个小村庄的起源，这个神话是关于一群流浪者的，这些流浪者经过漫长的旅程已经精疲力尽了，他们停下来，然后定居在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上。具有承载能力的猴子精神的故事成为对社会分层和剥削的神话解释，这进一步背离了历史语境。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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换句话说，魔法每天都有，而本体论表征层面的越轨，进一步否定了历史时间性。<br />
小说中历史时间的缺失也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担了历史解释的功能。小村子的由来在一个神话中得到了解释，这个神话讲述了一群流浪汉经过长途跋涉后疲惫不堪，停了下来，在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上定居下来。故事中具有承载能力的猴子精神成为社会分层和剥削的神话阐释，这进一步背离了历史和正面的论述。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br />
<br />
As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br />
<br />
这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br />
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正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br />
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br />
通过讲故事，叙述者个人经历与神话、魔法混合在一起，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的叙述者讲述过去。因此，叙述者在讲述他自己的经历和别人的经历时，同样也在讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，从而保持传统。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br />
<br />
金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br />
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Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br />
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而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。 <br />
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因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种前现代的乡村生活只有通过讲故事的方式来进行叙述，因为与神话、传说、还有魔幻的事物混杂在一起的历史感和现实体验超越了我们现代化和理性表达模式下的正常感受。<br />
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因此，前现代主义以生活和讲述模式为特点，后现代主义方式拥有复杂叙事策略，这两者的结合也指向了讽刺，而只有通过讽刺才能通过风格化的手段重新呈现这个自然的前现代世界。这里张玮遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。尽管庄子怀疑语言，但是他也只能通过语言来想象一些又不能言表的道。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.<br />
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因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br />
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In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.<br />
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显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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很明显，这个原型村的创建体现了作者对前现代历史的深刻怀旧和他对理想状态的空想。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图重新定位中国当代地理和文化怀旧情怀，从商业刺激的怀旧情怀到农村作为中国人的根本根基。然而，在《小村庄》的呈现中缺乏直接的时空参考，使他的怀旧感更接近于想象，或者更接近于大卫·王所说的虚构怀旧（1993：107）。换句话说，他对小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏实际记忆。在他精心设计的时空叙事结构，对神话，传说和那些神奇事件的预言中，这尤其得到了证明。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br />
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Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br />
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The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br />
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最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br />
<br />
So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br />
<br />
村庄的社会习俗，思维方式和传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量简单地消除了静态和周期性的存在形式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统农村地区更广泛的历史影响力和缺乏文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地的意思是代表某种精神。但是，除非位于某个地方，否则这种精神只能保持一种空洞的结构。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br />
<br />
''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.<br />
<br />
<br />
......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。 这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。 事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。 毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.<br />
<br />
然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。 在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。 商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.<br />
然而，对消费主义、全球主义和后现代主义的绝对排斥，未能认识到它们在当代中国社会重构中的力量和必然性。这些发展所造成的问题已经使得解决问题超越了道德论述的范畴。中国日益复杂和不断变化的社会和文化现实需要更加深刻和成熟的理解。最后，我认为，在今天的后冷战时代，社会主义与资本主义的对立，已经失去了其相关性和意义，对抗的思想范式必须被谈判的范式所取代。怀旧之情也许总是在吸引着我们，我们也许总是愿意沉浸在想象中的过去之旅中，讲一些像“九月寓言”这样的故事但作为一个批判的立场，它并没有装备我们有效地处理复杂的进程，文化改革发生在当代中国和世界。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 12:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)penguan<br />
<br />
Works Cited（不用翻）<br />
<br />
Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)<br />
<br />
Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) <br />
<br />
Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)<br />
<br />
Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)<br />
<br />
Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994) <br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105<br />
<br />
Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"''' <br />
<br />
''Xinmin Liu<br />
<br />
''<br />
'''Abstract<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br />
<br />
Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent.<br />
<br />
“”破译民粹：围绕张承志“宗教崇高”的文化论战”<br />
<br />
刘新民<br />
<br />
''<br />
'''摘要<br />
'''<br />
<br />
自1990年代中期以来，中国三文通过在期刊，富尔登报纸，系列丛书和论坛上对社会和文化问题的激烈争论而目睹了高涨。 在这场“口水战”中，没有哪个作家像张承志那样多产，挑衅和有问题。<br />
<br />
张的文章对中国知识分子缺乏精神信仰，他们屈服于全球消费主义和后现代主义提出了严厉的批评。 在民粹主义热心的推动下，张赞赞扬中国穆斯林对宗教信仰的热爱，对物质富足的蔑视，并与他们生硬但未受污染的生境联系在一起。 他的民粹主义对宗教超越的态度与他认为今天的知识界的对立是模棱两可和矛盾的。<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br />
<br />
In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”<br />
<br />
它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。<br />
<br />
在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。<br />
<br />
在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.<br />
<br />
想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?<br />
<br />
称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br />
<br />
Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br />
<br />
Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ]<br />
<br />
很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》 的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br />
<br />
On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br />
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br />
<br />
It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br />
<br />
Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br />
<br />
No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br />
<br />
但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。<br />
<br />
毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 "终极关怀 "的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 "原初之问 "的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br />
<br />
A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br />
Zhang 1999a, 37.<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br />
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br />
他问道:“当没有任何科学或意识形态来保护你逃避终极责任时，面对自己灵魂时你如何解释?”对他来说，对他来说，回族是他终极人文关怀的原因。迈克尔·菲舍尔(Michael Fischer)认为，种族“……是一种动态的东西，往往无法被压制或避免。”即使是没有意识地教育，它也可能是有效的;制度化的教学很容易造成沙文主义、无结果和肤浅的东西。因此，正是“类我”的知觉和心理奠定了一个人的种族/文化条件的基础，并反过来影响一个人的历史意识。<br />
一个中国化的伊斯兰术语，意为“虔诚的誓言”。它在中文中也被称为“Juyi”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br />
<br />
What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br />
<br />
作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。<br />
<br />
他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”<br />
<br />
那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐 的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br />
<br />
Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br />
<br />
Zhang 1994a, 125.<br />
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br />
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br />
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br />
<br />
这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
<br />
这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。<br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br />
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br />
<br />
The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.<br />
<br />
事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：<br />
<br />
这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：<br />
<br />
这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br />
<br />
One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br />
<br />
作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。<br />
<br />
有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br />
<br />
Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br />
<br />
其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br />
<br />
Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br />
<br />
For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。<br />
<br />
关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br />
<br />
'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br />
<br />
''King-Fai Tam''<br />
<br />
I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”<br />
<br />
'''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''<br />
<br />
''谭景辉''<br />
<br />
首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
''谭景辉''<br />
<br />
首先，我想对本章贡献原始资料的人表示感谢，这些论文研究深刻、表达清楚，不仅仅为着手研究散文提供了多个角度，还对散文体裁辩论本质拥有相同兴趣。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br />
<br />
然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br />
<br />
虽然一篇文章与论文确实存在区别，其简洁性使其不具备解决问题的深度，但是如张伟和张承志一类的作者产出颇丰，详尽探索一篇篇文章中不同深浅的问题，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者可以通过文章来讲述或复述一个故事，提出一个命题，对其进行修饰或否定。因此，它取代了小说，抓住了20世纪90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管一篇论文的确与论文有所不同，因为篇幅简洁，无法充分解决一个问题，但张炜和张承志等作者却可以求助于大量论文，详尽地探讨了不同层次的论文，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者用它来讲述和叙述一个故事，提出一个命题并加以修改或否认。 因此，它取代了小说，成为最能体现90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.<br />
<br />
我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
[http://www.example.com link title]<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.<br />
<br />
然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对<br />
唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br />
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br />
<br />
即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br />
<br />
即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br />
<br />
In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.<br />
<br />
在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.<br />
<br />
这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，"冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情"。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br />
<br />
'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br />
<br />
其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。<br />
<br />
'''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。"Essay"，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br />
<br />
In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br />
<br />
In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br />
<br />
我将会介绍我提出的假设，即中国和西方的散文都属于同一种国际体裁，并尝试通过展示两者在形式和内容上的跨文化相似点来证明这一假说。但是，我也会列举中国散文的一些特殊的本土特色。<br />
<br />
在第二部分，我尝试讲述散文在1980年代的复现开始阶段的事情。1995年前，国际学术界开始运用常见的语言学方法来探索单篇散文和散文集，并撰写了中国散文的历史。之后，我将展示政治性散文和非政治性散文的主题发展。<br />
<br />
在第三部分，我将提出我的问题，即谁是20世纪中国散文的代表人物？--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br />
<br />
我介绍一下鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以仍然是作品传阅最广的作家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆文和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和 《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我将介绍鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以一直是读者最多的散文家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆录和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和 《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br />
<br />
Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br />
<br />
The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br />
<br />
在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。<br />
<br />
当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。<br />
<br />
当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br />
<br />
在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
'''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br />
<br />
1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
<br />
Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.<br />
<br />
1. 特征<br />
<br />
1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式<br />
<br />
与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
'''1. 特征<br />
<br />
1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''<br />
<br />
和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
<br />
“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
<br />
<br />
该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。 这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。 这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。 散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。 形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
<br />
Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.<br />
<br />
不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。<br />
<br />
地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
<br />
In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br />
<br />
The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br />
<br />
当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和"短篇小说"的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br />
<br />
当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.<br />
<br />
周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。 中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br />
<br />
Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
<br />
这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br />
<br />
进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br />
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Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br />
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In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
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'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''<br />
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。 <br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（ 关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''<br />
尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br />
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Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br />
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文 《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br />
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br />
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
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Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br />
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'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br />
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The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br />
<br />
在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。<br />
“1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”<br />
政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br />
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I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.<br />
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而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。<br />
我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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划词翻译<br />
20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。<br />
<br />
我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
<br />
在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br />
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在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
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The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
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非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
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'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br />
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Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br />
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Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br />
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One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.<br />
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'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
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20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？<br />
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这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。<br />
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人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
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20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?<br />
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这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。<br />
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人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
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During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.<br />
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在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
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Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br />
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Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br />
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Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br />
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For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br />
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余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br />
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决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br />
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因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。<br />
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有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br />
<br />
决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br />
<br />
因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。<br />
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有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
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The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br />
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Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br />
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大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br />
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从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。<br />
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从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
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A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br />
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王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931） ）和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。<br />
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朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。<br />
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1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.<br />
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王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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'''3.Trends<br />
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3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
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What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br />
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The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br />
3.潮流与趋势<br />
“中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”<br />
它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。<br />
“文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。<br />
但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。<br />
这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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3.趋势<br />
3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文<br />
中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。<br />
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“文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
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共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。 在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。 好方法”（王萌，1994年）。 这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
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Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br />
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'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br />
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From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
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-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
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-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
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-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
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-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
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-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
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- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br />
- 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。<br />
- 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。<br />
- 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。<br />
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- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br />
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-通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。<br />
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-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。<br />
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中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
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-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br />
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-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
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In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br />
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The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.<br />
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20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。<br />
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从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
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-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br />
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1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br />
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2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br />
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老舍，茅盾和沈从文作品中呈现的虚构现实主义也被证明有助于理解某些文章，例如文章《小狗包弟》（巴金，1981）中，作者不再像以前那样叙述事实，（如《萧山回忆录》，巴金，1984b）。两者都是对过去的回忆，也就是王在沈从文作品中提出的虚构的真相（David Wang，1992），它有助于阅读《昆明的雨》（王增琪[1984]）和《山西歌剧》（贾平瓦（1984）。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾和沈从文身上看到的虚构现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的。例如，在《小狗包弟》（巴金1981）一文中，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述性的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984b）。类似的还有想象的怀旧概念，如王家卫所说的沈从文作品中的虚构真相（王家卫1992），对《昆明的雨》（汪曾祺[1984]）以及《山西戏曲》（贾平凹1984）的阅读都有帮助。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1辛庄台小说新状态小说，由韩东，鲁羊，朱文，林白，陈梁，张梅代表。<br />
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2后殖民主义思维（Williams等，1994）虽然被视为社会政治话语的一部分，却出现在文章中，特别是在1990年代批评性和政治性较弱但提倡爱国主义的论文中。卡夫卡主义可以帮助我们理解《梦m》（Si Yu 1995）一文，在那篇文章中作者是一位解构主义者，而主人公甚至被迫自杀。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br />
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'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
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Martin Woesler<br />
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The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br />
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施瓦茨的''个人悲伤''概念以''隐喻话语''的方式表达，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他所熟知的''存在的真相''，而只是通过对他的狗，宝迪，进行隐喻达到一个更有说服力的''虚构的真相'"（施瓦茨，1996）。<br />
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'''20世纪中国散文--散文家巴金、周作人、朱自清的文体调查与新见解'''<br />
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吴漠汀<br />
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文学史和选本建立的叙事，对20世纪的中国文学进行了歪曲的描绘。文章的体裁几乎被忽略了。在我的论文中将证明，如果我们考虑到他们的一些散文作品，三位作家的形象将如何变化。在此，我选择了批判性政治文章的例子。与小说或诗歌相比，散文更能让我们了解一个作者，因为在这种文体中，我们遇到的是没有格律限制的作者本人。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 11:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
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In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers". <br />
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Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
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'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
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The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br />
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周作人<br />
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中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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周作人<br />
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民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
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The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br />
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3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br />
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4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).<br />
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5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br />
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人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
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So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.<br />
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The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.<br />
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因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。<br />
第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
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Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br />
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"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
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"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br />
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'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br />
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Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
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1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。<br />
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'''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''<br />
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巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
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One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br />
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这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
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1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br />
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狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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狗是个比喻。 一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者会想，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能如此，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
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6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br />
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7 (Zhou 1923).<br />
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8 (The Family in 1951)<br />
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9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br />
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10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..<br />
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11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br />
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2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
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3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br />
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本文是对'文革'的控诉。 没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
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4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
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5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
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6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br />
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"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]<br />
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."<br />
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6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。<br />
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正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样"过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，"相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。"[...]她还提到，"[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们"。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
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To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.<br />
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综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201221_trans&diff=11666420201221 trans2020-12-20T13:33:50Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Xu Jing 许晶 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
The idea that tones discerned in verbal art will reflect the mood of the relationship between the people and the state makes frequent appearances through Chinese literary philosophy, and it frequently enters the world of modern politics, as work on the modern Chinese folklore movement will attest (Hung). <br />
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Another more recent sample is the expression “setting the tone” [定調子] describes the degree of condemnation in a Cultural Revolution era Big Character poster. This modern example displays a relatively cynical view of the function of tone; the power to set tone is in the hands of the accuser, but its strength reflects the crime of the victim.In the world of literature and arts policy, “New Tone” 新基調 became the standard Chinese socialist line against precisely such works as our “provincial leader” above castigated as “pei pei pei-ing”.<br />
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在言语艺术中辨别出的音调会反映出人民与国家关系的情绪，这一观点通过中国文艺哲学频繁出现，并且频繁进入现代政治的世界，关于中国现代民俗运动的工作将证明这一点。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
The term “tone” (particularly as diao) has acquired negative connotations over the past two of decades, at least in part because of its role in politicoliterary battles. Even editors sympathetic to “new tone” values distance themselves from the term (Yang, Zhu). In a parallel strategy, contemporary zawen are written in covert form, more like “East Station,” than like “Pei pei pei!”?, which so revealingly displays the mechanics of the declamatory modal trope. In contrast to the late 1980's, contemporary zawen have in recent years receded to hide in other types of writing. This strategy is a familiar one in the context of zawen history; the necessity to hide only increases the effect the “involuntarily” discordant tone, which is held to be, biting and kicking, reflecting the truth.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
When zawen were first fashioned as a modern genre, it was the involuntary expression of responsive emotions that were explicitly invoked as zawen's purpose. When Hu Shih published the first major newspaper column devoted to the serial publication of zawen in 1918, the “Record of Spontaneous Feeling,” the introductory essay was entitled “什麼話,” literally “What speech.” This title also provides a demonstration of a modal trope on the level of syntax. In this original title there was no punctuation, as “shenme” already indicates the question “what” in the standard form, before European punctuation was imported as a regular feature of written vernacular Chinese.<br />
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杂文首次作为一种现代文体出现时，明确是为了不自主地表达随即反应的情感、感想。1918年，胡适发表了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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当杂文最开始作为一种现代文体流行起来时，其明确的目的是为了无意识地表达随即反应的情感。1918年，胡适发行了首个专门连载杂文的主要报刊专栏《随感录》，他将导论的标题命名为“什么话”，字面意思是“什么讲话”。这个标题也在句法层面上提供了一个模态修辞的范例。在原题中，并没有标点符号，因为在引入欧洲标点符号作为白话文的一般特征之前，"什么"已经在标准形式中表达了"what"的意思。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 10:54, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Beyond the interrogative function, however, “hua,” [“speech” or “talk”] has the declamatory effect of objectifying speech, and holding it up for dramatic examination. For an idiomatic English translation I would offer “What!?” including both exclamation and question mark. The contents of essay describe the purpose of zawen as a venue for explosive emotional responses, linked to the other, “regular” items printed in newspapers everyday. This ordinary newspaper fare “gives people goose flesh [disgusts them] makes them sigh, or elicits a cold smile or an outright laugh” (Hu Shih, Shen Bao 1918). Zawen were thus launched in the early modern Chinese newspaper as the nearly physical expression of these feelings or moods in the form of literary essays. <br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Hu Shih's formulation emphasizes zawen's role as a response to “life itself.” Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, zawen is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices. Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, zawen's ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can “find their seat and sit in it,” or take offence.<br />
胡适在其阐述中强调说杂文这一角色是对生活本身的一种回应。像大多数的诗歌，而不是小说或戏剧那样，杂文本身就是先发者的声音，而非是各种声音的再现。但它不像诗歌那样，可能会需要想象一下大声读出来的场景，不断重复并推敲，才能充分发挥作用。杂文能够达到的理想效果只显现在报纸背面的那一瞬间，在任何人可以“在杂文里找到座位然后坐下来”或因为杂文而冒犯他人之前，伴随着读者神秘莫测的笑声、叹气声或是不屑地发出哼声，人们早就将其抛诸脑后了。<br />
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胡适的表述强调了杂文对“生活本身”的回应。 像大多数诗歌一样，但与大多数小说和戏剧不同的是，杂文本身就是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。 然而，与诗歌不同的是，诗歌是在大声朗读，重复和品尝中才能充分发挥作用，而杂文则是在报纸的背面短暂地出现，并伴随着诗歌的出现。 在任何人都可以“找到自己的座位并坐在座位上”或冒犯他人之前，令人迷惑不解的笑声，叹息声或打喷嚏然后迅速被扔掉。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Generic categories are not the only aspect that zawen tend to mix; they characteristically contain sudden shifts in tone, style and voice, moving from a snippet of stray “overheard” conversation to an elegant, classical allusion. Echoing Hu Shih's 1918 idea of zawen as a “response” to the articles on other pages of the newspaper, the zawen, still characteristically the back page of most newspapers, nearly always contains a “foil” in the form of a direct quote from the author has read or heard. In addition to creating a microcosmic social dialogue, this split between two voices, the writer's and that of the “foil” also allows for dizzying clashes of style and voice that enclose unlikely combinations of syntax and grammar, as well as ideas, a single text. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? In this paper I have tried to illustrate the trope of tone through the “sonorous” work, particularly that of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his zawen. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for zawen in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, zawen depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages.<br />
<br />
文章中的语调是一种讽刺性的表达手法；你如何通过印刷油墨来传达声音中所承载的一切?在本文中，我试图通过“铿锵的”作品来说明语调的隐喻，特别是邵燕祥的作品，他是一位诗人，退休后他将诗歌化为论战的杂文即他的杂文并因此闻名。在当代中国，杂文所处的独特而饱受困扰的社会和文化空间揭示了中文写作语调的体系，意识形态和意义。比其他文学体裁相比，杂文更依赖于用喜怒无常，固执己见的声音中蕴含的某种东西来传达其信息。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 10:23, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
While readers love to hate their morally and politically provocative zawen-of-the-moment, writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations. Eventually they even preserve zawen, long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the “dagger and spear” is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the culturally shaped self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of contentious social dialogue.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''Appendix: Translations of two primary texts: “'Pei Pei Pei!'? ” and “East Station”'''<br />
<br />
'''“Pei Pei Pei! ”?'''<br />
<br />
A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there must not be “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place.<br />
Have I gotten so insensitive? Out of self-abrogation, and also out of curiosity, I rushed to seek it out.And so it was, what had been said was “there must not be pei pei pei -ing all over the place, it must not always be the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal that is used to write about the party, the nation and the people, dispersing a gray mood that makes people pessimistic and disappointed.” It is like this all over the place, and not in just in one particular place, things are always this way, and not just at a certain time, you can see how widespread and serious the problem is.<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
A long time ago in the liberated areas, it was advocated that the entire party should publish newspapers. After the establishment of the nation, when everything was “operated on a large scale with the entire people” I did not pay attention to whether or not it was advocated that all the people should publish the newspapers. But getting all people to read the newspapers is the goal of all those who follow the newspaper profession. In that way, newspapers are not merely published for leading institutions and leaders to read, but rather at the same time (actually this should be primary) for the masses to read. They are published for all the people -- among the people there are illiterates and partially literate, but through listening to the newspapers being read, the broadcasters and televisions have accepted the responsibility of getting the newspaper read, and this segment of the masses also figures as indirect readers of the newspapers.<br />
<br />
很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了阅读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
很久以前，在解放区，有人主张全党应该出版报纸。 建国后，当一切都“与全体人民一起大规模地运转起来”时，我没留意是不是所有人都主张出版报纸。 但是，让所有人阅读报纸是所有从事报纸行业的人的目标。 这样，出版报纸不只是供给领导机构和领导人阅读，还能同时供群众阅读（实际上这应该是主要的）。 报纸是为所有人出版的—包括文盲和半文盲，通过听来阅读报纸。广播公司和电视承担了朗读报纸的责任，这部分群众也是报纸的间接读者。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:40, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
The readers have the greatest right of criticizing the newspapers, and I wonder how many readers have discovered this phenomenon of there being “pei pei pei -ing” all over the place. <br />
<br />
I am one of these readers, subscribing on my own to several “large” newspapers (newspaper publications have not been classified as large or small, but I follow convention here) there are in addition a few newspapers that people send to me; as to “small” newspapers, I have not the leisure nor the money to buy the papers in the Beijing area, not to mention nearby Tianjin and Hebei. Even so, just taking the 10 to 20 different newspapers I often look over, including the cultural newspapers, I have not discovered these “always using the language of mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal to write about the party, the nation and the people” sorts of “pei pei pei” pieces.<br />
<br />
读者拥有最大的权力对报纸进行批评，我想有多少读者发现了某个地区遍地都是“呸呸呸”的现象。<br />
<br />
作为一名读者，我订阅了许多大型报纸（报社并没有大小之分，我只是遵循的一般传统作出的判断），此外，还有一些其他人寄的报纸。至于小型报纸，即使是北京区的报纸，我也无闲心和闲钱去购买，，更不用说天津和河北附近。即使如此，看看我常翻阅的十到二十种不同的报纸，包括文化报，我也未曾发现这些“总是使用嘲笑，讥讽，轻蔑驳斥的语言描写党，国家和人民”的“呸呸呸”的文章。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 14:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
I could only hand back to my friend a blank report. But naturally my not having seen them does not mean they do not exist. What one person can see is limited. I hope that the extra sensitive speaker on this matter can openly point them out, or even offer examples of eight or ten articles, or even hold up just three to five articles as models of this kind of work, so as to allow us to be enlightened and improve our discriminating ability in seeing which essays are those called “pei pei pei,” perhaps at the same time clearing up a related matter by analogy, that of understanding what kind of essays constitute “ba ba ba” as well.<br />
<br />
我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没有看到它们并不意味着它们不存在。 一个人只能看到有限的内容。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 13:32, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我只能把空白的报告交给我的朋友。 但是当然，我没看到它们不等于它们不存在。 一个人能看到内容有限。 我希望对此事特别敏感的发言人可以公开指出，甚至提供八到十篇文章的示例，或者只举三到五篇文章作为此类工作的典范，以启发我们并提高我们的辨别能力，以了解哪些论文被称为“呸呸呸”，或者同时通过类推来清理相关问题，即理解哪种论文也构成“ 叭叭叭”。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:40, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我只能向朋友交回一份空白报告。当然，我没有见过他们并不代表他们不存在。一个人所能看到的是有限的。我希望在这个问题上特别敏感的发言者能公开指出它们，甚至举出八篇、十篇的文章示例，或者只举出三五篇作为这类作品的范本，让我们提高我们的辨别能力，为我们区分哪些文章是那些所谓的 "呸呸呸"的文章是提供启发，或许同时也能通过类比澄清相关的问题，就是让人明白构成 "叭叭叭"的文章是什么样的。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:44, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
This suggestion is sincere, not just the usual politeness. In order for literary arts, newspaper publications and literary publications to develop better social effects and to help unite the ways of our times with the people's hearts, newspaper editors, newspaper readers, and those in charge of this occupation should all be able to directly express their own views, and upon making mistakes should help each correct and make up for them, nobody needs to be polite about this.<br />
<br />
这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是平时的礼貌。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效果，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该能够直接表达自己的观点，在犯错误时，他们应该相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，没有人需要对此保持礼貌。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这个建议是真诚的，而不是出于寻常的客套。为了使文学艺术、报纸出版物和文学出版物发挥更好的社会效应，同时将我们这个时代的生活方式与人民的心灵结合起来，报纸编辑、报纸读者和负责这一领域的人都应该要能直接表达观点，在犯错误时，他们应相互帮助纠正和弥补错误，不必维持客套。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:11, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这一建议是真诚的，而不是出于礼貌的客套话。为了使文艺、报刊、文学作品发挥更好的社会价值，将时代特性与人民内心相连，报社编辑和读者，以及该领域的负责人应该直截了当地表达自己的观点。在犯错误时，各方应互相帮助，纠正和弥补错误，在这一过程中无需礼貌的客套话。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这个建议很真诚，不仅仅是出于礼貌客套。为了让文学艺术，报纸刊物和文学作品发挥更好的社会效果，也为了将时代特性与群众心灵结合起来，报纸编辑，读者，以及那些该领域的负责人应该直接表达自身观点，犯错误时，彼此应该互相纠正并弥补，这时谁也没必要客套了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:17, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
After reading this speaker's comments, there is another matter that mystifies me. According to what was said, “from the next (meaning this and next) two years of discipline and rectification, there will be more new challenges and problems, and literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” In reading all these newspapers, this is the first time I have seen this “stabilize the peoples mind” proposition. If there is a need to stabilize the people's hearts, it must proceed from the assumption that the peoples hearts are not stable. As for the reason why people's minds are not stable, it comes back to the “discipline and rectification and the new challenges and problems” of these two years.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
I am confused again. These “challenges and problems” that so vex people, do they result from the “discipline and rectification” or is it because of these “challenges and problems” that the need arises to “discipline and rectify”? If the more you “discipline and rectify” the more you provoke “many new challenges and problems” in people's minds, then why do all this “discipline and rectifying”? Moreover, I do not understand what “discipline and rectification” refers to nor what the “new challenges and problems” are, and I cannot figure out what “stabilize people minds” means very precisely, nor can I see what concrete request is being made. This is my request for instruction.<br />
<br />
我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。如果你“纪律和纠正”越多，脑子里的“诸多新挑战和新问题”也越多，那为什么所有人还要去“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我还特别搞不懂“稳定人们思想”到底具体指什么，我也看不到提了什么具体要求。这就是我的要求，需要得到指导。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 06:39, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
我又困惑了。这些令人恼火的“挑战和问题”是由于“纪律和纠正”产生的，还是正因为“挑战和问题”的需要才产生了“纪律和纠正”。人们总是认为如果“纪律和纠正”越多，“新挑战和新问题”也就越多，那为什么所有人还要去做“纪律和纠正呢”？而且，我不明白“纪律和纠正”到底是什么，也不知道“新挑战和新问题”又是什么，我搞不懂“稳定人们的思想”具体指什么，我也看不到任何具体要求。所以，我需要指导。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:47, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The Literature Journal column “Literature and the People's Lives” has been asking for a manuscript from me many times, but I have never been able to take up the assignment. As I write to this point, I suddenly thought that this piece should be called “Literature and the Peoples' Minds”? But that is a big topic, something that a thousand characters can not manage to capture. 1989.2.21.<br />
Shao Yanxiang 1993 in 自己的酒 [My Own Wine] pages 181-183, 群眾出版社<br />
<br />
文学期刊《文学与人民生活》向我讨要了很多次我的手稿，但我一直没有答应。写到这里，我突然想到这一部分是不是应该叫做“文学与人民思想”？但这是一个很大的话题，一千个字都没办法讲完。（1989.2.21，邵燕祥1993年发表在群众出版社的文章“自己的酒”，181-183页）--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''East Station'''<br />
<br />
Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred to the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer east side Front City Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br />
<br />
'''东站'''<br />
<br />
在30年前的北京，如果你提到“东站”，大家都会知道你指的是建在北京前城门东边外缘的北京东站。今天，这个不起眼的带有半西式风格的，矗立在喧闹的高楼大厦之间的建筑，挂着一个小牌子，上面写道：“铁路工人俱乐部”。它俨然已是一件“过时的老物件”了，而它过去那些繁荣与光辉也不在了。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 01:51, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
This train station was once a symbol of bustling urgency, day and night swallowing and spewing out the many different hues of travelers who come to and leave the old capitol. Outsiders that have been to Beijing may not have wandered on Fragrant Mountain or not even have visited the Imperial Museum, but none would not remember this railway station. <br />
<br />
This train station, like any other place in Beijng, has experienced everything, cycles of prosperity and demise passing before its watch. It has greeted both the voluntary and the involuntary travelers to Beijing, and also the powerful it welcomed, as well as those it did not welcome. It sent off the happy people on their first [train] voyages, and also the broken hearted people who were departing; how many of them left this place never to come back?<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
When 20-year-old Shen Congwen arrived in Beijing after his roundabout journey from Phoenix in Hunan Province, he may have walked out of the station and stood for a while at the square in front of it. He would have seen, because in those years there was still a space in front, first the uniformly arranged buildings, and the colorfully carved gate of Zhengyang tower. His senses would have been struck with awe at the deep and solemn beauty. Did he think of the way Kang (youwei) and Liang (qiqiao) were in the depths of an inescapable trap when they embarked their train to flee, in the midst of their hurry without even the time to look back upon the winged palace roofs of their beloved capitol? <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
That year in July the canons sounded at Lugou Bridge. When the railroad was restored between Beiping and Tianjin, the first trainload was the “four thousand refugee reds fleeing to Tianjin,” that was how the Tianjin newspaper put it. When those travelers entered East Station, they took their first step on the road of flight; were there any among them that that could predict that long after their own “fortuitous rescue,” in 1958 there would be another group making their unseemly departure from the Beijing station, submitting their fates to the unpredictable road?<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
Recently I looked through Liu Meng's “Reminiscences on a Rainy Day” in which he writes of the rainy day April of 1958, when [he along with] a group was sent to the great northern wilderness. The platform in the rainy day, the locomotive in the rainy day; he deliberately reminisced calmly, saying it was like this memory had also been washed clean by the rainy rain. At that time Liu Meng had been young, but traveling along with him were many people who had fallen into this hardship in their old age, certainly each of them had their own earlier “at that time.”<br />
<br />
Head hanging, walking upon the rain-wet road; this is someone who has far to travel. Every window is weeping; this is someone reminiscing in the rain.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor. Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I don't know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br />
<br />
The platform of Beijing East Station, from the end of the last century to the middle of this century, has been a stage of constantly revolving action, no matter whether the security forces patrolling the edges of the stage were armed police of the North Coast Warlords, or the Japanese Army Police, or the Nationalist soldiers, police, M.P.’s or special agents, or the “People's Traffic Police.”<br />
<br />
而在1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。 当时郭沫若作了一首诗："为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。 想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用声音来表达。" --不知道为什么，这首诗在他后来的作品集里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
北京东站的站台，从上世纪末到本世纪中，不管在舞台边缘巡逻的保安部队是北洋军阀的武警还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或特务，还是 "人民交通警察"，它一直是一个不断变幻的舞台。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1943年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主人士到达北京时，他们收到了隆重的欢迎仪式，他们流的是喜悦的泪水。当时郭沫若作了一首诗：“为了这个荣誉，洒了多少人民的血。想着想着，眼泪就掉下来了，幸福的笑声无法用言语来表达。”--我不知道为什么，但是这首诗在他后来的作品里都没有收录。<br />
<br />
从上世纪末到本世纪中，北京东站的站台已然成为一个不断轮回的舞台，在那里有边界巡逻的保安部队不论是武装的北洋军阀还是日本军警，又或者是国民党的士兵、警察、宪兵或者是特务，还是“人民交通警察。”<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But because nearly everybody “performed” there in one way or another, at least having passed across that stage, everything about it was forgotten. Literary works pass through it with a single stroke, only the ending of the novel “Golden Powder Dynasty” provided a scene for it. This leftover architectural structure does not even rate a “district preservation unit” marker. This is because there are too many ancient traces in Beijing, how could an object merely one hundred years of age be considered antique? <br />
<br />
Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history. <br />
<br />
1989. 9. 13 <br />
<br />
Please don't cut or change this date. The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with “more that thirty years ago” at the beginning of the essay.<br />
<br />
但是因为几乎所有人不管怎样都在那“表演过”，最起码从那个舞台上经过，于关于它的一切全部都被遗忘。文学作品在这个舞台上浮光一掠，只有小说《金粉世家》的结局算作是上演了一幕。遗留的建筑结构都没有被评为“保护区”的标志。这是因为在北京像这样的古老残留建筑有很多，才拥有一百多年历史又怎么能被算作是古老建筑呢？<br />
<br />
今天也依然会成为历史。北京的每一寸土地都可以为此证明。<br />
<br />
1989.9.13<br />
<br />
请不要删除或改变这个日子。 这个新的火车站于1959年开始工作，同时，也是这部散文的开始之言“三十年之前”。<br />
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但因为几乎每个人都在那里或多或少地 "表演 "过，至少是经过了那个舞台，关于它的一切都被遗忘了。 文学作品一气呵成地经过它，只有小说《金粉王朝》的结局为它提供了一个场景。 这座遗留下来的建筑结构，连 "区级保护单位 "的标志都评不上。 这是因为北京的古迹太多，仅仅百年的物件怎么能算作古董呢？ <br />
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今天也将成为历史。 而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。 <br />
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1989. 9. 13 <br />
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请不要删减或更改这个日期。 新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的 "三十多年前 "相吻合。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
'''Nostalgia without Memory: Reading Zhang Wei’s Essays <br />
In the Context of Fable of September''' <br />
<br />
Jie Lu<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
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In this paper I will discuss what can be called agrarian nostalgia in Zhang Wei's essays collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey, published in 1995 as a part of Resisting Compromise Book Series. I will examine his nostalgia as a critical and moral stance in the literary context of his highly claimed novel The Fable of September. In the novel, history is mythologized, essentialized, and therefore erased to embody an agrarian being associated with land. If land in Zhang's novel represents an idealized existence, then in his essays, it becomes both a social and literary metaphor to symbolize moral purity and literary elitism. It is posed as a means to achieve individual, social and literary salvation, and an absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture in the age of commercialization.<br />
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'''没有记忆的怀恋：阅读张炜的散文集<br />
以九月寓言为背景'''<br />
<br />
吕杰<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
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在本文中，我将讨论张炜的散文中可以被称为农业乡愁的东西，这些散文收录在他的《焦急而愤懑的归途》中，该书于1995年出版，是《抗妥协书系》的一部分。我将在他备受称道的小说《九月寓言》的文学语境中，考察他作为一种批判和道德立场的乡愁。在小说中，历史被神话化、本质化，从而被抹杀，体现出一种与土地相关的农业存在。如果说土地在张的小说中代表了一种理想化的存在，那么在他的文章中，土地就成为一种社会和文学的隐喻，象征着道德的纯洁和文学的精英。它被摆在了实现个人、社会和文学救赎的手段上，也是商业化时代批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 07:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Nostalgia as an indication of fundamental condition of human estrangement or alienation has been exacerbated by the speeds and scopes of modernization and globalization in contemporary China. This nostalgic sentiment is intensely experienced by intellectual elites who wish to maintain their traditional role as society's moral guardians or as society's conscience, and by literary writers who wish to sustain the distinction between pure and popular literature. It is exactly this moral absolutism and literary elitism that have been undermined by cultural and socioeconomic changes. What nostalgia in Zhang's writings reveals is not so much a resistance to modernization process as incapability of deep understanding the complexity of Chinese modernity.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
At the turn of the twenty-first century in China, with modernization and globalization gaining full momentum, it is interesting to find many writers turning their gaze backward to the past rather than singing the praises of this new global age. Among writers such as Liang Xiaosheng, Zhang Chengzhi, and Zhang Wei, nostalgia has become their dominant literary mode, through which to both critique commercialism and globalism and express the authors’ moral and literary ideals. In this paper I wish to focus on the moral and literary implications of nostalgia in Zhang Wei’s essays, as collected in his Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey (youfen de guitu), published in 1995 as a part of the Resisting Compromise Book Series (dikang touxiang shuxi). [* Jie Lu is an Assistant Professor of Chinese at the University of the Pacific. The author is grateful to Martin Woesler, the organizer of the conference on The Modern Chinese Literary Essays (August, 2000, Germany) where this paper was presented, and Michelle DiBello for her insightful comments and careful editing of the whole text. <br />
Resisting Compromise Book Series (Dikang touxiang shuxi) includes collections of essays by Zhang Chengzhi, Zhang Wei, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Li Ri, and Shi Tiesheng respectively. ]<br />
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在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，许多作家将目光转向过去，而不是歌颂这个新的全球化时代，这是一个有趣的现象。在梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家中，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过它既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨张炜散文中怀旧的道德和文学意蕴，这是1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）的一部分。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在二十一世纪之交的中国，随着现代化和全球化的全面推进，出现了一个有趣的现象，许多作家没有歌颂这个全球化的新时代，反而将目光转向过去。如梁晓声、张承志、张炜等作家，怀旧已成为他们的主流文学模式，通过这种文学模式他们既批判商业主义，又批判全球化，表达作家的道德理想和文学理想。本文旨在探讨1995年出版的《反抗妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）一书中的怀旧的道德和文学意蕴。（陆洁是太平洋大学中文系助理教授。本文作者感谢2000年8月在德国举行的中国现代文学随笔会议的组织者马丁·韦斯勒和米歇尔·迪贝洛对全文的深刻评论和精心编辑。《抗争妥协丛书》（迪康头像书西）收录了张承志、张炜、韩少功、余秋雨、李日、史铁生的散文集。）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 02:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
Instead of putting Zhang’s writings in the larger context of contemporary intellectual debates over radicalism (radical intellectual/cultural discourse) and (new) conservatism (anti-radical),[ Regarding the major theoretical discourses in contemporary intellectual debates in China, see Xu Ben’s “Contesting Memory for Intellectual Self-Positing: The 1990s’ New Cultural Conservatism in China” in Modern Chinese Literature and Culture, Vol.11 (Spring, 1999) 157-193; Jianhua Chen’s “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, Vol. 9 113-129; Intellectuals’ Positions (Zhishi fenzi lichang) in three volumes, edited by Li Shitao, published by Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000. ] I will examine it in the literary context of his highly acclaimed novel Fable of September published in 1992. <br />
Fable of September represents history in a way that mythologizes, essentializes, and therefore erases it in the name of an idealized agrarian existence. Indeed, the idea of “the land” (tudi) is a transcending and all-encompassing concept in Zhang Wei writings, representing an idealized pure state uncontaminated by industrialization and modernization. In his essays, the land is transformed into a social and literary metaphor that symbolizes moral purity and literary elitism against what the author perceives as the contemporary backdrop of general moral decadence and literary chaos. This ideal is posed as a means to achieve nothing less than social, moral and literary salvation, raised as a kind of absolute standard to critique social reality and popular culture.<br />
<br />
而不是将张的作品在当代知识争论激进主义的大背景(激进知识/文化话语)和(新)保守主义(anti-radical),(关于当代知识辩论的主要理论话语在中国,看到徐本的“争夺记忆知识Self-Positing: 1990年代在中国的新的文化保守主义”在中国现代文学和文化,Vol.11(春天,1999)157 - 193;陈建华“叙事论争的本土与全球:90年代末中国的自由主义与新左派”，载于《亚太传播》第9卷113-129;李世涛主编《知识分子的地位》三卷，《时代文艺社》2000年出版。我将从他1992年出版的广受赞誉的小说《九月寓言》的文学背景来探讨这个问题。<br />
《九月寓言》以一种神话化、本质化的方式展现了历史，并因此以理想化的农业存在的名义抹去了历史。实际上，“土”在张维的著述中是一个超越的、包罗万象的概念，代表着一种理想化的、未受工业化和现代化污染的纯净状态。在他的文章中，这片土地被转化为一种社会和文学隐喻，象征着道德纯洁和文学精英主义，而不是作者所认为的普遍道德颓废和文学混乱的当代背景。这一理想被认为是实现社会、道德和文学救赎的一种手段，被提升为一种批判社会现实和大众文化的绝对标准。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 11:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
My argument, however, is that Zhang’s reification of “land” as a transcendental metaphor in his essays only betrays the author’s lack of any profound historically informed understanding of the complexity of Chinese modernity. He simply refuses to accept social and cultural dilemmas and contradictions as permanent fixtures of the intellectual and cultural landscape. At the same time, Zhang’s outright criticism of consumerism and globalism suggests an underlying ambivalence about modernization. As China’s post-socialist social reality grows more complex and demanding, with more diversified and unstructured cultural formation, any clear-cut moral solution to social evils based on pre-modern social relationship and norms (positing the utopian vision of a transcendental realm) can no longer be effective. Nor is it sufficient to solve the sense of cultural crisis brought on by the progression of both modernization and globalization.<br />
<br />
然而，在我看来，张炜在他的散文中把“土地”具化为一个先验的隐喻，这只能暴露出作者对中国现代化的复杂程度缺乏深刻的认识。他只是拒绝接受社会和文化困境和矛盾作为知识和文化领域的永久固定装置。与此同时，张炜对消费主义和全球主义的直接批判表明了他对现代化的矛盾心理。随着中国后社会主义的社会现实变得越来越复杂和越来越严苛，文化形态也越来越多样化和无组织化，任何明确的道德解决方案，不管是基于前现代社会关系和规范(设想一个先验领域的乌托邦愿景)还是针对社会罪恶，都不再有效。也不足以解决现代化和全球化进程带来的文化危机。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 06:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
The contemporary Chinese intellectual and cultural scene is a complex one, with major conflicting trends – one toward the commercialization of knowledge/literature and another in strong resistance to the very same. A new diversity of voices can be heard in intellectual debates at the more abstract conceptual level, and a number of Chinese writers have also joined the scene – whether consciously or unconsciously -- with their own distinct literary voices. The Resisting Compromise Book Series in fact embodies these writers’ own effort of resistance to commercialism and globalism, which they perceive as corrosive forces in their culture and society.<br />
<br />
当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，其主要冲突趋势有两种，一种是知识/文化的商业化，另一种是对该商业化的强烈抵制。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子的辩论中，可以听见各种不同的新声音，许多中国作家也加入了这一环境中——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 13:51, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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当代中国的知识文化环境是复杂的，主要的冲突趋势——一种是走向知识/文学商业化的趋势和另一种对知识/文学商业化的强烈抵制趋势。在更抽象的概念层面的知识分子辩论中，可以听到新的多元化的声音，许多中国作家也加入了这个舞台——有意或无意地——带着他们自己独特的文学声音。《抵抗妥协》系列丛书实际上体现了这些作家反对商业主义和全球主义的努力，他们认为商业主义和全球主义侵蚀了他们的文化和社会。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
As the series’ editor-in-chief states in the preface, the work is devoted to those contemporary “literary heroes” (Xiao 1995, II), that is, certain literary idealists such as Zhang Wei, Zhang Chenzhi, Han Shaogong, Yu Qiuyu, Shi Tiesheng, and Li Rui. These literary heroes are recognized for daring to stand up and raise the banner of “literature of resistance” (Xiao 1995, II), attacking the literary degeneration and moral decay of the times.<br />
<br />
正如丛书主编在序言中所说，这部作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。他们之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的大旗（萧 1995，二），抨击当代的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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正如丛书主编在序言中所说，该作品是专门写给那些当代 "文学英雄 "的（萧 1995，二），即某些文学理想主义者，如张炜、张震之、韩少功、余秋雨、史铁生、李锐等。这些文学英雄之所以被认可，是因为他们敢于站出来，高举 "反抗文学 "的旗帜（萧 1995，二），抨击了当时的文学堕落和道德沦丧。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
In publishing the Resisting Comprises series, its creators were responding to a growing domination of the literary arena by a so-called “Hooligan Movement.” According to the editor, literary hooliganism, as it were, is essentially a “language game” -- represented first and foremost by the irreverent writer Wang Shuo – with its various forms of “literary trash” including “literature of sexual promiscuity” (xingluan), “literature of leisure” (xianshi), “hack literature” (bangxian) and “sneezing literature” (penti) (Xiao 1995, II).<br />
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在出版《反抗》系列时，它的创作者是在回应所谓的流氓运动对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓，实质上是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表——其形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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通过出版《反抗》系列，创作者回应了所谓的“流氓运动”对文学领域日益增长的统治。编者认为，文学流氓主义的实质是一种 “语言游戏”——首先以不敬的作家王朔为代表，他有形式多样的 “文学垃圾 ”，包括 “性乱文学”、“闲适文学”、“黑客文学”和 “喷嚏文学”（萧 1995，二）。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:21, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
But there are several larger social and literary issues that this project essentially addresses, namely: the loss of literary/cultural/social dominance by the intellectual elite to mass/commercial culture; the commercialization of knowledge/literature; erosion of the “humanist spirit;” abandonment of ultimate human concerns; desertion of idealism, enlightenment and such modernist projects. In the face of such upheaval, the editor describes the contemporary cultural/literary scene in China as dark and degenerate. The age is “cursed,” “tragic,” an age of “betrayal” and “surrender” (Xiao 1995, IV). And the targets of the literary/moral resistance are postmodernism, commercialism, and mass culture.<br />
<br />
但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗和堕落的。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 03:09, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但本质上，这个计划旨在设法解决几个更重要的社会和文学问题，即文学、文化、社会的主导地位由知识精英转移到大众及商业文化;知识文学的商业化;对“人文精神”的侵蚀;对人类终极关怀的抛弃;对理想主义、启蒙主义和诸如此类的现代主义计划的放弃。面对这样的剧变，编者将中国当代文坛描述为黑暗又堕落的时期。这个时代是“被诅咒的”、“悲剧性的”，是一个“背叛”和“投降”的时代(肖，1995，IV)。文学和道德反抗的对象是后现代主义、商业主义和大众文化。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:31, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Zhang Wei is primarily known as a novelist. His major novels include Ancient Boat, Fable of September, My Countryside, Clan, and novelle include Meditation in Autumn, Anger in Autumn, and Vineyard. [ Ancient Boat (Guchuan), Fable of September (Jiuyu yuyan), My Countryside (Wode tianyuan), Clan (Jiazu), Meditation in Autumn (Qiutian de sisuo), Anger in Autumn (Qiutian de fennu), and Vineyard (Putaoyuan) are all included in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected Writings of Zhang Wei) (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubanshe, 1997).] He has also published many collections of essays. His writings collected in Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey include essays, talks, and interviews. These essays do not express this uncompromising stance in such a strong voice and straightforward manner. Instead, Zhang poses a literary persona of moral integrity as a kind of self-representation. He appears as an idealized individual, embodying in every way pure moral qualities of both a human being and artist/writer. This idealized individual is a fighter, fighting a lonely and heroic battle against fashionable trends and any and all forms of evil (Xiao 1995, 6).[ Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey includes both Zhang Wei’s essays as well as critical articles by various critics. In this paper I will use Xiao Xialin, the editor of this collection as the reference to provide in-text citations to essays by both Zhang Wei and other critics. ]<br />
<br />
张炜主要以小说家闻名。他的主要小说包括《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》。【《古船》、《九月寓言》、《我的田园》、《家族》、《秋天的思索》、《秋天的愤怒》和《葡萄园》均收录于《张炜文集》(上海:上海文艺出版社，1997)。]他还出版了许多散文集。他在《焦虑和愤怒的归途》中收集的作品包括散文、谈话和采访。这些文章没有用如此强烈的声音和直白的方式表达这种不妥协的立场。相反，张提出了以一个文学人格作为一种自我表现。他表现为一个理想化的个体，在各方面都体现了一个人和艺术家或作家的纯粹道德品质。这个理想化的人是一个战士，与时尚潮流和各种邪恶势力进行着孤独而英勇的斗争(肖 1995，6)。【《焦虑和愤怒的归途》既包括张炜的散文，也包括各种评论家的评论文章。在这篇论文中，我将使用这本文集的编辑萧夏林作为参考，为张炜和其他评论家的文章提供文本内引文。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:09, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
As a generous humanitarian, he loves and helps all good people. As a socially committed artist, he takes upon himself a great responsibility to all humanity. And as a serious writer, he self-consciously pursues high literature. He is also represented as an honest laborer, making a living through hard labor and sweat. As part of this self-representation, Zhang criticizes those who succumbed to moral and artistic degradation, such as those writers who choose to “enter the commercial world” (xiahai), or cater to popular low-brow tastes by writing “trash literature.”<br />
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作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也被描绘成一个务实的劳动者，辛勤劳作、挥洒汗水维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 09:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为一个慷慨的人道主义者，他热爱并帮助所有善良的人。作为一名致力于社会事业的艺术家，他主动承担起对人类的重大责任。作为一个严肃的作家，他自觉地追求高雅文学。他也是务实的劳动者的代表，他辛勤劳作挥洒汗水来维持生活。作为自我表现的一部分，张批评了那些屈从于道德和艺术堕落的人，比如那些选择“走进商业世界”(夏海)的作家，或者为了迎合大众低级趣味而写“垃圾文学”的作家。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
He points out in his essay “Anxious and Indignant Homeward Journey” several “lacks” in many contemporary writers. First, many of today’s writers lack “self-reflexivity” (which really refers more to moral “self-reflection” or “self-consciousness” rather than intellectual self-reflexivity). They lack “conservatism,” an ability to hold to a certain kind of spirit, in which he also sees as a lack of real avant-guard spirit. They lack “intolerance,” meaning they are overly tolerant of vices and decadent practices, and rarely engage in serious, genuine, and frank criticism and debate. Finally, they lack “stable emotions” -- the definition of which is rather ambiguous.<br />
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张炜在散文《忧愤的归途》中指出了当代很多作家存在的一些“缺憾”。首先，如今的很多作家缺乏“自我反思”(实际上更多地是指道德上的“自我反思”或“自我意识”，而非理智上的自我反思)。其次他们缺乏“守旧精神”，即坚持某种精神的能力，于此张炜还看到当代作家前卫精神的缺失。他们也还不够“偏执”，过度容忍恶习和堕落的行为，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管这种情绪的定义相当模糊。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 02:43, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他在《焦急愤懑的回家之旅》一文中指出了许多当代作家的“不足”。首先，当今许多作家缺乏“自我反省性”（这实际上更多指的是道德上的“自我反省”或“自我意识”，而不是智力上的自我反省）。他们缺乏“保守精神”，这是一种坚持某种精神的能力；并且他认为作家缺乏真正的前卫精神。他们不能够坚持自我，这意味着他们对恶习和腐朽行径过于宽容，很少进行严肃、真诚和坦率的批评和辩论。最后，他们缺乏“稳定的情绪”——尽管他对于稳定这一定义相当模糊。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
Zhang’s self-representation, then, is also a form of self-legitimization. It endows him with legitimacy through a kind of literary aura and the staking out of high moral ground. From this privileged stance, he proceeds to interpret, represent, articulate, define and judge the essence, meaning and criteria of literature, society, and human life. Throughout his essays, including interviews, talks, and lectures, we find Zhang, like a self-styled guru, constantly giving advice to college students, young writers, and literature fans on what to read, how to write, and how to live. This advice is based exclusively on a clear distinction between high and popular literature, and on his unabashed criticism of mass culture (represented by television).<br />
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接着，张炜的自我体现也是一种自我合法化形式，这种形式赋予他一种文学氛围和声明高尚的道德立场的合法性。从这个特权立场的立场出发，他继续诠释、再现、明确表达、定义以及评价了文学、社会和人类生活的本质、意义和标准。通过他全部的文章包括采访、会谈和讲座，我们可以发现，张炜就像一位有自我风格的专家，不断地给大学学生、年轻作家和讲座迷关于写什么、如何写以及怎样生活的问题提供建议。这些建议完全基于高雅文学和通俗文学之间鲜明的区别以及他对大众文学（以电视节目为代表）的毫不掩饰的批判。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
In a broader sense, we can see his self-representation as an essential reaffirmation of the traditional role that Chinese intellectuals played in society. The claim to an authoritative voice is fundamental to maintaining the privileged position of the intellectual elite within a structure of knowledge and power. Zhang’s self-representation, then, is nothing less than an attempt to reestablish the intellectual elite’s role in literature and society based on a clear distinction between high and popular literature. This power struggle for cultural dominance and hegemony in the ongoing reformation of intellectual/cultural discourse largely defines China’s socio-cultural condition in the wake of socialism. <br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Perhaps the most important part of Zhang’s essays is his use and development of the concept of “land” (tudi), which strongly conveys his self-representation as a simple yet serious “rural intellectual” (xiangcun zhishi fenzi). In his well-known essay “Immersion in the Wild Field” (rongru yiedi), the land in fact functions as a transcending metaphor. As a signifier of nature – wild fields, mountains, bushes, green crops, the ocean -- the land symbolizes all that is morally good in social and cultural realms as well as in individual’s life. The land represents a mother figure, where one can always find comfort, wisdom and inspiration. As an eternal backdrop, the land embodies eternity itself. It serves as an aesthetic standard through which the author defines the social and aesthetic functions of “pure literature,” and criticizes various aspects of cultural reality.<br />
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在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。作为自然的象征--野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋--土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 08:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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在张炜的文章中，最重要的部分可能是他对 "土地 "概念的使用和发展，这强烈地表达了他作为一个朴素而严肃的 "农村知识分子 "的自我形象。在他的名篇《融入野地》中，土地实际上是一个超越性的隐喻。野地、山川、灌木、绿色的庄稼、海洋是自然的象征，而土地象征着社会、文化领域和个人生活中所有道德上的美好事物。土地代表着母亲的形象，在那里人们总能找到安慰、智慧和灵感。作为一个永恒的背景，土地体现了永恒本身。它作为一种审美标准，作者通过它来界定 "纯文学 "的社会功能和审美功能，对文化现实的各个方面进行批判。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Zhang associates popular literature and TV culture with low class and uneducated tastes, and criticizes current literary Chinese criticism for being overly influenced by foreign literary jargons. His concept of the land is even a moral criterion through which he criticizes many aspects of contemporary modern society -- from commercialization in which money is the source of all evils, to globalization marked by domination of transnational corporations and bad influence of some foreign literature, as well as modernization represented by cellular phones, cars, and high technology.<br />
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张将通俗文学与电视文化这种低级的和未受过教育的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国文学评论过度受到了外国文学术语的影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 12:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，并批评当代中国文学批评过度受外国文学术语影响。他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准，他运用这种道德标准批判了现当代社会的方方面面——从商金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 14:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将大众文学和电视文化与低级趣味和没有文化的品味联系在一起，并批评当前中国的文学批评过于受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观念甚至是一种道德标准，通过这种标准，他批评了现当代社会的许多方面——从以金钱为万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司的支配和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 12:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张将通俗文学与低级、无文化品位的影视文化联系在一起，批评当前的中国文学批评过分受外国文学术语的影响。他的领域观甚至是一种道德标准，他的领域概念甚至是一种道德标准。通过这种道德标准，他批判了现当代社会的各个方面——从金钱是万恶之源的商业化，到以跨国公司统治的和一些外国文学的不良影响为标志的全球化，以及以手机、汽车和高科技为代表的现代化。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
But most of all, Zhang’s concept of land symbolizes an ideal based on ages old dichotomy between city and countryside. At the beginning of the essay, he tells us: “[The] city is a willfully and recklessly modified wild field, and I will eventually leave it” (Xiao 1995, 19). Later he claims that a real artist should be “a worshiper of land” (Xiao 1995, 60). To Zhang, the spirit of “land” should be the spirit of the age (Xiao 1995, 241). Seen in the context of his criticism of modernization, it is evident that this dichotomy is built around the moral distrust of the city – a psychological complex that traces back to Chinese agrarian tradition and Mao’s revolutionary heritage. At the same time, it reveals a profound nostalgia for a pre-modern rural existence.<br />
但最重要的是，张先生对于土地的概念象征着一种古老的城乡对立的观念。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离开它"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "的精神应该是时代的精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是基于对城市道德不信任而建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，它也透露出对现代社会以前农村生活的深刻怀念。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:07, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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但最重要的是，张先生的土地概念象征着一种基于古老的城乡对立的理想。在文章的开头，他告诉我们。"[城市]是一片被肆意改造的野地，我终将离它而去"（萧1995，19）。后来他声称，一个真正的艺术家应该是 "土地的崇拜者"（萧1995，60）。在张先生看来，"土地 "精神就是时代精神（萧1995，241）。从他对现代化的批判来看，这种二元对立显然是围绕着对城市的道德不信任建立起来的--这种心理情结可以追溯到中国的农耕传统和毛泽东的革命传统。同时，也透露出对先前农村生活的的深刻怀念。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:57, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
The Land, then, points to an ideal transcendent realm, closed to contamination by the modern world. But represented only in highly literary, allusive, emotive language and nature images and analogies, the idea of the Land only comes across as very abstract and unreal. The author himself asks: “What exactly is the wild field? Where does it exist? Does it really contain my innocent world I imagine?” (Xiao 1995, 30). Indeed, as an all-encompassing and pervasive metaphor, The Land is never once in his essays clearly and objectively defined. Whether expressed as a personification of the mother figure, an embodiment of eternal being, or as a constellation of various ideal qualities and values, Zhang’s “land” lacks the substantial tour-de-force as a moral and social metaphor. But if we are to discover an ontological anchoring for this concept, it can only be found, I would argue, in his well-known novel Fable of September.<br />
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于是，这片土地指向了一个理想的超然境界，不受现代世界的污染。但只有在高度文学化、暗示性、情感化的语言和自然意象和类比中，土地的概念才显得非常抽象和不真实。作者自己问：“野地到底是什么？它在哪里存在？它真的包含了我想象中的纯真世界吗？”（肖1995，30）。事实上，作为一个无所不包、无所不在的隐喻，土地在他的散文中从来没有一次被清晰、客观地定义过。无论是表现为母亲形象的人格化、永恒存在的化身，还是各种理想品质和价值观的组合，张的“土地”缺乏作为道德和社会隐喻的实质性的力量。但是，如果我们要为这个概念找到一个本体论的锚定，只能在他著名的小说《九月寓言》中找到。<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
In reading this novel, I will focus on the dialectic between its strikingly postmodernist form -- which he criticizes and whose influences he constantly denies --and its pre-modern content (in terms of the primitive agrarian existence represented and the mode of storytelling used). I find nothing to criticize in Zhang’s use of magic realism and certain postmodernist techniques to recapture the so-called original world of pre-modern existence. I do find a glaring contradiction, however, in the author’s repeated denial of any positive influence of postmodernism. This, together with his unqualified valorization of “The Land” as a metonymy of a primitive utopia, only betray not so much his literary hypocrisy as his limited ability to understand modernity, postmodernism and even history itself.<br />
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阅读此书时，我将重点关注后现代主义形式——虽然他一直予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的现代以前的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这是我觉得矛盾点所在。这一矛盾点，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦这一行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在读这本书的过程中，我将重点关注后现代主义的形式——虽然他一直对其予以批判并极力否认其影响——与前现代主义内容之间的辩证关系（主要从其所代表的原始农业生活与文章使用的叙事模式这两个方向进行阐述）。张炜运用魔幻现实主义和某些后现代主义的手法再现了所谓的原始世界，这一点无可厚非。然而，作者一再否认后现代主义的积极影响，这就是矛盾所在。这一矛盾之处，再加上他毫无保留地将《远河远山》隐喻为原始乌托邦的行为，与其说暴露了他的文学虚伪性，不如说这暴露了他在理解现代性、后现代主义乃至历史本身的不足。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
In contrast to his essays, which tend to be didactic, long-winded, condescending, and full of literary clichés, Zhang’s novel ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating and imaginative piece of writing. It is best situated in the genre of fictional history -- not a fictionalized account of real historical figures and events, but a pure fiction, written in a historical mode. Other examples of this way of, say, tracing the fictional history of a person, a family, or a village, include Su Tong’s Maple Tree Village series, or Ge Fei’s fictional biography, ''Marginality.'' Given its fragmented, incoherent story and sophisticated narrative plot, it is a challenge to give the novel a concise, accurate description.<br />
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与说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、充满文学陈词滥调的散文不同，张炜的小说《九月寓言》是一篇引人入胜、富于想象力的作品。这是一篇典型的虚构历史类型的文学作品——不是对真实历史人物和事件的虚构叙述，而是以历史的模式写成的纯粹虚构的作品。运用这种方法的其他例子，如追溯一个人、一个家庭或一个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树村”系列和格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。考虑到小说中支离破碎、不连贯的故事和复杂的叙事情节，给这部小说一个简洁、准确的描述是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 14:08, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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与他那些倾向于说教、长篇大论、屈尊俯就、陈词滥调的散文不同，《九月寓言》这部小说引人入胜。这是一篇典型的虚构历史文学作品——不对真实的历史人物和事件进行虚构叙述，而是一篇以历史的模式写成的虚构作品。这种手法同样运用于追溯某个人、某个家庭或某个村庄的虚构历史，包括苏童的“枫杨树”系列作品与格非的虚构传记小说《边缘》。由于这部小说故事叙述支离破碎、叙事情节复杂，因此简洁准确地描述它着实是一个挑战。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
In general, the novel depicts a “historical” picture in which a small pre-modern, self-contained village is obliterated by industrialization. But what the novel really focuses on, instead of village’s fall itself, are certain memorable events and people that are part of the last 30-40 years of its existence (though the exact length of time remains questionable and unclear). <br />
The novel is divided into seven parts, each focusing on stories of a single character or family. These stories are mutually connected, and at the same time intermingled with myths, legends, anecdotes and magical or strange occurrences, which in turn map out a sort of “history” of the village. <br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Ironically, however, history is not quite the right term here to describe the village’s temporal contour, for what stand out as the central features in the life of the village are “land”/food (more specifically sweet potatoes), the tradition of staying with the village, and a certain mode of storytelling used in the village to recall past suffering. As quintessential indexes in the village’s existence, these features mark not a temporal movement but an eternal being. Centered on these three essentials, life in the village is hard, simple, unchanging, and close to the archetypal. The only way for the young to use up their abundant and restless energy is to run and play in the wild fields at night, and the married to beat their wives and do “cupping” (''ba huoguan'').<br />
然而,具有讽刺意味的是,在描述村庄的时间轮廓时,历史并不是太正确的术语。因为突出村庄生活的主要特征是“土地” /食物（更具体地说是地瓜） 与村庄在一起，并在村庄中使用某种讲故事的方式来回忆过去的苦难。 这些特征作为村庄存在的精要指标，不是暂时的运动，而是永恒的存在。 围绕这三个要素，村庄的生活艰苦，简单，不变且与原型亲密。 年轻人要用尽他们充沛而烦躁的精力的唯一方法是晚上在野外奔跑和嬉戏，已婚夫妇殴打妻子并做“托杯”（“ ba houguan”）。--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 15:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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讽刺的是，历史并不是一个描述村庄时间轮廓的正确术语，因为村庄生活突出的中心特征是“土地”/食物（更确切地说是番薯）、留在村子里的传统想法和一种村里常用的回忆过往苦难的特殊的讲故事的方式。就像村庄得以存在的典型标志，这些特征标志的是一个永恒的存在，而不是一个暂时的运动。以这三个要素为中心，村里的生活艰苦、简单、始终如一、并接近典型的村庄生活。夜里，在野外奔跑、玩耍成了年轻人将充沛且静不下来的精力耗尽的唯一的方法，而已经结婚的人则是通过殴打他们的妻子以及拔火罐来消耗其精力。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 06:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Thus what Zhang Wei aims to represent in this novel is a pure, simple, close-to-primitive life, uncontaminated by modern civilization. But he is also representing a sense of eternal being, long lost as it may be in our modern age. <br />
The novel is undoubtedly imaginative and fascinating. My sense of fascination as a reader, however, is derived largely from its mode of literary representation than from what is actually depicted in Zhang’s fictional world. Part reality, part myth, part legend, the story is at once mythical and real. It is a synthesis of straightforwardness and artifice, primitivism and mannerism, thematic simplicity and formal sophistication. In other words, in order to represent a pre-modern agrarian existence – Zhang’s utopian vision of pure being – he relies on quite sophisticated modernist/postmodernist literary devices. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Perhaps the most striking feature of the novel, as many critics have noted, is its formal manipulation of temporality, or to be more specific, the narrative negation of temporality. It is almost impossible for the reader to discern the actual timeline of the village’s history. Even the time span running from the 1930s to 1970s and temporal progression within the narrated world (which can only be pieced together after repeated readings), are unreliable, full of unexplainable loopholes. [ For the full discussion on the novel’s temporal scheme, see Chen Sihe’s “Huanyuan minjian: tan Zhang Wei ''Jiuyue Yuyan''”(Returning to the people: on Zhang Wei’s ''Fable of September'') collected in Youfen de guitu (Indignant Homeward Journey) 260-267.] <br />
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This unusual narrative stance achieves a number of thematic effects. First, it cuts the village off from the larger movement of history. The novel mentions no political movements, significant historical events, or chronology of dates other than “September.”<br />
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正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对按时间叙事的否定。读者几乎不可能分辨出该村历史的实际时间表。即使是从三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及叙述世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间安排的完整讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br />
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这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 13:35, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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正如许多批评家所指出的那样，可能这部小说最引人注目的特征是对时间性的形式化操纵，或更具体地说，是对时间性的叙事否定。读者几乎无法了解到该村历史发展的实际进程。即使是从二十世纪三十年代到七十年代的时间跨度，以及所叙述的世界中的时间进展（只能在反复阅读后才能拼凑起来）也是不可靠的，充满了无法解释的漏洞。 [有关小说的时间线索布局的详尽讨论，请参见陈四河的 《还原民间：谈张炜的〈九月寓言〉》，收录于《忧愤的归途》260-267 ]<br />
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这种不寻常的叙事手法实现了许多主题效果。首先，它使村庄脱离了更大的历史潮流。小说没有提及“九月”以外的任何政治运动，重大历史事件或日期顺序。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 01:19, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The only other temporal indicators are rainy seasons, or periods of winter when the snow is as sharp as strong acid, or autumn when the field is abundant with sweet potatoes and beans. These seasonal markers indicate changes more in nature than in the human world where chronological dates mark time. These markers of nature serve to draw the story further away from a real historical framework and closer to the pre-modern agrarian mode of existence, as if human life was “timed” by nature itself. Furthermore, this kind of temporal negation also foregrounds eternity in the land itself. Wherever any historical hint or political implication may crop up in the story, it is immediately dissolved into one of many village legends.<br />
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唯一的时间指标是雨季，抑或是冬季鹅毛大雪，或者是秋季田野里盛产红薯和豆子的时期。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间标志，比如年、月、日，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物的作用是使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更接近于前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活是由自然本身"定时"的。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即被消解为众多乡村传说中的一种。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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唯一的时间指标是雨季，或是下起鹅毛大雪的冬季，或田野里红薯和豆子丰收的秋季。这些季节性标志比人类世界中的时间顺序标志，更能在本质上表明变化。这些自然界的标志物使故事进一步远离真实的历史框架，而更加接近前现代的农业生存模式，仿佛人类的生活由自然本身“定时”。此外，这种时间性的否定也预示着土地本身的永恒性。凡是故事中可能出现的任何历史暗示或政治意味，都会立即隐入为众多乡村传说中的一种。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 08:54, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
For instance, “recalling past suffering” (yiku), an important collective activity of the village, is transformed from a political discourse used during the Cultural Revolution into a form of storytelling for binding the village community together, and for producing oral history and creating legends. In essence, history is erased from the village’s background all together. <br />
The novel’s detachment from historical background also means a metaphysical negation of historical paradigm of interpretation and signification, characterized by such notions as causality, progress and teleology. This allows the author to have a larger space for interaction of diverse configurations. As critic Chen Sihe points out, Zhang’s village exists in three forms: in reality, in legend/myth, and in oral storytelling (Xiao 1995, 265).<br />
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如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变为凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。从本质上说，历史被从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
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小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄存在三种形式:现实中的，传说/神话中的，口头讲故事的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:41, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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如“忆苦”，作为村落重要的集体活动，从“文革”时期的政治话语，转变成为了凝聚村落社群、口述历史、创造传说的叙事形式。本质上，人们将历史完全从村庄的背景中抹去了。<br />
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小说脱离历史背景也意味着形而上学地否定了解释和意义的历史范式，其特征是诸如因果关系、进步和目的论等概念。这使得作者有更大的空间进行不同配置的交互。正如评论家陈思和指出的那样，张的村庄以三种形式存在着:现实中的，传说和神话中的，口头故事中的(Xiao 1995,265)。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 03:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
However, the absence of a clear-cut time framework only blurs and transgresses the ontological boundaries among reality, myths, legends, the magic and storytelling. The novel abounds with magical, mythical, and supernatural figures and events: Niugan’s body was air-dried for a period of time before his actual death. A man named Jinyou can squeeze milk from his breasts. Another man’s eyeball jumps out and changes into a frog, disappearing into grass. The mother of Longran does not die after drinking pesticide; instead, her hairs have become darker, and skin softer. Very much like in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s ''One Hundred Years of Solitude'', these magical events are presented in a realistic mode on the same ontological level as other “real” events.<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
In other words, the magic is approached through the everyday. And the transgression of ontological levels of representation thus further negates historical temporality. <br />
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The absence of historical time in the novel also negates historical interpretation. Instead, myths and legends assume the function of historical explanation. The origin of the small village is explained in a myth about a group of vagrants who, exhausted after a long journey, stopped, and settled on a piece of land that could provide them with food. The story of the monkey spirit with the ability to carry things becomes a mythic explanation of social stratification and exploitation, a further departure from historical and positive discourses.<br />
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换句话说，魔法是每天都有的。 因此,本体论表示形式进一步否定了历史的时间性。<br />
小说中缺少的历史时间也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担着历史解释的功能。神话中解释了这个小村庄的起源，这个神话是关于一群流浪者的，这些流浪者经过漫长的旅程已经精疲力尽了，他们停下来，然后定居在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上。具有承载能力的猴子精神的故事成为对社会分层和剥削的神话解释，这进一步背离了历史语境。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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换句话说，魔法每天都有，而本体论表征层面的越轨，进一步否定了历史时间性。<br />
小说中历史时间的缺失也否定了历史解释。相反，神话和传说承担了历史解释的功能。小村子的由来在一个神话中得到了解释，这个神话讲述了一群流浪汉经过长途跋涉后疲惫不堪，停了下来，在一块可以为他们提供食物的土地上定居下来。故事中具有承载能力的猴子精神成为社会分层和剥削的神话阐释，这进一步背离了历史和正面的论述。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:42, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
These myths and legends are presented as part of the village’s everyday reality. Thus different ontological levels within the text – reality and myth/legend/oral storytelling/magical events -- in which the village exists collapse into one. It is a world in which past and present become all-at-once. In other words, the past is the present, the myth is reality, and vice versa. The timeless place is like a sentence without tense. And herein lies the author’s profound sense of nostalgia for a fundamental, archetypal existence in its complete nakedness, beyond modern historical and rational configurations. <br />
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As Nan Fan points out, though the temporal span of the novel is not long, its content is massive, filled as it is with various stories (Xiao 1995, 253).<br />
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这些神话和传说是作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现的。因此，文本中不同的本体论层面—现实和神话/传说/口头故事/神奇事件—村庄存在于其中，合二为一。这是一个过去和现在都成为一体的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。而作者对一种完全赤裸裸的、超越现代历史和理性配置的根本性、原型性存在的深刻怀念感就在于此。<br />
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正如南帆所指出的，虽然小说的时间跨度不长，但其内容却是庞大的，充满了各种故事（萧1995，253）。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 13:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这些神话和传说作为村庄日常现实的一部分呈现出来。因此，文本中不同的本体论层次——现实和神话/传说/口头讲故事/魔法事件——村落的存在瓦解为一个整体。这是一个过去和现在同时成为一切的世界。换句话说，过去就是现在，神话就是现实，反之亦然。永恒的地方就像一个没有时态的句子。在这里，作者对一种基本的、原型的、完全赤裸的、超越现代历史和理性结构的存在有着深刻的怀旧之情。<br />
南帆指出，小说的时间跨度虽然不长，但内容却很宏大，充满了各种各样的故事(肖1995,253)。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 14:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
If the macro-structure of the novel is characterized by narrative strategies of postmodernist fragmentation and transgression, then at the micro-structure of individual stories the pre-modern form of Benjaminian storytelling becomes the dominant mode of narrative. “Recalling past suffering” is in fact in the typical mode of storytelling. The narrative tells us that in those long and cold winter nights when rain turned into snow, when there were nothing else to do for the rural folks, all villagers of the Small Village would gather together to listen to Jinxiang, one of the principal storytellers in the village, to recall past suffering. Here Jinxiang functions in the role that Water Benjamin describes: the giver of stories, of counsel, the link to a mythic but necessary past.<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
Through storytelling, the storyteller’s personal experiences mixed with the mythic and magic become the collective experiences of the village, binding the village together, and providing it not only with a sense of community but also a sense of identity. Interestingly, the villagers prefer only the storytellers in their own village to tell of past. Thus, in relating his own experience and that reported by others, the storyteller in turns makes it the experience of those who are listening to his tale (Benjamin 1968, 87). In a way, Jinxiang perfectly embodies Benjaminian storyteller as the one who, in his storytelling, also gives counsels to the listeners -- the young in this context -- to value the happiness of the present and therefore stay with the tradition.<br />
通过讲故事，叙述者个人经历与神话、魔法混合在一起，与村子紧密联系，成为村民的共同经历，这样增添了社区感和认同感。有趣的是，村民们只喜欢自己村子里的叙述者讲述过去。因此，叙述者在讲述他自己的经历和别人的经历时，同样也在讲述那些听他讲故事的人的经历（Benjamin 1968，87）。在某种程度上，金祥完美地运用了本雅明式的叙述者，他在讲故事的同时，也劝告听故事的人--在此背景下的年轻人--珍惜当下的幸福，从而保持传统。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 12:34, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
Jinxiang’s story telling demonstrates the power of the oral, in that his performance has potential for moving beyond rational control. He tells stories spontaneously and with great emotion, often with tears and slobbers and shouts at each stop. His dynamic orality controls the whole atmosphere of the meeting and carries the listeners to multiple emotional climaxes. Thus in the highly emotionally charged atmosphere of telling and listening marked by crying and shouting, the teller and listeners identify completely with one another. As a storyteller “in his living immediacy” (Benjamin 1968, 83), Jinxiang is thus an integrate part of the pre-modern rural existence based on its closely-knit community, the shareable experiences, and a fund of stories and lore.<br />
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金祥的讲故事展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他讲故事时自然而然，感情充沛，每到一站，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他的动态口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是前现代农村生活的一个组成部分，其基础是其紧密联系的社区、可分享的经验以及故事和传说的基金。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:37, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
金祥的故事讲述展现了口述的力量，他的表演具有超越理性控制的潜力。他很自然地讲述故事，感情充沛，一停下来，往往泪流满面，口水直流，大呼小叫。他那充满活力的口述控制了整个会场的气氛，并将听众带入多个情感高潮。因此，在以哭和喊为标志的高度情绪化的讲和听的氛围中，讲者和听者完全相互认同。作为一个 "活生生的即时性 "的讲故事的人（Benjamin 1968, 83），金乡是现代以前农村生活的一个组成部分，以前的农村整个乡村紧密联系、人们互相交流经历，还流传着大量的传说和故事。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 15:24, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
And this pre-modern rural existence can only be narrated and made sense of through the mode of storytelling, for the specific sense of historicity and experience of reality as mixed with myth, legend, the magical transgress normal parameters of our modern and rational paradigm of representation. <br />
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Thus the synthesis of the pre-modern, marked by both its existence and the mode of storytelling, and postmodernist mannerism with its sophisticated narrative strategies also points to an irony, in that this natural, pre-modern world can only be re-presented in very stylized devices. Here Zhang Wei encounters a similar paradox as the famous Taoist icon, Zhuang Zi. In spite of his distrust of language, Zhuang Zi could only envision the ineffable Way through language.<br />
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而这种前现代的乡村只有通过故事的方式才能被叙述和理解，因为与神话、传说、魔幻混杂在一起的特定的历史感和现实体验，超过了我们现代和理性表述模式的正常感受。 <br />
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因此，前现代的存在和故事模式，以这两者为标志的前现代与后现代主义方式主义以其复杂的叙事策略综合，也偏向了讽刺，即这个自然的、前现代的世界只能用非常风格化的手段来重新呈现。在这里，张炜遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。庄子尽管怀疑语言，但他只能通过语言来设想不可言说的道。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种前现代的乡村生活只有通过讲故事的方式来进行叙述，因为与神话、传说、还有魔幻的事物混杂在一起的历史感和现实体验超越了我们现代化和理性表达模式下的正常感受。<br />
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因此，前现代主义以生活和讲述模式为特点，后现代主义方式拥有复杂叙事策略，这两者的结合也指向了讽刺，而只有通过讽刺才能通过风格化的手段重新呈现这个自然的前现代世界。这里张玮遇到了与著名道教代表人物庄子类似的悖论。尽管庄子怀疑语言，但是他也只能通过语言来想象一些又不能言表的道。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 08:00, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
In other words, it was through language, given humanity’s permanent separation and alienation from nature, that Zhuang Zi could imagine the existence of something beyond. Zhang Wei’s pre-modern being is by no means ineffable. Yet, its “otherness” and its alterity vis a vis the modern world can only be perceived in our modern world, and represented through sophisticated devices of modernism/postmodernism. The absolute irony that the primitive or the pre-modern cannot be envisioned and represented except in our modern cultural condition in fact exists in the very center of this utopian text, though unrealized by the author himself as he repeatedly criticizes postmodernism and denies its inevitable influence. <br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
So the natural or the pre-modern state of being as eulogized by the author is no longer the first order of naturalness, but the second order, for it is only through an elaborate narrative architecture that such primitivism and naturalness can be re-enacted. To put it in another way, in resurrecting the primitive in our postmodernist age, the author in fact brings out, though unconsciously, a fundamental truth about primitivism. The natural, organic and a-temporal world of agrarian existence represented by the Small Village is not, in fact, a utopia from which we have fallen. Rather, it derives its meaning only through its opposition to a temporal world of modern civilization. Only in contrast to this temporal world can the primordial, the timeless take on meaning as negation of historical time.<br />
<br />
因此，作者所赞颂的自然或现代化之前的存在状态不再是自然的第一阶，而是第二阶，因为只有通过一种精心设计的叙述架构，这种原始主义和自然才能重现。换句话说，在后现代主义时代，作者在复活原始事物的过程中，实际上无意识地揭示了原始主义的一个基本真理。事实上，以小村所代表的自然的、有机的、非时间的农业世界的存在并不是我们所堕落的乌托邦。相反，它之所以有意义，是因为它与现代文明的现世世界是对立的。只有与这个短暂的世界相对比，原始的、不受时间限制的事物才能被赋予否定历史时间的意义。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:37, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Thus the ideal of a timeless, primordial rural past beyond modern civilization is only an ideal created in our modern times.<br />
<br />
In my discussion of modernist/postmodernist literary devices, I do not mean to label and categorize Zhang’s text as a modernist/postmodernist. Nevertheless, as seen in the above analysis, his formal strategies do share some strong features of postmodernism, or to be specific, magical realism. These features include boundary transgression, fusion and coexistence of different ontological worlds, and atemporal narrative structure. There is no doubt that Zhang Wei has succeeded in creating a world, a state of being beyond the reach of modern civilization. But his “world,” in the final analysis, can only be represented through modernist/postmodernist techniques. <br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
It is evident that the creation of this archetypal village embodies the author’s profound nostalgia for the pre-modern past and his utopian search for an ideal state of being. And this timeless place represents the author’s attempt to re-orient geographical and cultural nostalgia in China’s contemporary times from commercially stimulated nostalgia to the rural past as the fundamental Chinese root. Yet the lack of direct temporal and spatial references in the presentation of the Small Village makes his nostalgia closer to imagination, or to what David Wang called, imaginary nostalgia (1993, 107). In other words, his nostalgic representation of the Small Village is devoid of actual memory. This is particularly demonstrated in his deliberately designed a-temporal narrative structure, his foregounding of myth, legends and those magical events.<br />
<br />
显而易见的是，这一原型村落的创作体现了作者对前现代过去的深切怀旧和对理想存在状态的乌托邦式追求。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图从商业刺激性的怀旧到作为根本的中国根的农村的过去，重新定位中国当代的地理和文化怀旧。然而，在小村庄的表现中缺乏直接的时空参照，使得他的怀旧更接近于想象，或者更接近王大卫所说的想象怀旧（1993，107）。换言之，他对这个小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏真实的记忆。这一点在他精心设计的一种时间叙事结构、对神话传说和那些神奇事件的预言上表现得尤为明显。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 13:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
很明显，这个原型村的创建体现了作者对前现代历史的深刻怀旧和他对理想状态的空想。这个永恒的地方代表了作者试图重新定位中国当代地理和文化怀旧情怀，从商业刺激的怀旧情怀到农村作为中国人的根本根基。然而，在《小村庄》的呈现中缺乏直接的时空参考，使他的怀旧感更接近于想象，或者更接近于大卫·王所说的虚构怀旧（1993：107）。换句话说，他对小村庄的怀旧表现缺乏实际记忆。在他精心设计的时空叙事结构，对神话，传说和那些神奇事件的预言中，这尤其得到了证明。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:28, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
Moreover, as the title indicates, the whole novel is intended by the author as a fable, rather than a history, even though it is written in a historical mode. The village’s mythic origin, its lack of sense of time, and its sudden and catastrophic ending all point to the negation of historical progression. The elaborate narrative structure betrays the imaginative and fantastic construction of this mythic past. Thus Zhang Wei’s Small Village is less a historical object of nostalgia than a topographical/textual locus where imagination and utopian discourse intermingle. In other words, as a literary construction, this phantom village comes less from the actual yearning for what has been lost than from the desire for what has never been there (Wang 1993, 130). <br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
The striking incongruity indicates the nature of nostalgia as both a textural stance as well as a structure of feeling. <br />
<br />
Nevertheless, the incongruity between formal sophistication and primitive existence is a very hallmark of literary and cultural production in our postmodernist China. In discussing the Fifth Generation Films, Rey Chow points out that primitivism is often associated with modernism/postmodernism. The “primitive passion,” according to Chow’s definition, emerges at “a moment of cultural crisis.” It is an invented fact, fabrication of a sense of the primordial, rural rootedness that occurs in the post-construction (1995, 22-23). Chow’s theory of primitive passion is based on her study of new Chinese cinema.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
However it does shed light on our discussion of Zhang’s profound nostalgia for the rural past at the age of globalization, and on the ironic rupture between postmodernist sophistication and the pre-modern/primordial world presented in his novel. Read in intertextual relation with his essays, it is more than clear that Zhang’s re-imagining of the primordial Chinese rural past is meant to correct what he perceives as the diseased modernity and to rejuvenate Chinese culture. As a response to the cultural crisis in our globalized age, Zhang Wei has chosen the past to measure the present. <br />
<br />
The nostalgic return in Zhang Wei’s writings is in fact a kind of self-exile. Zhang Wei actually spent five years in a rustic country house (soon to be torn down) near his hometown to write this novel. <br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
There he was literally cut off from the outside world, expecting that this exile away from modern cities would get him spiritually closer to the land and nature so as to feel anew the vitality of the Chinese people, and rediscover the historical/rural root of Chinese culture. As agreed by all critics, this novel’s representation of the primordial past succeeds in bringing out a native naiveté and simplicity, a sense of gushing life force and animal virility -- the ideal form of being. However, in de-historicizing the past in order to re-imagine the golden age of the rural innocence and plenitude of meaning, the author had no alternatives but to simply let narrative play out its historical inevitability.<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
The pre-modern agrarian existence embodied by the Small Village is ultimately destroyed by modern industrialization. History then, though negated and erased by the narrative form of the novel, reasserts itself at the end. This leaves us not with a story about the slow decline of this pre-modern agrarian existence, but of its catastrophic fall. The structure of the village’s existence was in no way able to change and transform itself. This is demonstrated by the villagers’ strong resistance to outside influences represented by coal mining industry. As a result, rather than gradual transformation, the village is suddenly destroyed by industrial machine power.<br />
<br />
最终，现代工业化抹杀了小村庄所展现出的前现代农业文化。那时的历史虽因小说的叙事形式而遭否定和抹去，但在结尾时又重新跃然纸上。它为我们展现的并不是前现代农业文化缓慢地销声匿迹，而是其灾难性的衰落。这个村庄的存在结构决定了它无法自变，村民强烈抵制受到来自外界煤矿业的影响就是一个很好的证明。结果，这个村庄并没有逐步转型，而是突然摧毁于工业机器的动力。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
小村庄所体现的前现代农业生存最终被现代工业化所摧毁。那么，历史虽然被小说的叙事形式所否定和抹杀，但却在结尾处重新出现。这给我们留下的不是这个前现代农业缓慢衰落的故事，而是它灾难性的崩溃。村庄的生存结构是无论如何无法自变的，这表现在村民对以采煤业为代表的外界影响的强烈抵制。结果，这个村子不是逐步转型，而是突然被工业机器力量所摧毁。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
The moral dilemma Zhang faces in re-enacting of the Chinese rural past is similar to those encountered by root-seeking writers: the quest for the essence of “Chineseness” also leads to the discovery of unpleasant aspects in its society and cultural tradition. This moral dilemma is also reflected in the novel’s narrative form. While magical events serve to deconstruct the realist paradigm of historical representation, they at the same time also create a picture of rural life as something exotic. As David Wang points out, the object of nostalgia is also easily associated with the exotic (1993, 109). <br />
<br />
So if we have found some substance in Zhang’s novel to support his transcendent, yet empty metaphor of “land,” this “substance” remains less than compelling and appealing. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
A primitivistic village life can be little more than that: it is basic and instinctual, centering on food and sex. The meaning of land is closely related to food; indeed the reason the villagers stick to this land is because it can produce rich food enough to preserve their community. The carnivalesque scenes describing the village young romping in the wild fields at night, while highly acclaimed by many Chinese critics, do not, to my mind, represent an infinite solitude or a simple form of joy as much as the poverty of these lives in an extremely closed and impoverished world. This strikes an even more pathetic chord when knowing that this form of exercise will soon be transformed into wife beating and cupping when these young people grow into adulthood.<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The extremely stable pattern of the village’s social customs, mindset, and traditions is incapable of absorbing new things, or initiating any transformation. So the static and cyclical form of existence is simply erased by the outside forces of industrialization. In a broader sense, the history of the Small Village, or rather, its fate can be seen as an allegory for Chinese traditional society which was also forced into fundamental change from the outside. Thus the Small Village reflects the broader historical impotence and lack of cultural flexibility in traditional rural China. Many critics, including the author himself, argue that the idea of Land is meant to represent a certain spirit. Nevertheless, unless located somewhere, this spirit can only remain an empty structure.<br />
<br />
村庄的社会习俗，思维方式和传统极为稳定，无法吸收新事物或发起任何转变。因此，工业化的外在力量简单地消除了静态和周期性的存在形式。从广义上讲，小村庄的历史，或者说它的命运，可以看作是中国传统社会的寓言，中国传统社会也被迫从外部进行了根本性的改变。因此，小村庄反映了中国传统农村地区更广泛的历史影响力和缺乏文化灵活性。许多批评家，包括作者本人在内，都认为土地的意思是代表某种精神。但是，除非位于某个地方，否则这种精神只能保持一种空洞的结构。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 12:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
Nevertheless, it is precisely this structural emptiness that enables Zhang Wei to fill in many meanings throughout his essays. <br />
<br />
''Fable of September'', as well as Zhang’s essays, embody his search for truth and a moral ground based not on the rationally constructed modern world of scientific knowledge and market economy represented by urban centers, but on the simplicity of rural life. This search is rooted in the author’s disenchantment with certain aspects of modern civilization. To Zhang Wei, “Modern industrial civilization represents a form of beauty; yet this form is prone to hurt another more fundamental, more eternal beauty. Idealists all hope that these two forms of beauty can exist in harmony, without much conflict.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
But of course, this hope is only a dream” (Xiao 1995, 193). This distrust of modern civilization also reflects in him what Raymond Williams called “rural-intellectual radicalism” (1973, 36). Indeed, as a rural intellectual (as many critics have labeled him), Zhang demonstrates many aspects of rural-intellectual mentality: hostile to modern capitalism, opposed to commercialism, and attached to country ways and feelings (Williams 1973, 36). Without doubt, ''Fable of September'' is a fascinating novel and has uttered our deepest longings and profoundest nostalgia for a pre-modern simplicity of existence free of modern-day ills like alienation and corruption.<br />
<br />
<br />
......当然，这份希望只是幻梦一场”（萧夏林 1995,193）。张炜的作品也体现了对现代文明的不信任，雷蒙德·威廉姆斯称之为“乡村知识分子激进主义”(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。确实，张炜作为一名乡村知识分子（许多批评家如此标榜他），在作品中展现了乡村知识分子的多个心理面貌：对现代资本主义的敌意，对商业主义的反抗，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973, 36)。毋庸置疑，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活浓浓的渴望和怀旧之情，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但当然，这种希望只是一个梦想“（萧夏林 1995，193）。 这种对现代文明的不信任也反映了雷蒙德·威廉姆斯所谓的“农村-知识分子激进主义”（威廉姆斯 1973，36）。 事实上，作为一名农村知识分子（正如许多评论家给他贴上的标签），张炜展示了农村知识分子心态的多个方面：敌视现代资本主义，反对商业主义，对乡村风情的依恋(威廉姆斯 1973，36)。 毫无疑问，《九月寓言》是一部引人入胜的小说，它表达出了现代人对过去的那种简单生活深切的渴望与怀念，那个时候不像现代社会这样，存在人与人之间的疏离和腐败。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:54, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
Nevertheless, Zhang’s use of the central concept of “land” (referring to an idealized being) as the basis for his critique of modern civilization – decrying moral decay, consumerism, dominance of popular literature and commercialization of knowledge – and his rural intellectual mentality this concept reveals betray the author’s simple-minded, essentialist, and absolutist approach to the complexity of an ever changing social and cultural reality. The reification of land in his essays lacks a broad and deep historical perspective on Chinese modernity. Commercialism and its culture have by all means contributed to the general moral decay and erosion of basic humanistic values in society, and global cultural effects lead to profounder cultural crisis.<br />
<br />
然而，张使用“土地”的中心概念（指理想化的存在）作为他批判现代文明的基础-谴责道德沦丧、消费主义、大众文学的主导地位和知识的商业化-以及他的知识分子心态-这一概念揭示了作者对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性的朴素、本质主义和绝对主义的态度。 在他的散文中，土地的再化缺乏对中国现代性的广泛而深刻的历史视角。 商业主义及其文化通过各种手段促成了社会基本人文价值的普遍道德沦丧和侵蚀，全球文化效应导致了严重的文化危机。--[[User:Peng Dan|Peng Dan]] ([[User talk:Peng Dan|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，张把“土地”（指理想化的存在）的中心概念作为他批评现代文明的基础——谴责道德沦丧，消费主义盛行，流行文学盛行，知识商业化——这一概念揭示了他作为农村知识分子的心态，思想单纯，本质主义，以及对不断变化的社会和文化现实的复杂性采用绝对主义方法。他散文中土地的物化缺乏对中国现代性采用广阔而深刻的历史视角。商业主义和它的文化无疑导致了道德上的沦丧，也侵蚀了社会中基本的人文价值，全球文化效应导致了更深层次的文化危机。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 01:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
However, the absolute rejection of consumerism, globalism, and postmodernism fails to recognize their power and inevitability in restructuring contemporary Chinese society. The problems created by these developments have already moved the issue of solution beyond a discourse on morality. China’s ever more complex and changing social and cultural reality requires a more sophisticated and mature understanding. And finally, I would suggest that in today’s post-Cold War age in which socialism-capitalism antithesis has lost its relevance and meaning, the intellectual paradigm of confrontation must be replaced by one of negotiation. Nostalgia may always be pulling at us, and we may always be willing to indulge in a trip to the imagined past with stories like ''Fable of September.'' But as a critical stance, it does not equip us to effectively address the complex process of cultural reformation happening in contemporary Chinese and the world.<br />
然而，对消费主义、全球主义和后现代主义的绝对排斥，未能认识到它们在当代中国社会重构中的力量和必然性。这些发展所造成的问题已经使得解决问题超越了道德论述的范畴。中国日益复杂和不断变化的社会和文化现实需要更加深刻和成熟的理解。最后，我认为，在今天的后冷战时代，社会主义与资本主义的对立，已经失去了其相关性和意义，对抗的思想范式必须被谈判的范式所取代。怀旧之情也许总是在吸引着我们，我们也许总是愿意沉浸在想象中的过去之旅中，讲一些像“九月寓言”这样的故事但作为一个批判的立场，它并没有装备我们有效地处理复杂的进程，文化改革发生在当代中国和世界。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 12:29, 20 December 2020 (UTC)penguan<br />
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Works Cited（不用翻）<br />
<br />
Chow, Rey, Primitive Passions, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995)<br />
<br />
Benjamin, Walter, Illuminations, (New York: Schocken Books, 1968) <br />
<br />
Widmer, Ellen, and Wang, David Der-Wei, ed., From May Fourth to June Fourth, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993)<br />
<br />
Williams, Raymond, The Country and the City (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973)<br />
<br />
Xiao Xialin, Youfen de guitu (Anxious and indignant homeward journey) (Beijing: Huayi chubanshe, 1995)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1991, History of the Soul (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1994a, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1994b, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?”, in Wenhui Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) (August 7, 1994) <br />
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Zhang Chengzhi 1999a, Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999)<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi 1999b, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” in Zhang 1999a<br />
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Zhang Chengzhi 1999c, “Zaizhi xiansheng,” in Zhang 1999a 100-105<br />
<br />
Zhang Wei, Jiuyue yuyan (Fable of September), in Zhang Wei wenji (Collected works of Zhang Wei). Vol. 2 (Shanghai: Shanghai wenyi chubenshe, 1992)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
'''Deciphering the Populist Gadfly: Cultural Polemic around Zhang Chengzhi's "Religious Sublime"''' <br />
<br />
''Xinmin Liu<br />
<br />
''<br />
'''Abstract<br />
'''<br />
<br />
Since mid-1990s the Chinese Sanwen has witnessed an upsurge by way of frantic polemics over social and cultural issues in journals, newspaper fueillton, book series and forums. In this "war of words," no writer has been as prolific, as provocative and as problematic as Zhang Chengzhi. <br />
<br />
Zhang's essays feature a scathing critique of Chinese intellectuals' lack of spiritual faith, their surrender to global consumerism and the postmodern. Driven by a populist zeal, Zhang extols Chinese muslims' devotion to their religious faith, defiance of material affluence and bond to their harsh yet unsullied habitat. His populist approach to religious transcendence in opposition to what he perceives as today's intellectual disenchantment is ambiguous and ambivalent.<br />
<br />
“”破译民粹：围绕张承志“宗教崇高”的文化论战”<br />
<br />
刘新民<br />
<br />
''<br />
'''摘要<br />
'''<br />
<br />
自1990年代中期以来，中国三文通过在期刊，富尔登报纸，系列丛书和论坛上对社会和文化问题的激烈争论而目睹了高涨。 在这场“口水战”中，没有哪个作家像张承志那样多产，挑衅和有问题。<br />
<br />
张的文章对中国知识分子缺乏精神信仰，他们屈服于全球消费主义和后现代主义提出了严厉的批评。 在民粹主义热心的推动下，张赞赞扬中国穆斯林对宗教信仰的热爱，对物质富足的蔑视，并与他们生硬但未受污染的生境联系在一起。 他的民粹主义对宗教超越的态度与他认为今天的知识界的对立是模棱两可和矛盾的。<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
It wavers between subaltern politics and religious fundamentalism. It falls short of the prospect of constructing a ethnic pluralism that protects cultural differences without yielding to cultural positions that claim unique access to truth.<br />
<br />
In a polyglot age in which all has to be contested and negotiated anew, boundary- violating is the rule rather than the exception. Before the last millennium closed out, the Chinese essay thrived in an upsurge of cultural polemics, but in terms of aesthetic and ontological norms, the essayists could ill afford to stay within secure and clear-cut boundaries for long, because they often found themselves bombarded and displaced by a plethora of slippery issues, wacky themes and “roguish dilettantes.”<br />
<br />
它在次要政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆。它没有建立一种可以保护文化差异而又不屈服于声称通过独特途径获得真理的文化立场的民族多元主义前景。<br />
<br />
在一个必须重新竞争和协商的多语言时代，违反边界是规则而不是例外。在上个千禧年结束之前，中国散文在文化争论中兴起。但就美学和本体论规范而言，由于经常被众多滑溜的问题，古怪的主题和“肮脏的弱势分子”轰炸而流离失所，散文家们无法长期在安全和明确的边界内停留。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 11:51, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
它在低级政治和宗教原教旨主义之间摇摆不定。它未能构建一个保护文化差异，并不屈服于声称有独特途径了解真相的文化立场的民族多元化的前景。<br />
<br />
在一个多语言的时代，一切都必须重新竞争和谈判，打破边界是规则而不是例外。在上一个千禧年结束前，中国散文在文化论战的热潮中蓬勃发展，但就美学和本体论规范而言，散文家们无法长期呆在安全和明确的界限内，因为他们常发现自己被一大堆难以捉摸的问题、古怪的主题和“无赖的业余爱好者。”驱逐出去--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:45, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
With battle lines frequently redrawn and growing ever so fuzzy, this round of cultural polemics took on the characteristics of a wild slugfest, no-holds-barred wrestling and elusive shadow boxing. But true to its essaying (or, alternatively, assaying) role, the essay form rose to the challenge with the right mix of mercurial, discordant and yet self-assured mettle. Thus, it proved most capable of lending expression to chaos, fracture and trivia of the postmodern world. One need not search far to bring this point home: the essay has lately swamped the public media with its newfangled offshoots: in addition to the common literary and political essays appeared the licai (personal financing) essay, the xiuxian (leisure/recreation) essay, the photo essay, the cyber essay and so forth. But it is with the cultural polemics of the 1990s that the readers witnessed the essay form in most amazing novelty, deftness and verve. <br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
One way to make sense of what essay form enabled the writers to achieve amid the “wars of words” (pizhan) is to take it to task by way of its intrinsic bond with cultural dialogics, i.e. to see how approaches of writing essays lead to the laying of grounds for a dialogic relationship that intersects even the most incendiary issues and dissimilar views of this discursive maze. To that end, we will focus on Zhang Chengzhi’s essays published after mid-1990s to see why a radical intellectual figure like Zhang, considered an intractable loose cannon by most, often contests and mediates, by virtue of his border-violating politics, what the cultural mainstream considers to be polemical and divisive. At once belletristic and carnivalesque, Zhang Chengzhi’s essays stood out with striking clarity and urgency, if also with unnerving uproar.<br />
<br />
想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中做到了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 08:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
想要理解散文这一形式让作家们在“文字之战”中获得了什么，一种方法是通过它与文化对话的内在联系来批判它，比如去检视散文的写作方式是如何为一种对话关系打下基础，这一关系甚至贯穿了这一纷乱迷宫的最具煽动性的议题和最具分歧的观点。为此，我们将聚焦张承志在1990年代中期后发表的散文，试图探索何以张承志这样的知识分子，多数人视他为难以控制的麻烦人物，常常通过他过界的策略来抗议和调解主流文化认为是挑起争端和分裂的东西。张承志的散文曾经是纯文艺的，狂欢的，凸显的特点是其令人惊异的明晰和急迫或许还有让人焦虑的骚乱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 11:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
Extolled by some as the author whose one book single-handedly redeemed Chinese writing of the entire twentieth century, Zhang was riding high on the tailwind of his enormously popular Xinling shi (History of the Soul, 1992) and seemed to have returned to the public forum with his discursive buoyancy revived and his sense of the “sacred” mission renewed. At first glance, this does not seem the same Zhang Chengzhi who was overwhelmed by the spiritual loftiness he had ascended to upon completing ''Xinling shi'' and pleaded to his readers in all earnest, “there will no longer be this “me” from now on. Please banish me from your memory. … I have even taken myself by surprise that with this book I could bring myself to such a screeching halt.”[ Zhang Chengzhi, ''History of the Soul'' (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1991) 311.] But did Zhang ever quit the public forum and banish his voice from the on-going dialogue with his readers afterwards?<br />
<br />
称赞为一本书的作者一手救赎整个二十世纪中国写作,张风头正劲的顺风非常受欢迎的新陵史(历史的灵魂,1992)和似乎已经回到了公共论坛和他东拉西扯的浮力重新和他的“神圣”的使命感再次。乍一看，这似乎不是当年的张承志，他在完成《新灵诗》后，因精神上的崇高而狂喜，并真诚地向读者祈祷:“从今以后，不会再有这个‘我’了。”请把我从你的记忆中抹去。……我甚至连自己都感到惊讶，有了这本书，我竟然能让自己停下来。张承志:《灵魂史》(广州:花城初社1991)311。但是章子怡有没有退出公共论坛，在随后与读者进行的对话中抹掉自己的声音呢?--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 11:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
And did he accidentally join the ranks of those escapist intellectuals who self-righteously beat a retreat in the face of social repression and identity dislocation of the early 1990s? <br />
<br />
Indeed, at the height of his unexpected fame in 1992,[ Zhang Chengzhi made repeated statements in his essays written around this time that he had voluntarily terminated his career as a professional writer out of his desire to be embraced by the Muslim community and out of his disgust for what writers and intellectuals in general had failed to do in the face of rampant consumerist values.] Zhang did not hesitate to declare that his career as a professional writer had come to an end, and that he would retreat to the Muslim communities in the barren loess in Northwest China to begin his new life. While it is true that he verbally renounced his faith in and severed his tie with the mainstream intelligentsia, reality has proved otherwise: he could neither disinherit the dialogic potential of his earlier essays the same way as he allegedly cast off his ''Han'' Chinese upbringing, nor disown the intellectual milieu of his growth as though it were those business cards he symbolically tore up in disgust.[ This symbolic act is given an elaborate defense in one of his “position-statement” essays, “My Method of Tearing up those Business Cards,” published in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Human wenyi chubanshe, 1999).] <br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Zhang cannot give up the act of writing through which he once defied the false sanctity of official histories and celebrated the purity and incorruptibility of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims,[ A sect Chinese Muslims who are often considered the inheritor of mystical Sufis of the religion of Islam.] and to which he owed the stage for exhibiting his extraordinary discursive power as well as his reinvented ethnic identity. While still pursuing his spiritual pilgrimage as a lone warrior, he could hardly remain an intellectual recluse in an imagined sanctuary. Although his views often turned hard-edged due to his combative and self-aggrandizing tone, we need not necessarily be put off by his ill-advised posturing, which is far more rhetorical than substantive. Rather we are urged to see beyond his argumentative mode and detect that ineluctable draw of cultural dialogics that lured him to charge right back to the frontline of the discursive war zones. <br />
<br />
Zhang’s essays published since mid-1990s prove most intriguing and forceful when they give vent to his critical views that deliberately blur the boundary between personal commitment with public conscience.<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Seldom a believer of easy cultural synthesis, Zhang thrives in getting caught in the crossfire of public debates and wreaking havoc for the intellectual mainstream whose social legitimacy has fed off a complicitous liaison with the official and the ideological center. In a sense, what constituted the identity of his previous self, i.e., the “I” who nimbly narrated a hidden history of a suppressed people in ''History of the Soul'', was a persona already poised on the borders between public outcry and personal misgiving, between official histories and popular memoirs, between discourses of cultural criticism and identity politics. Akin to the self/other-conscious tone of Martin Buber’s ''I and Thou'', Zhang’s resort to “You” side by side with “I” as his discursive partner not only denotes the presence of a dialogic partner cued up by intersubjectivity, but interjects a critical awareness to set off the “unanimous intellectual escapism.”[ Here I am quoting the phrase from Dai Jinhua’s journal article “Hidden Narratives: The Politics of Mass Culture in the 1990s.” Her view is critically assessed by Chen Jianhua in his “Local and Global in Narrative Contestation: Liberalism and the New Left in Late-1990s China” carried in Journal of Asian Pacific Communication, vol. 9, Nos. 1 & 2, 113-29. ]<br />
<br />
很少有人相信简单的文化综合，他在公共辩论的交火中fire壮成长，并对知识分子主流人士造成严重破坏，他们的社会合法性已经与官员和意识形态中心进行了复杂的联络。从某种意义上说，构成他以前的自我的身份（即“我”）已经在公开抗议的边界上蓄势待发，该人在“灵魂历史”中灵活地讲述了一个被压迫者的隐藏历史。在官方历史和大众回忆录之间，在文化批评和认同政治的话语之间，还有个人的疑虑。类似于马丁•布伯（Martin Buber）的《我和你》 的自我/其他意识语气，张以“我”作为他的话语伴侣并肩地诉诸于“你”，不仅表示存在被主体间性暗示的对话性伴侣. ，但插入了引发“一致的知识逃避现实主义”的批判意识。[在这里，我引用戴金华的期刊文章“隐藏的叙事：1990年代的大众文化政治”这一短语。陈建华在《亚洲及太平洋通讯》第一卷中发表的“叙事竞赛中的本地和全球：自由主义和新左派在1990年代后期的中国”中对她的观点进行了严格的评估. 9号1和2，113-29. ]--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 08:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Initially a survival tactic to avert political repression in post-1989 China, this latter movement gained popular currency in the early 1990s as some intellectuals and professionals who used to pursue political activism now withdrew into enclosed fields of specialist researches where they could claim professional excellence as their new moral high grounds and practice professional elitism as a testimony to their personal spiritual faith. These so-called “New Scholars” valorized scholarly research as “not just a matter of knowledge or profession, but more fundamentally, a form of life choice and value inquiry.”[ Chen Pingyuan, “Thoughts on Research of Scholarship History,” Xueren I, 2-6. ] Alongside this process of self-authorization, they also sported a sweeping disdain toward mass culture or other nonprofessional cultures. Was this a covert strategy of resisting moral degeneration, or a “club-spirit” rally of collective escapism in the guise of professional disinterest? <br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
Zhang’s answer rebukes the latter. Long before the first public debate over such issues took place, his own self-authorization in writing ''History of the Soul'' brought the “impartial” search for historical truth under critical scrutiny. Positing his ethnic unconscious as the testing site, Zhang launched an assault on the falsely fixed standards in writing ''Hui'' histories whose authority had been complicitous with the chauvinistic State ideology. He berated the methodological status quo in Chinese Muslim scholars’ historiography for tailoring local and ethnic memories to cater to the legitimacy of its hegemonic control. In the same vein, he called into question the validity of collecting and editing historical documents according to empiricist standards, chastising its total submission to a positivist view of historical development in the name of scholarly objectivity.<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
He specifically targeted the renowned Hui historian Yang Huaizhong whose investigation of ''munafeles'', ''Hui'' collaborators with ''Manchu'' and ''Han'' rulers, had, in Zhang’s view, internalized the reigning codes of power-knowledge alliance. Despite of his fine appraisal and extensive research, Zhang reproves Yang’s aloof stand:<br />
<br />
On the one hand, you try to reflect critically yourself and your tradition, on the other, you want to bring to light the suppression and violation committed against the human soul. How can the kind of subject you’re studying still be the same historiography? <br />
If Yang had yet to shake off the false sense of ethnic anonymity, Zhang does not make it any easier for himself when faced with the historical injustice inflicted upon the ''Huis''.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
At the Jinji Bao, a historical site of many quelled ''Hui'' uprisings in 19th century, he could hardly help chiding himself for not “avenging the historical wrongs” as a professional historian. He confesses in a 1996 essay entitled “Odes to Waves”: <br />
<br />
It so happened that I have the fortune of being a full-fledged academic historian, yet I examined every single detail (of official records) critically but could not offer any rebuttal. It so happened that I was born of ''Hui'' parentage, yet I attempted to skirt around it but could not escape this historical site---the wintry mist shrouding Jinji Bao pounded me wave after wave, pressing me to make a pledge, to declare a ''nietie'', to make good the pledge of being dedicated to the people I took rather casually years ago. <br />
<br />
Yang Huizhong, also known as Yang Mohammed Usiar, is a well-known Hui historian who has done crucial research on 18th Century Jahriyya Muslim uprisings. Zhang’s critical comments appear in T''he Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness'' (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
This is not an occasional outburst of emotions for the sake of letting off his own guilt. This is sincere self-reproach to prod himself into keeping his ethnic memory and affective empathy from being worn thin by his years of academic studies, field work and research. Unlike the New Scholars’ chase of “disinterest” and neutrality, Zhang opts valiantly for the direction of racial and social activism: to knock down posts erected by “objective” histories, penetrate the walls of political and religious phobias and uncover the buried truths of ethnic repression and violence. One might query Zhang’s view of historical scholarship as emotive and skewed, thus running the risk of demeaning historiography into personal misgivings.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
But in the era of cultural pluralism and ethnic identities, it is precisely the affective and personal that keep our ethnic awareness alive and urge us not to take boundaries of power and knowledge for granted. <br />
<br />
No doubt, Zhang enters the debate of “the ultimate concern” of the mid-1990s, but he does so on his terms. He puts forward an ethnographical approach consisted of a person’s affective propensities (''qinggan''), ethnic lineage (''xuetong'') and a “prefigured destiny” (''qianding''). These are interlocked and reciprocal in variety of ways to enmesh a person in a nexus of cultural dialogics. He then probes the illusion of professionalism in the form of an “originary question” (''yuanchu zhiwen'').<br />
<br />
但在文化多元化和民族认同的时代，恰恰是情感和个人因素使我们的民族意识得以保持，并敦促我们不要把权力和知识的界限视为理所当然。<br />
<br />
毋庸置疑，张加入了90年代中期关于 "终极关怀 "的讨论，但他是以自己的方式进行的。他提出了一种由一个人的情感倾向、民族血统和乾定命运组成的民族学方法。这些因素相互联系和相互作用，以各种方式使人置身于文化对话的关系中。然后，他以 "原初之问 "的形式来探究专业主义的假象。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 03:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
He asks: “How do you account for your being in the face of your own soul when there is nothing scientific or ideological to fend you from this ultimate accountability?” To him what accounts for his ultimate humanist concern is his ''Hui'' ethnicity. Ethnicity, according to Michael Fischer, “ … is something dynamic, often unsuccessfully repressed or avoided. It can be potent even when not consciously taught; … something that institutionalized teaching easily makes chauvinistic, sterile, and superficial.” It is thus the “id-like” sentient and psychological that lay the ground for one’s ethnic/cultural conditioning and in turn bring it to bear upon one’s historical awareness. <br />
<br />
A sinicized Islamic term for “taking a devotional vow.” It is also known as Juyi in Chinese.<br />
Zhang 1999a, 37.<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, The Heroes’ Paths in Wilderness (Shanghai: Zhishi Publishing House, 1994) 125. <br />
Michael Fischer, ‘Ethnicity and the post-modern arts of memory,” in James Clifford and George Marcus, eds., Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986) 195. （文献无需翻译）<br />
他问道:“当没有任何科学或意识形态来保护你逃避终极责任时，面对自己灵魂时你如何解释?”对他来说，对他来说，回族是他终极人文关怀的原因。迈克尔·菲舍尔(Michael Fischer)认为，种族“……是一种动态的东西，往往无法被压制或避免。”即使是没有意识地教育，它也可能是有效的;制度化的教学很容易造成沙文主义、无结果和肤浅的东西。因此，正是“类我”的知觉和心理奠定了一个人的种族/文化条件的基础，并反过来影响一个人的历史意识。<br />
一个中国化的伊斯兰术语，意为“虔诚的誓言”。它在中文中也被称为“Juyi”。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:49, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
Being ethnically predisposed as an “other” likewise makes Zhang acutely watchful of the State’s covert practice of ethnocentrism in the name of social progress and scientific rationality. Drawing on his renewed ethnic ethos, Zhang has no qualms in issuing a call to all historians: “… disinherit the whole positivist baggage of the conventional historiography, and seek out the complex intuitive faculty of your individual soul.” <br />
<br />
What about his image of a lone moral crusader? A great deal of ruckus has been raised over Zhang’s arguably obsessive stress on the “purity” and “truthfulness” of the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims; he is disparaged by some critics as “the most self-pleased” man in China today,” due precisely to his tireless and unsuspecting adoration of the close-knit and reclusive ''Jahriyya'' community.<br />
<br />
作为一个 "他者 "的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。 借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。"... 摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱" "寻找你个人灵魂的复杂直觉能力" 。<br />
<br />
他的一个孤独的道德十字军形象呢？ 张先生对''贾里雅''穆斯林的 "纯洁性 "和 "真实性 "可以说是执着地强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国 "最自得其乐 "的人，"这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、不怀好意地崇拜着封闭而隐居的''贾里雅''群体。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:38, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为一个“他者”的民族倾向，同样也使张先生对国家以社会进步和科学理性的名义，隐蔽地实行民族中心主义的做法产生了敏锐的警惕。借着重新焕发的民族气质，张先生毫无顾忌地向所有历史学家发出号召。“……摒弃传统史学的全部实证主义包袱”，“寻找你个人灵魂的直觉能力。”<br />
<br />
那么关于他的一个孤独的十字军形象呢？张先生对贾里雅穆斯林的“纯洁性”和“真实性”可以说是不断地进行强调，引起了很大的骚动；他被一些评论家贬为当今中国“最自得其乐 的人，”而这正是由于他孜孜不倦地、毫无戒心地崇拜着紧密而又隐居的贾里雅群体。”--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:08, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Does this not make him one of those solitary seekers of moral perfection in a morally promiscuous age? Zhang’s admonishing axioms seem to answer in a seamless fit to Wang Xiaoming’s definition of a self-oriented search for ethical righteousness. As an alternative to the intellectuals’ direct involvement in politics of the 1980s, Wang emphasized the personal quality of ultimate concern and argued: “(1) you can only search for the ultimate value from your personal experience; (2) what you find is your own interpretation of what the ultimate value is, not the ultimate value itself.” Zhang seems to share the solitary seekers’ new sense of priorities in favoring a self-motivated quest for absent moral virtues, albeit transcendental and visionary. <br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
But one facet of his writings forcefully rejects that equation: he has all along kept up public-minded criticism of social ills and moral depravities as a free-lance social/cultural critic. What the seekers of personal integrity and sublimation failed to hang onto Zhang has carried on with infinitely sharper insight and fiercer zeal.<br />
<br />
Zhang detects and detests the anxiety of these individuals to rise above the laity of social meanings and responsibilities as a way to avoid being an accomplice to ideological repression. And indeed his most scathing exposé has so far been reserved for the mainstream intellectuals rather than the money-grabbing ''New Riches'' or the consumerist mass. <br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
When readers’ feedback to his ''History of the Soul'' heated up into a media squabble in 1994, Zhang burst onto the scene again with another of his tirades “Poets, why aren’t you indignant?” The essay is brimmed with scorn for the public for its total surrender to consumerism and their frantic drive for worldly pleasures; yet it is the intellectual mainstay who bear the brunt of his verbal onslaught. Zhang accused them of “selling out to monetary gains and worldly repute,” the news media of “swarming up like bees after the ‘big shots’ for petty favors and leftovers, and the cultural critics of “becoming painfully silent on any honest, principled, to-the-point criticism.” <br />
<br />
Zhang 1994a, 125.<br />
Zhang Yuanshan, “Zhang Chengzhi---the Most Self-Pleased Writer” at Xin yu si dianzi wenku (www.xys.org), listed under Zhang Yuanshan.<br />
Zhang Rulun et al, “The Humanist Spirit: whether and How Is It Possible?---Reflections on the Humanist Spirit, I” in Dushu 3: 3-13.<br />
For a fine critique of this shift of intellectual paradigm, see also Xu Ben. Disenchanted Democracy: Chinese Cultural Criticism after 1989 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1999) 49-56. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
For a time, Zhang’s readers felt jabbed by his barbed comments on the gaping “void” of spiritual faith and rampant cynicism, philistinism and moral incompetence among the intellectuals. They were also exacerbated by his unmatched tribute to the ''Jahriyya'' Muslims who remained unperturbed by the hustle and bustle of economic boom elsewhere in China. All this led the public to conclude that Zhang’s posturing was cashing in on the polarization of the Haves and the Have-nots of China’s new social strata, and that with his accolades for “the poor men’s religion” he intended to push for the image of a “Me-alone Spirituality.”<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
这种严重的误解竟然成为王朔等人诋毁他而提出抗议的主要理由，指责他依靠日本和海外出版的刊物事业一心一意地发大财，却还虚伪地反过来教训国内知识分子玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。 <br />
<br />
这一切都离不开此等事实：即张先生虽然对贫困穆斯林僵化贫瘠的生活环境感到十分亲切，但他并不一定像某些批评家所标榜的那样，会对物质享受和社会发展持有偏见态度。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This grave misperception turned out to be the main ground for his detractors like Wang Shuo to lodge a protest, accusing him of getting rich with loyalties for his publications in Japan and overseas while turning hypocritically around to lecture the intellectuals at home in their weakness for cynicism, corruption and bankruptcy. <br />
<br />
<br />
这种严重的错误认识，成了像王朔这样的诋毁者提出抗议的主要理由，他们指责他依靠在日本和海外的出版物一心只想着致富，同时又虚伪地反过来告诫国内知识分子，说他们玩世不恭、腐败潦倒。<br />
<br />
Nothing could be further from the truth: although feeling at home with the rigid and barren habitat of the poverty-stricken Muslims, Zhang is not necessarily biased against material comforts or social development as some critics have labeled him to be.<br />
<br />
事实并非如此：尽管张先生对贫困穆斯林的僵硬贫瘠的生活环境感到熟悉亲切，但他并不一定像一些批评家所说的那样，对物质享受或社会发展抱有偏见。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 16:09, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Rather, he is adamant with the intellectuals’ frailties in the face of social malfunction and injustice as a result of harried economic policies, and he is outspoken about what little critical awareness the educated class can foster against the blindly raging “market forces” and the new alliances of wealth and power. In 1999, Zhang wrote a sequel “Again to the Honorable Teacher” to his 1991 tribute to Lu Xun, in which he firmly declares that he will not back down from his previous judgment on Lu Xun’s misfortune---why Lu Xun chose not to leave us a legacy of great volumes of scholarly or professional worth.<br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi and Zhang Wei initiated a heated round of ''bizhan'' (pen-combats) in the Literary Supplement of ''Wenhui'' Bao (Wenhui Daily, Shanghai) over the issue of mass consumption and culture with many writers who are more sympathetic with the marketized economy and consumerist culture. This essay by Zhang---“Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” is featured as the leading editorial on August 7, 1994. <br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Poets, Why aren’t you indignant?” in ''Wenhui'' Bao (Shanghai) (August 7, 1994).<br />
For further detail of this dispute, read Geremie Barmé, ''In the Red: On Contemporary Chinese Culture'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) 304-309. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。张承志、张炜在《文汇报》文艺副刊（上海文汇报）上，与许多对市场化经济和消费主义文化比较同情的作家，就大众消费与文化问题展开了一轮激烈的笔战。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 02:32, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
相反，他坚持知识分子在面对经济政策所导致的社会失灵和不公正时的脆弱性，并直言不讳地说，受过教育的阶层在对抗盲目肆虐的“市场力量”和新的财富和权力联盟方面，能够培养出什么样的批判意识。1999年，张艺谋为纪念1991年的鲁迅写了一部续集《再次献给这位可敬的老师》，在这本书里，他坚定地宣称，他不会放弃先前对鲁迅不幸的判断——为什么鲁迅选择不给我们留下大量学术或专业价值的遗产。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
In fact, Zhang now argues, in less sarcastic yet firmer terms, why Lu Xun’s solitary yet relentless social and cultural crusades are gaining rather losing currency in 1990s’ China. He writes:<br />
<br />
The populace in this nation have little power or scarce hope. But they are quick to discover: when they suffer and despair under the heavy burden of tyrannical rule of the bureaucratic few, “the intellectual class” turn out to be, after politicians and money, another cruel oppressor. The broad masses want nothing more than being fed and clothed. But they need the intellectuals to keep up the basic and constant criticism of the social elite and the powerful. Otherwise, their plight would be unthinkable.<br />
<br />
事实上，张现在用一种不那么讽刺但更坚定的措辞来论证:为什么鲁迅独行而无情的社会文化改革在90年代的中国越来越流行。他写道：<br />
<br />
这个国家的人民没有什么力量，也没有什么希望。但他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦绝望时，“知识阶层”就成了继政客和金钱之后的又一个残酷的压迫者。广大群众只想吃穿。但他们需要知识分子不断地对社会精英和权贵进行基本的、持续的批评。否则，他们的困境将是无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 04:52, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
事实上，张炜现在用不那么讽刺但坚定的措辞来论证为什么鲁迅这种孤僻但无情的社会文化变革在90年代的中国长久不衰。他写道：<br />
<br />
这个国家的人民是积弱且缺乏希望的。然而他们很快就会发现：当他们在少数官僚专制统治的沉重负担下痛苦和绝望时，“知识阶层”便成了金钱和政客之后的又一残酷压迫者。广大百姓想要的只不过是吃得饱，穿的暖。但他们需要知识分子对社会精英和权贵保持基本、持续的批判。否则，他们的困境时无法想象的。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
We, as readers of Lu Xun’s ''zawen'', are surely struck by the familiar wording, the similar tone, and the unyielding views that have implausibly found their way back into Zhang’s essays over half a century later. We are also surprised at how candid and unaffected he is when making such social commentary from a position comparable to the Great Lu Xun. <br />
<br />
One is tempted to ask: is Zhang grandstanding? I think not. However, the causes for leaping to charges against his feisty offensive are worth looking into: they are, ironically, spawned off the same binary frame of mind that has been consistently used by the CCP ideologues to denounce the inroads made by “liberal bourgeois values;” yet such a frame of mind is also replicated by many of Zhang’s critics at home and overseas.<br />
<br />
作为鲁迅的读者，我们当然会被超过五十年后在张先生文章里发现那难以置信地熟悉的遣词、语气和坚定不移的想法而打动。我们也会惊讶，当把他放在同一位置和伟大的鲁迅进行比较，做出社会评论时，他是多么的坦率和不受影响。<br />
<br />
有人也许想问：张炜是在哗众取宠吗？我认为不是。然而，对于他来势汹汹的攻势的原因却值得探讨：讽刺的是，这些原因是由中共意识形态形态者用来谴责“自由主义资产阶级价值观”入侵的二元思维框架产生的。但是这种思维框架也被海内外许多张炜的批评者们所复制。--[[User:Wang Yuan|Wang Yuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Yuan|talk]]) 05:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
Odd bedfellows resting on the same cultural logic, they argue that criticism of the intellectuals’ dislocation and impotence in current China is motivated by the either/or option. One is either directed by a regressive Party-led agenda to exert the authority of socialist ideological legacy while intimating their message amidst the consumerist ambience. Or he/she is motivated by a dissenting political force to jump-start a new round of political subversion while laying itself open to patronage of the West (mainly America)-centered global order. Zhang’s detractors from both these stances see eye-to-eye on his role in today’s cultural politics, following the either/or mode of straightjacket thinking.<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
But I believe he is neither a firebrand of old egalitarian idealism nor an extremist with religious fundamentalist zeal. His self-styled apologist persona is neither a haughty custodian of monolithic values, nor a self-righteous model of narcissistic purity and perfection, nor a slick po-mo master showcasing newly imported goods. His is more of a lone outlaw in a “mobile warfare” in the Gramchian sense: preying on the unjust and corrupt elite, yet forever keeping the society at large at bay. <br />
<br />
Take the case of Zhang’s attitude towards “the people.” Pervasive social and cultural changes triggered by State-endorsed market economy had been set in place in China by mid-1990s which had led to seismic dislocation and reordering across the entire social spectrum.<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
The result is that familiar notions such as “the people” had been stripped of their usual ideological moorings, whereas the newly emerged social grouping was yet to be reckoned with. While the recent cultural warfare has struck a bitter discord between the Liberals and the New Leftists over the definition of the masses (''dazhong''), Zhang has been relentlessly lucid and unambiguous who they are---those of the disadvantaged and the impoverished in China today. He is evidently critical of the Liberals who are eager for China to partake of a global economic order and evolve into a liberal society with a rising middle class as the nucleus of its civic values, but tend to lose sight of how this class of well-off Chinese (most notably the New Riches) can emerge without tipping economic and social imbalances towards those at the lower rungs of the social ladder.<br />
<br />
其结果是，人们熟悉的概念，如“人民”，已被剥夺了他们通常的意识形态根基，而新出现的社会群体还有待考虑。虽然最近的文化战争在自由主义者和新左派对“大众”的定义上产生了激烈的分歧，但张却毫不含糊地明确了他们是谁——当今中国的弱势群体和贫困群体。他显然是重要的自由主义者,他们迫切希望中国参与全球经济秩序和发展成一个自由与崛起的中产阶级社会作为其公民价值观的核心,但往往忽视这类富裕的中国人(尤其是新兴富人群体)的出现，而不引爆经济和社会失衡以及影响刚刚起步的社会主义事业。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其结果是，"人民 "等熟悉的概念已被剥去了惯常的意识形态寄托，而新出现的社会群体却还没有被重视起来。 当最近的文化战在自由派和新左派之间就大众（''大中''）的定义发生激烈的争执时，张先生却毫不留情地明确了他们是谁--当今中国的弱势群体和贫困者。 他显然对自由派提出了批评，他们渴望中国参与全球经济秩序，并发展成为一个以中产阶级为公民价值核心的自由社会，但却往往忽视了这个富裕的中国阶层（最主要的是新富阶层）如何能够在不使经济和社会失衡向社会底层倾斜的情况下出现。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 14:39, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
For that matter, he is also adamant with the Po-Mo culturalists whose extreme ''kowtowing'' to the market culture and its mass consumers is, by way of an odd twist, turned into propelling forces for the predominantly ''Han'' Chinese to regain a very ethnocentric mode of self-empowering in a renewed East-West confrontation.<br />
<br />
Although Zhang’s view on “the people” is in close proximity to those of the New Leftists, he does not convey them as if they were their carbon copies. Instead he distills the critical efficacy of their combat with the deceptive “mass culture” and implants it in his border-violating strategy as a mobile yet vital critiquing position.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
Contrary to what he sometimes claims---to jettison the culpable intellectuals in the name of “religious” purity, Zhang has always felt the urge to recharge the power of the intellectual self as expository but not dispossessing, diagnostic but not agnostic, and independent but not self-insulating. The key to his border-crossing self is a dialogic interplay among multiple viable postures of the self while never allowing the self to be tied to a single rigid form of it. It is by negotiating between these individual stances of conviction that Zhang aims to create a vigilant and constructive ambience to see to the redress of social injustice. While revisiting Lu Xun in “Again to the Honorable Teacher,” he avidly called on Chinese intellectuals to embark on a solitary but enduring quest for the interests of the people at the lower rungs of the society.<br />
<br />
For further readings on this dispute, read Li Shitao, ed. Zhishi fengzi lichang: ziyou zhiyi zhizheng yu zhongguo xixiangjie de fenghua (The Position of Chinese Intellectuals: The divided intellectual circle over the issue of Liberalism) (Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000).（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
与他有时声称的那样——以“宗教”纯洁的名义抛弃应受谴责的知识分子，张先生总有一种冲动，那就是，要把知识分子自我的力量重新注入，做到说教而不是剥夺，诊断而不是不可知论，独立但不自我隔离。他跨越边界的自我的关键是在自我的多种可行姿势之间的对话互动，而不允许自我被束缚在单一的僵硬形式上。正是通过这些个人信念立场之间的协商，张先生旨在创造一种警惕和建设性的氛围，以期纠正社会不公。他在《重温恩师》一书中重温鲁迅时，热切地呼吁中国的知识分子开始一种孤独而持久的追求社会下层人民的利益的道路。<br />
<br />
关于这一争议的进一步解读，请阅读李世涛主编《知识分子立场:自由主义之争与中国思想界的分化》（中国知识分子的立场：自由主义问题上的分裂的知识界）(Changchun: Shidai wenyi chubanshe, 2000)。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
To engage in a dialogue with these masses, he observes, is for the intellectuals “to forever keep a watchful custody of such people against the socially established and the powerful.” And the masses will discover Zhang’s polemical writings, much as they did Lu Xun’s Zawen in 1930s, “there is always someone like Lu Xun who is cussing his heart, all alone in his crusade.” <br />
<br />
'''Discussion of this chapter: The ''xiaopin wen'' between ''xianshi sanwen'' and ''zawen'''''<br />
<br />
''King-Fai Tam''<br />
<br />
I would first of all like to commend the contributors of this chapter for their original, well researched and well articulated papers which represent a diversity of angles of approaching the study of essays, while sharing an interest in the polemical nature of the genre. <br />
<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, “Zaizhi xiansheng” in Wuyuan de sixiang (Unassisted Thoughts) (Changsha: Hunan chubanshe, 1999) 100-105.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
他发现，与这些民众的对话是为了让知识分子”对反社会和反权利人群永远保持警惕”。而且这些民众会发现张的议论文，就像他们在1930年代对鲁迅《杂文》所做的一样，“总有人像鲁迅一样，独自一人在呕心沥血地讨伐。”<br />
<br />
'''本章讨论：实现散文和杂文中的小品文'''<br />
<br />
''谭景辉''<br />
<br />
首先，我想向为本章提供原始资料作出贡献的人表示感谢，经深度探索且表达清楚的论文可以在分享对散文体裁辩论本质的兴趣时，从多个角度来呈现散文研究现状。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 02:28, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
''谭景辉''<br />
<br />
首先，我想对本章贡献原始资料的人表示感谢，这些论文研究深刻、表达清楚，不仅仅为着手研究散文提供了多个角度，还对散文体裁辩论本质拥有相同兴趣。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 06:36, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
Together, they constitute an eye-opener for me, given my interest in ''xiaopin'' wen and other similar works with a lyrical bent that shy away from discursiveness and argumentation. If the ''xiaopin'' wen writers have anything to say about politics and society, it is often with a bemused tone; and the most that one can expect from them is a lamentation of some unjust social phenomenon, accompanied perhaps by an expression of outrage and an ineffectual cry for change. In that sense, ''xiaopin'' wen can be said to have rejected one the basic tenets of the essay as a process of experimentation, questioning, reflection, and, indeed, essaying. Too often, it gestures superficially to the analysis of an issue, only to come down heavily on an emotional response at the end.<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''xiaopin''wen可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 13:21, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界，让我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品产生了兴趣，。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，“小品”文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:47, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，小品文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鉴于我对 "小品 "文和其他类似的抒情作品的兴趣，这些作品加在一起，让我大开眼界。 如果说 "小品 "文对政治和社会有什么要说的话，那往往是带着一种无奈的语气；人们能从他们那里得到的最多的是对某种不公正的社会现象的哀叹，也许还伴随着一种愤怒的表达和对改变的无效的呼喊。 在这个意义上，''小品''文可以说拒绝了散文的一个基本原则，即把散文作为一个实验、质疑、反思的过程，事实上，也是散文的过程。 很多时候，它表面上摆出了分析问题的姿态，却在最后重重地落在了情感的回应上。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 14:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
Yet, the four contributions to this chapter point out that there is a bigger world in the study of essays beyond ''xiaopin'' wen. The essay can, as Mary Scoggin argues, be cantankerous, recalling the image of a spear and a dagger, where one piece of ''zawen'' is more likely to elicit an equally cantankerous response than to put an issue to rest. With good reasons, we describe such exchanges as ''pizhan'' (battling with the pen). The essay is also a site where the essayist can consciously sculpt an image of himself, as Lu Jie and Liu Xinmin show in the cases of Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi.<br />
<br />
然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，这篇文章可能给人不好的感觉，回忆时像一把长矛和匕首，其中一段“扎文”更可能引起同样不愉快的反应，而不是让问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由称这种交流为“笔战”。（用笔作战）正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，这篇文章也是散文家有意识地塑造自己形象的成果。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，本章所作的四个贡献指出，在小品文之外散文研究还拥有一个更广阔的世界。正如玛丽·斯科金所说，散文也可以尖锐凌厉，让人联想到长矛和匕首的形象，其中“扎文”更可能引起尖锐的反应，而不是使问题得到解决。我们有充分的理由将这种交锋称为“笔战”。正如陆洁和刘新民在张炜和张承志的案例中所展示的那样，散文家也是会有意识地将散文作为塑造自己形象的场所。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:17, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
Moreover, while one single piece of essay is indeed different from a treatise in that its brevity makes it ill-equipped to address an issue in great depth, essayists such as Zhang Wei and Zhang Chengzhi can resort to voluminous output, exhaustively exploring different shades of a question in one essay after another to build up a coherent position. Wang Ban furthermore approaches the essay as a sensibility, or a structuring device, with which a writer tells and retells a story, puts forward a proposition and modifies or denies it. As such, it replaces the novel as the form that best captures the consumerist ethos of urban China in the 1990s.<br />
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虽然一篇文章与论文确实存在区别，其简洁性使其不具备解决问题的深度，但是如张伟和张承志一类的作者产出颇丰，详尽探索一篇篇文章中不同深浅的问题，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者可以通过文章来讲述或复述一个故事，提出一个命题，对其进行修饰或否定。因此，它取代了小说，抓住了20世纪90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 05:57, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管一篇论文的确与论文有所不同，因为篇幅简洁，无法充分解决一个问题，但张炜和张承志等作者却可以求助于大量论文，详尽地探讨了不同层次的论文，以此来建立一个连贯的位置。在此基础上，王班进一步将文章作为一种情感，或者一种结构化工具，作者用它来讲述和叙述一个故事，提出一个命题并加以修改或否认。 因此，它取代了小说，成为最能体现90年代中国城市消费主义思潮。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 10:37, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
Yet, if a literary genre can take up so many shapes and forms, are we still justified to consider these shapes and forms as a uniform entity, to be analyzed and studies with the same methodology ? In my study of the essay, I have often been confronted with this question. In the New England Association of Asian Studies conference in October last year I raised a similar query in response to the presentations of Alexandra Wagner, Martin Woesler and Xinmin Liu: in what way can we consider works as diverse as those of Feng Zhi, Qu Qiubai, and a group of other writers that we discussed that day as essays? Now, in light of the four papers of this chapter, I would like to ask the same question again. <br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
I will take the clue from Wang Ban when he considers the “polemic pole” for the essay, i.e., that which the essay stands against, and see whether we can understand what essay is but finding out what it is not. At different historical junctures and in different cultural contexts, the essay has served as the voice of the opposition and the marginal. Wang Ban has already alluded to Adorno’s “The Essay as Form” to underscore the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural conditions of reification, to which the essay stands in opposition. Likewise, one can find a late twentieth-century parallel where the articulation of feminism and decolonization often takes the form of the essay.<br />
<br />
我将从王班思考文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西，来寻找线索，看看我们能否理解文章是什么，但找出它不是什么。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 08:19, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
我将从王班提出的文章的“论战极点”，即文章所反对的东西入手，看我们能否理解文章而不是发现它的局限。在不同的历史节点和文化语境中，散文充当了反对派和边缘者的声音。王班已经提到阿多诺的“文章形式”来强调哲学的制度体系、科学实证主义的话语以及与其相伴随的物化的社会文化条件，而阿多诺的“文章形式”是与之对立的。同样，我们可以找到二十世纪后期的一个平行，女权主义和非殖民化的表述经常以文章的形式出现。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:59, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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[http://www.example.com link title]<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
Yet, in the Chinese context, even if we narrow it down to the last two decades of the twentieth century, it is not entirely clear what the polemic pole of the essay is. Wang Ban believes that the polemical pole to contemporary Chinese essays to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of “revolutionary realism.” For the zawen she is examining, Mary Scoggin suggests that ''zawen'' spits in the face of a “discourse of beauty” that serves to mute criticism in ''the'' name of social and rhetorical graciousness, an attitude that essentially forbids ''zawen'' writers to say anything if they cannot think of something nice to say.<br />
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然而，在中国的环境之下，即使我们把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能完全弄清楚散文的极点是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极要确定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对所谓“美的篇章”十分唾弃，以直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是禁止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说什么。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:49, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
然而，在中国，即使把范围缩小到20世纪最后20年，也不能彻底弄清散文的论极是什么。王班认为，当代中国散文的论极应该定义成启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学对等物："革命现实主义 "的小说。玛丽-斯科金在研究杂文以后认为，杂文对<br />
唾弃“美的篇章”，通过直白、朴实的语言来噎住批评，而这种态度实质上是防止“杂文”作家在想不出好话时再说些什么别的。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
Zhang Chengzhi, Xinmin’s subject, has made it abundantly clear that his essays are manifestations of a historical method that deconstructs Han chauvinism even as he has little by way of counter evidence to go by. Like Wang Ban, Lu Jie also pits the essay against the novel, but for a different reason, and with findings intriguingly different from that of Wang Ban. Wang Ban attributes the “metafictional” signs in Wang Anyi’s ''Shushu di gushi'' to the intrusion of the essayist sensibilities. In other words, it is her essayist touch that accounts for the tentativeness of her narrative. On the other hand, Lu Jie succeeds in showing that Zhang Wei the novelist is much more tentative and equivocal than Zhang Wei the essayist.<br />
《新民》的主体，张承志已经非常清楚地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。和王班一样，卢杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，他的发现与王班的截然不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格造成了她的叙述的不确定性。另一方面，卢杰成功地展示了小说家张伟比散文家张伟更加犹豫不决和模棱两可。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:49, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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张承志是《新民》的主人公，他非常直白地表明，他的散文是解构大汉族主义的历史方法的表现，尽管他几乎没有任何相反的证据可供参考。如同王班，陆杰也把这篇文章与《红楼梦》对立起来，但原因不同，并且他的发现与王班的完全不同。王班把王安忆《叔叔的故事》中的“元化”符号归结为散文家情感的侵入。换句话说，正是她的散文家风格导致她的叙述带有不确定性。另一方面，陆杰成功地展示了一个事实——小说家张伟，比散文家张伟，更加犹豫不决，更加模棱两可。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
Even if one were to maintain that ''Jiuyue yuyan'', like ''Shushu di gushi'', is informed by the essayist sensibilities, one still has to consider why Zhang Wei’s essays are more categorical, and hence more simplistic and reductionist, in their assertion than the novel, whose meaning requires considerable teasing out. What is one to make of this discrepancy between Wang Anyi and Zhang Wei? What does it say about the two writers? And what do they have to say, if anything, about the essay and the novel?<br />
<br />
即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都是受散文家的情感影响的，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文在论断上比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br />
<br />
即使有人坚持认为《九月寓言》和《叔叔的故事》一样，都受散文家的情感影响，但我们还是要思考为什么张炜的散文的论断比小说更直截了当，也因此更为简单明了，而他的小说的意义却需要相当多的梳理推敲。怎么去理解王安忆和张炜之间的这种差异呢？对于这两位作家有什么看法呢？他们对这篇文章和小说有什么要说的吗？<br />
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In various ways, our contributors also look into the self-image the essayists construct for themselves as they participate in the cultural polemics at the end of the century.<br />
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在本世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从不同的角度审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 15:56, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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在20世纪末的文化论战中，我们的撰稿人也从用不同的方法审视了散文家为自己建构的自我形象。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
Gone, apparently, is the supercilious pose of the ''xianshi'' essayist who, to paraphrase Lu Xun’s famous translation of Kuriyagawa Hakuson, “sits in a rocking chair by the stove in winter or puts on a bathrobe in summer to drink tea and chat casually with one’s good friends about things that do not give one a headache.” Rather, as our contributors succeed in pointing out, headache is precisely what our essayists aim to provide. Even though they also affect varying degrees of reclusivity or compromise, they always come back later to the polemic fray with renewed vigor. I have in mind such instances as Zhang Wei’s repeated claim to find a monastery in the mountains where he will study all by himself for a year even as he goes around giving advice to his readers on how best to resist the corrupting influences of mass culture.<br />
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这显然是散文家高傲的姿势,套用鲁迅翻译Kuriyagawa Hakuson的一句话,“冬天坐在火炉旁的摇椅上或夏天穿上浴袍跟好朋友喝茶聊天不会让人头疼。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，散文集作者想让我们头疼。”即使他们有不同程度的隐逸或妥协，但他们总是在之后的论战中重新焕发活力。我记得这样的例子，张维反复声称要在山里找到一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐蚀影响。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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显然，“闲适”散文家那种傲慢的姿态已经消失了，套用鲁迅对厨川白村的著名翻译，"冬天坐在炉子边的摇椅上，或者夏天穿上浴袍，和好朋友喝茶闲聊，谈的都是一些不使人头痛的事情"。相反，正如我们的撰稿人所说，头痛正是要由我们的散文家提供。即使他们也会不同程度地影响到隐忍或妥协，但他们后来总是以新的活力重新回到论战中来。我想到的就是这样的例子，比如张炜反复声称要在山里找一个寺院，在那里独自学习一年，甚至到处给读者建议如何最好地抵制大众文化的腐化影响。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
Similarly, the ''zawen'' writer distance themselves from the overtly declamatory tone with the sole purpose of making their gripes more readily stomachable, and their voices more readily heard. Zhang Chengzhi’s temporary withdrawal into religious isolation is another example, for, after a brief period of reclusivity, he enters once again the public sphere with deeper conviction and a broader agenda. In light of Wang Ban’s discussion, Wang Anyi’s case is perhaps less clear-cut than the rest. To be sure, she seems to have adapted rather well to the new consumerist society that commodifies literature; yet, it is clear that there is a serious intent in her deployment of the essayist sensibilities. <br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
In fact, to the extent that ''Shushu di gushi'' has challenged the master-narrative with which the life’s progress of a rehabilitated rightist is often told, I would argue that the essayist sensibilities, far from being irrelevant to history, can be put to historical use. The works of Zhang Wei, Zhang Chengzhi and Shao Yanxiang can perhaps supply us with a footnote to the historical relevance of the essay.<br />
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'''The 20th Century Chinese Essay - Characteristics, Actors, and Trends'''<br />
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''Martin Woesler''<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
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In the first part of my paper, which deals with the characteristics of the essay, I will start with a definition of the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form: “Essay”, in Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文, is a genre term for shorter, self-contained nonfictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question using a subjective I-perspective.<br />
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其实，在某种程度上，《叔叔的故事》挑战了万能叙事模式，这种模式通常讲的是改造后的右翼分子生活得到了改善。在我看来，散文家的敏感性绝不是与历史无关的，它可以用在历史上。张伟、张成志、邵延翔等人的作品或许可以为这篇文章的历史关联性提供一个注脚。<br />
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'''20世纪中国论文--特点、角色及其趋势'''<br />
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''Martin Woesler''<br />
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'''摘要'''<br />
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本文第一部分论述散文的特点，首先，我将散文定义为一种自由形式的非虚构性主观表征。"Essay"，中文为''散文''，指较短的、自成一体的非虚构性文体，其作者试图用主观的“我”的视角来表达个人对某一对象或问题的体验。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 02:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
I will introduce the hypothesis that the Chinese and the Western essays belong to the same international genre and try to prove it by showing cross-cultural similarities both in form and content. However, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay, which I will name.<br />
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In the second part, I try to narrate the beginnings of the rediscovery of the essay in the early 1980s. Not before 1995 did international scholarship start to use common philological methods to explore single essayists or the essays of groups and to write a history of the Chinese essay. Then I will show the topical development of political and apolitical essays.<br />
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In the third part, I will ask, who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br />
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我将会介绍我提出的假设，即中国和西方的散文都属于同一种国际体裁，并尝试通过展示两者在形式和内容上的跨文化相似点来证明这一假说。但是，我也会列举中国散文的一些特殊的本土特色。<br />
在第二部分，我尝试讲述散文在1980年代的复现开始阶段的事情。1995年前，国际学术界开始运用常见的语言学方法来探索单篇散文和散文集，并撰写了中国散文的历史。之后，我将展示政治性散文和非政治性散文的主题发展。<br />
在第三部分，我将提出我的问题，即谁是20世纪中国散文的代表人物？--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:33, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
I will introduce Lu Xun, with his sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. Analysis reveals that he still remains the most-read essayist, not because of his ''zawen'', but because of his reminiscences and lyrical essays. Using the examples of the most often reprinted essays, “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b), “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924), “Wild Vegetables of my Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925), “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974) and “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b), I will show that moving essays form the top tier of the genre. I will also try to stimulate further analytic works by giving hints for examples of promising intertextual and intersubjective comparison.<br />
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我介绍一下鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以仍然是作品传阅最广的作家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆文和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和 《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。<br />
--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 09:50, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我将介绍鲁迅尖锐的、供日常政治使用的议论性子文--杂文。分析发现，他之所以一直是读者最多的散文家，不是因为他的杂文，而是因为他的回忆录和抒情散文。我将从这类体裁的经典代表作中予以说明，以再版次数最多的散文为例，《背影》（朱自清1928b）、《荷塘月色》（朱自清1927）、《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（朱自清1924）。"故乡的野菜"（周作人1925年）、"听听那冷雨"（余光中1974年）和 《怀念萧珊》（巴金1979b）。我还将试图通过文本间和主体内的比较，来促进进一步的分析。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
In the fourth section, I will name contemporary trends in essay writing. After the Cultural<br />
<br />
Revolution essays came from the perspective of an authentic eye. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism demanded a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tried to give a personal orientation, as essayists pleaded for moral virtues. Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s were written with a kind of new subjectivism, targeted away from contemporary contradictions but appealing to the feelings of the audience by creating either a positive or a negative world. <br />
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The fast-paced nature of current Chinese society demands diverting and short texts. There is also increasing consciousness of individuality, for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem which is mediated by its metrical and formal demands.<br />
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在第四部分，我将列举当代散文写作的趋势。在文革之后，散文变得写实。尤其是在20世纪80年代和90年代，个人主义对个人消费的满足进行反思；像散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。其它20世纪80年代和90年代的散文以新主观主义写作，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是创造出一个或是积极或是消极的世界来和读者产生共鸣。<br />
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当今中国社会快节奏的本质需要有趣且简短文本。人们对个性也越来越关注，而散文就是最直观的个人表达形式，诗歌与之相比还受到了格律和形式的限制。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 00:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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第四部分，我将阐述当代散文写作的趋势。文革后，散文开始写实。从20世纪80年代开始，尤其是在90年代，个人主义对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性的反思；正如散文家呼吁美德一般，他们也尝试提供人生导向。八九十年代的其他散文则以新的主观主义作为写作目标，不再聚焦当代矛盾，而是通过营造一个积极或消极的世界和读者产生共鸣。<br />
<br />
当今中国社会快节奏的特点要求文字有趣而简短。人们的个性意识也在不断增强，而散文是最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比要求以格律和形式为中介的诗歌更加直接。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:40, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
In China we see a renewed interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s and 30s. We become conscious of the banality of daily life when it is being used as a literary topic, as in the essay, which most commonly treats the genre of everyday life. The de-ideologization of Chinese society led to a rediscovery of the apolitical essays, dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished; the only political relic is patriotism, for example expressed in the monograph published in 1996, ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).<br />
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在中国，我们能看到如同二十世纪二十年代至二十世纪三十年代，通过论文这一媒介，人们又有了兴趣讨论社会政治问题。当日常生活被用作文学主题时，我们就会意识到其平庸，就像在散文中一样，散文通常是针对日常生活的体裁。中国社会的去意识形态化，导致了民国时期，特别是1923 - 1928年的非政治性散文的重新发现。20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文式文化消失了;唯一的政治遗迹是爱国主义，例如1996年发表的专著《中国可以说不!》-冷战后政治和情感的可能性”(见《中国可以说不》!)''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see ''China can say no''!).--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 14:35, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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'''1. CHARACTERISTICS<br />
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1.1 Defining the essay as a non-fictional subjective representation in a free form'''<br />
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Similar to international literature, the basic subdivision of literature in China in general is one in three types: epic (with ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction), sanwen (here in the broader meaning non-fictional prose)), lyrics ''shige'' (lyrics) and ''xiqu'' (drama). Though there is no pure epic form, fiction and prose are often jointly addressed with the Chinese term “''wu yunwen''” which corresponds to the term “epic” in the West. The types may be distinguished roughly by their nature in the following way: In the epic, bygone events are retold, a broad, filled story dominates the foreground. In the lyrics, the reader is encouraged to feel the current sensations and often confessionlike feelings of the poet.<br />
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1. 特征<br />
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1.1将本文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式<br />
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与国际文学类似，中国文学的基本细分一般是三类：史诗（小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧）。虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但小说和散文常常被合称为中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。从性质上看，这几种类型可以大致区分为以下几种。在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个宽广的、充实的故事占据了重要位置。在歌词中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当前的感觉，往往是告白式的感受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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'''1. 特征<br />
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1.1 将散文定义为一种非虚构的主观自由表现形式'''<br />
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和国际文学一样，中国文学一般细分为三类：即史诗（包括小说、散文（这里指广义的非虚构散文））、诗歌和戏剧。小说和散文虽然没有纯正的史诗形式，但人们通常把他们合称为“无韵文”，这里中文的“无韵文”对应西方的“史诗”一词。这三种类型从本质上来说大致可以通过以下方式来区分：在史诗中，过去的事件被重述，一个广阔充实的故事主导了前景。在诗歌中，鼓励读者去感受诗人当时告白式的感觉。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 12:14, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
The drama recalls a self-contained action directly in monologue or dialogue and in this way unburdens the re-creative imagination of the readers/spectators through it. The essay as a genre of the epic is a detached non-fictional subjective representation in a free form.<br />
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“Essay,” Chinese mostly ''sanwen'' 散文 , is a genre term for shorter, self-contained non-fictional prose texts, in which the author tries to mediate individual experiences on an object or a question out of subjective I-perspective. This it tries associatively and from different sides, not as a text for daily use, but with artistic or educationally demanding means of language, nevertheless in an accessible form. The resource is mastered by the essayist sovereignly and the topic is seen in a larger context and can even be presented humorously. Free-dom in form and content is essential for the essay.<br />
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该剧直接在独白或对话中唤起了一个独立的情节，并以此减轻了读者/观众的创造性想象力。 这篇散文作为史诗体裁的文章是一种自由形式的超脱的非虚构主观表现形式。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“Essay”的中文即散文，主要是较短的、自成体系的非虚构散文的流派，作者试图从主观角度调解对象或问题的个人经验。 这样，从不同方面进行了关联性的尝试，而不是作为日常使用的文本，而是通过艺术或教育上要求苛刻的语言手段进行了尝试，但仍以可访问的形式进行。 散文内容完全由散文家掌握，并且可以在更大的范围内了解主旨，甚至可以幽默地对其进行介绍。 形式和内容的自由对散文来说至关重要。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 04:29, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
Different perspectives range in the international genre of the essay: Genres are primarily divisions of literature through the scholarship of literature for specialized contemplation and in order to be able to compare similar texts more easily. On the other hand, subcategoring the essay in too many small entities, questions the sense of such subdivisioning in reference to hermeneutic findings. One must also stay aware of the changing nature of literature itself and the relativity of the scientific perspective, which is still a timely one, even if its accepted internationally.<br />
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Regional deviations seem less important for the essay than for established genres like short stories, novels etc., and far less important than for poems.<br />
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不同的观点在国际类型的文章：体裁主要是文学的分工，通过文学的学术专门思考，为了能够更容易地比较类似的文本。另一方面，在太多的小实体中对这篇文章进行了归类，在解释学的发现中质疑了这种划分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，这仍然是一个及时的问题，即使它在国际上被接受。<br />
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地域差异对文章的重要性似乎不如对短篇小说、小说等已有的体裁那么大，而对诗歌的重要性则要小得多。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:45, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于文章的国际体裁存在不同的观点：体裁主要是文学的分类，通过对文学进行专门的学术研究，能够更容易地对比相似的文本。另一方面，在太多小实体中进行更小的分类，在解释学的发现中质询了这种细分的意义。人们还必须意识到文学本身不断变化的性质和科学观点的相对性，即使它在国际上得到认可，这仍是一个及时的问题。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:20, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
All these other genres are seen as international genres. My hypothesis, that the Chinese and the Western essay also belong to the same international genre maybe proved by the crosscultural mutualities both in form and content.<br />
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In the 21st century, the world is growing together and culture is mainly determined by the grade of modernization. The Chinese essay, as we find it in newspapers today, has taken on the form and content of the Western essay and is aimed at a target group comparable to that of the Western essay. <br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
This is a second hint that the modern Chinese essay belongs to the international genre of the essay. Even though the translation of ''duanpian xiaoshuo'' with ''short stories'' is commonly accepted, both are less closely related than the Western essay and its Chinese counterpart. The definition, which I developed out of a sample of more than 5000 modern Chinese essays, fits also the special international understanding of the essay (following Bolz 13:269-272 on the development of the western essay; Butrym 1989 on the theory of the western essay). <br />
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The choice of the term “''sanwen''” instead of “''suibi''” (familiar essay) or “''xiaopin wen''” (short literary piece) is of course arbitrary, but it corresponds to the present usage. In about 200 essay collections and histories between 1949 and 1996 known to the author, ''sanwen'' turned out to be the common expression, ''xiaopin'' was used only in one out of 25 essay titles of the PR China, in one out of 14 Taiwanese, and one out of ten Hong Kong publications.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个暗示。尽管写“短故事”的"短篇小说"的翻译被普遍接受，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br />
<br />
当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:16, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这是中国现代散文属于国际散文文体的第二个表现。尽管大众普遍接受“短故事”和"短篇小说"的翻译，但两者之间的联系却不如西方散文和中国散文紧密。这一定义是我从5000多篇现代中国论文样本中得出的，也符合国际上对这篇论文的特殊理解。<br />
<br />
当然，用“散文”代替“随笔”或“小品文”是随意的，但它符合现在的用法。在1949年至1996年作者所知的约200本杂文集和历史中,“散文”更为常见,而只有1/25的中国文章标题、1/14的台湾出版物，以及1/10的香港出版物使用“小品文”。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
Besides the trend towards a globalized society, first expressed in Zhou Zuoren's call to adopt the English essay style, there are special local characteristics of the Chinese essay. How is the Chinese essay to determine culturally, what makes it “Chinese”? In the occidental essay the ''form'' seems to be a more important criterion of differentiation than in its Chinese counterpart. In China even those texts are included, which have only a similar content, but cross the borders of the formal generical framework. This can be shown with Cheng Ming-Lee, who subcategorises the “unfinished diary” or the “unfinished letter”. Those texts belong - within the Western context - to texts of personal use and therefor to the non-fictional prose works. Only after they have been altered into essays (Cheng Ming-Lee: “essay in diary form” and “essay in letter form,” see Cheng Ming-Lee), they are accepted as essays.<br />
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周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中文杂文还具有地方特色。 中文杂文如何在文化上定义，是什么让其更加“中国化”？ “形式”在西方杂文里，比在中文散文中，更为一个重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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周作人是第一个呼吁采用英语文风来体现全球化社会趋势的，除此之外，中国散文还具有地方特色。从文化上来看，如何定义中国散文，是什么让其更加“中国化”？与中国散文相比，“形式”在西方散文中似乎是更为重要的区分标准。 在中国，甚至包括那些内容相似的文本，但都跨越了正式通用框架的边界。 程明利（Cheng Ming-Lee）将“未完成的日记”或“未完成的信件”分类，进而证明了这一点。这些文本在西方语境中属于个人使用的文本，因此属于非虚构的散文作品。 只有在将其改写之后，人们才称之为杂文。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
This tendencial broader understanding of the essay in China can be traced back directly to the connotation, that the term ''sanwen'' possesses in Chinese: ''wú yùnwén''“non-rhythmic prose,” which originally meant all non-fictional prose. In this broader meaning, also texts for personal or everyday use are included. However I deal only with ''sanwen'' in the narrower meaning “short literary essay pieces”.<br />
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Further differences are that Chinese essays often have ideological contents and show stylistic characteristics like repetitions and the usage of sayings.<br />
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这种对中国论文的倾向性更广泛的理解可以直接追溯到“sanwen（散文）”一词的中文含义：“wúyùnwén（无韵文）”，“非韵律散文”，它最初是指所有非虚构的散文。 在这种更广泛的含义上，它还包括个人或日常使用的文本。 但是，我只用狭义的“散文”来处理“sanwen”。<br />
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进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内涵，并表现出重复性和俗语性等风格特征。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 13:46, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
在中国，这种对散文更广泛理解的趋势，可以直接追溯到“散文”一词在中文里所具有的内涵:“无韵文”“非韵律散文”，最初指的是所有非虚构的散文。在这个更广泛的意义上，个人或日常使用的文本也包括在内。但我说的“散文”只是狭义的“短篇小片段”。进一步的区别是，中国散文往往具有思想内容，并表现出重复、用语等文体特征。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
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'''1.2 I will describe the beginnings of the discovery of the essay.'''<br />
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Despite the increase in essay writing from 1979 on, it took a decade for the first theoretical reflections on this phenomenon to appear. It took another decade before the international scholarship of Chinese Studies became aware of the phenomenon of the essay. <br />
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In the 1980s, Chinese scholarship made a first major approach to reflect on essay literature by writing essay histories and collecting papers, which concentrated first on the essayistic work of single authors like Lu Xun. Also two essay conferences in the 1990s showed no move towards international scholarship. Not before 1995 did international scholarship started to use common philological methods to explore single essayists (on Gaylord Leung [Liang Xihua] 梁錫華 Kubin 1995, on Wang Meng 王蒙 Woesler 1995, on Liu Zaifu 劉再復 Mansberg 1995 [unpublished]) or essays of groups (on 'Xīnyùe pài 新月派' Wagner 1996).<br />
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'''1.2我将介绍发现散文的开端'''<br />
从1979年开始，虽然散文写作增多，但却在十年之后才首次产生对这一现象的理论思考。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。 <br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和收集散文的方式对散文文学进行重大的反思，这些反思首先集中在鲁迅等个别作家的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文会议也没有显示出国际学术研究的动向。1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用共同的语言学方法来探讨单个散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华] 库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或群体散文家的散文（ 关于新月派 "瓦格纳 1996年）。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 07:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''1.2我将介绍散文是如何开始发现的'''<br />
尽管从1979年开始，散文作品有所增多，但对这一现象的理论反思却用了十年的时间才首次出现。又过了十年，国际汉学界才开始意识到散文现象。<br />
<br />
20世纪80年代，中国学术界首次以撰写散文史和散文集的方式对散文文学进行了重大的反思，这些反思首先聚焦于鲁迅等单一作者的散文作品上。另外，90年代的两次散文论坛也没有显示出朝国际学术研究发展的动向。直到1995年以后，国际学术界才开始使用普遍的文献方法来探讨单一散文家（关于梁漱溟[梁锡华]库宾1995年，关于王蒙 沃斯勒1995年，关于刘再复 曼斯伯格1995年[未发表]）或团体散文家的散文（关于新月派 "瓦格纳1996年）。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
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Not before the second half of the 1990s, did a history of the Chinese essay using the means of Western philology appear (Woesler 1998). For the first time, the essay was included in Western anthologies of literature as a genre equal to fiction and poetry (''The Columbia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature'' 1995, see Lau/Goldblatt, ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996, see Denton).<br />
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Regarding the valuing of essays in China, Taiwan and the West, there are regional differences: In the States, essays are often chosen according to Western taste and totally unknown authors are given as much space as established ones. In Taiwan, Lu Xun has been banned for a long time, but today, in my survey, which Chinese essayists are printed the most in the 1990s, he ranks 16th.<br />
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文（吴莫汀 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文 《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br />
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，人们往往按照西方人的口味来选择散文，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜中，鲁迅排行第16位。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 15:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
直到90年代后半期，才开始用西方语言学的手段研究中国散文的历史（Woesler 1998）。散文第一次作为与小说、诗歌同等的文体被收入西方文学选集（《哥伦比亚现代中国文学选集》1995，见劳/葛浩文，《中国现代文学思潮》1996，见丹东）。<br />
中国台湾和西方对散文的重视存在着地区差异。在美国，散文往往按照西方人的口味被人们选择，完全不知名的作家和知名作家一样，都会得到同样多的篇幅。在台湾，鲁迅被雪藏了很久，而如今，在我所进行的关于90年代发行量最多的中国散文家排行榜调查中，鲁迅排在第16位。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 03:13, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
If one only take modern authors into account, he even ranks 12th. Hong Kong literature on Yu Guangzhong has been censored by Huang Weiliang in favor for the first (see Lin Yaode, 50), and Wang Meng has been overestimated in the People’s Republic of China due to his political post.<br />
<br />
Still it remains a ''desideratum'' to get the most important Chinese essays in Western translation. Currently at least three essay collections in English translation are in the reviewing process (Tam King-Fai [announced]) or already published (Pollard 1999, Woesler 2000). Pollard's selection is a highly subjective and eclective choice of essays, covering even the premodern essay. Most of the contributors to the collection in hand met in 2000 on a first international conference on the essay.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
In the years to come, a new ''Bonn History of Chinese Literature'' will grant the essay its proper place with two to three volumes only dedicated to the ''biji, youji'' and other essays.<br />
<br />
'''1.3 20th Century Development and Hindrances'''<br />
<br />
The topical development of political essays sees a shift from the enlightenment-educational essay, which emerged in 1907, to the daily-political essays in the 1920-30s, further to anti-Japanese propaganda in the 1940s and ideological propaganda in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1980/90s, the discussion of politics of daily interest form a smaller part than in the 1920/30s. In the 1980s all genres including poems and essays were used for the critic against the master narrative of Communism or the Maoist understanding of art as serving ideology.<br />
<br />
在未来，新的《波恩中国文学史》将给这篇文章一个合适的位置，它将有两到三卷专供《比集》、《酉集》和其他文章的专供。<br />
“1.3 20世纪的发展与阻碍”<br />
政论散文的专题发展经历了一个从1907年启蒙教育散文到20世纪30年代日政散文的转变，再到20世纪40年代的抗日宣传和20世纪50、60年代的思想宣传。在20世纪80 - 90年代，日常兴趣政治的讨论比20 - 30年代要少。在20世纪80年代所有类型包括诗歌和散文为意识形态服务，被评论家用于反对关于共产主义的叙述或毛泽东主义的艺术理解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:39, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
Whilst the 1980s saw a revival of political issues in terms of discussion on the best system of society, (also in literature in general and in film) to a mere unpolitical and again more philosophical-moral theme spectrum in the 1990s, where essayists define their role, first of all to counterpart the consume-orientation of the masses. (Yu Guangzhong's essay “The Wolves are Coming” shows that the ideological perspective did not only harm mainland essaywriting, see Yu Guangzhong 1977.) The essay seems to be the only genre in China which has kept its educatio-nal claim with the exception of essays which claim to be “art pourt l'art”.<br />
<br />
I mentioned the lack of translations in Western languages. One of the reasons might be the impression of some scholars that many of the Chinese essays were just propaganda.<br />
<br />
而在20世纪80年代，政治问题在关于最佳社会制度的讨论（也在一般文学和电影中）中复兴。到了20世纪90年代，散文家们重新定义了自己的角色，首先是与大众的消费取向相对应。（余光中的散文《狼来了》表明，意识形态的视角不仅仅破坏了大陆的散文创作，见余光中1977年）。这篇散文似乎是中国唯一一个保持其教育主张的体裁，除了那些号称“艺术的散文”。<br />
我提到了缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，认为许多中国散文只是宣传。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:17, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
划词翻译<br />
20 世纪 80 年代，在讨论社会的最佳制度时，政治问题又出现了复苏，(也包括在一般的文学和电影中) 在 20 世纪 90 年代变成了纯粹的非政治性和更具哲学性的-道德主题，在那里，散文家定义了他们的角色，首先是要与大众的消费取向相对应。余光忠的“狼来了”一文表明，意识形态的视角不仅损害了中国大陆的文学创作，参见余光中 1977 年的作品) 似乎是中国唯一保留其教育主张的体裁，但主张“艺术是艺术”的论文除外。<br />
<br />
我提到缺乏西方语言的翻译。其中一个原因可能是一些学者的印象，许多中国的文章只是宣传。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:50, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
This might be true for the 1940s and even the 1950s, but nowadays this has changed, as the overwhelming majority of publications prove. This demands a closer look: Since 1949, politically affirmative literature has been encouraged by the government, resulting in a statistical paradox: not the affirmative authors and their texts form the majority of the essayists read in the 1990s, but the critical essayists, whose texts oppose the order to serve politics through their apolitical, sometimes even defiant character. In the 1990s, the texts of 1920s/1930s Republican China are still as often reprinted as their contemporary counterparts. Obviously we can conclude that the politically affirmative essay of the 1950s only survived in special political essay collections and is no longer written by famous contemporary authors nor read by the Chinese audience in the beginning of the 21st century.<br />
<br />
在20世纪40年代甚至50年代，这可能是真的，但如今，正如绝大多数出版物所证明的那样，情况已经改变了。这需要更仔细的观察:自1949年以来,在政治上积极的文学一直在政府的鼓励下,导致了统计上的悖论:在20世纪90年代的散文家中，大多数人不是持肯定态度的作者而是持批判态度的散文家，他们的文章是非政治的、有时甚至带有挑衅特征，以此来反对为政治服务的秩序。在20世纪90年代，中华人民共和国二三十年代的文本仍然和当代中国的文本一样被重印。显然，我们可以得出这样的结论:20世纪50年代的政治肯定随笔只存在于特殊的政治随笔集中，在21世纪初，当代著名作家的作品和中国读者的阅读都将不复存在。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In restrictive regimes, where freedom of speech is not guaranteed, people still have different political ideas. To speak out directly is unhealthy, so in these countries people use art to express their differences. The most direct way of expressing political ideas in art is literature. To trick the censors, one must find indirect ways of expression. In an exhibition of ''Tendency Quarterly'', 16 banned Chinese magazines were displayed. Most of the magazines choose the poem as their favorite form to express political thoughts. After having been banned, some magazines went abroad and now are published in exile. The internet has added a number of underground magazines, which are available also inside mainland China. In the last years of the 20th century, one can find an increase of essays in these magazines. This might be a hint, that the authors dare to speak out more directly.<br />
<br />
在限制体制下，言论自由得不到保障，人们仍然有不同的政治观点。直接说出来是不健康的，所以在这些国家，人们用艺术来表达他们的差异。艺术中表达政治思想最直接的方式是文学。要骗过审查者，人们必须找到间接的表达方式。在“趋势季刊”展览中，展出了16本被禁的中文杂志。大多数杂志选择诗作为他们最喜欢的表达政治思想的形式。在被禁之后，一些杂志社搬到了国外，现在以流亡的方式出版。互联网增加了地下杂志数量，这些杂志也可以在中国大陆境内阅读。在20世纪的最后几年里，人们可以在这些杂志上发现散文数量越来越多了。这可能是一个暗示，暗示作者敢于更直接地表达出来。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
The topical development of the unpolitical essay starts with the everyday-topics of Zhu Ziqing (“On Dreams,” see Zhu Ziqing 1928c) and Zhou Zuoren from 1917 (''My Own Garden'' 1923, “The Fly” 1924, “Reading on the Toilet” 1936), with a caesura 1927, when the political essays became the main stream, until the late 1930s, when the unpolitical essay was eliminated totally by the anti-Japanese movement. It didn't recover until the 1970s, when life turned back to normality and normal things became topics of interest because of their long absence. Again in the 1990s, the unpolitical essay boomed also due to less interest in political issues and the need for a new orientation in the new found world of mass consumerism.<br />
<br />
非政治性散文在话题上的发展开始于1917年，当时朱自清（见朱自清1928年《说梦》）和周作人（1923年《自己的园地》、1924年《苍蝇》、1936年《在马桶上读书》）谈论的是日常话题，到1927年尾声，政治性散文成为主流，30年代末，非政治性散文在抗日运动中彻底淘汰。直到20世纪70年代，生活步入常态化，这一时期长期不受关注的日常事物反而成为了人们感兴趣的话题，非政治性散文由此得以恢复。同样在90年代，也由于人们对政治问题不怎么感兴趣，加上在大众消费主义的新世界中需要全新的定位，非政治性散文蓬勃发展起来。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 08:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
'''2. Actors: Lu Xun, Zhu Ziqing, Ba Jin, Wang Zengqi, Yu Guangzhong'''<br />
<br />
Who were the major players in the Chinese essayism of the 20th century?<br />
<br />
Here is not the place to recount the struggle, which many of the today well-known heroes of the May-Fourth Movement had to establish their literary values and narrative. Unlike today, at that time the authors were also editors and publishers of magazines and therefore had a strong position in the cultural field.<br />
<br />
One thinks first of Lu Xun, who invented a sharp, polemic subgenre for daily-political use, the ''zawen''. In his own, broad understanding of ''zawen'', it could contain poems, short stories, drama etc. From a genial writer of short stories, he turned to ''zawen'' for the rest of his life, leaving behind a legacy of more than 700 essays.<br />
<br />
'''2、参与成员：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文的主要参与者是谁？<br />
<br />
这里不是叙述谁于争雄的地方，而当今许多著名的五四英雄人物必须确立自己的文学价值观和叙事方式。与现在不同的是，当时的作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版商，因此在文化领域有着很强的地位。<br />
<br />
人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他发明了一种尖锐的、具有争议性的日常政治用的亚体裁，即''杂文''。在他自己对''杂文''的广泛理解中，它可以包含诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一名亲切的短篇小说作家转向了一名撰写''杂文''的作家，留下了700多篇文章。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:02, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''2. 参与者：鲁迅、朱自清、巴金、汪曾祺、余光中'''<br />
<br />
20世纪中国散文的主要人物有哪些?<br />
<br />
这里不会讲述这场斗争，当今许多著名的五四运动英雄不得不建立他们的文学价值和叙事。与当今不同的是，当时，作者同时也是杂志的编辑和出版人，因此在文化领域有很高的地位。<br />
<br />
人们首先想到的是鲁迅，他为日常政治生活创造了一个尖锐的、争论不休的亚文体——''杂文''。在他广义理解中，''杂文''包括诗歌、短篇小说、戏剧等。他从一个和善的短篇小说作家，转向成为《杂文》作家，终其一生，留下700多篇散文。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:30, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
During his lifetime, with his sharp attacks, he was the most known essayist. But these essays were of daily-political interest only and are seldom read today. Analysis reveals now that he stills stays the most often read essayist until the end of the 20th century. Not his ''zawen'', but the following reminiscences and lyrical essays remain until the end of the century in the top-ten list of essays: “Autumn Night” (Lu Xun 1925b), a lyrical essay from ''Wild Grass'', in “Mr. Fujino” (Lu Xun 1926c), Lu Xun remembers his Japanese teacher, in “The Kite” (Lu Xun 1925a) he remembers how he hurted his younger brother's feelings once, and “From Hundred Plant Garden to Three Flavour Study” (Lu Xun 1926b), which recounts his childhood experience also with classical literature.<br />
<br />
在他的一生中，他以尖锐的攻击力成为最著名的散文作家。但是他的这些散文仅仅是处于日常的政治兴趣，在今天很少有人阅读。分析表明，到20世纪末，他的作品仍然是阅读得最多的。直到本世纪末，保留下来的并非是他的杂文，而是以下的回忆录和抒情散文：《野草》中的一篇抒情散文《秋夜》（鲁迅 1925），在《藤野先生》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅仍然记得他的日语老师，在《风筝》（鲁迅 1925）中，鲁迅记得他曾经是如何伤害他的弟弟的，在《从百草园到三味书屋》（鲁迅 1926）中，鲁迅叙述了他的童年经历和经典文学。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 01:02, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
The other most often printed essays are from Republican or modern times: The first is “The Back View” (Zhu Ziqing 1928b). With his whole work, this author ranks shortly behind Lu Xun. From this and other essays one can derive the criteria for essay best sellers in the P.R. of China: In “The Back View,” filial piety is the driving factor, parallelistic and repetitive structures in the atmospherical nebulous “The Moonlit Lotus Pond” (Zhu Ziqing 1927), also written by Zhu Ziqing, whose style easily may seem mannerist to the Western reader. In “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing 1924) the author describes a beautiful landscape and makes ancient customs alive again. Nostalgic home feelings are the emotional identification element in “Wild Vegetables of My Home Region” (Zhou Zuoren 1925).<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong is represented in this list with the nostalgic “Listening to the Cold Rain” (Yu Guangzhong 1974). In Ba Jin's most often reprinted essay “In Memoriam of Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) he remembers his wife. <br />
<br />
Works of authors who decided to serve an ideology are far less often reprinted than the eight authors found to be leading: Mao Dun and Guo Moruo (rank 15) are mentioned in the average as seldom as Lu Xun in Taiwan and Yang Shuo (ranks 30) appears only half as often.<br />
<br />
Therefore one can state, that unpolitical, moving essays form the top.<br />
<br />
For a list of the 36 most often (re)printed essayists, and the top 59 essays please see the mentioned monograph (Woesler 1998b).<br />
<br />
余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br />
<br />
决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br />
<br />
因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章占据了榜首。<br />
<br />
有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:35, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
余光中因其怀旧散文《听听那冷雨》（余光中 1974）而榜上有名。在巴金最常被转载的散文《怀念肖珊》(巴金 1979b）中，他追忆了他的妻子。<br />
<br />
决定为某种意识形态服务的作家的作品被转载的次数远远少于处于领先地位的八位作家：茅盾和郭沫若（排名15位）在台湾被提及的平均数与鲁迅一样少，而杨朔（排名30）的出现频率仅为一半。<br />
<br />
因此，我们可以说，非政治性的、感人的文章囊获了榜首。<br />
<br />
有关36个最常（重新）印刷的散文家和排名前59位的散文家的列表，请参见所提到的专着（Woesler 1998b）。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
The huge number of essays and essayists offer many possibilities for intertextual and intersubjective comparison, out of which only some thoughts can be indicated here due to lack of space. They might stimulate further analytic works. Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren and Zhu Ziqing wrote about the same occasion, the massacre on March 18, 1926 quite differently. Zhu Ziqing attacks the government directly and promises it a soon collapse (“Report of the Government’s Great Massacre,” Zhu Ziqing [1926]). Lu Xun described the massacre in an unctuous chant instead (“Jinian Liu Hezhen jun” Lu Xun 1926a), and Zhou Zuoren bitter-humorously in his essay “Different Ways to Die” (Zhou Zuoren 1926).<br />
<br />
Different ways of coming into terms with the 'Cultural Revolution' we can see in the essays of Ba Jin, Bing Xin, and Wang Meng: Ba Jin enlucidated unsparingly to the extend of self-accusation (Ba Jin 1979a).<br />
<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃(朱自清《政府大屠杀报告》[1926])。鲁迅用虚情假意的歌谣(《纪年刘和真君》鲁迅1926a)描述了这次大屠杀，而周作人则在他的散文《不同的死法》(周作人1926)中诙谐而辛辣地描写了这次大屠杀。<br />
<br />
从巴金、冰心、王孟等人的文章中，我们可以看到巴金对“文化大革命”的几种不同的看法:巴金的狂热达到了自我谴责的程度(巴金1979a)。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性以及主体间性的对比提供了多种可能性。但由于篇幅有限，这里只能展示一部分想法。它们或许能够激发进一步的分析作业。鲁迅、周作人和朱自清都描写过同一场景，1926年3月18日的大屠杀，但是描绘的手法不尽相同。朱自清正面攻击政府，并断定它不久就会垮台（《执政府大屠杀记》朱自清 1926）。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《几年刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。<br />
<br />
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：巴金不遗余力地自我谴责（巴金1979a）。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:38, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
大量的散文和散文家为互文性和主体间性的比较提供了许多可能性，但由于篇幅有限，这里只能表达一些想法。它们可能激发进一步的分析工作。鲁迅、周作人、朱自清对同一事件——1926年3月18日的大屠杀——的描写则截然不同。朱自清直接攻击了政府，并断定它很快就会崩溃。而鲁迅用谄媚的诗歌描述了这次大屠杀（《纪念刘和珍君》 鲁迅 1926a)，周作人在他的散文《不同的死法》以幽默而苦涩的手法描写了这次大屠杀。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
从巴金、冰心、王蒙的散文中，我们可以看到，巴金对“文化大革命”有着不同的理解方式：在自我批评方面，巴金对自己毫不手软。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:58, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
Wang Meng dealed with it humorously (Wang Meng 1980), Bing Xin tried to pretend continuity by naming her works after the 'Cultural Revolution' with the same titles as before: The successful collections ''Letter to the Children'' (Bing Xin 1931), and ''Letter to the Children, vol. 2'' containing texts since 1958, were followed by ''Letter to the Children, vol. 3 ''with texts since 1978. In her “Autobiographical Notes” (Bing Xin 1982) she simply skips the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
A trip in early August 1923 (Mei/Wu, 46) with Yu Pingbo to the Qinhuai river, which Zhu knew from an earlier visit (Chen Xiaoquan, 68), inspired both to write in the same year at the age of about 24 and 26 an essay with the title “Splashing Oars and Lantern Light on the Qinhuai River” (Zhu Ziqing dated 10/11, 1923, Yu Pingbo dated 8/22, 1923, jointly published in ''Eastern Miscellany''), an English translation by Hu Shiguang can be found in ''Chinese Literature'' 1 (Spring 1988) Yu 162-172, and Zhu 173-182 resp. Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo continue here a tradition of Chinese poets, writing poems on a common experienced journey to compete with each other. I found, that Zhu Ziqing's essays is more persuading.<br />
<br />
王萌幽默地处理了这一问题（王萌1980），冰心试图通过在"文化大革命"后用与以前相同的标题命名自己的作品来假装连续性：成功收藏了《给儿童的信》（冰心1931） ）和“给孩子的信，第一卷， 2”（包含自1958年以来的文字），其次是“给孩子的信”（第一卷）,3”自1978年以来一直使用文字。在她的“自传笔记”（Bing Xin 1982）中，她只是跳过了“文化大革命”。<br />
<br />
朱元培在1923年8月上旬（梅/吴，46岁）与秦淮河的一次旅行（陈小泉，68岁）认识了秦淮河，这激发了双方在同年24岁左右写诗的初衷。 26一篇题为“在秦淮河上泼桨和灯笼光”的文章（朱自清1923年10月11日，于平波1923年8月22日，在《东方杂记》上共同出版），英文翻译胡世光的著作可以在《中国文学》 1（1988年春季）中找到Yu 162-172和Zhu 173-182。朱自清和余平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在经历了共同竞争的共同经历中创作了诗歌。我发现朱自清的论文更具说服力。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:22, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
王蒙幽默地处理了这一问题（王蒙1980），冰心试图以'文革'后的作品命名，标题与以前相同，以假装连续性。成功的作品集《给孩子们的信》（冰心1931年）和《给孩子们的信，第二卷》收录了1958年以来的文字，随后又出版了《给孩子们的信，第三卷》，收录了1978年以来的文字。在她的《自述》（冰心1982）中，她干脆跳过了'文革'。<br />
<br />
1923年8月上旬（梅/武，46）与俞平伯到秦淮河游玩，朱自清早年曾到过秦淮河（陈孝全，68），激发了两人的灵感，两人在同年分别约24岁和26岁时写了一篇题为《秦淮河上的溅桨和灯火》的文章（朱自清10/11。1923年，俞平伯日期为1923年8月22日，合刊于''东方杂记''），胡世光的英译本见''中国文学''1（1988年春）俞162-172，朱173-182 resp。朱自清和俞平伯在这里延续了中国诗人的传统，在共同经历的历程中写诗，互相竞争。我发现，朱自清的文章更有说服力。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 03:07, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Wang Meng, Jia Pingwa and others wrote essays entitled “Falling leaves” (Jia Pingwa 1981, Wang Meng 1989) on the transitoriness of life in the allegory of falling leafs. It is interesting and surprising to discover the similarity between a, the differences between the description and interpretation of the falling leaves and b, the differences between the different authors' self-understanding and philosophy. One may compare essays entitled “On dreams” with 58 years difference in their origin (Zhu Ziqing 1928c, Bing Xin 1986). Moreover it is interesting to compare conceptions of essayism as we can see in Lu Xun's theory of “emerging” and “blossoming” and Zhou Zuoren's theory of the synthesis of the gongan school and the English essay.<br />
<br />
王蒙、贾平凹等人共同撰写了《落叶集》(贾平凹1981、王蒙1989)，论述落叶寓言中生命的短暂。对落叶的描述与解读之间存在的差异以及不同作家的自我理解与人生哲学的差异，这两者之间竟然发现有相似之处，实在令人惊喜。人们可以将《论梦》这篇散文与有58年历史的渊源差异作比较（朱自清1928c，冰心1986）。此外，比较鲁迅的“兴”与“花”与周作人的“公安派”与“英语散文”的综合理论中的散文主义概念，是很有意思的。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:11, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
'''3.Trends<br />
<br />
3.1 The essay as a snapshot of contemporary thoughts'''<br />
<br />
What is the state of contemporary essay writing in China? Its position should be brought into its proper relationship to recent approaches, perspectives and terms of categorization, like post-modernist elements, post-colonial thinking, deconstructivism etc.<br />
<br />
The increase of the essay production after the ‘Cultural Revolution’ might be explained with the ability of the essay, to express personal experiences much more authentically than other genres because of its immanent claim of historical truth. But the essay is not a guarantee for objective truth: In the same time it is subjective, the essayist mediates his image consciously. This restricts the reported truth to a subjective one and bears the risk of a wilfully “corrected” truth.<br />
3.潮流与趋势<br />
“中国当代散文写作的现状如何?”<br />
它的地位应该与后现代主义元素、后殖民主义思维、解构主义等最近的分类方法、视角和术语恰当地联系起来。<br />
“文革”后散文增多，因为原因有两点：1.散文比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历的能力 2.它对历史真理的内在诉求。<br />
但散文并不是客观真实的保证:它同时具有主观性，作者有意识地对自己的形象进行调整。<br />
这就会导致所报道的真相只能是主观的，防止有人故意“篡改”真相。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 08:52, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
3.趋势<br />
3.1作为当代思想的快照的散文<br />
中国当代散文创作的现状如何？它的定位应与后现代主义、后殖民主义、解构主义等现代理论方法、视角和术语保持适当的联系。<br />
<br />
“文革”后散文产量的增加，这可以用散文的能力来解释，因为它具有内在的历史真理诉求，比其他文体更真实地表达个人经历。但散文并不是客观真实的保证，同时它也是主观的，散文作者有意识地调整自己的形象。这就把报道的真相限制在主观上，并承担着故意“修正”真相的风险。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:53, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The individualism of the Republican era has been based on the common feeling to stand at a historical turning point and directed towards common targets like the creation of a New Literature and a new Chinese society. In the 1980s and especially in the 1990s, individualism asks for a critical reflection on the satisfaction of personal consumption needs and tries to give personal orientation, essayists plead for moral virtues (“Serene” Wang Meng 1992, “First make your own things in a good way” Wang Meng 1994). These essays, mainly published in newspapers and magazines, are widely read by people in the rapidly changing, anonymous, alienating and consume-oriented mass cultural society.<br />
<br />
共和时代的个人主义建立在站在历史转折点上的共同感觉的基础上，并朝着共同目标发展，例如创建新文学和新中国社会。 在1980年代，尤其是1990年代，个人主义要求对个人消费需求的满足进行批判性思考，并试图赋予个人取向，散文学家呼吁道德美德（“ Serene” Wang Meng 1992，“首先用自己的东西制造自己的东西）。 好方法”（王萌，1994年）。 这些论文主要发表在报纸和杂志上，在瞬息万变，匿名，疏远和消费导向的大众文化社会中被人们广泛阅读。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
Other essays in the 1980s and 1990s are in a kind of new subjectivism targeted away from contemporary contradictions but apply to the feelings of the audience by creating an either positive (“Shanxi Opera,” Jia Pingwa 1984) or negative world (“The Nightmare,” Si Yu 1995).<br />
<br />
'''3.2 The essay as the genre of the giddy-paced nature of society, individuality, socio-political discussions, de-ideologization, everyday's profaneity and banality'''<br />
<br />
From the essay, we can see contemporary ''trends of literature'', which are also reasons for the increase in volume of this genre in the 1990s:<br />
<br />
-The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition” (Hall, xiii);<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
-The increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
-A revival of interest in discussing social-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
<br />
-The banality of everyday life becomes conscious through becoming a literary topic, most commonly in the genre of everyday life, the essay.<br />
<br />
-The De-ideologization of Chinese society. Today not the governmentally demanded affirmative texts stand at the forefront, but unpolitical essays, mostly dating from the Republican era, especially from the years 1923 to 1928. This observation is supported by the results of the mentioned statistical analysis. The mostly read political essays after 1949 are critical essays. For example Ba Jin complains in “Remembering Xiao Shan” (Ba Jin 1979b) about the death of his wife in the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
<br />
- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br />
- 通过散文重新唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的兴趣，如20世纪20年代或30年代。<br />
- 因成为文学话题，日常生活的平庸性变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活文体——散文。<br />
- 中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本，而是非政治性的散文在最前面，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。<br />
<br />
- 散文是个性意识增强的最直接的主观表达形式，甚至比具有韵律和形式要求的诗歌更直接；<br />
<br />
-通过这篇文章唤起人们对讨论社会政治问题的关注，如20世纪20年代或30年代的情况。<br />
<br />
-日常生活的平庸通过成为一个文学主题而变得有意识，最常见的是日常生活的体裁——散文。<br />
<br />
中国社会的去意识形态化。今天，不是政府要求的肯定性文本站在最前面，而是非政治性的文章，大多可以追溯到共和党时代，特别是1923年至1928年。这一观察结果得到上述统计分析结果的支持。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治论文是批评文章。1949年以后，人们阅读最多的政治散文是批评散文。例如巴金在《追忆萧山》（巴金1979）中控诉妻子在“文化大革命”中去世。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:31, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
-Regarding the compiling of essay collections: For the most often selected essays in the People’s Republic, Taiwan and Hong Kong, moral and aesthetic criteria seem to have underlain. This is a sign of the increasing independence of the editors of essay anthologies from governmental or ideological handicaps, and for the increasing commercialization of the publishing houses with an orientation toward customers (former: “readers”). <br />
<br />
-In the latter half of the 1990s, the master narrator himself seems to be lost within the subjectivity of in-dividuals and everyday's profaneity and banality of a more and more formally organized but substantially empty citylife. Time loses worth, since more and more of the daily acctivities are filled with mechanical and autistic actions.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, the essayistic culture of political criticism of the 1980s has vanished, the only political replique is the patriotism, for example expressed in the 1996 published monograph ''China can say no! – Possibilities for politics and emotions in the period after the cold war'' (see China can say no!).<br />
<br />
The reason that we do not find post-modernist essays in the sense of post-modernist fiction lies in the directness of the essay: The essay as a genre is a chat between author and reader and not an object d'art which wants to give cause for different interpretations or which would depend on exceptional form or contents or even quotations of pre-modern characteristics in order to make it an distinguishable object d'art. Also trends like the use of ordinary language, which one finds in novels since 1993 (Feidu, Jia Pingwa 1993; ''Ying'er'', Gu Cheng 1993) and ''New Borderlessness'' since 1995, cannot be proven in the essaywriting.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，80年代受到政治批评的散文文化已经消失，唯一留下的政治产物是爱国主义。例如，1996年出版的专著《中国可以说不——冷战后时代的政治与情感抉择》（见于《中国可以说不》）。<br />
<br />
从后现代主义小说的角度来看，我们找不到后现代散文的原因就是散文具有直接性。散文作为一种文体，是沟通作者和读者的桥梁，而不是一种艺术对象。通常艺术对象指企图引起不同的解读，或依靠独一无二的形式或内容，甚至引用前现代主义的特点使其成为一种独特的艺术对象。另外，1993年出版的小说《废都》（贾平凹 1993年）、《英儿》（顾城 1993年）以及1995年出版的《新无界》，作者在这些作品中日常语言的使用趋势在散文写作中也未得到体现。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:18, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
到20世纪90年代，80年代政治批评的散文文化已经式微，唯一留下的政治产物就是爱国主义。……我们之所以没有在后现代小说意义上找到后现代主义论文的原因在于散文的直接性：散文是一种作者与读者之间对话的体裁，而不是一种引起不同解读的艺术体，也不是依赖于独一无二的形式或内容，甚至是为使本身变得独特而引用前现代主义特征的艺术对象。……--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 16:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
-Also the fictional realism David Der-Wei Wang sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proves helpful for the understanding of some essays, one being “The Small Dog Baodi” (Ba Jin 1981), in which the author turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in allegoric instead of in descriptive truth as before (“In Memoriam of Xiao Shan II,” Ba Jin 1984b). Similar is the concept of imaginery nostalgia, as Wang calls the fictional truth in Shen Congwen's work (David Wang 1992), helpful for the reading of “Rain in Kunming” (Wang Zengqi [1984]) as well as for “Shanxi Opera” (Jia Pingwa 1984). <br />
<br />
1 Xin zhuangtai xiaoshuo 新狀態小說 new borderless fiction, represented by Chen Dong 韓東, Lu Yang 魯羊, Zhu Wen 朱文, Lin Bai 林白, Chen Liang 陳梁, Zhang Mei 張梅.<br />
<br />
2 Post-colonialist thinking (Williams et al. 1994), which is to be seen as part of the social-political discourse, appears in essays, especially in the less critical political, but patriotic essays of the 1990s. Kafkaism helps us understand the essay “The Nightmare” (Si Yu 1995), where the author appears as a deconstructionist, the I-narrator even is drawn near to suicide.<br />
<br />
老舍，茅盾和沈从文作品中呈现的虚构现实主义也被证明有助于理解某些文章，例如文章《小狗包弟》（巴金，1981）中，作者不再像以前那样叙述事实，（如《萧山回忆录》，巴金，1984b）。两者都是对过去的回忆，也就是王在沈从文作品中提出的虚构的真相（David Wang，1992），它有助于阅读《昆明的雨》（王增琪[1984]）和《山西歌剧》（贾平瓦（1984）。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
另外，王德威在老舍、茅盾和沈从文身上看到的虚构现实主义，也证明了对一些文章的理解是有帮助的。例如，在《小狗包弟》（巴金1981）一文中，作者变成了一个叙述者，用寓言式而不是像以前那样用描述性的真实来叙述'文革'的记忆（《纪念萧山二号》，巴金1984b）。类似的还有想象的怀旧概念，如王家卫所说的沈从文作品中的虚构真相（王家卫1992），对《昆明的雨》（汪曾祺[1984]）以及《山西戏曲》（贾平凹1984）的阅读都有帮助。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 12:03, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1辛庄台小说新状态小说，由韩东，鲁羊，朱文，林白，陈梁，张梅代表。<br />
<br />
2后殖民主义思维（Williams等，1994）虽然被视为社会政治话语的一部分，却出现在文章中，特别是在1990年代批评性和政治性较弱但提倡爱国主义的论文中。卡夫卡主义可以帮助我们理解《梦m》（Si Yu 1995）一文，在那篇文章中作者是一位解构主义者，而主人公甚至被迫自杀。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 10:08, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
-The Schwarcz' concept of ''personal grief'' expressed in a ''metaphorical discourse'' helps us to understand how Ba Jin was able to overcome the ''truth of being'' he was known for, only to reach a more convincing ''fictional truth'' through the metaphor of his dog Baodi (Schwarcz 1996).<br />
<br />
'''20th Century Chinese Essay - A Survey of the Genre and New Insights Into the Essayists Ba Jin, Zhou Zuoren, Zhu Ziqing'''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
The narrative established by literary histories and anthologies has drawn a distorted picture of 20th century Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was almost ignored. In my paper I will demonstrate, how the picture of three authors change, if we take into consideration also some of their esayistic work. Here I choose the example of the critical political essay. The essay tells us more about an author than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions.<br />
<br />
施瓦茨的''个人悲伤''概念以''隐喻话语''的方式表达，有助于我们理解巴金是如何克服他所熟知的''存在的真相''，而只是通过对他的狗，宝迪，进行隐喻达到一个更有说服力的''虚构的真相'"（施瓦茨，1996）。<br />
<br />
'''20世纪中国散文--散文家巴金、周作人、朱自清的文体调查与新见解'''<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
文学史和选本建立的叙事，对20世纪的中国文学进行了歪曲的描绘。文章的体裁几乎被忽略了。在我的论文中将证明，如果我们考虑到他们的一些散文作品，三位作家的形象将如何变化。在此，我选择了批判性政治文章的例子。与小说或诗歌相比，散文更能让我们了解一个作者，因为在这种文体中，我们遇到的是没有格律限制的作者本人。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 11:58, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
In 1927, when the writers were threatened by a massacre among leftists by the National People's Party in Shanghai, a whole generation of writers found a common base in communist ideology, formally expressed in 1930 in the foundation of the "League of Left-Wing Writers". <br />
<br />
Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to the changing political climate, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming "needs" of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products. This struggle of finding a position in a politicized environment is best documented in the essay --- "a genre of self-reflection". Moreover, by its very nature, the essay overcomes boundaries of form and content. Therefore there are more essays than there is fiction free from political thoughts. Some essayists even went a step further, deconstructed the master narrative of leftist ideology, like the three writers I will talk about today.<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
'''Zhou Zuoren'''<br />
<br />
The master narrative of the offical literary history of the People's Republic on Zhou Zuoren is, that a sophisticated May Fourth genius "degenerated" and later became a national "traitor". Zhou's writings were officially considered bad literature, a total elimination of his texts was only prevented, because of the fame of his brother, who became a state author posthumously through the valuing of Mao Zedong. Actually the reception of his essays reaches a new climax now, in the essay collections of the 1990s, his essays rank 3rd, as I was able to proof with a survey of 5000 essays. That makes clear that his political engagement had no effect on the brilliance of his literary works.<br />
<br />
周作人<br />
<br />
中华人民共和国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个卓越的五四天才“退化”，后来成为民族“叛徒”。 周的著作被官方认为是不良文学，由于他兄弟的名声，而他的兄弟因高度评价毛泽东死后成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。 实际上，现在他的论文的接受度达到了一个新的高潮，在1990年代的论文集中，他的论文排名第三，正如我通过对5000篇论文的调查所证明的那样。 这清楚地表明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 02:23, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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周作人<br />
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民国官方文学史对周作人的主要叙述是，一个老练的五四天才 "堕落 "了，后来成了民族 "汉奸"。周作人的文章被官方认为是劣质文学，彻底消灭他的文字只是因为他兄弟的名气，他通过重视毛泽东而成为国家作家，这彻底阻止了他的著作的全部出版。其实现在对他的散文的接受达到了一个新的高潮，在90年代的散文集中，他的散文排在第三位，这是我对5000篇散文的调查所能证明的。这说明，他的政治参与对他的文学作品的辉煌没有影响。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 02:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
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The official assessment of the People's Republic is that Zhou's work experienced a caesura in 1938 due to his "degeneration" and opposition against the patriotic campaign. Zhou kept trying to aesthetizise the little things of the everyday out of the subjective experience of his private space his whole life, only seven months after the incident at Marco Polo bridge he showed that it was again possible to write about a candy seller for which he had been critizised as "paralyzing" . But there was indeed a caesura, namely the change in style and subject in his essays on literature, art etc. to ''zhengjing'' 正經 (serious, intentional essays), and ''xiánshì'' 閑適 (essays for one’s own enjoyment). But this change is located not before his outlawing through Mao Zedong (1942), and his arrest by the Guomindang (1945). Therefore not the Japanese suppressors should be made responsible for the retreat of this great writer, but his Chinese compatriots. <br />
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3 C. T. Hsia. [Note: Some of the annotations are in German and are translated into English during the editiorial work for the forthcoming edition.]<br />
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4 ("Mai tang 卖糖" 1924).<br />
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5 (Lu Xun 1934, Zhu Zhaoluo 1943).<br />
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人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验中审美出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东取缔（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 13:35, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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人民共和国官方的评价是，在1938年，由于他自身的 "堕落 "和反对爱国运动，周春芽的作品经历了一个尾声。周作人一生都在试图将日常的小事从私人空间的主观经验审美中剥离出来，在马可波罗桥事件发生七个月后，他才表明，他又可以写一个卖糖的人了，他曾因此被批判为 "麻痹"。但是，他的文章确实有一个高潮，那就是他的文艺文章在风格和主题上发生了变化，变成了严肃的、有意的文章和自娱自乐的文章。但这一变化并非在他被毛泽东接力（1942年）、被国民党逮捕（1945年）之前。因此，对于这位伟大作家的退隐，不应该由日本的镇压者负责，而应该由他的中国同胞负责。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 13:43, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
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So the first correction of the narrative is, that his literature was ''not'' effected by socio-political circumstances in quality, but in contents. And there is a second master narrative on Zhou Zuoren, which says that he was an apolitical author. Actually, he wanted his abstinence of political statement to be understood as a political statement by itself. For him, literature was a mean not for revolution, but for resistance . In the modernizing society, he advocated the liberation of women and asked to "treat children as full subjects with their own external and internal lives" and to "make children the essence of children's literature" , literature should make the society more humane.<br />
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The second example, where a reading of some of his essays lets us rediscover the author is Ba Jin: He is known for his practical essays with anarchistic and communist background in the 1930s and 40s, for his opportunistic self-criticism, self-censorship and the accusation of a writers' collegue during the cultural revolution. After the 'Cultural Revolution' he seemed to emerge as a righteous character , when he claimed to have done all this under pressure. He then devoted his essays to the working up of the trauma of the 'Cultural Revolution', for example in the self-accusing essay series ''Random Thoughts''.<br />
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因此，对叙事的第一个纠正是，他的文学不是在质上受社会政治环境的影响，而是在内容上。还有一个关于周作人的第二个故事，说他是一个不关心政治的作家。事实上，他想把他对政治声明的无欲理解为一种政治声明本身。对他来说，文学不是革命的手段，而是反抗的手段。在现代化社会中，他倡导妇女解放，要求“把儿童作为一个完整的主体，有自己的外在和内在的生命”，“使儿童成为儿童文学的本质”，文学要使社会更加人性化。<br />
第二个例子，读了他的一些文章，我们就可以重新发现这个作者是巴金：他以他在20世纪30年代和40年代写作的具有无政府主义和共产主义背景的实用文章而闻名，因为他在文革期间机会主义的自我批评、自我审查和对作家圈的指责。在“文化大革命”后，当他声称自己是在压力下做这一切的时候，他似乎成了一个正直的人。然后，他把自己的散文归于“文化大革命”的创伤中，例如在自责的系列随笔《随想》中。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 06:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
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Since they were seldom reprinted, two of Ba Jin’s critical essays "''Independent Thoughts''" and "''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", dating 1956 and 1962 were overlooked. With them, Ba Jin turns out to be a lifelong independant writer. The two essays were criticised. He had to deny their contents and later they were censored. Even nowadays, these texts are not easy to find in anthologies and dictionaries in the P.R.C. and Taiwan.<br />
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"''Independant Thoughts''" dated 1956, propagates the freedom of the individual and of thoughts. This essay was written in the '100-Flower-Movement', when criticism was induced officially. Ba Jin corresponded only to the 'mainstream', although his criticism was unusually sharp. Much more distinctly directed against the 'mainstream' was the second text, which I want to introduce shortly.<br />
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==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
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"''Writers’ Courage and Sense of Duty''", a speech at the second Shanghai congress of writers and artists in early 1962, has later been censored at seven striking places. In it, Ba Jin judges very hard about himself and his collegues: At different campaigns against literary works they would have followed the political demands opportunistically and therefore were traitors. The second target of Ba Jin's criticism were the censors and critics, who would posess more power than the writers and that without legitimation. Ba Jin interpreted Mao's Yan'an speeches on art and literature in the way, that writers should themselves take over responsibility.<br />
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'''"The Small Dog Baodi" as a metaphorical discourse on Ba Jin's personal grief'''<br />
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Although Ba Jin is regarded together with Bing Xin as one of the representatives of Republican literature, the more important part of his essayistic work seems to lie after 1949 . Publishing from Hong Kong since 1979, he has spoken out loudly in opposition and in trying to help ease the trauma associated with the 'Cultural Revolution'.<br />
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1962年初在上海第二届文艺代表大会上的一篇演讲《作家的勇气与责任感》后来有七个引人注目的部分被删减。在这部小说中，巴金对自己和他的同僚进行了严格的评判：在不同的文学运动中，他们会适时地追随政治要求，因此他们是叛徒。巴金批评的第二个对象是审查员和批评家，他们比作家拥有更多的权力，没有合法性。巴金对毛泽东延安文艺讲话的解读是：作家应该自己承担责任。<br />
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'''《小狗包弟》作为一种隐喻讲述了巴金的个人悲痛'''<br />
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巴金虽然与冰心一起被视为共和文学的代表人物之一，但其散文作品更重要的部分似乎在于1949年以后。自1979以来从香港出版，他大声反对，并试图帮助缓解与“文化大革命”有关的创伤。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 06:24, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
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One of this essays is the story-like "''Small Dog Baodi''". Written in 1980, the author remembers his dog, which he had received two decades ago from a Swedish person and which he loved after a while. When the 'Red Gards' raged, the dog was in danger. Ba Jin describes in detail the fate of the animal and his own resignation, when he learned that he could not protect the dog. In order to save him from a torturous death, he finally submitted the dog in 1966 for medical experiments. Revisiting his garden after the 'Cultural Revolution', he remembers painfully how his wife had played here with the dog. I would like to show six points of interpretation:<br />
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这篇随笔中有一篇是像故事一样的《小狗宝蒂》。这封信写于1980年，作者回忆起他的狗，这只狗是20年前他从一个瑞典人那里收到的，过了一段时间他就爱上了它。当“红色大革命”流行时，狗处于危险之中。巴金详细描述了这只动物的命运和他自己的辞职，当他得知他不能保护狗。为了把他从痛苦的死亡中拯救出来，他最终在1966年把狗送去做医学实验。“文化大革命”后，他重新回到他的花园，痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里和狗玩耍的情景。我想提出六点解释:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:36, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这随笔集中，有一篇故事《小狗包弟》。这篇文章写于1980年，作者怀念他的狗，这只狗是作者二十年前从一个瑞典人手中收到的，过了一段时间作者就爱上了它。当'红卫兵'肆虐的时候，这只狗的处境危险。巴金详细描述了小狗包弟的命运和自己得知无法保护狗时的无可奈何。为了让小狗包弟免于折磨而死，巴金终于在1966年将这只狗送去做医学实验。'文革'后巴金重游自家花园，他痛苦地回忆起妻子在这里与狗玩耍的情景。对这篇文章，我想提出六点解读：--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 06:55, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
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1, The dog is a metaphor. In the beginning Ba Jin seems to report the fate of a dog with relevance only to his owner. But soon it becomes clear that Ba Jin actually mediates to the reader the cruelty of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The reader wonders, "if they did ''this'' with an ''innocent'' dog, what did they do with ''men'', whom they considered ''guilty''?" Ba Jin analogizes himself with the dog, when he sees himself liying on the dissection table. Even Baodi's death is useful, he serves science - could a man be more altruistic?<br />
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狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能这样做，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又做会怎样做呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连鲍迪的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 13:53, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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狗是个比喻。 一开始，巴金似乎在说狗的命运只跟主人有关。但是很快我们就知道了，巴金实际上是在向读者介表述“文化大革命”的残酷。读者想知道，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗“都能如此”，对那些视为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢？” 当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他将自己比作狗。就连鲍迪都死得其所，服务了科学---一个人还能更无私吗？--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 01:52, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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狗是一个隐喻。在故事的开头，巴金看似在说狗的命运只和主人有关。但很快我们就明白了，巴金实际上是在向读者传达“文化大革命”的残酷。读者会想，“如果他们对一只“无辜”的狗都能如此，那么他们对那些他们认为“有罪”的“人”又会怎样呢?”当巴金看到自己躺在解剖台上时，他把自己比作狗。就连包弟的死也是有用的，他是为科学服务的，一个人还能更无私吗?--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:25, 20 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
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6 (Zhou 1929:180-181).<br />
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7 (Zhou 1923).<br />
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8 (The Family in 1951)<br />
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9 (1982 Yi pian xuwen).<br />
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10 (Suixianglu) The essays of the 1980s are more autobiographical, and deal with literature and questions for society nowadays. Due to the very nature of the essay, we can look through his "Random Thoughts" into the soul of Ba Jin..<br />
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11 (Random Thoughts 1978-86, see Ba Jin 1988).<br />
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2, Ba Jin expresses the pain of the loss of his wife through the dog. Not before the very end of the essay, Ba Jin mentions his wife in painful remembrance, who became ill and died during those ten years. In the essay "''In Memoriam Xiāo Shān''", which appeared earlier in the collection, he had confessed severe feelings of guilt regarding her death, what haunted him into his dreams. He claimed, that they had withhold her medical treatment because of him. <br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
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3, The essay is an accusation of the 'Cultural Revolution'. The not-mentioning of the 'Cultural Revolution' as the reason for his wife's death makes the pain the more accusatory, especially in front of the comparable unimportant doglife. His terrifying awareness is the powerlessness - he was not able to protect his dog nor his wife. Ba Jin actually wants to illustrate the powerlessness of the individual in front of collective cruelty.<br />
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本文是对'文革'的控诉。 没有提到“文化大革命”是其妻子去世的原因，这就更让人痛心疾首，尤其是在相对不重要的狗命面前。他可怕的意识是那种无力感-他没有能力保护他的狗和他的妻子。巴金其实是想说明个人在集体的残酷面前的无能为力。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 00:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这篇文章是对“文化大革命”的控诉。没有提及“文化大革命”是他妻子死亡的原因，使这种疼痛更具控诉性，尤其是在相对无关紧要的狗的性命面前。他意识到无能为力是多么可怕——他既不能保护他的狗，也不能保护他的妻子。巴金其实是想展示在集体的残酷面前个体的无能为力。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 01:29, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
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4, The significance of this way to deal with the 'Cultural Revolution'. If one compares the mentioned essay with others of the year 1979, it lied within the common trend of criticizing the 'Cultural Revolution'. But there were also authors like Bing Xin denied the 'Cultural Revolution' - soon after its end, she used similar titles for her books than before - in order to pretend continuity. Wang Meng worked up the 'Cultural Revolution' in a humoristic way - ''Ba Jin'''s essays stand out of these, because of their relentlessness and confessing character.<br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
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5, The use of rhetorical means. Ba Jin pretends to be a simple documentarist "I expect from literature [...] that it tells the truth.". In fact he is known for his direct and accusing truth, sometimes his literary style is critizised as too direct and too less artful (a reproach from Hong Kong students). In "''The Small Dog Baodi''" he is using literary means to create emotion in his readers. He uses composition and rhetoric means like animation. The dog Baodi allegorically shows the injustice and inhumanity of the 'Cultural Revolution'. Here, Ba Jin turns into a narrator who recounts the memories of the 'Cultural Revolution' in ''allegoric'' instead of in descriptive truth as before . He is longing for a ''fictional truth'', instead of the ''truth of being'' in the sense of Thomas Aquinas. The fictional realism Wang Der-wei sees in Lao She, Mao Dun and Shen Congwen, proofs helpful for the understanding of this piece.<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
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6, Ba Jin's personal grief is much more persuading in the metaphor of the dog than in his direct accusing essays. As Vera Schwarcz (1996) points out<br />
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"To speak too much of grief is to blunt its edge. It might even make us deaf to the cry that sparked discourse about suffering in the first place. A cold, calculating intelligence cannot grasp the rough contours of grief. [...] To preserve the significance of personal suffering in public life we need a more indirect approach; one that accepts and, indeed, nourishes AMBIGUITY. This, in the words of Cynthia Ozick, is the discrete province of METAPHOR, "the reciprocal agent, the universalizing force that makes it possible to envision the stranger's heart." [...]<br />
She also mentions that "[...] absence of talk -- or, rather modest use of ''metaphorical discourse'' -- serve us better in the presence of massive grief."<br />
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6.巴金的个人悲痛，在狗的隐喻中比他直接指责的文章更有说服力。<br />
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正如薇拉·施娃茨（Vera Schwarcz）（1996）所指出的那样"过多地谈论悲痛就是钝化它的锋芒。这种行为甚至可能让我们对最开始引发关于讨论痛苦的呐喊充耳不闻。冷酷、斤斤计较的智慧无法把握悲伤的粗糙轮廓。[...]为了保持个人苦难在公共生活中的意义，我们需要一种更间接的方法；一种接受并且实际上滋生模棱两可的方法。用辛西娅·奥齐克（Cynthia Ozick）的话说，这就是隐喻的分立范畴，"相互作用，普遍化的力量，使得我们能够想象陌生人的心。"[...]她还提到，"[....]保持沉默--或者说适度使用“隐喻性话语”--在巨大的悲痛面前更有利于我们"。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 07:05, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
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To sum up, Ba Jin turns out not to be the self-censorer, who tried to make his literature fit into the communist ideology. Instead he was a lifelong fighter for the freedom of speech and the independancy of literature from politics, who spoke out whenever he had the opportunity without endangering himself. He also no longer appears as the "uneducated" writer of simple truth, as he leads us to believe. Yet he has achieved a high rhethoric of ''fictional truth'' and is able to transmit his personal grief even more persuadingly in a ''metaphorical discourse'' throught the metaphor of the dog Baodi.<br />
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综上所述，巴金原来并不是一个自我审查者，试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要有机会，他就会大声疾呼，但不会危及自身。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“不谙世事”的作家形象出现。巴金对虚构事实的修辞手法已经十分高超，能够通过狗宝弟的隐喻，以隐喻性的话语，更有说服力地传递他个人的悲伤。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 06:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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综上所述，巴金并不是一个试图使自己的文学符合共产主义意识形态的自我审查者。相反，他一生都在为言论自由和文学独立于政治而奋斗，只要一有机会，他就会在不危及自己的情况下畅所欲言。他也不再像他引导我们相信的那样，以“没有受过教育的”作家的形象出现。然而，他实现了“虚构真实”的高度流变，通过狗宝弟的隐喻，在“隐喻话语”中更有说服力地表达了个人的悲伤。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 00:41, 19 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=115622History of Translation Studies 42020-12-19T11:19:43Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian" */</p>
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<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
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=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
<br />
1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
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First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
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Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
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1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views<br />
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2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
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Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
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2.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
3.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
<br />
Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
<br />
===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
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The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, the 2 translators，Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong, translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of one word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan ''An Lying in the Snow'' has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:19, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. （文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
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As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
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The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
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As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
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This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
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Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
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Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
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In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
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Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
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===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
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八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
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*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
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*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
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*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
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===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
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===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
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Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
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As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
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Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
<br />
(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
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=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）. <br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
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［25］曾艳.从翻译美学视角看商标翻译[J].太原城市职业技术学院学报.2010(04).<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
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In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
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In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu, 1986: 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu, 1986: 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba, 2003: 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu, 1986: 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba, 2003: 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang, 2007: 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba, 2003: 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba, 1991: 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (2003: 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
<br />
Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
<br />
Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
<br />
The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
<br />
Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
<br />
Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
<br />
Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
<br />
The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
<br />
Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
<br />
This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
<br />
Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
<br />
First, we will look at the original text:<br />
<br />
Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
<br />
Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. 2011. Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. 2002. Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. 2015. The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
[4] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 1981. 快乐王子. 上海：少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] 巴金. 2003. 巴金译文选集. 北京: 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 2010. 快乐王子. 上海: 上海译文出版社<br />
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[7] 方梦之. 2004. 译学辞典. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社<br />
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[8] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学概述.外国语(上海外国语学院学报), (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学基本理论构想.中国翻译, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘宓庆. 2005. 翻译美学导论. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
<br />
[11] 林琳. 2007. 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》. 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] 刘孝银. 2012. 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话.山西师范大学.<br />
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[13] 毛荣贵. 2005. 翻译美学. 上海: 上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] 王占斌. 2007.巴金翻译思想探析.英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] 吴金华. 1999. 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色.宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] 向洪全. 2016. 翻译家巴金研究. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] 杨立秋. 2016. 巴金翻译美学特征探析.北京外国语大学.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=115609History of Translation Studies 42020-12-19T11:13:54Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian" */</p>
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<br />
=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
<br />
<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
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Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
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In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
<br />
1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
<br />
First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
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1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views<br />
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2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
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Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
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2.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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3.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
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Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
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“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2 Lu Xun<br />
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In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
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From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who were perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others cannot feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
<br />
Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
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Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
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*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
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*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
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*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
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*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
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*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
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*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
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二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. （文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
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“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
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The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
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The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
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Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
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Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
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Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
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Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
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Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
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Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
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The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
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Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
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Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
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The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
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Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
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Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
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Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
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Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
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One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
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Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
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Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
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Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
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In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
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No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
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No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
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Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
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2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
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Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
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Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
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The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
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Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
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There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
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Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
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As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
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As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
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===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
<br />
Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
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==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
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[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
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[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
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[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
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[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
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[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
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[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
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[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
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[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
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(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
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Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
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Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
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Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
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Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
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Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
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Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
<br />
One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
<br />
For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
<br />
Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
<br />
====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
<br />
The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
<br />
Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
<br />
The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
<br />
=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
<br />
The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
<br />
=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
<br />
For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu, 1986: 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu, 1986: 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba, 2003: 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu, 1986: 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba, 2003: 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang, 2007: 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba, 2003: 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba, 1991: 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (2003: 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
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On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
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On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. 2011. Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. 2002. Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. 2015. The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
[4] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 1981. 快乐王子. 上海：少年儿童出版社<br />
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[5] 巴金. 2003. 巴金译文选集. 北京: 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
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[6] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 2010. 快乐王子. 上海: 上海译文出版社<br />
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[7] 方梦之. 2004. 译学辞典. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社<br />
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[8] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学概述.外国语(上海外国语学院学报), (02):48-53.<br />
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[9] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学基本理论构想.中国翻译, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘宓庆. 2005. 翻译美学导论. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
<br />
[11] 林琳. 2007. 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》. 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] 刘孝银. 2012. 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话.山西师范大学.<br />
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[13] 毛荣贵. 2005. 翻译美学. 上海: 上海交通大学出版社<br />
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[14] 王占斌. 2007.巴金翻译思想探析.英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] 吴金华. 1999. 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色.宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] 向洪全. 2016. 翻译家巴金研究. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] 杨立秋. 2016. 巴金翻译美学特征探析.北京外国语大学.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=115604History of Translation Studies 42020-12-19T11:11:57Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 2. Translation Aesthetics */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
<br />
Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
<br />
English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
<br />
English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
<br />
English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
<br />
To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
<br />
===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
<br />
Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
<br />
To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
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*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
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*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
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*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
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*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
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==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
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Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
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===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
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鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
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===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
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Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
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First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
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Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
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1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views<br />
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2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
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Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
<br />
2.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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3.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
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Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
<br />
"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
<br />
According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
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===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style, using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language cannot. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
<br />
As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
<br />
===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. （文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
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SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
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TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
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Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
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韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
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The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
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韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
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八仙过海—各显神通<br />
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Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
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八仙过海—各显神通<br />
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Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
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The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
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千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
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Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
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“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
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千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
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To know nothing about something<br />
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The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
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擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
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To know nothing about something<br />
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The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
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因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
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Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
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As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
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But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
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因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
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Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
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As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
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The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
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The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
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外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
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Things will be back as they were before. <br />
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It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
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外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
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Things will be back as they were before. <br />
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It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
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If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
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The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
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隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
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If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
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The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
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Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
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Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
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===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
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张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
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Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
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Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
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The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
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If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
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张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
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The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
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===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
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To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
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猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
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To shed crocodile tears<br />
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Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
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Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
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猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
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To shed crocodile tears<br />
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Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
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瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
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Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
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The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
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In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
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瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
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Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
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===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
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Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
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云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
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The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
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Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
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云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
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If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
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The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
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卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
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The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
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The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
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To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
<br />
Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
<br />
Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
<br />
For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
<br />
This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
<br />
However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
<br />
These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
<br />
In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
<br />
When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
<br />
Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
<br />
It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
<br />
This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
<br />
Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
<br />
(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
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It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
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The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
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The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
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Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
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===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
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Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
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This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
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It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
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And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
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===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
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Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
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===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
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For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
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According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
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The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
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=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）. <br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
<br />
When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
<br />
通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
<br />
In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
<br />
In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
<br />
It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
<br />
In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
<br />
====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
<br />
In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
<br />
Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
<br />
Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
<br />
Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
<br />
Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
<br />
====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
<br />
The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
<br />
As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu, 1986: 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
<br />
In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
<br />
According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu, 1986: 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
<br />
He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba, 2003: 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
<br />
Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
<br />
In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
<br />
====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
<br />
Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu, 1986: 21)<br />
<br />
Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
<br />
Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba, 2003: 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
<br />
Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang, 2007: 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba, 2003: 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba, 1991: 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (2003: 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
<br />
Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
<br />
In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
<br />
Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
<br />
Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
<br />
The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
<br />
Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
<br />
Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
<br />
This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
<br />
Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
<br />
The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
<br />
Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
<br />
This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
<br />
Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
<br />
Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
<br />
One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
<br />
First, we will look at the original text:<br />
<br />
Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
<br />
The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
<br />
Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. 2011. Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. 2002. Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. 2015. The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
[4] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 1981. 快乐王子. 上海：少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] 巴金. 2003. 巴金译文选集. 北京: 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 2010. 快乐王子. 上海: 上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] 方梦之. 2004. 译学辞典. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社<br />
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[8] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学概述.外国语(上海外国语学院学报), (02):48-53.<br />
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[9] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学基本理论构想.中国翻译, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘宓庆. 2005. 翻译美学导论. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
<br />
[11] 林琳. 2007. 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》. 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] 刘孝银. 2012. 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话.山西师范大学.<br />
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[13] 毛荣贵. 2005. 翻译美学. 上海: 上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] 王占斌. 2007.巴金翻译思想探析.英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] 吴金华. 1999. 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色.宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] 向洪全. 2016. 翻译家巴金研究. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] 杨立秋. 2016. 巴金翻译美学特征探析.北京外国语大学.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=115603History of Translation Studies 42020-12-19T11:09:31Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 1. Introduction */</p>
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
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Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
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Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
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Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
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Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
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SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
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TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
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The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun were productive writers and translators. They held different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming that “tranlsation should rather be faithful than smooth”. His translation views were highly consistent with his political views, that has changed people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu took readers as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translation. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
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===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋是中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同的时期分别采用直译和硬译的方法进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”的翻译原则。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想的影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”。本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 04:56, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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1.1 The Formation of Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation was homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn was closely related to his philosophy of life. The essence of Liang’s philosophy of life was "moderation", which was derived from Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
Confucianism has been deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of further study aboard helped him accept Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
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First, “moderation” was the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “moderation” had great influences on different fields, such as education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, as Confucius' saying goes: “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which was to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. The saying, “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury”, also told us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also regarded “moderation” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believed that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity showed his view of “moderation”. In his opinion, life had three states, which were natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocated indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “moderation”. Liang Shiqiu knew the spirit of “moderation” had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the spirit of “moderation”. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
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Second, humanism was the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism was about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism could destroy this balance. He believed that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it was the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that caused the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation for Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which was somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focused on people, lookd at people dialectically, and was concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and the tradition of respect.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
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1.2 The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Views--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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During the period of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators appeared in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. He mainly translated Italian into Chinese, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for and read every translation work from Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of other people, understanding them and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, domestication was his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also applied domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people was the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we had to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style of the original, but also has done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adoption of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 05:48, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
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===2.Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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2.1 Liang Shiqiu's Translation Views<br />
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2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should prioritize the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation was to faithfully express the meaning of a work in another language for those who do not understand the original language. The translator's duty was to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “tranlation is better to be faithful than be smooth” or Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “translation is better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations could be reflected in the following aspects. First, it does not accord with the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu took the reader as the priority and emphasized the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not be read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is acceptable to be used in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticized Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that can not be found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
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Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu was one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature was derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature was literature, and the core of literature was to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought was reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity". In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation was to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude was reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translate, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This showed that translation was not only a simple act of translating but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflected on his translating process of the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believed that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words were involved, they were harmless and could sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there was a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms were extensively annotated, a method that some experts called "scholarly translation". Research showed that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
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2.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth". The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun were precisely what made his translations innovative. He advocated that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", rather "a few bites and then swallowed". This process of chewing was precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation required translators to express the original text faithfully, and remained the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserved the characteristics of the original text, but also respectd the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there was a difference between "hard translation" and "word-by-word translation", and it was not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) had its own target audience. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" was not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 06:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
3.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
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===4.The Practical Significance of Translation Views===--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, while the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helped the local people to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, while the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism was that it was more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandoned its own tradition and copied western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s spirit of "moderation", and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation set an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism was that it exaggerated the conflict of culture and ignored the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, the recognization of differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's spirit of "moderation" in translation not only helped to form his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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4.2 Lu Xun<br />
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In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese, and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
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From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based on humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined advocator of humanism, denying the class nature of literature and opposing regarding literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations had political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. --[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
From the purpose of translating activities, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure,which was to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations was to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in an era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to fight with corruption, ignorance and conservatism.--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:21, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics''. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
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Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
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*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
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*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
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*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
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*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
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*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
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*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
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*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. （文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 05:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, some scholars conclude that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concludes there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gives the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the translator within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability falls into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least to this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:11, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. It illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
First, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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Chinse imageries boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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On the basis of its appeal to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of the dynamic imagery is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in Chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:26, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
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The artistic kingdom has been sung high of it throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets use concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. Actually, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)<br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leaves us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 06:59, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feelings, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38).<br />
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If these allusions are translated completely by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” is translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly expressed in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). --[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” are used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:10, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely be reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is anther example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couples of reduplication words bringing the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special forms are adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was used by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation that the target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:39, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling of the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，an allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:44, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such words can be sometimes deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguistic form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinions were still held of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
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The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
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As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
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As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
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This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
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Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
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In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
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Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
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Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
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In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
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Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
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连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
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In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
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After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
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===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
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Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
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They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
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As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
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Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
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Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics'' (《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003).(Tang, 2012, 58)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
<br />
(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumers’ psychology. This paper intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:16, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products from other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure(Li 2000, 58).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development and it is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies don't include（Liu 1986，51）.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this paper will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks together to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. It will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples, so as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in the form of words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Additionally, Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meanings, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can conclude that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification function, quality assurance function and advertising function. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish it from multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising. When so many products are placed on supermarket shelves or other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.<br />
<br />
According to the discussion about the definition, features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product.--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 07:53, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)<br />
<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention at the first time and to have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the most essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, some scholars summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics: people’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder) and so on. Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept(Shang 2011,97)--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept, such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission, such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration and full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumers psychological harmony and comfort, and make them be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which shows alliteration. It is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm(Shang 2011,98).--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 08:04, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions(Wang 2011,135）.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation(Wang 2011,135）. <br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes（Jiao 2010，104). <br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity(Jiao 2010,104).<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn(Jiao 2010,105). <br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics")(Liu 2005,130). <br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful(Huang 1988,180)<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion.Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity(Encyclopedia of China 2009, 283).<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty(Mao 2015,29).<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on(Mao 2015,29).<br />
<br />
Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty(Encyclopedia of China 2011, 553).<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic(Zeng 2010,183).<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam(Zeng 2010,184).<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards(Ye 2010,112).<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty(Ye 2010,113). <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers(Zeng 2010,185).<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations(Ye 2010,115). <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling(Zeng 2010,186).<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value(Zhu 2008,366).<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose(Zhu 2008,366). <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product(Zhu 2008,367). <br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values(Zhu 2008,367).<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages(Zhang 2007,121).<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work（Yu,An 2006：98）.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover(Zhang 2009,125).<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes(Zhou 2003,63).<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid; At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name(Xie 2000,85).<br />
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<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
<br />
Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
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通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
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In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
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It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
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In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
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====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
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====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
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In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
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====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu, 1986: 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu, 1986: 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba, 2003: 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu, 1986: 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba, 2003: 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang, 2007: 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba, 2003: 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba, 1991: 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (2003: 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
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====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. 2011. Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. 2002. Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. 2015. The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
[4] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 1981. 快乐王子. 上海：少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] 巴金. 2003. 巴金译文选集. 北京: 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
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[6] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 2010. 快乐王子. 上海: 上海译文出版社<br />
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[7] 方梦之. 2004. 译学辞典. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社<br />
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[8] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学概述.外国语(上海外国语学院学报), (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学基本理论构想.中国翻译, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘宓庆. 2005. 翻译美学导论. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
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[11] 林琳. 2007. 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》. 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] 刘孝银. 2012. 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话.山西师范大学.<br />
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[13] 毛荣贵. 2005. 翻译美学. 上海: 上海交通大学出版社<br />
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[14] 王占斌. 2007.巴金翻译思想探析.英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] 吴金华. 1999. 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色.宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] 向洪全. 2016. 翻译家巴金研究. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] 杨立秋. 2016. 巴金翻译美学特征探析.北京外国语大学.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=115132History of Translation Studies 42020-12-19T03:51:37Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian" */</p>
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=Theories=<br />
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<br />
==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
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Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
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In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
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In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
<br />
1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
<br />
1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
<br />
1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
<br />
With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
<br />
In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
<br />
Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
<br />
2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
<br />
In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believes that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words are involved, they are harmless and can sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there is a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms are extensively annotated, a method that some experts call "scholarly translation". Research shows that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
<br />
2.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. <br />
In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
3.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
<br />
Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
4.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese , and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of “Lü Shi”. The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create an echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
<br />
=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times and he doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
<br />
Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.(Quotation missing)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Northern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
<br />
Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the translation of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
<br />
In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not represented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:51, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
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*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
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*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
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*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
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*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
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Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
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从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
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伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
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The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
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====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
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"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. （文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Poetry is a sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poetry powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poetry though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinions about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different languages(Rao Weimin 2012,14).--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:38, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
Though there are numerous scholars at home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 03:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholars simply maintain that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gave the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
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===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''”by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics''(《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
<br />
Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
<br />
(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product. <br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics:People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept.<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on.<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumer psychological harmony and comfort, resonate, and be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which suppresses alliteration and is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm.<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes. <br />
<br />
One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity.<br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn<br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics"). <br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. [5] Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion. [6] Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity.<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty. [7]<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on. [8]<br />
<br />
Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. [9] The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic.<br />
<br />
For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam.<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards.<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty. <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers.<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations. <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling.<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value.<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose. <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product. <br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values.<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover.<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes.<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid. (Xie Hua, 2000); At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
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Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
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通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
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In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
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It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
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In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
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====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
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====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
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In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
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====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu, 1986: 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu, 1986: 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba, 2003: 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu, 1986: 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba, 2003: 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang, 2007: 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba, 2003: 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba, 1991: 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (2003: 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
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====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
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Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
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Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
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Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
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Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
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The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
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It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
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It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
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On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
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On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
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On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
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On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
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Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. 2011. Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
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[2] Jiang, Q X. 2002. Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
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[3] Wilde, O. 2015. The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
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[10] 刘宓庆. 2005. 翻译美学导论. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
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[11] 林琳. 2007. 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》. 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] 刘孝银. 2012. 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话.山西师范大学.<br />
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[13] 毛荣贵. 2005. 翻译美学. 上海: 上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] 王占斌. 2007.巴金翻译思想探析.英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] 吴金华. 1999. 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色.宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] 向洪全. 2016. 翻译家巴金研究. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] 杨立秋. 2016. 巴金翻译美学特征探析.北京外国语大学.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=115120History of Translation Studies 42020-12-19T03:30:36Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian" */</p>
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<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
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=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
<br />
(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
<br />
(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally, but can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence. Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or in order to maintain the consistency of the subject clause, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences. In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences in English can be translated into active sentences in Chinese. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences and expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, any English sentence pattern must have a subject,, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use "by" to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:27, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive sentences, Chinese active sentences, Chinese judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:29, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
<br />
According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
<br />
In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
<br />
Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
<br />
1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
<br />
1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
<br />
After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
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Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believes that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words are involved, they are harmless and can sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there is a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms are extensively annotated, a method that some experts call "scholarly translation". Research shows that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
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2.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. <br />
In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
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===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
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Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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3.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
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“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
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Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
4.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese , and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
<br />
Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
<br />
The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
<br />
Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
<br />
Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
<br />
The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
<br />
Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
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===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
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However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
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Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
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From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
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There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
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=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
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===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
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In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
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Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
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Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
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The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
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===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
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人闲桂花落，<br />
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夜静春山空。<br />
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月出惊山鸟，<br />
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时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Period of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader. The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" but feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:30, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
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Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
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Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
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translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
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=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
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-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
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Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
<br />
==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. （文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
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TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
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The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
<br />
Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
<br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
<br />
Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
<br />
Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
<br />
Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
<br />
2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
<br />
Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
<br />
Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
<br />
Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
<br />
Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gave the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
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===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
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The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
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正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
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====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
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The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
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One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
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Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
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===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''”by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
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In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
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Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics''(《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003)<br />
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In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
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声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
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To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
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三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
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Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
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Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
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Of wind so swift?<br />
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雁过也<br />
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正伤心<br />
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却是旧时相识<br />
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It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
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而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
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Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
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The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
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梧桐更兼细雨<br />
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到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
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这次第<br />
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怎一个愁字了得<br />
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On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
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At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
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Beyond belief?<br />
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====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
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''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
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In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
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====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
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The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
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Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
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In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
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====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
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In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
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For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
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====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
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Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
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As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
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According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
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===Abstract:===<br />
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This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
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===摘要：===<br />
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本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
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===Key words:===<br />
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Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
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===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
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When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
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About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
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Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
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===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
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Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
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====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
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The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
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====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
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At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
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How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
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====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
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Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
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====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
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For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
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It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
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===Chapter 5 References===<br />
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[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
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[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
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[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
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[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
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[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
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[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
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[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
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[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
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[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
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[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
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[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
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(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
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Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
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Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
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Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
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Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
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Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
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Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
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Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
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Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
<br />
It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
<br />
The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
<br />
Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
<br />
This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
<br />
It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
<br />
And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
<br />
However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
<br />
So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
<br />
===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
<br />
''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
<br />
At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
<br />
The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
<br />
===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
<br />
So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
<br />
Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
<br />
And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
<br />
①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
<br />
②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
<br />
===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
<br />
===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
<br />
Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
<br />
Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
<br />
For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
<br />
According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product. <br />
<br />
====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics:People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept.<br />
<br />
(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on.<br />
<br />
The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumer psychological harmony and comfort, resonate, and be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which suppresses alliteration and is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm.<br />
<br />
====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
<br />
From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
<br />
Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
<br />
=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions.<br />
<br />
Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation. <br />
<br />
====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes. <br />
<br />
One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity.<br />
<br />
The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn<br />
<br />
The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics"). <br />
<br />
In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. [5] Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion. [6] Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity.<br />
<br />
What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty. [7]<br />
<br />
The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on. [8]<br />
<br />
Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. [9] The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
<br />
Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic.<br />
<br />
For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
<br />
For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty. <br />
<br />
Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
<br />
=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers.<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations. <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling.<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value.<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose. <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product. <br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values.<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover.<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes.<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid. (Xie Hua, 2000); At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
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Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
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通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
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In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
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It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
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In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
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====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
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In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
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====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu, 1986: 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu, 1986: 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba, 2003: 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu, 1986: 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba, 2003: 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang, 2007: 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba, 2003: 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba, 1991: 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (2003: 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
<br />
Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
<br />
Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
<br />
The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
<br />
Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
<br />
Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
<br />
This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
<br />
Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
<br />
From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Diction====<br />
<br />
The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
<br />
Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
<br />
This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
<br />
Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
<br />
Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
<br />
One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
<br />
First, we will look at the original text:<br />
<br />
Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
<br />
The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
<br />
Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
<br />
“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
<br />
Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
<br />
Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
<br />
The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
<br />
Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. 2011. Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. 2002. Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. 2015. The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
[4] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 1981. 快乐王子. 上海：少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] 巴金. 2003. 巴金译文选集. 北京: 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
<br />
[6] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 2010. 快乐王子. 上海: 上海译文出版社<br />
<br />
[7] 方梦之. 2004. 译学辞典. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社<br />
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[8] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学概述.外国语(上海外国语学院学报), (02):48-53.<br />
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[9] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学基本理论构想.中国翻译, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘宓庆. 2005. 翻译美学导论. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
<br />
[11] 林琳. 2007. 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》. 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] 刘孝银. 2012. 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话.山西师范大学.<br />
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[13] 毛荣贵. 2005. 翻译美学. 上海: 上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] 王占斌. 2007.巴金翻译思想探析.英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] 吴金华. 1999. 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色.宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] 向洪全. 2016. 翻译家巴金研究. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] 杨立秋. 2016. 巴金翻译美学特征探析.北京外国语大学.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=115114History of Translation Studies 42020-12-19T03:25:55Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 2. Translation Aesthetics */</p>
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
<br />
=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
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parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
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English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
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TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
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SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
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SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
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TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
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The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
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The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
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According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
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Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
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When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
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In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
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TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
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(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
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Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
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SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
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(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
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Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
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(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
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Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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===5.Conclusion===<br />
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As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
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===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
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Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
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Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
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Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
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Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
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Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
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Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
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Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
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Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
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Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
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Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
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Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
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Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
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Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
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Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
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===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
<br />
Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
<br />
===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
<br />
Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
<br />
Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
<br />
TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
<br />
TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
<br />
TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
<br />
Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
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Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
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1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
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1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
<br />
From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
<br />
In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
<br />
===2.Translation views===<br />
2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
<br />
2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
<br />
Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
<br />
Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
<br />
2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believes that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words are involved, they are harmless and can sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there is a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms are extensively annotated, a method that some experts call "scholarly translation". Research shows that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
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2.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
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In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. <br />
In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
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In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
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Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
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梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
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朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
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PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
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梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
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3.2 Lu Xun<br />
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Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
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Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
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“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
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“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
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Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
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“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
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“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
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鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
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Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
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Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
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“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
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Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
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===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
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First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
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Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
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Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
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In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
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4.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese , and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
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Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
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===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
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===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
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===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
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Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
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Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
<br />
A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
<br />
With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
<br />
Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
<br />
The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
<br />
===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. When someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages.（Yang Yanni 2010,3）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language are called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:25, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
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"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
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When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
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Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
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translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
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Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
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The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
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(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
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I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
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When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
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The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
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Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
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/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
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-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
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In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
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The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
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The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
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The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
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In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
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====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
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In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
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The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
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It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
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Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. （文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
<br />
===Textual Level===<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
<br />
SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
<br />
TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
<br />
E.g.2<br />
<br />
SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
<br />
TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
<br />
E.g.3<br />
<br />
SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
<br />
TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
<br />
E.g.5<br />
<br />
SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Referential Level===<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
<br />
SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
<br />
TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
<br />
TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 7<br />
<br />
SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
<br />
“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
<br />
“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
<br />
“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
<br />
She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
<br />
“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
<br />
TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
<br />
“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
<br />
“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
<br />
布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
<br />
“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Cohesive Level===<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
<br />
ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
<br />
ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
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“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
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The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
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The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
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Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
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Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
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Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
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Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
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Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
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Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
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The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
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Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
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Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
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The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
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Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
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Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
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Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
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Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
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One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
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Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
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Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
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Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
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In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
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No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
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No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
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Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
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2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
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Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
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Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
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The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
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Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
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There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
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Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
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As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
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As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
<br />
===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
<br />
But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
<br />
For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gave the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
<br />
(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
<br />
(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
<br />
(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
<br />
Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
<br />
Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
<br />
On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
<br />
For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
<br />
Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
<br />
====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
<br />
This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
<br />
This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
<br />
===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
<br />
====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
<br />
Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
<br />
Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
<br />
Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
<br />
Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
<br />
Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''”by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics''(《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
<br />
===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
<br />
声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
<br />
寻寻觅觅<br />
<br />
冷冷清清<br />
<br />
凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
<br />
I look for what I miss<br />
<br />
I know not what it is<br />
<br />
I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
<br />
So lonely, without cheer<br />
<br />
<br />
乍暖还寒时候<br />
<br />
最难将息<br />
<br />
How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
<br />
In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
<br />
怎敌他晚来风急<br />
<br />
Hardly warmed up<br />
<br />
By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
<br />
Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
<br />
To see the wild gees pass<br />
<br />
For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
<br />
<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
<br />
憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
<br />
The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
<br />
Faded and fallen in showers<br />
<br />
Who will pick them upnow?<br />
<br />
<br />
守着窗儿<br />
<br />
独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
<br />
How could I butquicken<br />
<br />
The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
<br />
这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
At twilight grizzles<br />
<br />
Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
<br />
====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
<br />
The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
Hubei Education Press <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
<br />
Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
<br />
Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
<br />
Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
<br />
Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
<br />
Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
<br />
Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
<br />
Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
<br />
Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
<br />
Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
<br />
Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
<br />
===关键词：===<br />
<br />
文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
<br />
Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
<br />
Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
<br />
In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
<br />
Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
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Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
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For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
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This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
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In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
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However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
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====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
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This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
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These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
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In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
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Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
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When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
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Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
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Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
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Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
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It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
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Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
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This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
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This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
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Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
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====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
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William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
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An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
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In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
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In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
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Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
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===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
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Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
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Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
<br />
(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
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===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
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The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
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Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
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The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
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By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
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===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
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Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
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===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
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From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
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Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
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Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
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It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
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The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
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In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
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And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
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It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
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The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
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The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
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Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
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===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
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Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
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This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
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It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
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And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
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===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
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Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
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===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
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--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
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[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
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[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
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[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
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[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
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[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
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[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
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[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
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<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product. <br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics:People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept.<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on.<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumer psychological harmony and comfort, resonate, and be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which suppresses alliteration and is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm.<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
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=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation. <br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes. <br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity.<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn<br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics"). <br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful.<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. [5] Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion. [6] Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity.<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty. [7]<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on. [8]<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. [9] The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic.<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam.<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards.<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty. <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers.<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations. <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling.<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value.<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose. <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product. <br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values.<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover.<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes.<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid. (Xie Hua, 2000); At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name.<br />
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===References===<br />
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==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
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Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
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通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
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In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
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It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
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In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
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====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
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In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
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====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu, 1986: 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu, 1986: 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba, 2003: 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu, 1986: 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba, 2003: 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang, 2007: 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba, 2003: 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba, 1991: 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (2003: 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
<br />
In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
<br />
Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
<br />
The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
<br />
Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
<br />
The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
<br />
The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
<br />
Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
<br />
From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
<br />
====Beauty in Style====<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
<br />
Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
<br />
From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
<br />
Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bloom, H edit. 2011. Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. 2002. Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. 2015. The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
[4] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 1981. 快乐王子. 上海：少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] 巴金. 2003. 巴金译文选集. 北京: 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
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[6] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 2010. 快乐王子. 上海: 上海译文出版社<br />
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[7] 方梦之. 2004. 译学辞典. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社<br />
<br />
[8] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学概述.外国语(上海外国语学院学报), (02):48-53.<br />
<br />
[9] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学基本理论构想.中国翻译, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘宓庆. 2005. 翻译美学导论. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
<br />
[11] 林琳. 2007. 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》. 上海外国语大学.<br />
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[12] 刘孝银. 2012. 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话.山西师范大学.<br />
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[13] 毛荣贵. 2005. 翻译美学. 上海: 上海交通大学出版社<br />
<br />
[14] 王占斌. 2007.巴金翻译思想探析.英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] 吴金华. 1999. 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色.宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] 向洪全. 2016. 翻译家巴金研究. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] 杨立秋. 2016. 巴金翻译美学特征探析.北京外国语大学.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4&diff=115111History of Translation Studies 42020-12-19T03:20:56Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 1. Introduction */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第四部分(Part 4)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
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=Theories=<br />
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==Passive and hypotaxis- Chinese Culture and EC translation 杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616==<br />
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<center>杨海容 Yang Hairong, 202070080616 </center><br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
Under the background of the language differences between Chinese and English and the cultural background of English hypothesis and Chinese parataxis, this thesis discusses how to solve the problem of the translation of English passive voice.<br />
It is divided into five parts. The first part of the thesis is about major language differences between English and Chinese; the second part of the thesis is about passive sentences; the third part of the thesis is about parataxis and hypotaxis; the fourth part is about EC translation methods of passive voice; the fifth part is conclusion. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translate English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:06, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
<br />
parataxis, hypotaxis, passive voice<br />
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===题目===<br />
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被动与形合——以中国文化和英汉翻译为视角<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
本文在中英语言文化差异的背景和英文形合与中文意合的文化的背景下，讨论如何解决英文被动语态的翻译问题。<br />
本文分为五个部分。第一部分是关于英语和汉语之间主要语言的差异。论文的第二部分关于被动语态。论文的第三部分关于形合与意合。第四部分是英译汉中被动语态的翻译方法。第五部分是结论。在汉语文化的语境中，翻译者可以以功能对等为指导，通过以下翻译方法来解决英语被动语态问题：可以将英语被动语态翻译为汉语被动句、汉语主动句、汉语判断句和汉语无主语句式。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
意合，形合，被动语态<br />
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===1.Major Language Differences between English and Chinese===<br />
<br />
English emphasizes on structure, while Chinese emphasizes on semantics. The famous Chinese linguist Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang li, 1984) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 这种困境将是确定无疑的，因为能源的匮乏，高能量消耗这种美国耕种方式将很难在农业中继续下去，而这种耕种方式使投入少数农民就可获得高产成为可能。<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: The main structure of the sentence “This will be particularly true... since” leads the adverbial clause of reason. In this clause, an attributive clause guided by the relative pronoun that is embedded to modify "the high-energy American fashion". In the attributive clause, “that” is the subject, “makes” is the predicate, and “it” is the formal object. The infinitive phrase "to combine few farmers with high yields" is the real object.<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details were it not for the fact that theoretical understanding has reached the stage at which it is becoming possible to indicate the kind of measurements required for reliable weather forecasting.<br />
<br />
TL Text 2: 理论上的认识已达到了这样一个阶段，即现在已能指出需要哪种测量方式才能可靠地预报天气。如果做不到这一点，那么上述这些新的观察能力只不过提供了一大堆细节而已。<br />
<br />
The frame of the sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”.<br />
<br />
The frame of this sentence is "These new observational capabilities would result in simply a mass of details...". It is followed by the conditional sentence "were it not for the fact that..." that is, "if it were not for the fact that...;" “that” clause is used as an apposition clause of “the fact”. An attributive clause is embedded in this clause to modify its antecedent “the stage”; "required for reliable weather forecasting" is a past participle phrase that modifies “the kind of measurements”. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences.Since English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar, as long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence; Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa.(Cheng Hongzhen, 2003)<br />
<br />
English prefers long sentences, while Chinese prefers short sentences. English is a language emphasizes on structure and ruled by grammar. As long as there are no structural errors, many meanings can often be expressed in a long sentence, while Chinese is totally different in this aspect. Because it is ruled by human, the semantics are directly expressed through words, and different meanings are often expressed through different short sentences. It is for this reason that almost 100% of the English-Chinese translation test questions are long and complex sentences, and the translation into Chinese often becomes many short sentences and vice versa. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses clauses.English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. (Duan Manfu, 2006)<br />
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English often uses clauses, but Chinese often uses short sentences. English sentences can not only use very long modifiers in simple sentences to make the sentence longer, but also use clauses to make the sentence more complex. These clauses are often connected to the main sentence or other clauses through the clause guide. It looks intricate but it is a whole. Chinese originally like to use short sentences, and the expression structure is relatively loose. When translated into Chinese, the clauses in English sentences often become some clauses. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese.English not only has personal pronouns such as we, you, he, they, but also relative pronouns such as that and which. In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear semantics, and to avoid repetition in expression, English Many pronouns are often used. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. (Xu Jianping, 2003)<br />
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Among nouns such as subject and object, English often uses more pronouns, and Chinese uses more nouns. Moreover, in sentences, nouns and prepositions are more used in English, while verbs are more used in Chinese. English not only has personal pronouns, such as "we", "you", "he", "they", but also relative pronouns, such as "that" and "which". In long and complex sentences, in order to make the sentence structure correct and clear, and to avoid repetition in expression, many pronouns are often used in English. Although Chinese also has pronouns, due to its relatively loose structure and relatively short sentences, too many pronouns cannot be used in Chinese. The use of nouns often makes the semantics clearer. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in technical English. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. (Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong, 2004)<br />
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English often uses passive sentences, while Chinese uses more active sentences. English prefers to use the passive voice, especially in scientific texts. Although there are words such as ''bei'' (被) and ''you'' (由) in Chinese that indicate that the action is passive, this expression is far less common than the passive voice in English. Therefore, the passive voice in English often becomes active in Chinese translation. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words.When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions. (Wang Jiayi, 2011)<br />
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English often uses variable words and sentence patterns, while Chinese uses repeated words. When English expresses the same meaning, the way of expression is often changed. For example, the first time you may use "I think", and then the second time if you use "I think" again, it is obviously monotonous and repetitive in English. So it should be replaced by expressions like "I believe" or "I imagine". In contrast, Chinese has less requirements for transformable expressions than English. Many transformable expressions in English can be translated into repetitive expressions in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts.The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into Chinese clauses. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, layer the meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. (Xu Shihong, 2006)<br />
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English language mostly uses abstract concepts, while Chinese uses more concrete concepts. The main reason why it is difficult to translate English to Chinese lies in its complex structure and abstract expression. By analyzing the structure of sentences, long English sentences are transformed into Chinese short sentences, and English clauses are transformed into short sentences in Chinese. In this way, structural problems are often solved. To express abstraction requires the translator to understand the meaning of the original text, the deep meaning of the sentence, and express it in specific Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 13:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.Passive Sentences===<br />
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====2.1.The Usage and Reasons of Passive Sentences in English and Chinese====<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The structural forms of the predicate and non-predicate of English passive sentences are relatively simple. The predicate of the passive sentence changes with the change of English tense, but its basic structural form is only "be" + "past participle". The complication of the explicit form and structure of the passive voice in Chinese is mainly due to the large number of prepositions in the guiding agent's subject and many changes. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and a non-subject-predicate subject ellipsis .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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There are a total of four prepositional vocabulary signs in the passive voice of modern Chinese, namely ''bei'' (被) , ''jiao'' (叫) , ''rang'' (让) and ''gei'' (给) . Almost every word has a basic form and an ellipsis of non-finite subject .''Bei'' in Chinese can be replaced with ''jiao'', ''gei'' and ''rang''. ''Gei'' is a collocation word used with ''bei'', and is no longer a preposition to guide the agent. In ancient Chinese, the most commonly used prepositions are ''jian'' (见) and ''yu'' (于) . --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. In cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion, the passive voice expression method is generally used.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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English has two voices: active voice and passive voice. The passive voice is generally used in the cases where there is no need to mention the perpetrator, unwilling to mention the perpetrator, unable to know the perpetrator, or in order to facilitate contextual cohesion. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has a lot less subjective color than the active voice; Second, The passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, In many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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The passive voice is more widely used in English texts for science and technology. According to the statistics of foreign linguists, at least one-third of the finite verbs in English science and engineering textbooks use the passive voice. The reasons for the large use of passive voice in scientific English are following: First of all, Scientific and technological works focus on objective facts, and the passive voice has less subjective color than the active voice; Second, the passive structure highlights the main argument, explains the object, and is eye-catching; Last but not least, in many cases the passive structure is shorter than the active structure. In fact, there are many situations in which the formal English styles, including technical styles, use passive voice in writing. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or undesirable things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive sentences are rarely used in Chinese. Because the passive words in Chinese are often used in conjunction with verbs that have an adverse effect on the action recipient. The other reason is that many sentences with passive meaning can be expressed in active form. In modern Chinese, the passive type is much narrower than the active type, and its special tasks cannot be replaced by the active type. Passive narratives are usually undesirable or negative things, such as being deceived, harmed, or causing unfavorable results. For the passive sentences used in formal English writing, Chinese often uses the form of no subject sentence to express its objectivity. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, The number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Therefore, the number of passive sentences in Chinese is far less than in English. However, because of the influence of foreign words, the use of passive sentences in Chinese tends to increase, not only expressing unsatisfactory or undesirable things, many expressions of wish or hope can become passive sentences. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:05, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.2.Various Forms of Passive Meaning in English====<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
The passive voice is the most common form of expressing the passive meaning of English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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(1)Passive voice<br />
It usually uses the passive voice to express the passive meaning in English. Generally speaking, it is composed of "be + past participle", and it can also be composed of "get /become+ past participle". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice expression method is generally used in situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Passive voice formed by "be+ past participle". As mentioned above, this passive voice is generally used in the situations where there is no need to mention the agent, who is unwilling to mention the agent, cannot know the agent, or to facilitate contextual cohesion, etc. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Then, Passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Then, passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". The usage of “get and become” as auxiliary verbs in the passive voice, comprehensively speaking, there are the following points: First, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle". It generally refers to the result of the action rather than the action itself, and often contains meanings such as the final, sudden occurrence, and unexpected encounter. For example: (a) She get caught in the storm. (b) He got hurt in the head. (c) Jack and Jane got married finally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Second, the passive voice formed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Secondly, the passive voice composed by "get /become+ past participle" can express the "gradual change" of the state and emphasize the action process. For example: (d)This water got /became mixed with these solids. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Third, The passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to indicate the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Thirdly, the passive voice sentence formed by "get + past participle" does not use the word “by” to express the agent. For example: (e) The company’s core competition was told by this manager. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fourth, The passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. (Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fourthly, the passive voice sentence composed of "get /become + past participle" is generally not suitable for the following structures: double object, "verb + noun + preposition" structure, subject clause structure and structure with sensory verbs. For example: (f) He taught us Chinese cultures in this semester. (g) We were taught Chinese cultures in this semester. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Fifth, The active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning.(Kui Xueyan, Wang lei, 2001)<br />
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Fifthly, the active form expresses the passive meaning. Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are formally active, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences".(Tang Guoping, Li Fei, 2003)<br />
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(2)The active form expresses the passive meaning<br />
Some verbs in English are active in form, but they actually express passive meaning. A Chinese translator, Lin Yutang, called this situation "False Active Sentences". --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.3.Comparison of Passive meaning in English and Chinese====<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the unsubjected sentence in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(1)"be+ past participle" English form and corresponding Chinese forms: (a)It is equivalent to a passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (b)It is equivalent to the active sentence with passive meaning in Chinese. (c)It is equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese, especially the passive voice of the formal style in English often corresponds to the sentence without subject in Chinese. (d)It is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equivalent to the active sentence in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(2)The English "get /become+ past participle" form and the corresponding Chinese forms: (e)They are often equivalent to passive sentences with formal signs in Chinese. (f)Sometimes it is equal to the active sentence in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. (Tang Fenfen, 2012)<br />
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(3)English active sentences with passive meanings and corresponding Chinese forms: (g)Basically they are equivalent to Chinese active sentences with passive meaning. (h)The present continuous tense in the active voice with passive meaning can also be equivalent to the subjectless sentence in Chinese. (i)The active form of some prepositional phrases and be combined with passive meaning is often equivalent to the passive sentence with formal signs in Chinese. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:34, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.4.The Passive Implicit of English Lexical Means====<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, the use of verb morphological changes to express the passive voice (passivity) is a syntactic means. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way of expression. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The main means of expressing passivity in English is the passive voice of verbs. (a) The following nouns in English imply passivity: one’s assassination, one’s promotion, one’s discharge, one’s conviction, one’s nomination and so on. (b) Prepositional phrases can also be used to express passive states: at a discount, on penalty, on the shelf, in the custody of, in the pay of, under the influence of, under the attack of, under criticism, under constrain and so on. (c) Many adjective phrases can also be used to express passiveness, such as: be welcome, be beneficiary, be accused of...by, be subject to, be deprived of and so on. From this point of view, in English, it is a syntactic means to express the passive voice (passivity) by means of verb morphological changes. In inter-language conversion, we must also choose the most suitable way to express. It is not necessary to express the passive meaning in a sentence with a passive verb. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so they have a conversion relationship. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added.(Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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The passive voice of English is only a grammatical category and has no modal expression function. The active and passive voices of English are generally the same in the deep sense, so there is a conversion relationship between them. After conversion, the semantics of the two are equivalent. For example: (d)People considered him too conservative. (e)He was considered too conservative. Of course, the conversion between active and passive sentences in English is not unlimited. There are many verbs that cannot be converted from active to passive, such as last, lack, become, ensue, suit, recur, happen and so on. This is a question of customary rules and logic. But one thing is certain, after the English active sentence is converted into a passive sentence, there is no meaning added. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. The use of passive sentences in modern Chinese has increased, and some positive colors have also appeared. But the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. (Liu Miqing, 2006)<br />
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However, the passive voice of Chinese has obvious negative modality. More and more passive sentences are used in modern Chinese, and some positive colors have also appeared. Unfortunately, the unfortunate modality of the passive voice has always been dominant. Therefore, under the background that Chinese uses less passive voice, the process of Chinese-English translation can appropriately and intentionally express more English sentences in passive sentence patterns or express passive meaning. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 01:46, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====2.5.Pragmatic Analysis of English Passive Voice====<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and is the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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As for the English passive voice, its pragmatic analysis can be conducted from the following aspects. The establishment of a topic requires the use of the passive voice. The topic is the part of the sentence that indicates someone, something, or a concept, and it is also the object and starting point of the sentence statement. The use of the passive voice has a certain impact on the text structure and the development of the topic. It can make the topic more focused and clear, and it can better predict the development direction of the topic. Topics established by the passive voice are more focused and clearer than those established by the active voice, and can better predict their development direction. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, and constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, sometimes the passive voice must be used to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The coherence of the text requires the use of passive voice. Coherence refers to the semantic connection between sentences in a text. It is a language system and a basic feature of a text. It is not only related to the topic, but also related to the organization of information, which constitutes a part of the textual component of the semantic system. Discourse does not jump from one topic to another in a disorderly manner, but always develops rationally with a certain topic coherence and the possibility of topic development. Therefore, it is necessary to use the passive voice to ensure that the topic unfolds smoothly and naturally. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also subject to this criterion. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The politeness principle requires the use of the passive voice. Politeness is a symbol of human civilization and an important criterion for human social activities. As a social activity, language activities are also restricted by this standard. The principle of politeness maintains the equal status of both parties in conversation and the friendly relationship between them. Only under this major premise can people communicate. The specific principles of politeness include: strategy guidelines, magnanimity guidelines, modesty guidelines, approval guidelines and sympathy guidelines. The passive voice is sometimes used to follow the principle of politeness. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The balance of sentence structure requires the use of passive voice.English sentences mostly appear in the structure of "S +V +O", often the subject part (S) is shorter, and the predicate part (V +O) is longer. Sometimes the passive voice is used to avoid top-heavy sentence structures (he actor with a longer modifier). The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easy to be accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into two categories: subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
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The objectivity of expression requires the use of passive voice. Expression is divided into subjectivity and objectivity. Sometimes subjective expressions are in line with the context and are easily accepted, but in some specific contexts, especially in English texts for science and technology, objective expressions are very important, because the subject of English texts for science and technology is often an objective thing, phenomenon or process, so using the passive voice at this time is not only more objective, but also allows the reader's attention to focus on the things, phenomena or processes described. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.Parataxis and Hypotaxis===<br />
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====3.1.English and Chinese Sentence Characteristics====<br />
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English uses form to drive its meaning and English takes form first. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, people categorize English sentence patterns into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
As it takes form first, English uses form to drive its meaning. Although sentences are ever-changing and many of them have special forms of expression, no matter how they change, no matter how special and complex the formal structure of the sentence is, it is composed of a few basic sentences with subject-predicate structure as the core. In terms of sentence composition, English sentence patterns are divided into several basic types. On this basis, they use various types of words, phrases, clauses and other language entities to expand. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences, compound sentences, compound sentences, and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
In terms of sentence types, English sentences expanded on the basis of basic sentence patterns are divided into several basic types according to their structural characteristics, such as simple sentences and compound sentences. Although their internal structures are also flexible and diverse, the formal structure regulations are also very rigorous, and they still cannot break away from the basic framework centered on the subject-predicate structure. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, in various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers are not very constrained on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
This is just like what people often say, English sentences are like trees, which have various poses, but they never leave their origins. The main stem is connected to the branches, and the branches are connected with leaves and flowers. In contrast to the rigorous internal structure of the sentence, English speakers have less constraints on the specific language entity that carries a certain information. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities is not necessarily determined by their grammatical function, but can be determined by people.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Under the premise of complying with the common language conventions, English users will arrange the information they intend to convey to this sentence or a certain language entity in the sentence group according to the specific needs of sentence construction and their respective writing characteristics and preferences. Under normal circumstances, people do not care what kind of language entity should carry a certain layer of information. The logical relationship between the information carried by these language entities does not necessarily depend on their grammatical functions, but can be determined by people. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group, but their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression.(Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
In addition, when arranging information-bearing language entities, English users are often not limited to a single sentence, and may extend beyond the sentence or even a sentence group. However, their first consideration is still allowed in the formal structure specification. The convenience of making sentences within the scope is the diversification of language expression. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is the organically unified information transmission mode of English configuration conventions and communication methods, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the so-called English takes form first, and form controls meaning. Simply put, as long as you observe the premise that the subject-predicate structure is the core of the formal structure convention, and don't try to jump out of the palm of the Buddha, you can cross the sea and show their magical powers. This is a mode of information transmission in which English construction conventions and communication methods are organically unified, which embodies the basic characteristics of the information transmission mechanism oriented to the formal structure, that is, the actual meaning of the so-called English duplication. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
While Chinese puts meaning first, and is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Chinese, on the other hand, focuses on meaning, which is not constrained by the subject-predicate structure like English does. Instead, according to the thinking habits of Chinese users, the information to be transmitted is laid out in the order of logical affair, forming one by one each carrying specific information. The information sections constructed by two language entities are connected by semantic logic as a link to form an information chain. Form and structure of Chinese are far more important than the emphasis on English with the subject-predicate structure as the core formal structure is much more complicated. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.2.Definition and Connotation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
Wang Li (1984: 310) put forward the two concepts of parataxis and hypotaxis and he said, "In Chinese, the meaning is legal, and the connection component is not necessary; in the West, the form is legal and the connection component is in most cases The next is indispensable". Later, many other scholars also elaborated on this concept and its meaning. Lian Shuneng (1993: 48) pointed out that “the so-called hypothesis refers to the connection of words or clauses in a sentence by means of linguistic forms to express grammatical meaning and logical relations. The so-called parataxis refers to Words do not need to be connected by linguistic formal means. The grammatical meaning and logical relationship in the sentence are expressed through the meaning of words or clauses. " --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, the same communication content, using different language expressions, there must be differences in the form of expression. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. (Xu Jun, 2006)<br />
<br />
According to our understanding, there must be differences in the form of expression when using different language expressions to express the same communication content. English is different from Chinese. English uses conjunctive elements (such as conjunctions and logical connection elements) to express more and more obvious semantic relationships than Chinese. Foreign scholars have also noticed these differences. For example, Nida (1982: 16) pointed out that the most important distinguishing feature between English and Chinese is no more than hypotaxis and parataxis. In a sense, hypotaxis and parataxis are not only reflected in the differences in the composition of Chinese and English texts, but also in the Chinese-English language context and way of thinking. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 02:50, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====3.3.Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis====<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also a manifestation of the differences between Chinese and English cultures. Therefore, in the comparative analysis of Chinese and English parataxis, it will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of cultural linguistics, the characteristics of Chinese emphasizing parataxis and English emphasizing hypothesis are not only a reflection of the differences in the expression patterns of the two languages, but also the embodiment of cultural differences between China and English. Therefore, the comparative analysis of parataxis between Chinese and English will naturally involve the differences between the two modes of thinking and their cultural background. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
The holistic and intuitive thinking habits of Chinese nation are expressed in language, which is the emphasis on parataxis of Chinese. On the whole, the holistic thinking habits of the Chinese people have a strong integration function. Therefore, although the Chinese sentence patterns formed by meaning and legally lack the vocabulary to express the grammatical relationship within the sentence, the Chinese people can quickly grasp them with the holistic thinking habits. Staying at the fulcrum of meaning, integrating the sentence with the peripheral semantic components in the context, and then supplementing the overall content of the sentence with experience, so as to understand the exact connotation of the sentence. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and subtle meaning, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. (Li Jingmin, 2012)<br />
<br />
Moreover, the Chinese people are very good at understanding the true meaning hidden in the words and between the lines, relying on the overall grasp of things. The famous Chinese scholar Professor Wang Li once said: "Western languages are hard and inflexible; Chinese grammar is soft and flexible. So Chinese grammar is mainly expressive." It can be seen that Chinese, which is legally constituted by the Chinese people, is characterized by emphasizing comprehension and implication, savoring illocutionary meanings, and even emphasizing subtlety and pursuing using parataxis to integrate the whole article. --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:13, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.EC Translation Methods of Passive Voice===<br />
<br />
When translating the passive voice from English to Chinese, one should not blindly translate it literally and can translate from the perspective of functional equivalence.Functional equivalence theory is the famous American linguist and translator-Eugene Nida proposed. In the 1980s, Eugene Nida published ''From One Language to Another'', in which he proposed functional equivalence, which is the core of Nida's theory. Functional equivalence means that in the process of translation, one-to-one correspondence between the text forms is not forced, but functional equivalence between the two languages should be achieved. It requires the translator to express the content and meaning of the original work, but also try to be equal in form, because some styles are also one of the content that the original author wants to express. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
(1)Translate into Chinese Passive Sentences<br />
<br />
In order to emphasize the action, or do not know the person who sent the action, or in a specific context, or to keep the subject of the clause before and after it is consistent, or to make the key point, English passive sentences can be translated into Chinese passive sentences . In addition to using the word bei(被) in expression, you can also choose words such as zao(遭), ai(挨), gei(给), shou(受) and wei...suo (为……所) according to the needs of Chinese collocation. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 1: I was touched by warmhearted stories during the pandemic.<br />
<br />
TL Text 1: 我为疫情期间发生的感人故事所感动。<br />
<br />
(2)Translate into Chinese Active Sentences<br />
<br />
Since Chinese habitually uses active sentences, many passive sentences can be translated into Chinese active sentences. When translating, it can be translated into a formally active and passive Chinese sentence, and it can also change the original predicate verb to translate it into a complete active sentence in Chinese, and it can also directly translate the passive voice of the original text into the active voice. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example:<br />
<br />
SL Text 2: In all, at least 600 people have been declared dead and another 650 missing.<br />
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TL Text 2: 总计至少六百人已证实死亡，另有六百五十人失踪。<br />
<br />
(3)Translate into Chinese Judgment Sentences<br />
<br />
Those English passive sentences that focus on describing the process, nature and state of things are very similar to the table structure, so they can be translated into Chinese judgment sentences, which are expressed by the structure of Chinese judgment sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
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SL Text 3: Beauty cannot be measured by any absolute standard.<br />
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TL Text 3: 美是不可能用任何绝对标准来衡量的。<br />
<br />
(4)Translate into Chinese Sentences without Subjects<br />
<br />
Chinese emphasizes harmony and loose structure, while English emphasizes form and compact structure. Therefore, the most basic sentence structure in English is the subject-predicate structure. In other words, there must be a subject in any English sentence pattern, but Chinese is often eclectic and does not require a subject. (Liu Mingdong, 2001) For example: <br />
<br />
SL Text 4: The cost can not be met unless the region has ample food resources. <br />
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TL Text 4: 除非该地区具有丰富的食物资源，否则无法满足这种消耗。<br />
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In the completion of an action, there are usually actors and recipients. If you want to introduce the perpetrator in English passive sentences, you usually use by to elicit it. But it is not difficult to find that many English sentences do not lead to the perpetrator. Therefore, such sentences can be translated into Chinese without subject sentences. (Liu Mingdong, 2001)<br />
<br />
===5.Conclusion===<br />
<br />
As Wang Li once said: "In terms of sentence structure, Western languages are grammatically restricted, while Chinese languages are dominated by people." (Wang Li, 1984) Through combing the differences between English and Chinese in language expression, sentence structure, and passive voice, explaining the relationship between hypotaxis and parataxis, and using teleology as the guiding theory, the method of translating English passive voice is obtained and examples are given. In the context of Chinese language and culture, translators can use functional equivalence as a guide to translate English passive sentences through the following translation methods: one could translates English passive voice into Chinese passive Sentences, Chinese Active sentences, Chinese Judgment sentences and Chinese sentences without subjects.<br />
<br />
===6.Reference===<br />
Hu Julan 胡菊兰. (2004). 论中英思维模式与英汉语不同的句式特点 [Discuss the Chinese and English Thinking Mode and Different Sentence Patterns between English and Chinese]. 河南大学学报(社会科学版) Journal of Henan University (Social Science Edition). (06) 73-76.<br />
<br />
Xu Jun徐珺. (2006). 汉英语篇意合与形合的文化阐释 [Cultural Explanation of Parataxis and Hypotaxis in Chinese and English Text]. 外语与外语教学 Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. (12) 26-29.<br />
<br />
Li Jingmin 李靖民. (2012). 英汉语形合和意合研究中的几个问题 [Several Issues in the Study of Hypotaxis and Parataxis in English and Chinese]. 外语研究 Foreign Languages Research. (02) 45-50+112.<br />
<br />
Liu Mingdong刘明东. (2001). 英语被动语态的语用分析及其翻译 [Pragmatic Analysis and Translation of English Passive Voice]. 中国科技翻译Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (01) 1-4.<br />
<br />
Kui Xueyan, Wang lei 隗雪燕,王雷. (2012). 英语与汉语的被动含义 [Passive Meaning in English and Chinese]. 外语教学 Foreign Language Education. (05) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Tang Fenfen汤芬芬. (2012). 英汉被动含义句式的对比及翻译 [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Sentences with Passive Meaning]. 海外英语 Overseas English. (21) 139-141.<br />
<br />
Tang Guoping, Li Fei 唐国平,李斐. (2003). 主动形式表被动含义的探讨 [Discussion on the Passive Meaning of Active Form]. 攀枝花学院学报 journal of pzhzhihua university. (03) 51-55.<br />
<br />
Xiao Zhonghua, Dai Guangrong 肖忠华,戴光荣. (2010). 语料库在语言教学中的运用——中国英语学习者被动句式习得个案研究 [The Use of Corpus in Language Teaching: A Case Study of Chinese English Learners' Acquisition of Passive Sentences]. 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Zhejiang University(Humanities and Social Sciences). (04) 189-200.<br />
<br />
Cheng Hongzhen 程洪珍. (2003). 英汉语差异与英语长句的汉译 [The Differences Between English and Chinese and the Chinese Translation of English Long Sentences]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal. (04) 21-22.<br />
<br />
Duan Manfu 段满福. (2006). 从英汉语句子结构的差异看英语定语从句的翻译 [On the Translation of English Attributive Clauses from the Differences in the Substructure of English and Chinese Sentences ]. 大学英语(学术版) College English( Academic Edition). (01) 267-270.<br />
<br />
Xu Jianping许建平. (2003). 英语人称代词的翻译问题 [On the Translation of English Personal Pronouns]. 清华大学教育研究 Research On Education Tsinghua University. (S1) 106-110.<br />
<br />
Ni Wei, Shao Zhihong 倪巍,邵志洪. (2004). 英汉被动句认知对比研究 [A Cognitive Comparative Study of English and Chinese Passive Sentences]. 四川外语学院学报 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. (05) 128-133.<br />
<br />
Wang Jiayi 王家义. (2011). 英语同义词辨析的多视角透视 [A Multi-Perspective Perspective on the Differentiation and Analysis of English Synonyms]. 外国语文 Journal of Sichuan International Studies University. 27(05) 79-83.<br />
<br />
Xu Shihong 徐世红. (2006). 论英语习得中英语思维的培养和建立 [On the Cultivation and Establishment of English Thinking in English Acquisition]. 盐城师范学院学报(人文社会科学版) Journal of Yancheng Teachers University(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition). (02) 67-70.<br />
<br />
Wang Li 王力. (1984). ''中国语法理论'' Chinese Grammar Theory. 山东教育出版社 Shandong Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2006). ''新编汉英对比与翻译'' New Chinese-English Comparison and Translation. 对外翻译 China Translation & Publishing Corporation.<br />
<br />
==On Metaphors - 游雨婷 You Yuting, 202070080619==<br />
<center>游雨婷 You Yuting </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Metaphor is not only a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also closely related to human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the psychological causes of metaphor and its hidden cultural information, and adopt corresponding translation strategies in order to accurately and vividly convey the basic information of the original language. If we ignore metaphor in English-Chinese translation, it will not only fail to achieve the translation effect, but also make readers confused or even misunderstood, resulting in an immeasurable consequence. <br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss the development and issues of metaphor translation. Then, in comparison of the differences between Chinese and English in various aspects, the author aims to seek the most appropriate and effective metaphor translation strategies and skills, and lastly through the comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor help translators to overcome translation obstacles resulted from metaphors. By truly integrating the language into the specific cultural context, one can help promote the quality of translation. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Metaphor cultural differences translation strategies different perspectives<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
论隐喻<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
隐喻不只是一种简单的语言现象，它与人类的思维方式、文化传统紧密相连。在英汉隐喻翻译中，译者应分析隐喻产生的心理原因及其隐藏的文化信息，采取相应的翻译策略，以求准确而生动地传达原语言的基本信息。如果忽略英汉中的隐喻翻译问题，不仅达不到翻译效果，还会令读者费解甚至误解，造成无法估量的后果。<br />
<br />
本文旨在从隐喻切入，讨论英汉隐喻翻译的发展及问题。其次通过从多个方面比较中英文的差异，从而寻求最合适有效的隐喻翻译策略和技巧，最后从结构隐喻和本体隐喻两个视角对《白杨礼赞》英译本的隐喻翻译进行比较分析，帮助翻译工作者克服由于隐喻带来的翻译障碍。真正将语言融入特定的文化语境，促进翻译质量的提高。 <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
隐喻 文化差异 翻译策略 不同视角<br />
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===1. Introduction===<br />
Given the prospect of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in great need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on analysing the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
Given the background of word economic integration, translation between two languages is in need. Especially in English-Chinese metaphor translation, the original information could be wrongly transmitted or even lost. The reason for this is that metaphor translation is more a cultural conversion, rather than a simple language shift. So in this thesis, the author focuses on pointing out the reasons and proposing strategies for metaphor translation and comparing metaphor translation of different English versions from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies and skills to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
<br />
There will be three parts. The first chapter is to give a general picture of metaphor translation which involves its definition, development and reflections. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about the factors affecting metaphor translation, such as geographical and environmental conditions and so on. The third chapter is about strategies to solve problems arose in metaphor translation, such as literal translation, and so on. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2. The Overview of Metaphor===<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is the psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
A metaphor is a figurative rhetoric, the use of one thing to denote another. It is a kind of a psychological behavior, linguistic behavior and cultural behavior of perceiving, experiencing, imagining, understanding and talking about such things under the suggestion of other kinds of things. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===2.1 Definition of Metaphor===<br />
In different periods of history, people have different definitions for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). <br />
<br />
In different periods of history, people have different ideas for metaphor. In ancient Greece, Aristotle named the rhetorical phenomenon metaphorical language, believing that it, like simile, is a contrast between different things and a phenomenon requiring the use of modification. (Shu Dingfang 2000,11). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no specific concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but fundamentally a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
<br />
In the early period of China, there was no concrete concept of metaphor, only the Chinese words such as "譬", "比" that generally referred to figurative rhetoric appeared in the literature. (Hu Zhuanglin 2004,207), which showed that there was no clear concept of metaphor. At present, the study of metaphor exists in linguistics, pragmatics, semantics, cognitive psychology and other disciplines. American linguist Lakeoff and others hold that metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon, but a cognitive one. (Shu Dingfang 2000,2).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many forms. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2).<br />
Modern metaphor theory advocates that the essence of metaphor is a cognitive phenomenon, language is one of the main forms of metaphor, and metaphor in language has many. Understanding the definition of metaphor and distinguishing it from the concept of simile can help translators to deal with the problems in metaphor translation.(Shu Dingfang 2000,2)--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation skills. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate, complete and expressive.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). <br />
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Therefore, we should have a clear understanding of metaphor before discussing the metaphor translation strategies. The comprehension of metaphor becomes a process of cognitive reasoning of language, understanding the pragmatic intention of the writer through association and inference.(Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian 2020,6).Poetry, especially the modern poetry, has a prominent feature in the collocation of words and sentences. Considerable imageries, which contains numerous metaphorical meanings, are existed in Chinese poetry, therefore, metaphor translation must be accurate and complete.(ZHANG Jie 2020,84). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.2 The Development of Metaphor Translation===<br />
For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been an important topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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For a long time, how to realize the transformation of metaphor has been a topic in the field of text translation. In 1918, for example, the western translators and translation theorist Peter Newmark paid great attention to metaphor translation, whose understanding of metaphor translation strategies are based on language form and the semantic equivalence, as well as the discussion of metaphor translation from rhetoric perspective. The criteria for the result of metaphor translation is determined by the rhetoric function usually from the form and semantic level.（Wang Bo 2016,115）.<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with multiple meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor can stand alone,which means we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Newmark believes that metaphor is a figure of speech. He regarded all the extended expression of meaning as metaphors and thought that all the words with many meanings were potential metaphors. The shift of the meaning of a metaphor or a specific word, or the personification of an abstract concept, or the use of some words or phrases, do not indicate their literal meaning; rather all imply another meaning. Metaphor meaning we can use one word to achieve the rhetorical effect. Extendability refers to phrases, sentences, idioms, proverbs, fables, or even the whole part that can evoke the imagination.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to guide metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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Based on the above views, he proposed several ways to solve problems in metaphor translation: retaining the same metaphorical images, that is, literal translation, on the condition that it makes target language readers feel natural; turning into simile; replacing the metaphor with the equivalent metaphor in the target language; retaining the same metaphorical image and simpifying the similarity; conducting Interpretive translation. (Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main criticisms of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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However, Maalej points out that there are two main drawbacks of such prescriptive methods: one is that translators do not know how to choose metaphor translation methods, for it is not clear which method should be chosen under what kid of circumstances; Secondly, the translation of metaphor cannot be carried out according to a set of abstract rules, and it must be dealt with according to the structure and function of a specific metaphor in a specific context.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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Compared with Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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As for Nida, he sees metaphor as a figurative meaning of vocabulary, and it is equivalent in rhetorical function to idiomatic methods. Nida put forward the metaphor translation strategy earlier, that is, translating metaphor into metaphor; turning metaphor into simile; shifting non-metaphor into metaphor. These strategies are relatively general in concept and do not go far in discussion for many aspects of metaphor translation. While Newmark further pointed out that metaphor translation is the epitome of translation of all languages, because it gives translators' various choices: expressing practical meaning, reproducing image, or making appropriate modifications to achieve the perfect combination of meaning and image.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as a kind of independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).<br />
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The metaphor translation emerged in the early period from Four Books and Five Classics and classic poetry.The problem is that metaphor translation is included in the translation of figurative rhetoric.We seldom take the metaphor as an independent system with its own translation methods and strategies and its internal cause analysis. because of the particularity and complexity of Chinese language and characters, it’s hard to trace its translation results.(Wang Bo 2016,115).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===2.3 Reflections on Metaphor Translation Studies===<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made remarkable achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from multiple perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
The research on metaphor translation in the past 50 years has made achievements both at home and abroad. Scholars have conducted detailed and in-depth studies on how to translate metaphor from many perspectives and disciplines. Through sorting out, we find that there are still some problems in the study of metaphor translation, and some aspects need to be strengthened. The following are some views on the study of metaphor translation:(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The first one is the center or the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, great efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The first one is the focus of the research on metaphor translation. The core of metaphor translation research should be "how to translate". In the study stage of rhetoric-oriented metaphor translation, although there are many thesis in China in terms of the strategies and methods of metaphor translation, efforts have been made on "how to translate" and some significant progress have been made. In foreign countries, metaphors are considered untranslatable by scholars such as Nida and Dagut. So generally speaking, there are few research thesis in this field during this period.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of space has been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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In the stage of cognition-oriented metaphor translation, foreign researches are relatively pragmatic. Most of them not only provide explanation for metaphor translation, but also put forward specific methods on how to translate metaphor. Making a comprehensive analysis of the research on metaphor translation in the cognition-oriented stage in China, it is not difficult to see that a great deal of efforts have been devoted to the interpretation of metaphor translation from different perspectives. There are many research thesis on this aspect, but relatively insufficient research thesis on how to translate metaphor.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. In this context, domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The second is the originality of research. Since the 1980s, there has been a linguistic shift from source language to target language center in translation studies. Domestic scholars still can closely grasp the development of translation studies and study metaphor translation from the perspectives of linguistics and culture. Especially since the cognitive view of metaphor has become the mainstream paradigm of metaphor research. However, if we look at the obtained results, there are few achievements coming from self-creation. Thus, domestic research on metaphor translation lacks originality.(Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the criteria or standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified and specific understanding, and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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The third is that blind spots exist in the research field. What are the standards for a good metaphor translation? At present, there is no unified criteria and few people have been dedicating themselves to this field of research. We can strengthen relevant research. For example, we can try to study the evaluation system of metaphor translation. It is also advisable to strengthen the research on the acceptability of translation metaphor readers and examine the effectiveness of Chinese culture transmission in English-speaking countries. Describing the translation methods adopted by Chinese translators when translating metaphors is also a feasible way. (Wang Bo 2016,116).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Overall, in research on metaphor translation, we see progress as well as shortcomings which are waiting to be coped with along the way we explore a wider space for metaphor translation.(Wang Bo 2016,116).<br />
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===3. Reasons for Metaphor Translation===<br />
Metaphor is not just a simple linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should analyze the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but also is concerned with human thinking mode and cultural tradition. In English-Chinese metaphor translation, translators should find out the reasons of metaphor translation and its hidden cultural information so as to accurately convey the general information of the original language.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.1 Geographical and Environment Factors===<br />
It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions and is the representative of a region. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region with uniqueness and stability for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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It’s clear that metaphor is closely associated with culture. And culture reflects the local conditions. With the extension of time, the local cultural characteristics shaped by geography and environment will become more distinct. It is called regional culture. It’s a symbol of specific ecology, folk customs, habits, and civilization. The regional culture bears the brand of the targeted region for it integrated into the environment and formed something special. At the same time, people in different areas create various cultures. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Regional culture exerts great influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Regional culture exerts influence on vocabulary, sentence patterns, as well as the way people use metaphor. Different regional cultures enable different nations to produce various cognitions toward the same thing. One may find it hard to exchange conversations with different groups of people, yet still see it as a beautiful regional feature. Because of their different life experiences, geographical locations, and political environments, English and Chinese nations are bound to boast their own national personalities, adding a strong national color into their languages. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” goes the opposite way, recalling a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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For example, the “east wind” in Chinese literature reminds people of the genial warmth, while “the west wind” implies a taste of bitterness. People across the national boundary tend to make use of “east wind” and “west wind” to imply something else in their literary works yet with different or even totally opposite meanings. And that meaning gap in metaphor translation is caused by different features of geography and environment. Thus, translators should attach great attention to the geography and environment when they do metaphor translation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China has been a major agricultural country since ancient times. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). <br />
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Each nation's unique natural environment and regional characteristics make its language contain typical national characteristics. China is a major agricultural country. In the long feudal society, people lived a self-sufficient life that men did farm work and women engage in spinning and weaving.(Guo Huiqing 2013,122). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, the famous proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).<br />
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Therefore, the proverbs of our people bear bright agricultural colors, for example: Fishing industry and navigation industry play an important role in boosting British economy. The life style of sailing and fishing has left a deep mark on English language, such as: when the ship comes home(好运来临); Ships that pass in the night(萍水相逢). Here, we use ship to imply opportunity, luck and people, instead of using its literal meaning. Therefore, attention must be paid to the regional differences, and treat metaphor translation in a right way. (Guo Huiqing 2013,122).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 Religious Belief Factors===<br />
Westerners have a deeply rooted Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Westerners have followed Christian tradition, while Chinese have long believed in Buddhism and Confucianism, which determines the difference between two languages in terms of metaphorical expression. For example, in Chinese, there are sayings like "Laying down the butcher’s knife to become the Buddha" (放下屠刀，立地成佛) and "Saving a life is better than building a seven-win Buddha"(救人一命胜造七级浮屠). In English, there are sayings such as "Every dog has his day and Every his hour", which reflects the equality doctrine of Christianity.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Religious belief can be regarded as the universal cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some things connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
Religious belief can be regarded as the cultural characteristics of all mankind. Religious culture constitutes an important part of the whole national culture, formed by religious consciousness and religious belief of a certain nation. The differences of religious culture reveal itself in respect of worships and taboos and languages are more or less affected by the religious differences.Most of the Westerners believe in Christianity; thus their language is closely linked to this religion. Thus, in English, some idioms are often related to Christianity, while in Chinese, some connected to Buddhism are often borrowed for figurative rhetoric. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, "as patient as Job", "as poor as Lazarus", "as rich as Croesus". The characters as “Job”, “Lazarus”, and “Croesus” in these idioms used as metaphors originate from the Bible. However, some Chinese idioms derive from Buddhism such as "not enough to go round"(粥少僧多). (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still have a profound influence on the Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, these three religions prevailed in ancient China, and they still influenced Chinese people now, therefore it’s no wonder that one can find many religious words such as “Buddha” and “Bodhisattva” “the Jade Emperor”, “Avalokitesvara”, in daily life. Then they gradually evolve into some typical phrases like “presenting Buddha with borrowed flowers,” “random acts of kindness”, “do not burn incense in spare time, but cram for the moment” and so on. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played an immeasurable role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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And a majority of people in many western countries regard the Bible as their behavioral standard because of their belief in Christianity. One can find many English idioms from the Bible, such as “sell one’s birth right for a mess of pottage”, “God helps those who help themselves” and so on. The Bible as a classic work of Christianity has played a role in the development of western language. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are many cultures in both Chinese and English that share the same meaning though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Through a comparative analysis of Some Chinese idioms and English idioms derived from religions, historical stories, fairy tales or fables, it is not difficult to find that there are cultural common ground in both Chinese and English though in different forms. For example, this English sentence “sow the wind and reap the whirlwind” can be expressed as “善有善报，恶有恶报” in Chinese. Both of them stress karmic retribution. (Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are identical. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).<br />
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Take the English phrase "to meet one's Waterloo" as an another example, it refers to this historical fact that Napoleon was defeated at The battle of Waterloo. In Chinese, there is a similar allusion, "败走麦城". Different historical allusions are quoted, but the meanings of the two expressions are similar. When using idiomatic expressions to carry out metaphorical meaning, we should pay special attention to the significance of the vehicle in English culture and the basic principle of its image transformation.(Guo Huiqing 2013,123).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid forcing foreign religious culture and belief to combine with others, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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In the metaphor translation practice, one should take the religious differences of different ethnic groups into consideration, lifting the mysterious veil of religion. At the same time, one should avoid imposing foreign religious culture and belief on other cultures, which would end up like a big or even absurd joke. Only based on the full understanding of different religious belief, can one successfully complete the metaphor transformation that is agreeable and acceptable to readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 Cultural Background Factors===<br />
From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to constitute strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). <br />
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From the process of the generation of metaphor, we can know that metaphor is the creation of national psychology based on the similarity of things. This kind of national psychological creation contains rich cultural connotation, and different life customs and cultural background will inevitably lead to the difference of metaphor（Xu Aihua 2019,64）. Metaphors are frequently used to deliver strong emotional expressions within human communication. The sentiment of a metaphor is decided by many factors, including its context, target, cultural background, etc(.Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should not only be familiar with the culture of the source language, but also with the culture of the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
Therefore, in the process of English-Chinese Metaphor Translation, cultural differences should be considered first. In the process of metaphor translation, one should be familiar with the culture of the source language and the target language, so as to achieve the purpose of communication.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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People tend to use idioms and simple words serving as metaphorical expressions to deliver imaginary effect in literary works. There are also cultural differences between Chinese idioms and English idioms that contain figurative rhetoric. The difference of cultural background between Chinese and Western countries determines the difference of metaphor in English and Chinese. For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be spelled as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
For example, the Chinese expression “杀鸡取卵” can be translated as "To kill the goose that lays golden eggs " in English, while the Chinese word for chicken turns into a goose. The corresponding Chinese idiom “雨后春笋” is turned into "spring up like a mushroom" in English. Translators should take cultural factors into account when doing metaphor translation.（Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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Of course, this kind of difference caused by cultural background doesn’t only appear in idioms, but also in a single word as follows: The word “death” in almost all languages is a taboo. Euphemistic expressions for death in English and Chinese both have its own characteristics, showing cultures of different nations. For example, in China, Buddhism calls it “圆寂”, and Taoism names it “仙逝”. The death of the elderly is called “寿终”, “谢世”; the death of the young is called “夭折”, and the death of the middle-aged is called “早逝”. Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used.(Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, regarding social status, age, gender of the dead, attitude of the living toward the dead are all presented in the euphemism used. While in English, they replace “death” with “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）. <br />
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While in English, they describe “death” by using expressions as “go to west”, “to be taken to paradise”, and “to be asleep in the arms of God”. Because the westerners hold the view that every man must give to God an account of what he has done on earth at the final judgment. （Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al 2019,33）.--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
Another example is that getting old is the law of nature, but people tend to have different psychological reactions to this word “old” given different cultural backgrounds. In China, the word “old” is a somewhat positive word and symbolizes one’s wisdom and rich experience, and one often refer it to the senior who is high above in the company management. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The word “old” gradually becomes some positive idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
The word “old” gradually becomes idioms like “an old hand is a good hand”. Sometimes, one addresses someone as the old man in order to show respect to the elderly, so the meaning of age is reduced. While in English, “old” appears to be a negative word, which means useless and worthless. So it’s kind of a taboo in English. When translating, translators should replace “old” with “elderly” or “senior”. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who is independent, unconstraint and act on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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Unfamiliar with the cultural back ground, mistakes are usually made in using metaphor or doing metaphor translation. Take “cowboy” as an example. In China, many translators think cowboy literally as someone outstanding, so they interpret it as one running a business as a cowboy. The fact is that the genuine image of the cowboy is someone who acts on its own will in westerner’s mind. The real meaning goes opposite that he runs business with dishonesty and a lack of experience and is sloppy in work. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to overcome and solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one may realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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It’s obvious that in the translation progress, the primary issue to be dealt with is to solve cultural differences so as to avoid cultural shock. Impossible as it may be to achieve the exact equivalence between the source culture and the target culture, one can realize the equivalence of sense through the means of perspective conversion.(Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms yet ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. Translators must respect the readers’ aesthetic psychology. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).<br />
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To sum up, errors made in metaphor translation are not only brought by the vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, but by the fact that translators’ sole attention to the equivalence of language forms while ignoring the underlying cultural meaning. In cross-culture communication, cultural background, thinking patterns, conventional habits and behaviors all have a role to play. It is essential for translators to strengthen learning in culture. Through contrast one can find the appropriate metaphor translation skills and strategies to improve the quality of translation so as to the same metaphorical effect to the target reader. (Guo Huiqing 2013,124).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Translation Strategies for English-Chinese Metaphor Translation===<br />
Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are feasible ways to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation known as translation strategies.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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===4.1 Literal Translation===<br />
Literal translation is the first stage of translation in which we simply transfer words from one language to another. It is also called “word-for-word” translation. Strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original". We usually resort to this kind of translation when we want the reader in the target language to understand the overall meaning of the text in the source language. This is different from the higher levels of translation in which the interpretation of the source text varies from one person to another person as the style, linguistic expressions and undertones differ.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Throughout the development of human society, due to the geographical and environmental differences and other reasons, a rich civilization system has been formed. But objectively speaking, due to the similarity of human external living environment, there are many similarities in terms of people’s thoughts and cognition. Thus, there are translation strategies to address problems in English-Chinese metaphor translation.(Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. For translation, the most common and simplest method is literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).<br />
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Mangy differences exist between languages. As far as English and Chinese are concerned, they also have some commonalities in some aspects which is also the application basis of literal translation. It is not easy for a translator to quickly catch the hidden meaning of metaphor and translate it. It requires a certain cultural accumulation. It is worth emphasizing that literal translation does not mean translating the sentence literally. The translator should keep the rhetorical devices and language structure of the original text and adopt literal translation to make it easier for readers to understand. (Xu Aihua 2019,64).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphor is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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For example, the English sentence “An eye for An eye and a tooth for a tooth” can be translated into “以眼还眼，以牙还牙” in Chinese. This kind of idiom containing metaphorical meaning is straightforward with less complicated metaphorical meaning. Thus, as long as the literal meaning of the source language is delivered and understood, the corresponding target language can be well understood, which is relatively simple for most readers.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between them, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65)<br />
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To sum up, when the translator adopts the strategy of literal translation in metaphor translation, the translator needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese and Western cultural background and find the similarities between two languages, so as to make readers understandable with metaphorical and vivid effect.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4.2 Free Translation===<br />
Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully examine the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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Free translation aims to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without paying much attention to the lexical details and grammatical structure. The unequal information is caused by the cultural background, and so on. In this case, free translation can be adopted. In the process of metaphor translation, it is necessary to make appropriate trade-offs when the metaphorical images cannot be fully preserved and cannot be replaced. Therefore, in the process of translation, we should carefully observe the linguistic and cultural characteristics of the source language and the target language. And we should adopt free translation to effectively maintain the information transmission and aesthetic value of metaphor. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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For example, the sentence “Don't show the white feather to the enemy”. In the original text "white feather " implies " weakness and cowards ", but in Chinese "white feather "has no such metaphorical meaning. If “white feather” is translated as " white feather of some animal ", readers will definitely have no clue of what the whole sentence means. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we integrate literal translation with free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Therefore, it is necessary to interpret the meaning and transfer its metaphorical meaning. Take another example, when we adopt free translation in metaphor translation, then the English sentence “Like a duck to water” can be translated as “如鱼得水” in Chinese. Here, we’ve managed to achieve the goal of conveying both original meaning and its metaphorical message. (Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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Besides, in the process of free translation, we should not stick to the form but pay attention to the harmony of the form and structure of language. From the point of view of purpose, free translation mainly conveys the idea of the original text to the reader, and it should realize the flexible processing of the words and texts according to the context. For example, "To face the music" can be translated as" 面对现实" in Chinese. Here, “music” stands for “reality” instead of its literal meaning, a piece of melody.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Therefore, free translation can fill in the blanks where literal translation doesn’t fit in. When translators do metaphor translation, free translation can help deliver the metaphorical meaning more vividly.(Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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===4.3 Metonymy Translation===<br />
Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are almost the same, although they are actually different. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). <br />
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Due to the different yet similar natural and social environments, including climate, geographical environment, cultural tradition and religious belief, many metaphorical vehicles in English and Chinese are different yet similar. Some scholars have pointed out that different nations may have different perspectives toward the same world, which leads to the synonymy music of different forms. In short, the vehicle is different but has common ground. Metaphor not only contains the characteristic connotation of the language itself, but also the words that cannot be expressed in a straightforward manner(Li Chunying 2020,1). --[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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At this time, according to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).<br />
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According to the custom of the target language, the vehicle in the original language can be changed into the vehicle familiar to the target readers. Therefore, we can adopt the strategy of metonymy translation. For example, the Chinese words “傻笑” can be expressed in English as "grin like a Cheshire cat" . This shift is successful because the Cheshire cat is kind of silly but a very lovely cat in England. The Chinese idioms "多此一举" can be expressed in English as “carry coals to Newcastle”, as the “Newcastle” once was a famous British coal port. (Xu Aihua 2019,65).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers.(Li Chunying 2020,1).<br />
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In summary, using the strategy of metonymy translation is a good solution to problems arose in metaphor translation as it takes advantage of different and familiar vehicles to convey clear information to the target readers for their better understanding.(Li Chunying 2020,1).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5. Metaphor Translation in English Versions of Tribute to White Poplar As An Example===<br />
Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking, which can guide people's actions. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a way of thinking. Lakoff believes that human beings' understanding of the objective world is based on their own experiences, and metaphor belongs to the conceptual system, which is ubiquitous. The last chapter is to make a comparative analysis of metaphor translation in English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.1 Theoretical Framework===<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became an important symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
In 1980, he and Johnson put forward the concept of conceptual metaphor for the first time in the book Metaphors We Live by, which became a symbol of the birth of conceptual metaphor. Although conceptual metaphor is ubiquitous, it also depends on the context.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification can be said to cover almost all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).<br />
Lakoff divides conceptual metaphors into three categories: orientational metaphor, ontological metaphor and structural metaphor. This classification cover all the conceptual metaphors. Orientational metaphor is the basis and an image schema metaphor, that is, it takes the spatial concept as the original domain and constructs other non-spatial target domains (Lan Chun 1990, 4).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. Structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Ontological metaphor refers to describing abstract concepts with the certain physical entities. While structural metaphor refers to the construction of another concept with the structure of one concept, and the words that talk about various aspects of one concept are used to talk about another concept, thus producing the phenomenon of polysemous word. Based on the comprehensive analysis of the reasons affecting metaphor translation and the strategies of metaphor translation by many scholars, we’ll then analyse metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.2 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Structural Metaphor===<br />
Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another. Here are some examples.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.1<br />
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SL text:白杨树实在是不平凡的，我赞美白杨树。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The white poplar is no ordinary tree. Let me sing its praises.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: The white poplar tree is by no means a common tree. I praise it!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text:让那些看不起民众 、贱视民众 、顽固的倒退的人们去赞美那贵族化的楠木(那也是直挺秀颀的)，去鄙视这极常见、 极易生长的白杨树罢，我要高声赞美白杨树!(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: The reactionary diehards, who despise and snub the common people, can do whatever they like to eulogize the elite nanmu (which is also tall, straight and good-looking) and look down upon the common, fast-growing white poplar. I, for my part, will be loud in my praise of the latter!(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: Let those who look down upon the masses, disrelish them and are stubborn to retrograde the duke nanmu, which is also a straight and graceful tree. They may go on despising this white poplar tree, which is frequently seen and grows so very easily. But as for me, I’ll continue to praise the white poplar tree!(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words to describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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A core idea of these sentences is that “树是人”. People's cognition and understanding of trees originates from people. When people talk about trees, they will think of a series of words that describe people, such as “不平凡”、“婆娑”、“好女子”、“赞美”、“贵族化”、“鄙视” in the text. This refers to the "cross-domain mapping" of conceptual metaphors, which draws an analogy between the concepts of "tree" and "people". In the first source text, to translate “平凡 ”, Zhang Peiji uses "ordinary", while Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen use "common". (Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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Although they choose different words, they are both used to describe people. Both sides adopt literal translation to restore the metaphor in the original text and translate the metaphor into the same metaphor. In the second example, although the words used by both sides were different, Zhang Peiji's "Eulogize", "elite", "look Down Upon", as well as Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen's "Praise", "Duke" and "despising" were all used to describe people. Therefore, they both restored the meaning of the original text and retained the images.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===5.3 Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Ontological Metaphor===<br />
Ontological metaphor, also called entity metaphor, also plays an important role.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text:当汽车在望不到边际的高原上奔驰，扑入你的视野的，是黄绿错综的一条大毡子。(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: When you travel by car through Northwest China’s boundless plateau, all you see before you is something like a huge yellow-and-green felt blanket.(Zhang Peiji 2007)<br />
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TL text 2: When your car is speeding along a boundless highway, what meets your eyes is a huge blanket of yellows and greens mingled together.(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999)<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more convenient. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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When the car is driving on the plateau, the people in the car see the scene. When Zhang Peiji translated this sentence, he added the element of "something like" to adapt to the English context and changed the metaphor into simile, which not only retained the image and meaning of the original, but also made the translation more smooth. Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen , on the other hand, adopted literal translation and retained the metaphorical structure in the original.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
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--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.4<br />
<br />
SL text:然而同时你的眼睛也许有点倦怠, 你对当前的 “ 雄壮 ” 或 “ 伟大 ” 闭了眼，而另一种味儿在你心头潜滋 暗长了———“单调”！可不是？单调，有一点儿吧？(Tribute to White Poplar 1941).<br />
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TL text 1: Meanwhile, however, your eyes may become weary of watching the same panorama, so much so that you are oblivious of its being spectacular or grand. And you may feel monotony coming on. Yes, it is somewhat monotonous, isn’t it?(Zhang Peiji 2007).<br />
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TL text 2: However, at the same time, your eyes may feel somewhat tired and close before the “magnificent” and the “great” that lie in front of you. And another sensation rises in your heart monotonous! Isn’t it monotonous, maybe a bit?(Zhang Mengjing, Du Yaowen 1999).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind and make for interesting reading. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
The metaphor used in this sentence materializes the words “雄伟”、“壮大”、“单调”, and gives them characteristics that you can close your eyes to when you are tired; They can also grow in your mind. In Zhang Peiji's translation, we can see that the translation does not use metaphor, but translate directly according to people's normal thinking, and adopt the strategy of "translating metaphor into non-metaphor".(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen retain the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).<br />
<br />
Zhang Mengjing and Du Yaowen keep the organic structure of the metaphor in the original text, personify the two words “伟大”、“雄壮”, and retain the "container metaphor" in the ontological metaphor in the second half of the sentence, which not only retains the thinking and cognitive characteristics of the original text, but also conveys the effect of semantic rhetoric.(Li Yanhong 2015, 19).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===6. Conclusion===<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving multiple factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no exactly identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
To sum up, metaphor translation is not merely a transformation of one language to another. It’s a complexity involving many factors. The purpose of metaphor translation is to re-express the original information, faithful to its style, geographical and environmental condition, cultural environment, religious belief and so on. Still, people shouldn’t impose thoughts on the translators and deny their role in language transformation only in pursuit for the full fidelity to the original text, for there is no identical thing in the world. (Wang Bo 2016,117--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. Conversion Strategies like literal translation, free translation and metonymy translation are applicable. And the analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117). <br />
<br />
As language is the shell of ideas, shaped by cultural background in particular, applying the method of metaphor translation helps better convey the information carried by the source language. The analysis of metaphor translation in different English versions of Tribute to White Poplar as an example from the perspectives of structural metaphor and ontological metaphor will give readers an understanding of metaphor translation. (Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a better understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).<br />
<br />
At long last, the author of this thesis hopes the above discussion gives readers a clear understanding of the role of metaphor in cross-cultural translation and gives translators an insight into future translation practice. However, for the author has little talent and learning, the argument may be superficial. The author will keep learning from predecessors and peers.(Wang Bo 2016,117).--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 13:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===7. References===<br />
*Chen Yulian, Zhang Yingxian. Cognitive-Pragmatic Strategies for English Translation of Colloquial Metaphors in Political Discourse.[J]. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation. 2020, 6(3)-12.<br />
<br />
*Chang Su, Junchao Li, Ying Peng, et al. Chinese metaphor sentiment computing via considering culture.[J]. Science Direct. 2019, 352:33-41.<br />
<br />
*Li Chunying. Translation of Metaphor from the Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics.[J]. Education, Society and Human Studies. 2020, 1(1)-11.<br />
<br />
*ZHANG Jie. Metaphor Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor Theory: Based on the Analysis of Imagery“Hong Sushou”in Song Ci. [J]. Studies in Literature and Language. 2020, 21(1):84-87.<br />
<br />
*Guo Huiqing. 郭卉青.(2013). 浅议影响隐喻翻译的主要因素.[A Brief Discussion on the Main Factors Affecting Metaphor Translation].[J]. 晋中学院学报[Journal of Jinzhong College], 30(05):122-124.<br />
<br />
*Hu Zhuanglin. 胡壮麟.(2004). 认知隐喻学.[Cognitive Metaphor].[M]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
*Li Yanhong. 李艳红.(2015).概念隐喻视角下《白杨礼赞》两个英译本比较研究.[A Comparative Study of Two English Translations of Tribute to White Poplar from the Perspective of Conceptual Metaphor].[J].考试周刊[The Exam Week],(65):19-20.<br />
<br />
*Lan Chun. 蓝纯.(1999).从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻.[Spatial Metaphor in Chinese from a cognitive perspective][J].外语教学与研究[Foreign Language Teaching and Research],(04) :5-10.<br />
<br />
*Shu Dingfang. 束定芳. (2000). 隐喻学研究.[Studies in Metaphor].[M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
*Wang Bo. 王勃. (2016). 概念语法隐喻视角下的英汉翻译探讨.[A Study on English-Chinese Translation from the Perspective of Conceptual Grammatical Metaphor].[J]. 黑龙江教育学院学报[Journal of Heilongjiang Institute of Education],35(07):115-117.<br />
<br />
*Xu Aihua. 徐爱华. (2019). 中西方差异视角下英汉隐喻翻译策略研究.[A Study on Metaphor Translation Strategies in English and Chinese from the Perspective of Chinese and Western differences].[J]. 海外英语[Overseas English],(20):64-65.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Mengjing,Du Yaowen. 张梦井,杜耀文.(1999).中国名家散文精译.[Chinese Famous Prose Translation][M].青岛出版社[Qingdao Press].<br />
<br />
*Zhang Peiji. 张培基.(2007). 英译中国现代散文选.[A Selection of Chinese Modern Prose][M]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
==A Comparative Study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s Translation Views 王源 Wang Yuan==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun are productive writers and translators. They hold different translation views. Lu Xun have adopted literal translation and hard translation in different periods, claiming “rather be faithful than smooth”. He translation views are highly consistent with his political views, that is changing people’s conservative and old thinking pattern. Liang Shiqiu takes the readers as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness, which means a text should be both faithful and readable. Having been influenced by Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, Liang put “humanity” as the highest standard of translations. The paper aims to give a comparative study of Liang Shiqiu’s and Lu Xun’s translation views.<br />
<br />
===keywords===<br />
mean spirit; new humanism; Lu Xun; Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
鲁迅和梁实秋中国著名文学家、翻译家和思想家。他们两个有着不同的翻译观。鲁迅在不同阶段采用直译和硬译进行文本翻译，主张“宁信而不顺”。他的翻译观和政治观是高度一致的，即改变国民保守而陈旧的思维模式。梁实秋以读者为第一要义，强调“信”“顺”统一，即译文既要忠实于原文，又要通顺可读。在儒家思想和白璧德新人文主义思想影响下，梁实秋成为一名坚定的人性论者，同时也形成了他独特的“中庸翻译观”本文将对梁实秋和鲁迅的翻译观进行对比研究。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中庸、新人文主义、鲁迅、梁实秋<br />
<br />
===1. Background===<br />
1.1 The formation of Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's view of translation is homogeneous and heterogeneous with his literary thought, which in turn is closely related to his philosophy of life. Liang’s philosophy of life can be concluded into “mean”, and is the mixture of Confucianism, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and his aristocratic and gentle temperament. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,29)<br />
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Confucianism has deeply rooted in Liang’s mind when he was young, and the experience of going abroad for further study helped him accepted Babbitt’s new humanism, as both of them have shared some similar ideas.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008,30) <br />
<br />
First, “mean” is the core of Confucianism and new humanism. The doctrine of “mean” has existed in different aspects, such as in education, ethics, politics and aesthetics. For example, Confucius said “To learn without thinking is confusing, to think without learning is dangerous”, which is to emphasize the balance of learning and thinking. “Pleasure but not lust, sorrow but not injury” also tell us the danger of being extreme. Irving Babbitt also put “mean” as the best philosophy of life. Liang believes that Babbitt’s conclusion of humanity shows his view of “mean”. In his opinion, life has three states, which are natural, humanistic and religious. Naturalism advocates indulgence, religion the extinction of desire and humanism abstinence. Babbitt attempted to find a balance between material and spirit, and his philosophy had been greatly influenced by ancient Greek philosophy, who had the similar concept of “mean”. Liang Shiqiu knew the “mean” spirit had long been existed in human civilization and he himself was also deeply influenced by the “mean” spirit. In his opinion, literature should have certain independence and also educational function. (Yan Xiao Jiang, 2008,32)<br />
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Second, humanism is the tradition of Confucianism and new humanism. Confucianism has always been concerned with the social reality and life, reflecting the idea of "putting people first". Confucius' basic concepts such as "benevolence," "ritual," and "filial piety" have had a profound impact on Chinese culture, not only laying the foundation of humanism for Chinese philosophy, but these ideas can be said to be the foundation of humanism for all times and all peoples. Babbitt believed that humanism is about keeping a balance between the "one" and the "many", and that excessive naturalism and supernaturalism can destroy this balance. He believes that naturalism since the Renaissance and the Enlightenment has misunderstood humanism as a sympathy without choice. Therefore, he opposed Rousseau's "theory of goodness of human nature" and proposed a "dualistic theory of human nature of good and evil. He believed that good and evil have always coexisted, and that it is the constant conflict between good and evil, reason and desire, that causes the suffering of individuals and society. The idea of humanism laid the foundation of Liang Shiqiu's humanistic literary thought, which is somehow in line with the central idea of humanism expressed in Shakespeare's works. Humanist literature focuses on people, looks at people dialectically, and is concerned with people’s fate and future. Besides, both Confucianism and new humanism have shared some similar ideas such as focusing on morality, reason and respecting tradition.(Yan Xiaojiang,2008)<br />
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1.2 The formation of Lu Xun's translation views<br />
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1.2.1 The first period (1903-1906)<br />
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After the defeat of the Opium War, people began to introduce and learn the advanced ideas and technologies of the West in order to find a way to save their lives. Inspired by the slogan “ Traditional Chinese values aided with modern management and technology”, Westernization Group have translated a large number of works, mainly on military and scientific works. After that, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao initiated the Reform Movement of 1898, attempting to save China by changing state institution. The focus of translation also shifted from technology to politics, laws and academic research. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Around the time of the Sino-Japanese War, two great translators of foreign thought and culture emerged in China, Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Yan Fu was mainly engaged in the translation and interpretation of social science theories. At the same time as Yan Fu, Lin Shu began to translate foreign novels. His translations were mainly Italian, with many abridgements and changes to the original texts. At this time, Lu Xun went to Japan to study, and soon published his maiden translation De la Terre à la Lune. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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Lu Xun’s early translations were deeply influenced by Lin Shu and Yan Fu. When he was studying in Tokyo, he would look for each translation work of Lin Shu. Lin Shu did not know English at all, and his translations were done by listening to the dictations of others and then translated them through his own profound Chinese skills. Therefore, Lin Shu adopted domestication as his major translation technique. Having read dozens of Lin Shu’s translations, Lu Xun also apply domestication into his own translation. What’s more, in some translations, he would made some additions and deletions. (Wang Yixing, 2017, 38)<br />
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1.2.2 The second period (1907-1927) <br />
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With the deepening of the national crisis, Lu Xun gradually realized that the numbness and ignorance of the people is the root of the backwardness and weakness of our country. The national crisis in the modern history of China has made Chinese people face a dilemma: to maintain their own culture, or to learn from the strengths of the West? Lu Xun believed that we have to absorb fresh and new ideas from other countries. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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In 1909，Lu Xun and Zhou Zuoren translated “A collection of foreign novels”. The work adopted a new translation method, which not only have maintained the contents and style, but also had done no changes of the chapter and format. In 1918, he wrote to his friend Zhang Shoupeng: “ I think Chinese should accept foreign languages in later translations.” Therefore, we can see Lu Xun adopted literal translation, attempting to accept and absorb foreign languages to develop and enrich Chinese, and to resurrect China. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39) <br />
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From the perspective of culture, the New Culture Movement, which advocated democracy, science and vernacular Chinese, was prosperous at that time. As one of the leaders of the movement, Lu Xun realized the importance of introducing advanced culture and abandoned the dross of traditional Chinese culture. The reason why Lu Xun chose literal translation was that he wanted to popularize vernacular Chinese and push the development of Chinese. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 39)<br />
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1.2.3 The third period (1928-1937)<br />
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In this period, with the deepening of national crisis and the spread of Marxism, it was urgent to establish Chinese proletariat class, Lu Xun’s translation strategy was developing accordingly. After revolution, a general “political anxiety” emerged among people. This kind of anxiety should be released according to some channels, and translating advanced foreign works could erase the anxiety to some extent. (Wang Yanling. 2009, 39)<br />
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In his later translation activities, he not only advocated literal translation, but also “hard translation”. By using “hard translation”, he tried to introduce new expressions and syntax to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thoughts. Therefore, the adopting of this extreme translation strategy was not for literary purpose, but political purpose.<br />
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===2.Translation views===<br />
2.1 Liang Shiqiu's translation views<br />
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2.1.1 Be a translator caring both readers and original works<br />
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Liang Shiqiu advocated that translation activities should start from the need of readers, believing that the purpose of translation is to faithfully express a work in another language for those who do not understand the original. The translator's duty is to make the translation as smooth as possible without losing the original meaning. Therefore, the translation must be faithful and smooth, conform to Chinese norms and must not be translated into Europeanized text. In the course of his debate with Lu Xun, he proposed the unified translation concept of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”. He did not agree with Lun Xun’s idea that “better to be faithful than be smooth” nor Zhao Jingshen’s idea that “better to be smooth than be faithful”. He believed that bad translations include the following. First, it does not match the meaning of the original text. Secondly, it fails to convey the strong tone of the original text. Third, it is unintelligible. If one of these three points is satisfied, it is a bad translation; if all three points are satisfied, it is the worst translation. (Liang Shiqiu 1933)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu takes the reader as the first priority and emphasizes the unity of faithfulness and smoothness. He concluded the relationship between “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, “People often say that the best translation is one which does not read like a translation. However, it is only true when the translation is faithful to the original text and also the language of the translation is smooth. If one only knows the general meaning of the text, and then translate it in his native language fluently, it can only be considered as free translation, which is okay using in some normal articles. However, a large part of the value of a literary work lies in the subtlety of its use of words, so the translator must also be careful with the words.” (Liu Tianhua 1900,22)<br />
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Liu Bingshan once commented on Liang Shiqiu's translation: "Liang's translation is not based on the beauty of the language, but on the purpose of preserving the truth, sticking closely to the original work, not easily changing the original text, not avoiding all kinds of difficulties, and doing his best to convey the original meaning of Shakespeare. His translations are meticulous, euphemistic and clear, and can maintain the original characteristics of Shakespeare's plays. (Liu Bingshan, 1992)<br />
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Liang disagreed with Lu Xun’s advocation of “hard trasnaltion”, and regarded it as word-by-word translation. He criticizes Lu Xun's claim that the original shortcomings of the Chinese text was the reason for the difficulty of his translation. “Chinese and foreign languages are different, and there are grammars that are not found in Chinese, so this is where the difficulty of translation lies. If the grammar, syntax and lexis of both languages were exactly the same, would translation still be a job? (Liang Shiqiu, 2002)<br />
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2.1.2 Be a translator advocating liberalism literature<br />
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Liang Shiqiu is one of the representatives of Chinese liberalism literature theory in 20th century. He claimed that literature is derived from humanism, based on humanism and ended in humanism. He was a determined humanist, denying the class nature of literature and opposing the use of literature as an enlightenment and a political tool. Liang said: “Universal humanity is the basis of all great works .... Pure humanity is the only criterion of literary criticism.” In his mind, literature is literature, and the core of literature is to describe humanity. Liang Shiqiu's literary thought is reflected in the selection of works to be translated, which should be classical works and should reflect "permanent humanity. In his article "On Mr. Lu Xun's "Hard Translation," Liang Shiqiu pointed out that the primary purpose of translation is to introduce first-rate literary works to the nation: "I believe that works of scholarly and permanent value should be given priority in translation." Liang Shiqiu advocated "reading first-class books and translating first-class books" and opposed translating foreign works without discrimination. His translation works, such as the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays, The Wuthering Heights, and Silas Marner, all have met his translation principles. <br />
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2.1.3 Be a scholarly translator<br />
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Liang Shiqiu taught at several universities and was a rigorous scholar. His strict attitude is reflected in his translation attitude. He pointed out: “ If a translator cannot completely understand what he is going to translator, then he is not a responsible translator. When encountering quotations from the classics, we should take great pains to look them up and annotate them so that the reader can understand.” (Liang Shiqiu 1967) This shows that translation is not only a simple act of translation but also a rigorous academic work for Liang Shiqiu. His translation attitude reflects on translating the complete edition of Shakespeare’s plays. <br />
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In the process of translating Shakespeare’s plays, Liang realized that translation works sometimes should do some research at the same time. “ Translation should properly combine with research, and without researching, one may not know how to translate precisely.” (Liang Shiqiu, 1967) Therefore, he managed to collect different editions of Shakespeare, as well as various sources related to him. Day by day, his collection was more complete than any universities in China. In the end he chose the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare. Regarding the obscene words and jokes in this version of Shakespeare's play, Liang Shiqiu believes that the gags in the play originally had their own significance in the context of the times. Even though obscene words are involved, they are harmless and can sometimes be considered to have a psychological health implication. In addition to translating the contents of the works, Liang Shiqiu also conducted a large number of studies. In each part of The Complete Works of Shakespeare, there is a preface detailing the history of the edition, the dating of the writings, the sources of the stories, the history of the stage, and the study of the text. The contents of the works or linguistic techniques such as puns and colloquialisms are extensively annotated, a method that some experts call "scholarly translation". Research shows that Liang Shiqiu was "the first expert scholar to introduce the British and American Western traditions of Shakespearean studies, opening the way for the study of Oriental Shakespeare in Taiwan, China." (Chen Shufen 2002)<br />
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2.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
Lu Xun once wrote to Qu Qiubai, “I would rather be faithful than smooth. The importation of new content and new forms of expression advocated by Lu Xun is precisely what makes his translations innovative. He advocates that the reader "must take the trouble to chew", not "a few bites can be swallowed". This process of chewing is precisely the process of understanding and absorption by the reader. Lu Xun’s statement “rather be faither than smooth” indicated his advocation of literal translation. Literal translation requires translators to express the original text faithfully, and remains the language characteristics at the same time. For example, for the names of characters and places in foreign literary works, many translators have been accustomed to make them easy to read for Chinese readers, but Lu Xun thought it was unnecessary to do so, thinking that the exoticism and national color of the original work should be preserved. His early translation version of De la Terre à la Lune contained a large number of names of people and places, all of which were adopted transliteration. In the process of translation, with the introducing of new contents and new expression, we can have a better understanding of the cultural characteristics and social condition hidden in the text. <br />
<br />
In Lu Xun’s translations, he tried hard to reappear the language characteristics of the original text, unique cultures and ethos of the society, all to make sure the “foreignness” of the translations. It not only preserves the characteristics of the original text, but also respects the author and facilitates the readers access to foreign cultures, thus expanding their horizons and enriching their knowledge. <br />
In fact, Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only an alternative to "direct translation," and the word "hard" in Lu Xun's "hard translation" is only for certain syntactic lexicons. The "hard translation" advocated by Lu Xun was only intended to be more faithful to the original text. Lu Xun always insisted on translating with an analytical and differentiated attitude, and he advocated different styles of translation according to the content of the translated work (general or theoretical book) and the status of the reader (general reader or expert). (Chen Fukang, 2000,295)<br />
Lu Xun had once mentioned in his translation work, “From the translation, Lunakarsky's thesis is clear enough. However, due to incapability of the translator and the original shortcomings of Chinese, there are many obscure points after the translation. If the short sentences in the long sentences are dismantled, the concise and sharp tone of the original is lost. Therefore, there is nothing I can do but to do hard translation.” (Chen Fukang,2000,291)<br />
<br />
In response to Liang Shiqiu's criticism of his "hard translation" view of translation, Lu Xun explained his views on "hard translation" from an academic perspective, mainly with the following meanings. First, there is a difference between a "hard translation" and a "word-by-word translation", and it is not a deliberate "distorted translation". Second, The "hard translation" (mainly referring to the translation of scientific literary theories and other revolutionary theoretical works) has its own target audience that needs it. Third, "My translations, which are not intended to be enjoyable but uncomfortable. People who are opposed to my ideas often feel "bored, disgusted, and resentful"; and those "critics" who know little about theories should not be greedy for pleasure but try to study these theories. " Fourth, The "hard translation" is not only for the sake of not losing the original concise and sharp tone, but also for gradually adding new syntax, which will be assimilated into your own after a period of time. Fifth, “there will always be better translators in this world, who can translate without distorted, hard or word-by-word translation. At that time, my translation will be eliminated, and I am just here to fill the space from ‘nothing’ to ‘better’.” (Cheng Kangfu 2000,292-293)<br />
<br />
===3.Examples===<br />
3.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works is based on the strategy of foreignization, which mainly contains two levels of connotation: the first refers to the linguistic form, and the second refers to the cultural content. On the level of linguistic form, Liang Shiqiu focuses on introducing new expressions and strives to expand and enrich certain norms in the target language culture. On the level of cultural content, Liang mainly introduces the original text without any deletion, allowing readers to appreciate the original and exotic culture as much as possible. <br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare's works takes its artistry, and the strategy of foreignization helps to allow readers to confront the differences of foreign cultures and thus expand their horizons. On the form of names, Liang Shiqiu did not advocate shortening the translation of names in Shakespeare's works to the Chinese style. He said humorously, "Foreigners often have such long, wordy and eccentric names, so why should we bother to give them names and surnames?" In the process of translation, he usually adopted transliteration. For example, he translated “Julius Caesar” into “朱利阿斯西撒”，but not “凯撒大帝”. Likewise, he did not translate Antony and Cleopatra into a title which is charming like movie title, but chose transliterating into “安东尼与克利奥佩特拉”.<br />
<br />
Another two examples can show Liang Shiqiu’s loyalty faithfulness to original text. <br />
<br />
梁实秋译文：<br />
卡 先生，适才发生了这样不幸的事故，我们没有时间劝导我们的女儿：您知道，她对她的表兄提拔特是甚微友爱的，我也是很喜欢那孩子：唉，我们有生即有死。现在很晚了，她今晚不会下楼了：说实话，若非您在这里，我一个小时前就早已经上床了。<br />
巴 在这悲伤的时候也不便求婚。夫人，晚安：请代我向小姐致意。<br />
<br />
朱生豪译：<br />
凯欧莱特夫人 伯爵，舍间因为遭逢变故，我们还没有时间去开导小女；您知道她和她那个表兄提博尔特是友爱很笃的，我也非常喜欢他；唉！人生不免一死，也不必再去说他了。现在时间已经很晚，他今夜不会再下来了；不瞒您说，倘不是您大驾光临，我也早在一个小时以前上床啦。<br />
帕里斯 我在你们正在伤心的时候来此求婚，实在是太冒昧了。晚安，伯母；请您替我向令媛致意。<br />
This is a conversation between Madame Capulet, Juliet's mother, and Paris, a young nobleman. Since both speakers are persons of status, both Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translation use formal style. Zhu Shenghao, following the Chinese tradition of "demeaning oneself and respecting others," uses the terms "伯爵"， "小女" ，"伯母"，"令媛” ， with a flavor of the old Chinese literati. Liang Shiqiu uses the terms "先生" ，"女儿"，"夫人" ，"小姐"，which can be used both in the west and east, with polite and respectful overtones, showing that there is a certain distance in the relationship between people.<br />
<br />
PORTIA If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will. I am glad this parcel of wooers are so reasonable, for there is no one among them but I dote on his very absence, and I prey God grant them a fair departure.<br />
<br />
梁实秋译： 波 如果我活到西逼拉那样老，我也愿意贞洁如戴安娜而死，除非是按照我父亲遗嘱的方法出嫁。我很高兴这群求婚的人如此知趣，因为这些人当中没有一个不是我深愿他快快离开的，我求上帝准他们平安归去吧。<br />
朱生豪译： 鲍西娅 要是没有人按照我父亲的遗命把我娶去，即使我活到一千岁，也只好终身不字。我很高兴这一群求婚者都是这么懂事，因为他们中间没有一个人不是我唯望其速去的；求上帝赐给他们一帆风顺吧！<br />
This scene is the response of Portia, a rich girl, to Nerissa, a maidservant. In this case, Zhu Shenghao translated “Sibylla” into “living to one thousand years”, which may be easier to be accepted by readers yet the domestication strategy has erased the exotism of original language. Liang Shiqiu translated “Sibylla” literally and added some notes to explain the allusion, which has efficiently expressed the “foreignness” and also helped Chinese readers to learn the allusion. “Diana” is the god of the moon, which has the implication of “chastity”. Zhu Shenghao translated it into “终身不字”，meaning “never get married the whole life, the semantic meaning of which is close to “as chaste as Diana”,yet the important information “chastity” has not been translated, while Liang Shiqiu’s transliteration did not miss the information. <br />
<br />
3.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
Lu Xun's translations can be roughly divided into three stages. The first stage is Lu Xun's early translations, which were mainly adaptation and compilation. In the second stage, literal translations were used. He said in his article ：“ All translations must take into account both sides. On the one hand, it must be easy for readers to read, and on the other hand, it must be faithful to the original work and preserve the foreigness. The third stage is to adopt hard translation. He believed that Chinese was an imprecise language with inherent flaws. And in order to make the translation not lose its precision, new expressions and syntax should be introduced. Lu Xun tried to improve the imprecision of the Chinese language through hard translations, so as to change the national thinking habits and transform the national character. Next, this paper will give two examples to reflect Lu Xun's ideas of literal translation and hard translation.<br />
<br />
Er ging durch die gute Stube，wo alles sauber und ordentlich dastand wie immer-die hohen Lehnstühle unter ihren weien berzügen wie Leichen in ihren Totenhemden． An dem einen Fenster hing ein Drahtkfig － aber leer， mit weit geffneter Türe．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia! ”schrie Pater Ignatius， und grob hallte seine Stimme durch die stillen Ｒume，die verlegen schienen，da er gleich nach der Tochter Beerdigung so schreien konnte．<br />
<br />
“Nastaszia，”rief er leiser，“wo ist der Kanarienvogel?”<br />
<br />
Die Kchin，so verweint da ihr die Nase rot wie eine Ｒübe im Gesichte glnzte，erwiderte grob: “Wo soll er sein? -weggeflogen ist er．”<br />
<br />
“Weshalb habt ihr ihn hinausgelassen?” Pater Ignatius zog die Brauen drohend zusammen．<br />
Nastaszia brach in Trnen aus，und die Augen mit den Zipfeln ihres Kopftuches wischend，stammelte sie:<br />
<br />
“Fruleinchens Seele hat ．．． ihn ．．． gerufen ．．．，wie durften ．．． wir ．．． ihn denn ．．． halten?”<br />
<br />
鲁迅译： 伊革那支入客室，见全室整洁，弗殊 平时，几衣纯白，卓立如死人临敛。呼其 婢曰，“那思泰娑，”则自觉声在虚室中， 至复犷厉。窗外悬鸟笼，阑槛已启，其中 虚矣。因 复 微 呼 曰: “那 思 泰 娑，鸟 安 在?”婢 哀 毁，鼻 已 如 芦 萉，嗫 嚅 对 曰， “自……自然去矣! ”伊革那支蹙额曰， “胡为纵之?”婢复泣失声，掣韨角拭其 目，咽泪曰，“此性命，……此女士性命， ……何可留耶! ”<br />
<br />
Although the translation adopted Classical Chinese, yet readers have a basic knowledge of Classical Chinese can feel the fluency and elegance of the translation. Lu Xun abandoned the practice of arbitrary additions or deletions and rewrites in the translation field at that time, and faithfully preserved the spirit of the original work. However, this kind of “faithfulness” is neither word-to-word translation, nor stiffly borrow syntax structure of the original text. For example, he combined seven paragraphs into one. Putting a single sentence as a paragraph is normal in modern Chinese While it is quite wired in Classical Chinese. Therefore, Lun Xun adopting domestication was to cater to the reading habits of Chinese readers. Besides, Lu Xun also made adjustment in some detailed descriptions. For example, the original meaning of "erwiderte Grob" in German, <br />
"replied rudely", but it was translated into “嗫嚅”, meaning “ replied haltingly”. The chef’s attitude changed from impatience into hesitation and fear. Lu Xun probably had fully considered the culture of target language and the receptive ability of readers. Lu Xun’s translation strategies were flexible and was totally different from “hard translation” claimed in his later translation period. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 52)<br />
In another example, Lu Xun’s “hard translation” had fully in practice. <br />
<br />
Maksimowa，hier fragt jemand nach Ihrem Zimmer，” erklrte der Angekommene，ein langer hagerer Student． Er ging als erster durch den Korridor，in dem die Luft sauer und dampferfüllt war， wie in dem schmutzigen Vorraum einer Badeanstalt． Er hrte nicht weiter auf das， was die Greisin sprach，schob sich durch den Korridor，an Koffern und Vorhngen， hinter denen sich irgend etwas rührte，vorbei und verschwand in seinem Zimmer． Erst als er seine Sachen abgelegt hatte und in roter Bauernbluse mit offenem Kragen ohne Gürtel dastand，fiel ihm der neue Mieter wieder ein und er fragte die Alte， die ihm einen siedenden Samowar brachte…<br />
<br />
“玛克希摩跋( Maksimova), 这里有人问你的房子呢。”上来的人告诉说，是 一个瘦而且长的大学生。他先向那空气 又酸又湿，仿佛浴场的腌臜的前房一般的 廊下的那边走。他也不再听老女人说什 么，一径走过了堆着行李和挂着帐幔，那 后面有什么正在蠢动的廊下，躲进他自己 的屋子里去了。他放下物件，穿着畅开领 口没有带子的红色的农家衣的时候，才又 想到新来的客人，便问那老女人，恰恰捧 着煮沸的撒摩跋尔进来的……<br />
<br />
Both texts are detailed descriptions of dwelling environments, characters and language, but here the translation is stiff, full of Europeanized syntax, and in some places even obscure. The original (German) language is similar to English in that several adjectives can be placed before nouns and a long sentence can contain several finite clauses. These syntactic features are very different from the Chinese syntax, so in the process of translating into Chinese, the translator has to disassemble the text and replace them with multiple phrase structures or phrases. The juxtaposed adjectives should also be either combined or split into phrases as needed. Lu Xun’s translation strictly obeyed the syntax structure of German yet was too “faithful” to read. Besides, Lu Xun also kept heterogeneous information on purpose. For example, the word “Samowar” is a kind of metal teapot in Russia, which has no counterpart in Chinese. A translator can adopt domestication, using a word that Chinese readers are more familiar with, or use the word “teapot”. However, Lu Xun transliterated it into “撒摩跋尔” so that readers may find it hard to know the meaning of it. (Xie Haiyan, 2020, 56)<br />
It can be seen that if the collection of foreign stories adopted literal translation, the labourer Suihuilov should be a hard translation. Excerpt above is clear and easy to understand, even if a mediocre translator can also easily and smoothly translate this paragraph of text, while Lu Xun's translation is quite rigid and stiff. This translation has showed Lu Xun’s typical translation -- hard translation, which has fully reflected his determination to reform Chinese and to change the thinking pattern of Chinese people. (Xie Hai, 2020, 57)<br />
<br />
===4.The practical significance of translation views===<br />
4.1 Liang Shiqiu<br />
<br />
First, cultural conservatism should be opposed, and the principles of openness and absorption should be promoted. Taking the value system of Babbitt’s new humanism and the spirit of classicism as references, Liang advocated freedom and independence of thought, hoping to import new ideas, new literature and new culture through translation activities. This open vision helps the local culture to learn from and absorb the heterogeneous culture. Translation is the bond of cultural communication. Translators should not only consider nationality, but also treat the other with tolerance and openness. Human culture is exactly developing in the process of understanding and communicating. (Yan Xiaojiang,2008,285)<br />
<br />
Second, cultural radicalism should be opposed, and the principles of filtration and creativity should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu protected traditional culture with reason, and emphasized historical continuity of culture and the values of tradition. Liang tried hard to resurrect Chinese traditional culture by introducing western modern culture. The biggest characteristic of cultural radicalism is that it is more destructive than constructive, and even completely abandons its own tradition and copies western modern culture. Therefore, translators should on the one hand maintain the good of Chinese culture, and also learn new cultures and expressions on the other. (Yan Xaiojiang, 2008, 286)<br />
<br />
Third, cultural conflicts should be avoided while hospitality and order should be promoted. Liang Shiqiu combined the artistic spirit of ancient Greece, Irving Babbitt’s new humanism and Confucianism’s “mean” spirit, and finally found the juncture between the heterogeneous discourses of Chinese and western traditional culture, and constructed and strengthened the liberal cultural ideal with classical spirit. This principle of compatibility and moderation sets an example for resolving cultural conflicts and realizing the ideal of harmony. An important characteristic of cultural conflictionism is that it exaggerates the conflict of culture and ignores the feature of accommodation and complementarity between cultures. Each culture has its own inherent rules. Differences and collisions are the process of communication between heterogeneous cultures. Only differences can maintain self-identity, only collisions can promote development, and only diversity can present prosperity. However, recognizing differences does not mean erasing consensus, and real consensus does not obliterate differences. We should grasp the problem of contemporary Chinese cultural identity in the tension structure of globalization and localization with understanding, communication and integration, striving to construct the modernity of Chinese literature and culture, participating in the world dialogue with artistic creation with national characteristics, opposing to replace another culture with one culture, and insisting on inheriting foreign culture critically. (Yan Xiaojiang, 2008, 287)<br />
<br />
In a word, Liang Shiqiu's “mean” spirit in translation not only formed his own theoretical system by combining observation with cognition, but also put this rational system into practice, which promoted the communication between traditional and modern culture, foreign and local culture, individual and common culture, so as to optimize cultural integration. In today's context of cultural pluralism, we must update our values and ways of thinking, understand the relationship between cultural identity and context with the concept of compound identity, and realize the rationality and effectiveness of cultural integration. （Yan Xiaojiang,2008, 287)<br />
<br />
4.2 Lu Xun<br />
<br />
In the comparison between Chinese and foreign languages, Lu Xun realized the imprecision of Chinese grammar and thus associated it with the "imprecision of Chinese thinking". He tried to introduce the expressions of foreign languages into Chinese through literal translation, and to promote the modernization of the Chinese language. Although there were many difficulties at the time, Lu Xun's efforts did, to a certain extent, contribute to the development of vernacular Chinese and the "Europeanization" of Chinese , and he also succeeded in absorbing the expressions and vocabulary of foreign languages. Even though the foreign grammar that Lu Xun borrowed from his direct translations at that time is not fully used today, and many of the expressions have been completely abandoned today, it is because Lu Xun pioneered the introduction of foreign expressions and persevered with them that modern Chinese today has rich and flexible syntax that can be extended and contracted, and sentences that are long but not chaotic and well-organized. This fully proves Lu Xun's foresight and wisdom. (Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s translation views still have some practical significance in modern society. We can get some inspirations after reviewing Lu Xun’s translation views. On the one hand, western translation theories should be introduced. On the other hand, Chinese translation studies should be systematic, scientific and unique through constantly concluding, digging, refining and sublimating. We should treat translation theories Dialectically and developmentally and only in this way can translation theory studies have some breakthrough and creation. With the accelerated process of globalization, China is ushering in a new round of translation climax, and good academic ethos and translation ethics are the guarantee of translation quality. ( Wang Yanling, 2009, 38)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of several texts above, we can see clearly that Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu have shared some similarities and differences in their translations practice. <br />
From the perspective of translation views, both Liang Shiqiu and Lu Xun adopted literal translation. Liang Shiqiu emphasized the consistence of “faithfulness” and “smoothness”, claiming that translations should be faithful to the original work and also be readable. With the influence of Confucianism and Babbitt’s new humanism, he has formed “mean” translation view, which means that his translation were not extreme but appropriate and moderate. Lu Xun’s translation works mainly adopted literal translation and even “hard translation”. Compared with Liang Shiqiu, he claimed that translation works should “rather be faithful than smooth". In his opinion, Chinese is not precise enough, thus new syntax and expressions should be introduced to improve and enrich Chinese. The so called “ hard translation” appeared in Lu Xun’s later translations, which were unreadable and unacceptable. However, the political function was more important than its literary purpose. <br />
<br />
From the choice of translation works, Liang Shiqiu encouraged translators to translate classics which are based humanity such as Shakespeare’s works. He was a determined humanism advocator, denying the class nature of literature and opposing using literature as the tool of enlightenment and politics. Lu Xun, however, was quite different. He translated a lot of Soviet literary works and wanted Chinese people to learn their rebellious and revolutionary spirit. Most of his translations have political function, aiming to change Chinese people’s conservative and corrupt thinking. <br />
<br />
From the purpose of doing translations, Liang Shiqiu put “humanism” as the core of his translation works. His purpose of translation was very pure, that is, to translate western classics, to give the Chinese people the pleasure of aesthetics and spirit. Lu Xun, however, was more “utilitarian”. The purpose of his translations were to bring more new culture and absorb new expressions to enrich Chinese. Lu Xun was living in a era when China was weak and corrupt, he wanted to use his translations as weapons to defeat corruption, ignorance and conservatism.<br />
<br />
===Rrferences===<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). "译学词典". [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Yan Xiaojiang. 严晓江. (2008). "梁实秋中庸翻译观研究". [On Liang Shiqiu's View of "mean" in Translation]. 上海译文出版社 [Shanghai Translation Publishing House] 32-52.<br />
<br />
*Wang Yanling. 王燕玲. (2009). "鲁迅翻译观的形成及其现实意义". [The Formation of Lu Xun's Translation Theory and its Practical Significance]. 时代教育 [TIME EDUCATION] 39-40.<br />
<br />
*Wei Sichao. 魏思超. (2011). "直视鲁迅“硬译”观". [A Direct View of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation"]. 文学教育 [Literature Translation]. 24-25.<br />
<br />
*Jin Boya. 金博雅. (2011). "鲁迅和梁实秋的文学翻译对比研究". [A Comparative Study of Literary Translation Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 北方文学 [Northern Literature] 118-119.<br />
<br />
*Liu Fang. 刘芳. (2014). "论鲁迅直译观的形成及其历史意义". [On the Formation and Historical Significance of Lu Xun's Literal Translation]. 名作赏析 [Masterpieces Review] 123-125.<br />
<br />
*Xie Haiyan. 谢海燕. (2020). "协商直译: 重论鲁迅的直译与《域外小说集》". [Negotiating Literal Translation: Ｒeinterpreting Lu Xun’s Literal Translation and Collection of Foreign Short Stories].绍兴文理学院学报 [JOUＲNAL OF SHAOXING UNIVEＲSITY] 51-60.<br />
<br />
*Zheng Chun. 郑春. (2017). "再谈鲁迅的翻译以及“硬译”". [The Second Discussion on Lun Xun's Translation and Literal Translation]. 广西师范学院学报 [Journal of Guangxi Teachers Education University] 6-11.<br />
<br />
*Chen Fu. 陈芙. (2017). "鲁迅的“硬译”与译者惯习解析". [Analysis on Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" and His Habitus]. 浙江理工大学学报 [Journal of Zhejiang Sci-Tech University] 505-510. <br />
<br />
*Song Liulin. 宋柳霖. (2019). "“信”与“顺”的交锋——鲁迅和梁实秋翻译论战的分歧探析". [The Confrontation Between "Faithfulness" and "Smoothness"——On the Differences in the Translation Debate Between Lu Xun and Liang Shiqiu]. 校园英语 [Campus English] 241-242.<br />
<br />
*Lv Xuemei. 吕雪梅. (2020). "鲁迅翻译思想三大“异”及其价值". [Three Differences in Lu Xun's Translation Thoughts and Their Values]. 江苏外语教学研究 [Research on Foreign Language Teaching in Jiangsu Province] 81-83.<br />
<br />
*Yang Xiaohua. 杨小花. (2020). "鲁迅“硬译”思想发展脉络分析". [An Analysis of the Development of Lu Xun's "Hard Translation" Thought]. 文学教育 [Literature Education] 27-29.<br />
<br />
==A Brief Introduction to Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization 徐佳 Xu Jia==<br />
<center>徐佳 Xu Jia 202070080613 </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Deconstruction, founded in a critique of structuralism, emphasizes the uncertainty of textual meaning and denies the supreme authority of the original author. As a representative figure of deconstruction, Derrida's theories have had a great impact on the Western traditional theories. Under the influence of deconstruction, Venuti proposed the translation strategy of foreignization, criticizing the "invisibility" of translators and arguing that the purpose of translation is to protect and reproduce cultural differences, which contributes a lot to translation studies.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Deconstruction; Domestication; Foreignization<br />
<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
解构主义及韦努蒂的异化翻译策略刍议<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
解构主义是在对结构主义的批判中建立起来的，强调文本意义的不确定性，否认原作者至高无上的权威性。德里达作为解构主义的代表人物，其理论观点对西方理论传统产生了巨大冲击。在其思想影响下，韦努蒂提出异化翻译策略，批判译者“隐身”，认为翻译的目的是要保护再现文化差异，其理论具有一定的进步意义。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
解构主义；归化；异化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translation has a long history and translation studies have gone through a long journey. In the 20th century, along with the changes in the fields of philosophy and literature, linguistic and cultural shifts emerged in translation studies, and new translation schools have sprung up one after another. Among them, the most controversial one is Deconstruction and its translation views. Deconstructionism is established in the criticism of structuralism, with decomposition as its main feature, systematically deconstructs the concepts of "structure" and "meaning". It focuses on overturning the traditional concept of translation fidelity so as to highlight the central position of the translator, thus opening up new horizons for contemporary translation studies.<br />
<br />
===1.The Emergence of Deconstruction and Derrida’s Theories===<br />
Deconstruction is an all-open critical theory that emerged from France in the late 1960s, which questions rationality and subverts tradition. It takes interpretive philosophy as its philosophical foundation, advocates pluralism, and aims to break the closedness of structure, eliminate logos-centrism, and overturn the western philosophical tradition of binary oppositions.<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" and read it to the public at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, which marked the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）<br />
<br />
Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, is the father of deconstructionism. He wrote an essay named "Structure, Symbols, and Play in the Language of the Humanities" , which was publicly read at Johns Hopkins University in 1966, thus marking the birth of deconstruction. In the United States, it has received unprecedented spread and creative development. Among many scholars, the most influential was the "Yale School" represented by Paul Derman, Geoffrey Hartmann, Hillis Miller and Harold Bloom. They interpreted and popularized the ideas of Deconstruction, leading to its tremendous impact and flourishing in North America.（Wen Hong 2010,185）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has a structural pattern, which determines the essence of things, and the study of the essence of things lies in the study of their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）<br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a critical inheritance of structuralism. Structuralism holds that everything has its structure, which determines the essence of things, and to study the essence of things needs to study their deeper structure. Deconstructionists, on the other hand, believe that structuralism is inherited from the dualistic mode of thinking in traditional western philosophy, which always establishes one original and one center for the world, such as the idea, God, man, etc. Around the original and the center, the world is formed and there are a series of two oppositions, such as subject and object, sound and writing, reason and sensibility, truth and error, philosophy and literature, etc. The former always takes precedence and the latter is a kind of derivation, dependence or exclusion of the former.（Xie Tianzhen 2000,314）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Its subversion over structralism focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively cited the fact that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Its attack against structralism mainly focuses on the binary opposition between sound and words. The long-standing western tradition of valuing sound over words assumes that meaning comes before words, and that words themselves are of little importance, but merely serves as megaphone for expressing meaning. Derrida called it "logocentrism," which is another name for reason, truth, subject, being, essence, etc. Derrida traced and extensively gave examples that written words had been looked down upon. For example, Plato once claimed that words are the invention of children, while language embodys the wisdom of adults. Aristotle also believed that language are the representation of inner experience, while words, the representation of language, is the medium of medium, so it is in a secondary position.(Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words, but cannot be telled in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing fall apart. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
<br />
Derrida, however, introduced the concept of "archetypal words," which raised the status of written words to a new level. In his view, words is the original and prototype of language and it is the prerequisite of all linguistic phenomena and construction of meaning. In addition, Derrida created a new word "differance", which is only one letter different from "difference" and has the same pronunciation. This difference, which can only be seen in words but cannot be told in speech, makes the western tradition of emphasizing sound over writing collapse. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Thus, it can be seen that though based on the criticisim of structuralism, the ideas of deconstruction point directly at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Thus, we can see that deconstruction, though based on the criticisim of structuralism, actually points at the western tradition of rationalism. According to Derrida, deconstruction is a thought about being and metaphysics. It thus lead to a discussion of the authority of being, or the authority of essence, and such a discussion or interpretation cannot simply be generalized as a negativistic destruction. (Fan Zhongying 1997, 36)This sentence can be understood in two ways. first, deconstruction represents a spirit of rebellion in that it dares to think about, discuss, and reinterpret authoritative philosophies that have existed for thousands of years.Behind the radical attitude of deconstruction lies a profound spirit of questioning tradition, a determination to destroy any form of rigidity and privilege. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a process of merely breaking without establishing. But as Derrida said, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through rejecting the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)<br />
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Deconstruction has always been regarded as a thoery of merely breaking without establishing. According to Derrida, however, deconstruction cannot simply be generalized as a negative destruction. Actually, breaking itself implies building. Through denying the "truth" of the structuralism and metaphysical traditions, deconstruction aims to create a pluralistic, tolerant and open system. Deconstructionism is undeniably revolutionary for its total rejection of binary opposition. And at the same time, since it acknowledges the coexistence of multiple logics constituted by varied traditional factors, the revolution is relative. (Huang Zhending 2005,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Generally speaking, any ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and deconstruction clearly has these characteristics. Compared to structuralism, it is still infantile. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.<br />
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Generally speaking, every ideological trend is marginal, fragmented, and even radical at its inception, and so is deconstruction. Compared to structuralism, it is still unmature. Nevertheless, deconstruction, with its continuous negation against the thinking mode of binary opposition and its thoroughness in decomposing it, is an evolving and vigorous ideology.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism, and he launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism so as to emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts," such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) <br />
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The first thing Derrida's deconstruction theory wants to eliminate is the concept of "structure", which is the cornerstone of structuralism. He launched a fierce attack on the logos-centralism and instead emphasize the uncertainty of the meaning of the text. In his theory, Derrida created a series of terms that he called "new concepts" such as "trace", "differance","dissemination", "decentering", etc. Take "dissemination" as an example. According to Derrida, dissemination is the inherent ability of all words. It does not convey any meaning, for the production of every meaning is the result of "differance". Every reading is a search for "trace" of the seeds that have been disseminated, and every reading is a re-understanding of what seems to have met before. (Wen Hong 2010, 186) --[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which is composed of many layers, but has no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely negates the author's creativity and crushes any attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Roland Barthes, another representative of deconstructionism, compares the text to an onion, which has many layers but no core, no original, and unity is its superficial phenomenon. This metaphor suggests that the meaning of the text is uncertain and that the search for the original meaning of the text is futile. Barthes asserted that "the author is dead", which completely denies the author's creativity and crushes all attempt to trace the author's original meaning. The intertextuality and indeterminacy of textual meaning make reading a concrete act associated with the specific times and reading subjects, which strongly breaks the traditional view that reading is only a passive consumption of texts, and greatly promotes the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity of readers. (Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which is necessarily the critic's subjective view and evaluation of the work, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)<br />
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Indeed, apart from literary criticism which necessarily analyses and evaluates the work from the critic's subjective view, the phenomena of distorting the meaning of original for one's own profit are not rare, and even general reading is never a passive absorption of the ideas in the work. This point of view, in fact, has long been embodied in the keynote of reception aesthetics, which explicitly emphasizes the role of human in textual relations and the great initiative of participants in discourse communication. It actually reveals that in the rich and complex history of all language and text, there lies the rich and complex history of human spiritual activity. This process can by no means be summed up in Hegel's rigid dialectical model of "positive-negative-combination".(Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably influenced by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as an unchanging standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that every text is produced in a specific historical environment, so there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)<br />
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Like other fields of the humanities, translation community is inevitably impacted by the ideas of deconstruction. Traditional translation theories regard the original text as an unshakable authority, which is always above the translation and translation activities. Fidelity exists as a supreme standard for translation, and the discussion of equivalence has always been a hot topic in the translation community. Deconstruction reveals the relationship between texts. It argues that since every text is born in a specific historical environment, there is no absolute equivalence between the original text and the translation, and any factors that affect human thinking, such as ideology, values, ethics, morality, cultural traditions, political system, etc., will affect the translation. (Huang Zhending 2005,19)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text, not a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no fixed meaning of translation, and even an accurate retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)<br />
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Therefore, any original text is always in the process of being constantly rewritten, and every reading and translation of the original text means a reconstruction of the original text rather than a tracing of the original meaning. Translation involves two languages and two cultural systems, and deconstructionists believe that the purpose of translation is to pretect and reproduce the differences between languages and cultures instead of eliminating them with sameness. There is no accurate and fixed meaning of translation, and even a detailed retelling can produce new meanings that give life to the original. (Ren Shukun 2000, 55)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 14:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Before the advent of deconstruction, Walter Benyamin, a German translation theorist, put forward ideas related to deconstruction in his book "The Task of the Translator" in 1923, and thus he has been widely regarded as the founder of deconstructionist translation theory. Benyamin uses the term "pure language" to explain the differences between languages, which refers to the universal language shared by all human beings before they built the Tower of Babel. According to Benjamin, a pure language is complete and abstract, and the many languages used today derive from it. Only when these languages complement each other can it be possible to reproduce the whole picture of a pure language. The essence of language can be grasped only in the differences of specific languages. Therefore, translation should try to reflect these differences. The languages we use today is fragments of pure language, and so are the original text and its translation. Since they are fragments, their main characteristics are fragmentation and mutilation, and the task of the translator is to find and reflect the formal characteristics of the fragments. (Xie Tianzhen 2000, 316)<br />
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===2.Venuti’s Translation Theory of Deconstruction ===<br />
In the late 20th century, under the influence of deconstructionism, many translation theorists put forward some new views, including Edwin Gentzler, Ander Lefevere, Susan Bassnett, Theo Hermans, Gideon Toury, Lawrence Venuti, etc. Putting translation in the overall social and cultural context, they reconsidered many factors affecting translation, and tried to build new translation theories. Among them, Venuti's theory has been recognized as a representative one.<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he raised many neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of translation theory of foreignization that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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In 1992, Venuti compiled a collection of essays on translation named Rethinking Translation. In the preface of the book, he mentioned several neglected issues, mainly the marginal status of translators and its causes, and called for a rethinking of translating. In 1995, he published Translator's Invisibility, a masterpiece on the history of Western translation over 200 years, which is a representative work of foreignizing translation theory that drew much attention in the late 20th century. The book describes the situation and behavior of translators in Anglo-American cultures, traces the history of transparent discourse in English translation that has emerged since the seventh century, and reveals the various cultural hegemonies that originated as smooth discourse. (Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to lead translators and readers to reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, thus having an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)<br />
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The ultimate goal of Venuti's translation theory of foreignization is to have translators and readers reflect on the violence of nationalism in translation, and thus they can have an expectation to feel linguistic and cultural differences when translating and reading translations. Deconstruction has rewritten the history of western translation by rejecting the viewpoint of western-centralism and advocating an equal relationship between national cultures and languages. This naturally links translation studies with power, ideology and colonialism, regarding translations as a political act. Of course, the aim of it is not to raise the value of every foreign culture by treating Anglo-American culture as an object of racial discrimination. It focuses on how to study and practice translation as a site of differences at the theoretical, critical and textual levels rather than emphasizing homogeneity, as is popular nowadays.(Zhao Shang2007,76)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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====2.1 Objections to Domesticating Translation====<br />
Venuti build his translation theory on the basis of deconstruction, and his definition of translation is as follows: "Translation is a process that the translator replaces the chain of signifier in the source text with that in the target language." (Venuti 1998, 22) Since meaning is produced by relations and differences in a potentially infinite chain, there will always be differences and delays and will never be the whole of an original text. Both the foreign text and the translation are derivative and are made up of different linguistic and cultural materials. Therefore, neither the foreign author nor the translator is the original author, and the meaning of the work is so unstable that it can transcend the intent of the work. This is very different from the traditional concept of translation.<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text which expresses his own feelings, and he has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they are reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)<br />
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Traditionally, it is believed that the author is the original creator of a unique text where he expresses his own feelings and has absolute authority and ultimate right to interpret it. Given this, the translator's work can only be an imitation of the original text, and the translation is neither self-expressive nor unique, but a derivative of the it. This concept has ruled the translation world for a long time, decisively placing the translator in a subordinate position to the author and the translation to the creation. Translated text has always been compared with the original text, and any deviation from it is considered a flaw or even a shame. In order to increase the faithfulness of the translation, translator goes to great lengths to hide himself, by erasing as much as possible linguistic and cultural differences and assimilating the original text with the linguistic features and values of the target language. A translation based on such a strategy will be immediately accepted by the target language readers. Therefore, the ideal translation that translators have long strived for is one that makes the reader feel as if they were reading the author's original text in the target language.(Ren Shukun 2004,56)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti have different ideas. Under the influence of deconstructionist thinking, Venuti points out in the preface of his book Rethinking Translation that "a translation can never be faithful to the original text, and is always more or less free. It is never definite, and always has an addition to or subtraction from the original. It can never be a transparent representation, but only an interpretive transformation, revealing the multiple meanings and ambiguities of the foreign text and translate them into other multiple and divergent meanings." (Venuti 1992, 67) He began his book, The Invisibility of the Translator, by quoting Norman Shapiro: "I think translation should be transparent and not look like a translation. A good translation is like a piece of glass, you will not notice it without tiny imperfections such as scratches and bubbles. Ideally, of course, there should be no flaws at all. It should not draw attention on itself." (Venuti 1995, 81)<br />
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"Invisibility" is a term used by Venuti to describe the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's main pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also concealed.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)<br />
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"Invisibility" describes the condition and activities of translators in contemporary Anglo-American culture. According to Venuti, such a smooth and transparent translation gives the reader a sense of fidelity and thus becomes the translator's major pursuit. However, a fluent translation conceals the subjective interpretation of the translator, and also obscures the process of mediation between the original text and the translation and that between the author and the translator. In this way, the hard work of the translator is eclipsed by the authority of the author, and many cultural and linguistic differences are also tucked away.(Huang Zhending 2005,20)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and this fix is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, rather than an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）<br />
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According to Venuti, the meaning of a work is plural. A translation only temporarily fixes one meaning of the work, and it is based on different cultural assumptions and interpretive choices, and subject to the constraints of particular social forms and different historical epochs. Meaning is plural and indefinite, and it is by no means an unchanging and unified whole. Therefore, translation cannot be measured by the mathematical concept of equivalence of meaning or one-to-one correspondence, while the norms of exact translation, the concepts of "fidelity" and "freedom" are historically-determined categories. Translation is built by translation and translation. It is the relationship between the translation and the cultural and social conditions resulting from it that allows the translation to survive.（Feng Yihan 2006,41）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Among contemporary translation schools, Nida's translation theory is a typical one of domestication. Naida argues that the translation of dynamic equivalence is to pursue the complete naturalness of the words, (Nida 2004, 159) the essence of which is to eliminate linguistic and cultural differences in inter-linguistic communication. Venuti, however, pointed out that the so-called communication, which originates from the culture of the target language and is at the same time controlled by it, is in fact a selfish interpretation. Thus, this kind of communication is an appropriation of foreign texts for one's own profit rather than information exchange." Nida's translation theory that takes communication as a starting point does not adequately take into account the ethnocentric distort that is inherent in the translation process. Naida's advocacy to produce the same response in the readers of the target language and in the readers of the source language is a kind of cultural violence that denies the differences between languages and cultures.（Wen Hong 2010,186）<br />
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====2.2 Advocacy for Foreignizing Translation====<br />
The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He proposed two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text, so that readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.<br />
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The concept of foreignizing translation goes back to Schleiermacher, a German theologian and philosopher. He put forth two methods of translation in 1813, "The translator should either try not to disturb the author and keep the reader close to him, or he should try not to disturb the reader and keep the author close to the them."(Lefevere 1992, 74) The former refers to the foreignizing method, which advocates deliberately breaking the linguistic and cultural norms of the target language by preserving some exotic expressions in the original text so that the readers can learn and enjoy the foreign culture.--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Moreover, foreignizing translation cannot be simply equated with paraphrase. While the latter involves only the linguistic operations of translation, foreignizing translation, as defined by Venuti, involves two links. The first is the selection of materials, which means what to translate, and the second is the language conversion strategy, which means how to translate. As long as one of the two links involves foreignization, the translation strategy can be defined as foreignizing translation. The debate between foreignization and domestication focuses on whether to close to the culture of the source language or to the culture of the target language. According to Venuti, the prerequisite of foreignizing translation is that there are cultural differences and communication is complicated by cultural differences between and within linguistic communities. Foreignizing translation acknowledges and tolerate differences and create cultural differences in the target language.（Ren Shukun 2004,57）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures emerge and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences while placing the readers in foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）<br />
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A translator who prefers foreignization may not only change the means of expression of the translated text, but also choose to translate foreign texts that challenge the foreign literary norms in the target language. Translation is a process of finding common ground between languages and cultures, especially in the search for similar information and similar forms or skills of expression. This search which is necessary for the translator is often confronted with differences. But translator can never, and should never, erase all differences. A translation should be a place where different cultures coexist and the reader can learn about them. Therefore, Venuti's translation strategy of Foreignization, to some extent, is a kind of cultural intervention, which challenges and questions the attempts to suppress foreign things, and highlights the linguistic and cultural differences by placing the readers in a foreign-mannered text.（Feng Yihan 2006,42）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Specifically, in the use of translation methods, it reflects a difficult and obscure translation style, and even uses ancient words of the target language to provide readers with a new reading experience. Ezra Pound's translation of Cathay and Nabokov's translation of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin both use the foreignizing methods. In the history of English literature, the debate between Arnold and Newman is actually a debate about domestication and foreignization. Newman was dissatisfied with the translation style of Homer's works in Victorian England. He thought this kind of translations were too slender and elegant that were favored by the so-called elite, or "great tradition" culture of England. Instead, He chose the "small tradition," that is, the foreignizing method, translating Homer's works into popular lyrical songs, in which a mixture of ancient words, ballads and awkward sentences replaced the serious and straightforward expressions. (Liu Junping 2019, 416)<br />
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====2.3 Preference for Minority-oriented Translation====<br />
According to Venuti，the use of any language can mark power relations, and at any historical moment it is the control of the dominant linguistic form over minute variables. (Venuti 2004, 75) These tiny variables are the so-called "residue", which is opposed to the dominant forms of language, including dialects, archaic languages, colloquialisms, technical terms, and so on. Residues are proposed and applied to prevent the rigidity of language use and kept it alive and fresh.<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are tied to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted it development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)<br />
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With the existence of residues, language use cannot be completely systematized and regularized. The concept of "residue" suggests that linguistic forms are closely related to specific social and historical environment. Residues have supplemented, corrected, and even subverted the mainstream language by transforming, delegitimizing and denaturalizing it, and thus have promoted its development. In order to release the residues, the translator has to innovate his concept so as to achieve the transformation of linguistic and cultural differences.(Guo Jianzhong 2000,51)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented translation, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) In today's world, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)<br />
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Venuti believed that a good translation is a minority-oriented one, which embraces heterogeneity and allows for the existence of unfamiliar, exotic, non-standard, and marginal languages and rules. "Minority translation" means releasing not only linguistic "residues" but also cultural "residues". The marginal texts and translations, as measured by mainstream values, are what Venuti prefers. He said, "I prefer to translate texts that are marginal and weak in my own culture, and that serve to marginalize the dominant linguistic and cultural forms of the English language.“ (Venuti 1998, 32) Today, with the further development of globalization, the economic and political dominance of the United States has marginalized the languages and cultures of other countries. To oppose the global hegemony of English and its culture is exactly what Venuti's advocacy aims at.(Ren Shukun 2004,57)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:47, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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Minority translation never to acquire more, never to establish new standards and rules, but to promotes cultural innovation and understanding of cultural differences through the production of more linguistic variables. In resistant translation, "residual" means going beyond transparency in the use of language, even undermining it with varying degrees of violence. Such new ideas reflect the awareness of unequal relations in translation. In Venuti's view, translation cannot be a simple and egalitarian activity. It is racially superior in nature, either out of reverence for a foreign culture or out of pride in one's own culture. (Ren Shukun 2004, 57)<br />
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The positive significance of foreignization is that it can introduce and absorb foreign cultural nutrients, bring new elements to local culture and language, and thus promoting communication and penetration among different cultures and languages. At the same time, foreignization strategy makes translation alienate from the target language culture, frees the readers from the cultural spell that has confined their reading and writing, which in essence is a counteraction against the ethnocentrism in the target language culture.<br />
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===3.Application of Foreignization and Domestication===<br />
When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of cross-cultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
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When it comes to the choice of adopting foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, we should first consider which one is more conducive to cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding between people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. Since translation is a process of intercultural communication in nature, the translator should take into consideration the inter-subjectivity and dialogue generation between texts rather than merely foreignizing or domesticating sentences accoring to grammar. They should bear in mind it's a process of cultural interaction.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21)--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to note that due to the different levels of readers, it is impossible for the translator to make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）<br />
<br />
The theory of inter-subjectivity focuses on the consideration of whether or why I, as a subject, can know another subject, and not just regards the cognitive activity of human beings only as a dualistic subject-object cognitive act. Therefore, translating is not a monologue. However, it is important to emphasize that due to the different levels of readers, the translator can not make every reader satisfied and understand the translation. For different readers, the translator may make necessary changes to the translation. It not follows the translator's subjective judgement to adopt foreignizing or domesticating translation strategy, but depends on the actual situation.（Bai Xiaohong 2012,21）--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 15:57, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
Since translation services the target readers, the translator should, no matter which translation strategy is adopted, try to think of them and build a bridge across the cultural gap between the original text and the target readers. So how to find a balance between these two strategies? On the technical level, we should stick to one principle when handling the issue of domestication and foreignization, namely a dialectical view of their relationship. With their respective advantages, the two strategies play different roles and satisfy different needs. They are not incompatible just because they have distinctive orientations.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
In fact, no translation is completely based on a single approach of domestication or foreignization. As Lu Xun once commented, “there is no such thing as a thoroughly domesticated translation in the world. Those who claim to be so are fuzzy things that, under close examination, should not be considered as translation in proper.” A good translation is always a mix of both domestication and foreignization. Besides, we should avoid any tendency towards extremes in this matter. Only by striking a balance between those two poles can we produce a work with both original flavor and good acceptance.(Wang Yingping 2011, 216)<br />
<br />
===4.Conclusion===<br />
Vernuti's deconstructionist view of translation shows the incoherence between the original text and the translation and that how the translator is involved in cultural production. He analyzes the power relations behind the text and gives us a new perspective on translation studies. <br />
<br />
However, the resistant strategy that he put forward is marginalized in the translation community. The reasons are as follows. First, the word "resistant" implys the passive defensive status of this strategy and its weakness to counteract the mainstream. Second, in order to release the residues, the translator usually chooses a marginal text to resist the influence of the mainstream. Third, once the text is selected, the translation would depart from the mainstream and to create something new in terms of language, text, rhythm, narrative mode, etc. Such a translation that defies the translation tradition is hardly accepted by a large number of readers in the short term. Thus, the marginal position of Venuti's foreignizing translation strategy is inevitable. <br />
<br />
Translation is never going in an unaffected way. Both foreignization and domestication are in fact the products of influenced translation activities. On theoretical level, it is difficult to say which is better, because translation practice shows that each of them plays an irreplaceable role in the target language and culture and fulfills its own mission. <br />
<br />
From the perspective of development, cultural exchanges are becoming more and more frequent, and translation, as one of the forms of it, is actually a process of cultural integration. Culture itself is an open system with an inestimable capacity for tolerance, so It is easy for the target readers to accept new things from the source culture through foreignization. The translator should choose translation strategies with comprehensive considerations and find a balance between cultural equivalence and acceptability, and thus achieving the best effect of cultural exchange and literary appreciation. <br />
<br />
There is no specific, prescriptive mode for deconstruction in Derrida’s and Venuti’s theories. The importance lies in their unrestricted thinking and revolutionary spirit, which reminds people to rethink traditions and to consider more complex factors that determine the relationship between languages. However, the deconstructionist view of translation is by no means perfect. Its deliberately pursuit of differences and disregard for unity will inevitably lead to confusion. Therefore, it is undoubtedly beneficial to translation research if we objectively see the advantages and disadvantages of the deconstructionist view of translation.<br />
<br />
===Reference===<br />
Fan Zhongying 范仲英. (1997).''实用翻译教程'' [A Practical Course Book on Translation].北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press<br />
<br />
Ren Shukun任淑坤. (2004).解构主义翻译观刍议——兼论韦努蒂的翻译思想和策略 [Humble Opinions on Deconstructive Translation and Venuti's Translation Thoughts and Strategies]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Language and Their Teaching (188) 55-58. <br />
<br />
Lin Qiuyun 林秋云. (1998).德里达的解构主义理论[Derrida’s Theories of Deconstruction].''外国文学评论''.Foreign Literature Review <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (2004). ''The Translator’s Invisibility''.上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1992). ''Rethinking Translation：discourse, subjectivity, ideology''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
Andre Lefevere. (1992). ''Translating Literature''. New York: Modern Language Association Of America.<br />
<br />
Xie Tianzhen 谢天振. (2000).''翻译的理论构建与文化透视''[Theoretical Construction and Cultural Perspective of Translation].上海：上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida. (2004). ''Toward A Science of Translating''.上海：上海外语教育出版社. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.<br />
<br />
Liu Junping 刘军平. (2019).''西方翻译理论通史''[A General History of Western Translation Theory].湖北：武汉大学出版社. Huibei: Wuhan University Press. <br />
<br />
Lawrence Venuti. (1998). ''The Scandals of Translation''. London; New York: Routledge.<br />
<br />
When Hong 温弘. (2010).解构主义翻译理论及韦努蒂的翻译策略 [Deconstructive Translation Theory and Venuti's Translation Strategies]. ''甘肃科技'' Gansu Science and Technology 26(15):185-187.<br />
<br />
Zhao Shang 赵尚. (2007).解构主义与韦努蒂的异化翻译策略 [Deconstruction and Venuti's Translation Strategy of Foreignization]. ''常州工学院学报(社科版)'' Journal of Changzhou Institute of Technology( Social Science Edition) 25(6):75-77<br />
<br />
Bai Xiaohong 白晓红. (2012). 论解构主义翻译观的进步性与局限性[On the Progressiveness and Limitations of the Deconstructionist View of Translation]. ''长春教育学院学报''Journal of Changchun Education Institute 28(6):20-21.<br />
<br />
Huang Zhending 黄振定. (2005). 解构主义的翻译创造性和主体性[The creativity and subjectivity of translation in deconstructionism]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 26(1):19-22.<br />
<br />
Feng Yihan 封一函. (2006). 论劳伦斯•韦努蒂的解构主义翻译策略[Venuti's Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''文艺研究'' Studies in Literature and Art (3):39-44.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong 郭建中.(2000). 韦努蒂及其解构主义的翻译策略[Venuti and his Translation Strategies of Deconstruction]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal(1):49-52.<br />
<br />
=Translation Aesthetics=<br />
==Aesthetic Representation of Two Versions of Wang Wei's "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics - 凌子瑾 Ling Zijin, 202020080618==<br />
<center>凌子瑾 Ling Zijin </center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Wang Wei is a master of landscape poetry, and his poems have important aesthetic value. "Niao Ming Jian" is a representative work of his landscape poetry, which has a relatively high aesthetic significance. Aesthetic reproduction is an important factor to judge the success of a translation. Based on Liu Miqing's theory of translation aesthetics, this paper makes a comparative analysis of the two English translation versions of "Niao Ming Jian" to explore how these two translators make the aesthetic elements in the source text reproduced in the target text.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Aesthetic Representation; Poetry Translation; Comparative Study<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下译本的审美再现——以王维《鸟鸣涧》两译本为例<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
王维是山水诗的集大成者，其诗歌具有重要的美学价值，《鸟鸣涧》是王维山水诗中的代表作品，具有较高的美学研究意义。审美再现是评判译文是否成功的重要因素。本文从刘宓庆的翻译美学理论出发，对《鸟鸣涧》的两个英文译本进行对比分析，探究不同的译者是如何使得原文中的美学要素在译文中得到再现的。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；审美再现；诗歌翻译；对比赏析<br />
<br />
===1. Introduction===<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. Translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)<br />
<br />
With the increasingly close communication between China and the international community, the translation of poetry has become an important part of telling Chinese stories. And translation is the basis for the international dissemination of literary works. Translation is one of the ways of information transmission, which is not only a technology, but also an art. Poetry itself is a literary and artistic form with aesthetic thoughts. Due to the close relationship between poetry translation and beauty, whether the translation can convey the beauty of the original poem has become the main criterion to judge whether the translation is good or not. On this point, Liu Miqing proposed translation aesthetics and systematically explained this subject in his An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics. He incorporated aesthetics into translation and proposed to reproduce the beauty of the original text in translation. (Li Yafeng 2016,4)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song Dynasty and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem of Wang Wei, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)<br />
<br />
Inheriting from Tao Yuanming and Xie Lingyun and laying a foundation for the landscape poetry in Song and Yuan Dynasty, Wang Wei's landscape poetry represents the highest achievement of landscape poetry in the flourishing Tang Dynasty. In the history of the development and the aesthetic formation of Chinese classical poetry, it has an influence and status that cannot be underestimated. "Niao Ming Jian" is the representative work of Wang Wei's landscape poems, so its aesthetic value is self-evident. Written in the stable and unified Tang Dynasty, this poem focuses on the tranquil beauty of the spring mountain at night. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty. (Shi Yue 2002, 3)--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 03:20, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Both Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong have made a lot of contributions to translation studies. They are recognized for their translation skills(both of them were awarded Lifetime Achievement in Translation), but they have different views on literary translation, which can be seen from the comparative study in chapter 4. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper takes "Niao Ming Jian" and its two English versions as research objects to explore how the two translators realize the aesthetic representation of the Chinese version in their English translation.(Yan Haifeng 2017)<br />
<br />
===2. Translation Aesthetics===<br />
In the history of Chinese literature, the earliest development of translation aesthetics can be traced back to the time of the Three Kingdoms. At that time, someone proposed that "it is necessary to follow the essence without decorations".(Wang Wenjing 2020，7) Up to now, there have emerged such related aesthetic translation theories as "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", "spirit likeness" ,"delivering" and “principle of three beauties”. In A Dictionary of Translation Studies of Fang Mengzhi, translation aesthetics is defined as: revealing the aesthetic origins of translation studies, discussing the special significance of aesthetics to translation studies, interpreting the scientific and artistic nature of translation with the aesthetic point of view, putting forward standards of beauty in translating texts with different style using the basic principle of aesthetics, analyzing and solving the aesthetic problem in dealing with interlingual transference.(Fang Mengzhi 2004:296)<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics is the marriage of translation and aesthetics. Almost all traditional translation theories in China are related to aesthetics, and translation aesthetics is one of the basic characteristics of Chinese translation studies. Based on Chinese traditional aesthetics, translation aesthetics, starting with the aesthetic subject and object of translation, not only emphasizes the aesthetic information on the level of sounds and words, analysis of the rhythm, rhyme and translation methods, but also explores the aesthetic factors of emotion, aspiration, meaning and image in the non-formal system, thus laying a practical theoretical foundation for translation aesthetics. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the purpose of translation is to achieve aesthetic representation between languages. Translation is an artistic experience of perceiving, understanding, transforming and reproducing the aesthetic information of the translation object (source language).（Yang Yanni 2010,3）<br />
<br />
The concept of translation aesthetics was put forward by Professor Liu Miqing in 1994. At first, it combined aesthetics and translation to examine the aesthetic feeling of ancient poetry translation. In An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics, Liu Miqing specifically explains the general process and specific strategies of translation aesthetics. According to Liu Miqing, "the theories and propositions of traditional Chinese translation theory are basically derived from Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics, especially classical literature and art". In addition, he also stressed that "theoretical proposition and methodology of Chinese translation theory can be traced back in Chinese classical philosophy and aesthetics.” The aesthetics as the theoretical basis of translation, not only pay attention to the correspondence at the language level, but also the correspondence of the beauty represented in the target text and that in the original text, in order to show the beauty of the original text as possible.（Liu Miqing 1994）<br />
<br />
Translation aesthetics holds that translation contains the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object. The aesthetic subject refers to the reader and translator of the text, while the aesthetic object refers to the target language text and the source language text. By subjectively transforming the source text, the aesthetic subject maximizes the aesthetic value of the source text into the target text in the process of transforming one language text to another, so as to ensure that the aesthetic elements in the source text can be reproduced in the target text.(Wang Wenjing 2020,7) In ''An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics'', Liu Miqing divides aesthetic object into formal system and non-formal system, that is, aesthetic appreciation of the linguistic form of the original text and the emotion expressed in the text.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty in the linguistic form (including pronunciation) of the original text is aesthetically called the beauty in the form of material existence, which is usually "intuitive and sensible" and generally appeals to people's vision and hearing. In the aesthetic composition of the original text, what opposed to the representational elements is the non-representational elements. The non-formal beauty of the original language has no direct relationship with the language form, and it is usually non-intuitive. Because it is not directly reflected in the structure and form of words, sentences and sentence groups, it is usually "uncounted", which is called "non-quantitative factor".(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
<br />
The aesthetic composition of linguistic forms can often be counted, such as the number of parallel sentences, rhymes and figures of speech in a paragraph. Generally speaking, it can be counted to obtain a number, the non-formal beauty of language can not. It is impossible for us to get any quantitative results after analyzing the temperament of a text, such as artistic conception, beauty, momentum, modality, charm, style and so on. But these elements are crucial to the aesthetic value of a text. In short, from the perspective of aesthetics, these non-formal aesthetic compositions of a language is called non-quantitative obscure collection. In Chinese classical poetry, the concentrated expression of this collection is artistic conception.(Liu Miqing 1986)<br />
<br />
The "representation" of aesthetic representation is to transform the source language into the target language, and the aesthetic representation is to transform the beauty of source language into the beauty of the target language. The essence of the representation in the art of translation is to transform the introspective understanding of the source language text into an explicit and intuitive form, that is, to find the best artistic expression form for the source language.（Li Qijiu 2009,4）<br />
<br />
===3. Appreciation of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
The original text of "Niao Ming Jian"<br />
<br />
人闲桂花落，<br />
<br />
夜静春山空。<br />
<br />
月出惊山鸟，<br />
<br />
时鸣春涧中。(''Collected Tang Poem'' 1705)<br />
<br />
The main idea of this poem is: in this quiet place, sweet osmanthus flowers gently fall in the quiet night, making the spring forest emptier and quieter. As the moon rose, it made the birds who was perching among the trees to sing, with their crisp calls reverberating through the open mountain stream. This poem is supposed to be written between 713 and 741 ( The Flourishing Kaiyuan Reign Periond of the Tang Dynasty), when the poet was in a trip to the regions near the Yangtze River. This poem is the first of five poems written by Wang Wei in yunxi Villa where his friend Huangfuyue lived. It is the work about the poet’s life in Wuyunxi (namely Ruoyexi), southeast of Shaoxing County. The poem describes the quiet and beautiful scenery in the mountain on a spring night, and focuses on the tranquility and calmness of the spring mountain at night. The whole poem is intended to highlight the tranquility, but Wang Wei treated it by moving scenes. This kind of technique of contrast shows the poet's meditative mind to a great extent.(Zhuang Chengyuan 2018)<br />
<br />
"人闲桂花落，夜静春山空" is the poet’s depiction of scenery by sound, which skillfully uses the technique of synesthesia to combine the dynamic scene “花落” and "人闲" together. Both the blossom and fall of the flowers belong to the sound of nature. Only people who let their hearts really free down, put down the sincere infatuations to worldly thoughts can promote their spirits to a state of “空”. It was late at night, obviously the viewer could not see the falling scene of osmanthus, but because of the "夜静" and the calmness of heart of the viewer, he can still feel the blooming osmanthus falling off the branches, floating down and landing. And we readers also seem to have entered a "fragrant forest and flower rain" scenery. The "春山" here also leaves room for us to imagine, because it is "春山", we can imagine the noisy picture of the day: singing birds, green trees, lovely flowers, children’s laughter and so on.(Xue Tao 2020)<br />
<br />
When night falls, the environment becomes quiet, the tourists leave, the daytime noise disappeared, the mountains are empty. In fact, "空" not only refers to the empty of the mountain, but also the heart of the poet because only people who have free and easy mood can capture the scene that others can not feel. The last two lines “月出惊山鸟，时鸣春涧中” describe a dynamic scene to highlight the quietness of the mountain stream. “惊” and “鸣” seem to break the tranquility of the night, but in fact serve as a foil to describe the empty and leisure in the mountain by sounds. The moon emerges behind the clouds, quiet moonlight streams down, a few birds awake from their sleep and twitter from time to time. These beautiful things, with the spring streams running in the hill, put a colorful picture in front of the reader and has the similar effect with the "蝉噪林逾静，鸟鸣山更幽" of Wang Ji(a poet of Liang Dynasty). The birds, of course, accustomed to the silence of the mountain, seemed to have a kind of freshness and excitement when the moon rises. But the brightness of the moon changes the landscape immediately before and after its rise.<br />
<br />
Wang Wei was in the heyday of Tang Dynasty. The background of Wang Wei's "月出惊山鸟" is a stable and unified society in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. Although the birds suffer from shock, it is by no means a kind of shock . They will not fly out of the spring stream, or even take off at all, but occasionally chirp among the trees. "时鸣春涧中", they are not so much "startled" as feel fresh to the moon. In this poem, you can not only see the charming environment of the spring mountain dotted with the bright moon, falling flowers and birds, but also feel the peaceful and stable social atmosphere of the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
===4. Appreciation of Two English Versions of "Niao Ming Jian"===<br />
(1) The Gully of Twittering Birds <br />
<br />
translated by Yang Xianyi<br />
<br />
Idly I watch the cassia petals fall;<br />
<br />
Silent the night and empty the spring hills;<br />
<br />
The rising moon startles the mountain bird<br />
<br />
Which twitter fitfully in the spring gully.(Wang Dan 2014)<br />
<br />
(2) The Dale of Singing Birds<br />
<br />
translated by Xu Yuanchong<br />
<br />
I hear osmanthus blooms fall unenjoyed;<br />
<br />
When night comes, hills dissolve into the void.<br />
<br />
The rising moon arouses birds to sing;<br />
<br />
Their fitful twitter fills the dale with spring.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.1 Formal System====<br />
The formal system of poetry mainly consists of rhyme and form, an audible one and a visual one, both of which are objective and perceptive. The existence of the formal system is the basis for poetry, that is, the reason why poetry is poetry rather than any other literary genre is that it has its own unique formal system. Therefore, both the 2 translators Yang Xianyi（Xin Hongjuan 2012,3） and Xu Yuanchong translate poetry by poetry in order to represent the beauty of the poetic form. Below, the author will appreciate the two English versions by Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong from the two aspects of rhyme and form.(Sun Banggen 2007）<br />
<br />
=====4.1.1 Beauty of Rhyme=====<br />
Zhu Guangqian thinks that "poetry is a pure literary form with melody". In literary works, especially in poetry, sound is the most basic unit of delivering aesthetic value. Although the translator cannot find the phonetic rules corresponding to Chinese poetry in English language, he can reproduce the "phonetic beauty" of the original poem by using English language rules. The beauty of rhyme in poetry mainly includes the beauty of rhythm and rhyme. First of all, in terms of rhythm, the original poem basically conforms to the basic meter of rhythmic poetry. In Yang Xianyi's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 1), the rhythm of the poem is roughly as follows: (Zhu Guangqian 1998)<br />
<br />
/--/--/-/-/（11） /--/--/--/-（11）<br />
<br />
-/-//--/-/（10） -/-/--/-//-（11）<br />
<br />
In dealing with each line, translator basically take the trochaic form. Although its antithesis is not neat but it is easy to read, largely represents the musical aesthetic feeling of the original poetry. Besides, the trochaic rhythm can give readers a kind of feeling that firstly there is a sound, and then fell silent, which is in accordance with the tranquil atmosphere in Niao Ming Jian. The rhythm of Xu Yuanchong's translation (hereinafter referred to as translation 2) is roughly as follows:<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-/（10） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
-/-/-/-/-（9） -/-/-/-/-/（10）<br />
<br />
The translator adopts iambic pentameter to translate the poem, which has a strong sense of rhythm and can be called as a standard English metrical poem. In terms of the representation of rhythm, both translation 1 and translation 2 are well done, while the rhythm of translation 2 is more in line with the characteristics of the original poem, so translation 2 is better.<br />
<br />
The rhyme in poetry is an important factor at the level of rhythmic beauty. Rhyme can make the rhythm of a poem produce harmonious auditory aesthetic satisfaction. In terms of rhythm, the original poem strictly adheres to the rhyming rules of Lüshi (poetry). The rhyme at the end of the second and fourth lines is used to create a echoing effect of distant bells in the mountains, making the mountain seem emptier and lonelier.(Yang Yanni 2010,3) In translation 1, the translator uses many assonance in his lines, such as "silent", "night" in the second line; "Fitfully" and "gully" in the fourth line. The translator also used alliteration, such as "idly", "I" in the first line; "moon", "mountain" in the third line. However, translation 1 does not rhyme at the end of the line. It has the advantage of being free from the restrictions of meter and the language is accurate and fluent. But it also has disadvantage that it loses the beauty of rhyme to some extent.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
As for the translation 2, we can find the end rhyme of the translation 2: /d/ in the first and second line; /ing/ in the third and fourth line. And the rhyme scheme of this translation is aabb. This scheme type can convey the rhythmic beauty of Chinese traditional poetry for its end rhyme is complete. In addition, the first two lines of poetry end with a phone /d/, giving us a feeling of an abrupt stop. The last two lines end with/ing/, leaving a sense of melody for the reader, which is in line with the /ong/ rhyme in the original poem. It can be said that in terms of conveying the rhythmic beauty of the original poem, translation 2 not only represents the original poem, but also makes the target text sounds better than the original one. Therefore, compared with translation 2, translation 1 is slightly inferior in representing the rhythmic beauty of original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
=====4.1.2 Beauty of form=====<br />
Liu Miqing (2005) believes that the beauty of symmetry and antithesis in Chinese classical literature can be called "The elegance of Beauty", which is unique to Chinese.(Liu Miqing 2005) Externally, the four lines of the original poem, with five words in each line, form regular rectangles. From the inside, we can see that the first line and the second line form a parallel structure: “人闲” and “夜静”; “桂花” to “春山”; “落” to “空”. (Tao Yingnian 2017,8) Antithesis constitutes the important factor of the beauty at the level of the form.(Liu Miqing 2005)<br />
<br />
The beauty of the translated poem at the level of form is that its words and sentences are in accord with the length and symmetry of the original poem in antithesis and meter.In the translation 1, the number of words in each line is 7, 8, 7,and 7. In translation 2, the number of words in each line is 6, 8, 7 and 8. Both versions conform to the formal characteristics of the poem. From the appearance of the two translations, both of them have achieved the demand to translate poetry by poetry ,representing the formal characteristics of the original poem.<br />
<br />
In terms of syllables, the number of syllables in each line of translation 1 is 11, 11, 10 and 11. The number of syllables in each line of translation 2 is 10, 10, 9 and 10. Both of the form of the two translations are in compact structure, thus achieving the representation of beauty of the original poem. In addition, the third and fourth lines of translation 2 adopt parallel structure, which to some extent represents the antithesis beauty of the original poem.(Huang Jing 2010)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Non-formal System====<br />
The non-formal system of poetry is mainly embodied in the artistic conception of poetry. Artistic conception is an important category in Chinese poetics. Artistic conception consists of two aspects: meaning and context. Meaning refers to subjective thoughts and feelings, while context refers to objective life and scenery. In artistic works, meaning and context blend together to form artistic conception. The conveying of artistic conception is directly related to the intuitive and sensible overall linguistic image, but the essence of its beauty is not intuitive and sensible. It usually comes from the feeling, ambition, intention of the artist and the overall artistic beauty of the work, which can easily remind us of the so-called "不著一字，尽得风流".（Li Qijiu 2009）<br />
<br />
In poetry, the meaning that a poet wants to express is often conveyed through the images in ancient poems, which are either embodied in scenery or embodied in things. Therefore, when translating Chinese ancient poems, finding the right images is the key point to catch the artistic conception of the whole poem. In order to achieve the aesthetic representation of artistic conception in the translated poem, the translator's poetic sentiment, knowledge of literature and language skills are indispensable. Sometimes the inaccurate translation of a word will change the whole artistic conception and cause the translation to deviate from the original text. In the process of translating poetry, the representation of rhyme and form is the basic step, and that of artistic conception is the completion of the task of translating poetry.（Wu Tong 2018,16）<br />
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=====4.2.1 Beauty of artistic conception=====<br />
Yang Xianyi and Xu Yuanchong, the translators of the two translations selected in this paper, have different views on the transfer of the beauty of artistic conception. When talking about the principle of literary translation, Yang Xianyi points out that the general principle is that the content of the original text should not be increased or decreased. He has emphasized the principle of faithfulness for many times, saying that "the translation must be very faithful to the original one". He doesn't think the translator should explain too much when translating. The translator should try to be faithful to the image of the source text. If there is no equivalent in translation, some of the meaning of the original must be sacrificed. Xu Yuanchong, on the other hand, believed that among the beauty of sound, form and meaning, meaning was the most important, followed by sound and form.(Xu Yuanchong 2006)<br />
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Translators play two roles in the process of translation: text reader and text producer. Translators must give full play to their subjectivity on the basis of a deep understanding of the content and aesthetic value of the original text, and creatively reproduce the verve and artistic conception of the original text, so that the readers of the translated text can truly experience the beauty in reading. In the following, the author will start from the title and analyze the two translators' representation of the artistic conception of the original poem.<br />
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The title of the original poem is "鸟鸣涧", which is a modifier-head structure. In this structure, "鸟鸣" modifies "涧". This structure emphasizes the static state of the noun "涧". Translation 1 and 2 respectively translate the title as two noun phrases "The Gully of Twittering Birds" and "The Dale of Singing Birds" , which are similar to the modifier-head structure of the original poem. The head nouns "The Gully" and "The Dale" are modified by "of Twittering Birds" and "of Singing Birds", highlighting the quiet state of the mountain, which conforms to the artistic conception of the original poem. Two title is identical structurally, but differ in the words used.(Tao Yingnian 2017)<br />
<br />
The translation 1 translates "涧" as "gully", which the Oxford Advanced Learner's English-Chinese Dictionary (hereinafter referred to as "the dictionary") interprets as: "a small, narrow channel, usually formed by a stream or by a rain". "涧" in the Xinhua Dictionary is defines as a gutterway in the mountain, so the translation 1 corresponds to the original poem; Translation 2 translates "涧" into "dale", which is defined as "Valley, ESP, in Nortern England" in the dictionary. But "涧" in original poem just refers to an ordinary mountain stream, which is still far from a dale. Then is the translation of "鸟鸣", defined in the dictionary as "when birds twitter, they make a series of short high sounds"; Translation 2 translates "鸟鸣" as "singing". Translation 1 uses onomatopoeia to translate it, which is more vivid in sensory image; While translation 2 uses personification to highlight the melody of bird songs, which brings people a more graceful feeling and a more harmonious artistic conception.<br />
<br />
It can be said that translation 1 adopts literal translation while translation 2 adopts free translation. Although both of them can reflect the activity of bird, translation 2 compares it to singing, on the basis of being faithful to the original text, adds a more poetic aesthetic feeling from the aesthetic point of view, and the images described are more easily accepted by readers.<br />
<br />
Next comes the translation of the poem's first line. First of all, in terms of the treatment of "人", both translation 1 and translation 2 add the subject "I" to translate "人" into the poet himself, because Chinese sentences do not necessarily have the subject while English must indicate the subject. Although it is difficult to achieve complete equivalence, it is also a relatively reasonable translation method. On the translation of "闲", translation 1 cut to the chase, using the word "idly" indicates that the state of the viewer, it is in line with the original text in the idle state of mind; Translation 2, which puts "unenjoyed" at the end of the line, meets the need of rhyme but adds translator's creative content. But there is not unenjoyed feeling in the original poem, so translation 1 is better here. Next, on the translation of "桂花", two translation appear difference. In translation 1, "桂花" is translated into "cassia petals". The author looked it up in the dictionary and discovered that its meaning is the petal of cinnamon tree; in translation 2 it is translated into "osmanthus blooms" , which is almost synonymous to the translation 1. Both translation 1 and translation 2 take the same way to translate it, that is, using the proper noun. <br />
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As for the "桂花" in this poem, scholars have different explanations. One explanation is that there are different kinds of "桂花", such as spring flowers, autumn flowers and perpetual flowers. What is written here is a kind of spring flowers. Another view is that literary and artistic creation does not necessarily follow life. It is said that the painting by Wang Wei called Yuan An Lying in the Snow has green plantains in the snow. Things that cannot appear together in real life are allowed in literary and artistic creation. However, this poem is one of five poems that written for his friend's house. Each of these five poems is written in a realistic way, which is similar to the landscape painting. Therefore, it is reasonable to translate "桂花" to the osmanthus that blossoms in spring. However, in English, there is not so fine classification of osmanthus, so it is difficult to find a counterpart. The two translators have tried their best to translate it, and their translations of "桂花" are understandable. In addition, it should be noted that the way the two translators deal with the connection between the viewer and osmanthus. Translation 1 uses "watch" to see the flowers falling down, while in translation 2, the word "hear" is used, which is different from the usual setting of appreciating flowers and is the result of the translator's thoughtful and creative translation. Hearing the sound of falling petals can better reflect the empty of the poet's heart than seeing, thus better representing the tranquility of the mountain stream.（Yan Guoying 2010）<br />
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Translation 1 Adopts the parallel structure when translating the second line, using the literal translation method to combine the silent night with the empty mountain stream. It is a static description without the description of the sequence of the events, reproducing a kind of vague beauty; in translation 2, "夜静" and "山空" are in time sequence, belongs to the dynamic description, showing the night's coming and the mountain becomes silent. The stationary state in the original poem becomes a process from a dynamic situation station to static one, successfully represent the hidden grammatical relations in the original poem. Therefore, for the transltion of the second line, both the two translators have strong point.<br />
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In the translation of the third line, the translation of "惊" is of great importance for it serves as a key to show the skills of polishing words of Wang Wei. In translation 1, it is literally translated into "startles", which means"cause a person or animal to feel sudden shock or alarm" in the dictionary. But are birds really startled? According to the appreciation of the original poem in the last chapter, the birds are not startled but only disturbed by the moonrise. "Startles" here is somewhat abrupt and the beauty of the original poem is not respresented, so it is not an appropriate translation; Xu Yuanchong translates it into "arouses", which is defined as "evoke or awaken a feeling, emotion, or response”in the dictionary. Compared to the translation 1, translation 2 is not only more natural but also gives the reader a sense of harmony between human and nature.(Yang Yanni 2010)<br />
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The last is the translation of the fourth line. The two translations are basically the same in terms of words and translation methods, except the difference in sentence pattern. The translation 1 uses a non-restrictive attributive clause to combine the third line and the fourth line together, which means that the translator deal with the "月出" and "鸟鸣" as two simultaneous events, that is to say, there is no sequence between the moonrise and bird's singing, which is inconsistent with the original poem. The translation 2 deals these two lines with two sentences, perfectly embodying the relationship between the rise of the moon and the song of birds, which fits well with Wang Wei's state of "painting in poetry".(Zhao Dongli 2009)<br />
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===5. Conclusion===<br />
By analyzing the two translations above, the author finds that in poetry translation Yang Xianyi attaches importance to form and Xu Yuanchong to meaning. Yang Xianyi prefers literal translation while Xu Yuanchong prefers free translation. In terms of formal system translation, Yang Xianyi's grasp of the beauty of rhyme is a little bit inferior to that of Xu Yuanchong, but in terms of the grasp of antithesis in poetry, both translators have demonstrated exquisite translation skills, each with its own advantages. Therefore, it can be seen that the mastery of source language and target language is very important in translation. In terms of the translation of non-formal systems, namely artistic conception, both translators represent the image beauty of the original poem to a large extent, but Xu Yuanchong's translation is better because Yang Xianyi uses more literal translation, which is slightly rigid. Xu's translation is more cohesive and readable, giving people a dynamic and harmonious aesthetic feeling.<br />
<br />
Although there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures, a good translation can still represent the appearance, scenery and feelings of the original poem. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, the combination of literal translation and free translation is necessary in order to realize the aesthetic representation of poetry in translation. In terms of translation, both formal system and non-formal system should be taken into account to represent the beauty of poetry in sound, form and meaning. This also gives the corresponding aesthetic requirements for the translator, the translator must constantly improve their language skills and appreciation ability, in order to achieve continuous breakthroughs in aesthetic representation.（Wang Jie 2009,4）<br />
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===References===<br />
*Chen Jie. 陈洁. (2015). 王维山水诗的意境美. [The Beauty of Wang Wei's Landscape Poetry]. ''宁波教育学院学报''[Journal of Ningbo Institute of Education] 52-54.<br />
<br />
*Fang Mengzhi. 方梦之. (2004). ''译学词典''. [A Dictionary of Translation Studies]. 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press] 296.<br />
<br />
*Huang Jing, Li Shijun. 黄婧，李仕俊. (2010). 从翻译美学角度对比《鸟鸣涧》四种译文. [Comparison of Four Translations of "Niao Ming Jian" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语'' [Foreign Language] 130.<br />
<br />
*Lao Qinyao, Luo Zhenting. 劳琴姚，罗正婷. (2017). 翻译美学视角下审美效果的再现——以《醉翁亭记》两译本为例. [ Aesthetic Representation of Two English Versions of "Zui Wen Ting Ji" from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics] ''安徽文学'' [Anhui Literature] 49-51.<br />
<br />
*Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China Translation and Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
*Tao Yingnian. 陶迎年. (2017). 从音、形、意三美对比《鸟鸣涧》五种英译本.[Comparison of Five English Translations of “Niao Ming Jian” from Beauty in Sense, Sound and Style]. ''语言应用研究'' [Language Application Research] 143-145.<br />
<br />
*Wang Li. 王力. (2000). ''诗词格律''. [The Rhythm of Poetry]. 北京：中华书局[Beijing: Zhonghua Press] 133.<br />
<br />
*Wu Tong, Li Shuhua. 吴桐，李淑华. (2018). 从翻译美学角度看中国古诗翻译. [Study of the Translation of Ancient Chinese Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English] 151.<br />
<br />
*Wang Jie. 王洁. (2020). 杨宪益文学翻译思想探析.[The Study of Yang Xianyi's Thought on Literary Translation]. ''西安文理学院学报'' [Journal of Xi'an College of Literature and Science] 111.<br />
<br />
*Xie Wenli. 谢文利. (1989). ''诗歌美学''. [Aesthetics of Poetry]. 北京: 中国青年出版社[Beijing: China Youth Press].<br />
<br />
*Yu Shucheng. 余恕诚. (1983).''唐诗鉴赏辞典''. [A dictionary for Appreciating Tang Poetry]. 上海辞书出版社[Shanghai Lexicographical Publishing House] 183-185.<br />
<br />
*Zhu Guangqian. 朱光潜. (1998).''诗论''. [Poetry Theory].北京：生活读书新知三联书店[Beijing: SDX Joint Publishing Company].<br />
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==An Chinese Aesthetic Study on Ezra Pound's Four Poems of Departure in ''Cathay'' - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" 石迪文 Shi Diwen==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
At the dawn of the 21st century, Ezra Pound, intrigued by Chinese classical poetry, gave fresh impetus to the American New Poetry Movement. One of his works in this period, ''Cathay'', involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn P eriod (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reached its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. The study is focused on its four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai (李白), including "Separation on the River Kiang", "Taking Leave of a Friend", "Leave-taking near Shoku" and "The City of Choan". Its main contents involve interpretation and further exploration of the Chinese classic aesthetic values in Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" principle, by which it will prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses some Chinese classical aesthetic concepts.<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound, ''Cathay'', Chinese classical aestheticism, Beauty in Sense Principle<br />
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===题目===<br />
<br />
从许渊冲意美原则来看庞德《华夏集》中离别诗四首的中国美学研究<br />
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===摘要===<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗，横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)到李白诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，这段时期中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰, 孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于四首诗人挑选成章的离别诗，均来自李白诗歌，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》。论文主要内容是从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和进一步发现庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值。通过这种方式，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中仍具有中国古典美学观念。<br />
<br />
二十一世纪初，伊兹拉·庞德所领导的新诗运动从中国古典诗歌中寻找推动力，他在此期间所创译的《华夏集》从费诺罗萨笔记中选取了19首中国古典诗。这19首中国古典诗横跨历史千年，从孔子编纂《诗经》的春秋时期(公元前770-公元前476年)跨越到了李白创作诗歌十二首的盛世唐朝(618年-907年)，在这一段历史时期，中国古典诗达到艺术巅峰。孔子所提出的诗歌美学观念成为古代诗歌理念主流之一，与道家美学双河并流。本篇论文将聚焦于李白的四首离别诗，分别是《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》、《送友人》、《送友人入蜀》以及《登金陵凤凰台》，从许渊冲的意美原则阐释和探索庞德译作中保留的中国古典美学价值，基于这一研究，本文试图证明庞德对中国古诗的创造性翻译中具有的中国古典美学观念。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:22, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
伊兹拉 · 庞德，《华夏集》，中国古典美学，意美原则<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation about his Cathay, a creative translation of nineteen Chinese poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected and translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated. <br />
<br />
The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Ezra Pound (1885-1972), one of the most influential and controversial figures in American literature, has received floods of praises and condemnation since the first appearance of his ''Cathay''（书名格式更改）, a collection of nineteen poems, which introduces Confucian principles of poetry to American Imagist Movement. ''Cathay'' （书名格式更改）was published in 1915 when the Western countries suffered an alarming death toll in the First World War. During that time, litterateurs were so drown in the darkness of terror and suspicion that they felt lost and trapped in despair.（这一句拆分为两句是否更好） While in this period Pound found his Muse in Chinese classic poetry. It not only rose against the exaggerative and mannered expression of Victorian style to boost the development of Western poetry but also set one of the important achievements in the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. The work involves nineteen Chinese poems selected(定语前置) and （be动词丢失）translated from Ernest Fenollosa’s notes, with its contents spanning a thousand years from the Spring and Autumn period (770B.C.-476B.C.) to the Tang Dynasty (618-907), in which Chinese classic poetry reaches its acme and Confucian aesthetic philosophy of poetry and Taoist aesthetics dominated.（最后一句太长，建议拆分为两句）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 12:16, 18 December 2020 (UTC)--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The study concentrates on Four Poems of Departure in Cathay, including "Separation on the River Kiang" (《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》), "Taking Leave of a Friend" (《送友人》), "Leave-taking near Shoku" (《送友人入蜀》) and "The City of Choan" (《登金陵凤凰台》), all of them originally written by the poet Li Bai, who was born in the most glorious age of Tang Dynasty. Its （Its指代不明，是指该篇论文吗）main content involves the reinterpretation of Pound's version from the perspective of Xu Yuanchong's "Beauty in Sense" Principle, by which to prove that Pound's creative translation of Chinese classical poetry still possesses Chinese classical aesthetic concepts. Besides, the article will testify the reasonability of the application of the principle to the appreciation of Pound’s translation, and deepen the learning of Chinese classical aesthetics.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:05, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===The Introduction of Xu Yuanchong’s “Beauty in Sense” Principle===<br />
<br />
Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”<br />
In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “object observed by object (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》),” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉，2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Beauty in sense in the translation of classical poetry comes first in the Xu Yuanchong’ Three Beauties. Generally speaking, Beauty in sense originates from the similarity in sense when doing the translation work; however, similarity in sense is just the superficial structure and beauty in sense belongs the deep one. (Xu Yuanchong, 1984: 64) Firstly, it puts forward Confucian aesthetic thoughts and Taoist aesthetics: one stresses the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” (温柔敦厚); the other concerns about the imagery beauty of Chinese classical images and its artistic conception. More precisely, Confucius advocates that the personal emotions expressed in poems should not be observed directly or thoroughly but be clouded, or to say, recorded emotional experiences of the real or imagined world should be presented in a roundabout and implicit way and brim with a beauty of moderation in content, i.e. “joyous but not indecent, mournful but not distressing, without resentment and slander ("乐而不淫, 哀而不伤, 怨而不谤"-《论语·八佾》).”--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In Taoist thoughts, the Way (“道”) originates from the Nature and the Nature breeds a ultimate beauty as Chuang Tzu said, “Heaven and earth have their great beauties but do not speak of them; the four seasons have their clear-marked regularity but do not discuss it; the ten thousand things have their principles of growth but do not expound them ("天地有大美而不言，四时有明法而不议，万物有成理而不说。圣人者，原天地之美而达万物之理"-《庄子·外篇·知北游》).” Taoism attached importance to the employment of natural images that not only echoes the neutralization beauty in poetic content but also creates an aura of a certain artistic conception(意境), concerned with the Taoist doctrines “observing things from every aspects (以物观物)” , “both subject and object dissolve (物我两忘)” and “Heaven and earth were born at the same time I was, and the ten thousand things are one with me("天地与我并生，而万物与我为一"-《庄子.齐物论》)” as Wai-lim Yip says, “Taoist aestheticism is inspired by the unique technique of expression of observation and experience in Lao Tse (《老子》) and Chuang Tzu (《庄子》)”. (叶维廉2004: 1) Taoism puts forward that simplicity and plainness come to revive when the subject in poetry actively retreats from the governing place to leave more space for object and in return all objectives create a harmony with the subjective feelings. Thus, the reproduction of images is critically fundamental in the translation of Chinese classical poems and the love for images even contributes to a series of juxtaposition of imagery.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:17, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===The Sense Beauty in Four Poems of Departure===<br />
<br />
Four Poems of Departure, all originally written by Li Bai and concerned with the theme of parting from Pound’s views of point, are " Separation on the River Kiang "(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) , " Taking Leave of a Friend " (《送友人》), " Leave-taking near Shoku " (《送友人入蜀》) and " The City of Choan " (《登金陵凤凰台》) respectively. Li Bai, a famous poet in the Tang Dynasty at its most prosperous time, always had the ambition for political achievement under the influence of Confucianism but with most of his talent in poetry he failed and exiled to the south-west. In his life, he never settled down, and the restless energy of his life found its counterpart both in the speed with which he set down his compositions and in their propulsive sweep while the vigour and flamboyance of much of Li Bai’s poetry hides a deep core of loneliness. (Vikram Seth, 1992: 19) Impacted by Taoism, His emotion always seems to be related with the Nature and even the speaker in poem seemingly becomes superseded by the natural things while the emotion exists, flowing in a harmonious natural space of poetry. What’s more, the four poems following the tradition of Confucian philosophy in poetry turn an emotional surge into trickles of feelings.<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in "Separation on the River Kiang"====<br />
<br />
"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are: <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
（唐）李白<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
<br />
In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.<br />
From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Separation on the River Kiang"(《黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵》) is the first poem in Four poems of Departure, telling a story of parting with an intimate friend along the River Kiang. The original poem and Pound’s version are:（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
黄鹤楼送孟浩然之广陵<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
故人西辞黄鹤楼，烟花三月下扬州。<br />
<br />
孤帆远影碧空尽，唯见长江天际流。 <br />
<br />
Separation on the River Kiang<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
KO-JIN goes west from Ko-kaku-ro,<br />
<br />
The smoke-flowers are blurred over the river.<br />
<br />
His lone sail blots the far sky.<br />
<br />
And now I see only the river,<br />
<br />
The long Kiang, reaching heaven.<br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:22, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the content of the first two lines, the translator mistranslates “故人”, “黄鹤楼” and to be more exactly he simply transliterates the Japanese version ("こじん" and “こうかくろう”) of the two nouns into their English version（KO-JIN and Ko-kaku-ro). The three words KO-JIN, Ko-kaku-ro, Kiang transliterate the related Japanese Kanji(日语汉字), whose accents originate from ancient Chinese pronouncation. Although the imitation is against its original meaning, it adds a hint of exoticism to the translation. However, Pound maybe not a good Japanese learner because "こじん"(KO-JIN) refers to a dead person but not "故人" (an old friend). Furthermore, “烟花” means fireworks while Pound splits the word into “烟” (smoke) and “花” (flower) and invents a new compound word “smoke-flowers”. As for the last lines, he adopted a strategy of creative translation rather than word-for-word translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)From the view of Xu’s Beauty in sense, Pound, though careless about the counterparts of culture-loaded words, successively transfers the sense beauty to his readers. Firstly, the translation follows the tradition of the original’s style for there is no intention of directly telling others the unwillingness of departure but the word “lone” betrays all sentiments, not only the solitude of the friend but also that of the poet himself. Besides, the version echoes the Taoist philosophy “object observed by object ” , “both subject and object dissolve ”. The verse like an ink wash painting in which the white river-mist (“smoke-flowers”) unified with sky and river turns into being a Chinese art paper with the lone sail “blotting” while even though the sight of boat is blurred, the poet stands still and gazes at his friend’s receding figure, disappearing into nothing. At this time, all feelings are silent in the rimless mist only with a word “lone” left behind to be pondered on, rising up to a state of relieve and broad mind. In the last two lines, all things except the river vanish from the sight, leaving the world to the speaker and his gentle melancholy. Thus, Pound represented the “gentleness” and “sincerity” in emotional expressions. Moreover, he preserved the imagery beauty of “lone sail”(孤帆) and “far sky”(碧空). A lone sail sets for someplace under the far sky, which seems a metaphor that compares the friend with the boat and the uncertainties with the sky. That shows the speaker is afraid of what the future will be with his friend. From the pespective of spatial structure, the “sail” as a point, the “river” as a line, the “sky” as a plane, all of these get combined and condensed into one sentence, easily transporting readers to the poetic space. While the infinite extension of “river” in the last sentence strengthen the comparison between the vastness of space and the tininess of human, reproducing the Taoist idea in the original that Man is an internal part of the Nature. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整首段应顶格)Furthermore, it is worthwhile noting that the word “reaching” in the last line to some degree depicts the river flow for the inflectional morpheme “-ing” imitates the movement, unfolding the picture in which river melt into the sky in the mind. All in all, the poem is spiritual alike with the original not only in the style of emotional expression but also in the imagery beauty, both of which are underpinned by the deep understanding of Confucian and Taoist aesthetics in the original.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:20, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Taking Leave of a Friend”====<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
（唐）李白<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
White river winding about them; <br />
Here we must make separation <br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other<br />
as we are departing. <br />
<br />
The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. <br />
Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness. <br />
Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.<br />
<br />
<br />
"Taking Leave of a Friend"(《送友人》) is the most sentimental in the four poems. The original poem and Pound’s version are:<br />
<br />
送友人<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
青山横北郭，白水绕东城。（格式调整，段落之间空格） --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
此地一为别，孤蓬万里征。<br />
<br />
浮云游子意，落日故人情。<br />
<br />
挥手自兹去，萧萧班马鸣。<br />
<br />
Taking Leave of a Friend（格式调整，段落之间空格） <br />
<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
Blue mountains to the north of the walls, <br />
<br />
White river winding about them; <br />
<br />
Here we must make separation <br />
<br />
And go out through a thousand miles of dead grass. <br />
<br />
Mind like a floating wide cloud. <br />
<br />
Sunset like the parting of old acquaintances<br />
<br />
Who bow over their clasped hands at a distance.<br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The first word “blue” is fabulous for its pun on the sad tone of the whole poem. Likewise, “a thousand miles of dead grass” in the fourth line also reflects the speaker’s mind state by keeping the original exaggeration. However, the translation of “孤蓬” into “dead grass” should be more elaborated for “蓬” is a typical drifting plant, called fleabane. Thus, the original describes it “孤”(lonely) while “dead” in Pound’s version goes too far, though it echoes the sad parting. Pound does not directly describe the speaker but the object, successfully weakening the expression of strong feelings and allowing readers to take a glance at his sorrow. In the fifth line, the parallel of wandering clouds and the setting sun emerge readers in empathy for the parting to come but the expected high-tide is absent, superseded by a shift of perspective: <br />
<br />
Our horses neigh to each other as we are departing. <br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The poet and his friend wave hands to each other without any words or close contact and leave. In tranquility, the rising sadness of the former part is blocked out by use of personification, providing the time for regaining elegance when the horses’ neighs as tribute to each other. On the whole, the poem realizes the sense beauty for its control of the speaker’s emotional expression. As for imagery beauty, all the images like mountain, river, cloud are well kept. Besides, “ Mind like a floating wide cloud ” misinterprets the original line “浮云游子意”, which means that young men like clouds never be settled instead of on the way for realizing their aspirations. Furthermore, it is a pity that the translating of the line “挥手自兹去” is omitted because the casual and silent action of waving hands by comparison with their horses’ whicker suggests their relationship as Confucius said “The friendship between gentlemen appears indifferent but is pure like water ("君子之交淡如水"-《庄子·山木》)”. Although there are omissions, the imagery beauty is well-interpreted, especially in the last line. The description of horses’ behavior is so realistic that the poem touching a chord with readers at once prints a lifelike painting on their minds and presents their reluctance to part in a roundabout way. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Moreover, Pound conforms to the concise principle of the original and put a series of prepositions into use such as “to” in “mountains to the north” and “ neigh to each other”, in order to amplify the types of sentences and simplify the expression. To be more precise, a long sentence with verbs obviously contrasts with short sentences, which contributes to the formation of natural musical qualities. For example, the first and second line set a context for the parting with specific words to describe like “blue”, “white” and “winding”. However, detailed writing immediately become replaced by the intermission separating a long sentence into a short one ( “Here we must make separation”) and a long one. The former gives readers a chance to slow down the music rhythm, which can also be considered as a suspension of the high tide. Because the latter, the longest sentence in the poem, with exaggerative words like “thousand” and “dead” crystalizes the strongest emotional expression. Like Chopin’s Etudes, op.10 No.3 (Tristesse), the contrast of low and high notes rises up a kind of musical beauty, unique to English language. What is following is a pair of metaphors, alleviating the tension but the second longest sentence does not leading the poetic music to its second high-tide. All of these turbulent feelings are ended by two separate short lines “Our horses neigh to each other” “as we are departing”, echoing the thirds line “Here we must make separation”. On the whole, Pound’s version creatively endowed the poem with the musical qualities of English language and at the same time the compactness and simplicity of Chinese poetic sentence structure still dominate. Overall, its irregularity corresponds to the ups and down of the speaker’s uneasiness.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)Furthermore, he broke out the grammatical rules to compact the diction of images, particularly in the first two lines “Blue mountains to the north of the walls, White river winding about them”, which makes use of preposition to replace the two verbs “横” “绕”. Similarly, in the line “浮云游子意，落日故人情”, Li Bai directly juxtaposes the images “浮云” (wandering clouds) “落日” (the setting sun) and personal emotions “游子意”(wanderer’s feeling) “故人情” (nostalgia for old friends) while Pound employs the preposition “like” to connet the nouns and its figurative meaning. Actually, Pound does not really understand Li Bai’s intention that instead of metaphor he just aims to reach a Taoist balance by a simple juxtaposition of natural images and emotion, leaving more uncertainty for readers to imagine.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:25, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “Leave-taking near Shoku”====<br />
<br />
"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
（唐）李白<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,<br />
Sheer as the mountains.<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,<br />
Clouds grow out of the hill<br />
at his horse’s bridle.<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin,<br />
Their trunks burst through the paving,<br />
And freshets are bursting their ice<br />
in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set,<br />
There is no need of asking diviners.<br />
<br />
In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.<br />
However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.<br />
By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)"Leave-taking near Shoku"(《送友人入蜀》) is written to a friend who has been relegated to a barren territory, called Shu (蜀) and the parting is near:<br />
<br />
送友人入蜀<br />
<br />
（唐）李白<br />
<br />
见说蚕丛路，崎岖不易行。<br />
<br />
山从人面起，云傍马头生。<br />
<br />
芳树笼秦栈，春流绕蜀城。<br />
<br />
升沉应已定，不必问君平。<br />
<br />
Leaving-taking near Shoku<br />
<br />
By Ezra Pound<br />
<br />
THEY say the roads of Sanso are steep,Sheer as the mountains.<br />
<br />
The walls rise in a man’s face,Clouds grow out of the hill at his horse’s bridle.<br />
<br />
Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin, Their trunks burst through the paving, And freshets are bursting their ice in the midst of Shoku, a proud city.<br />
<br />
Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the original poem, metaphor and exaggeration are used to describe the hostility of the journey in the first five lines, both of which are well-preserved in the translation. Even though the areas of Shu is mountainous with treacherous roads and thousands miles away from the capital city, the speaker positively find scenery beauty: “芳树” “春流”, translated to“sweet trees” and “freshets” respectively by Pound. It is obvious that “春流” is mistranslated for he wrongly equals it with the image of rising river with ice melting. Actually, Shu (蜀) or to say Sichuan Province, has four seasons warm like spring, thus it is impossible for the scene “freshets are bursting their ice” to happen. Briefly speaking, Pound over-translates the line. By and large, the first stanza fundamentally reproduces both the arduous trip to Shu and its enchanting landscapes.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)However in the last part, the friend is afraid of uncertainties in making fortune as well as the dangers in the journey, thus always turning to a fortune-teller for suggestions. The last two lines, or to say, an epigram, “升沉应已定，不必问君平” is paraphrased as “Men’s fates are already set, There is no need of asking diviners” . Although “君平”, a Chinese literary allusion to a physiognomist, is unavoidably omitted, the entire translation resonates Confucius’ words “Junzi keeps his elegance and tranquility in distress but the petty will completely lose the morality of human ("君子固穷, 小人穷斯滥矣"-孔子《论语·卫灵公》)” . In purpose to summon up his friend’s courage to face the challenge instead of being a coward who loses gentleman’s elegance, being threatened by the unknown and begging for unrealistic assistance. In a broad sense, this poem encourages people in troubles to conquer fears with optimism and keep the brave spirit in heart no matter what is confronted with, not only brave to be self-reliant in life but also be self-dependent in spirit. All in all, Pound’s version except for some errors is a perfect match for the original in content: (1) the reproduction of images in English language essentially preserves the imagery beauty; (2) the smart and brief interpretation of the last epigram keeps Chinese philosophical beauty.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)By analyzing the entire poem, we can find that sentences with link-verb predicative are comparatively increased like “Sweet trees are on the paved way of the Shin/Their trunks burst through the paving” and “And freshets are bursting their ice” . By using the be form, the verb “burst” directly presents the dominance of trees’ shadowing the track, spiritually alike to the Chinese verb “笼” while its progressive form becomes more dynamic and vivid, which elaborately conveys the vitality of river, though it deviates from the meaning of “绕” (wind). What’s more, other be forms also can be seen in the last line. When people read it, the speaker’s affirmation can make them convinced of his thought, miraculously retelling Li Bai’s encouragement to his friend.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:30, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====The Sense Beauty in “The City of Choan”====<br />
<br />
The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. <br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
(唐)李白<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.<br />
The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
Flowers and grass<br />
Cover over the dark path<br />
Where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin<br />
Are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,<br />
The isle of White Heron<br />
splits the two streams apart. <br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun<br />
And I can not see Choan afar<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.<br />
In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty <br />
Both metaphor and emotional expression is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.<br />
When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)The last poem “The City of Choan”(《登金陵凤凰台》) distinct from the previous three poems of departure seems to be more about a contemplation of history in a historical site (called Phoenix Terrace, 凤凰台) than a parting. The reason for why Pound classifies it into Four poems of Departure may be that parting in a broad sense is a farewell to anything such as the speaker’s leave from Choan, which actually misinterprets the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
登金陵凤凰台<br />
<br />
(唐)李白<br />
<br />
凤凰台上凤凰游，凤去台空江自流。<br />
<br />
吴宫花草埋幽径，晋代衣冠成古丘。<br />
<br />
三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲。<br />
<br />
总为浮云能蔽日，长安不见使人愁。<br />
<br />
The City of Choan<br />
<br />
THE phoenix are at play on their terrace.The phoenix are gone, the river flows on alone.<br />
<br />
Flowers and grass cover over the dark path where lay the dynastic house of the Go.<br />
<br />
The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin are now the base of old hills.<br />
<br />
The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven,The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart. <br />
<br />
Now the high clouds cover the sun and I can not see Choan afar.<br />
<br />
And I am sad.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the first two line of the original, by comparing the prosperity of a dynasty to the phoenix, an auspicious sign in the ancient China, the speaker clarifies the truth that a dynasty no matter how powerful it is will not escape from changes in the passage of time (a parallel to the coming and leaving of phoenix) while nature keeps its law functioning, with all that used to be prosperous now reduced to a wilderness. In Pound’s version, the basic meaning and the main image phoenix are well preserved but there is a call for improvement. Explicitly, the culture-loaded words are literally translated, possibly leading to some misunderstandings. For example, “晋代衣冠”(official uniform in Jin Dynasty) is a metonymy for the ruling class in Jin instead of clothing itself. After pondering on the fall of Jin (“Shin”) and the rise of Wu ( “the Go” ) , the speaker casts his sight on the real scene before him: “三山半落青天外，二水中分白鹭洲”, translated as “The Three Mountains fall through the far heaven/ The isle of White Heron splits the two streams apart”, which completely reproduces the geographic space in the original for the translator by describing the vertical space through the use of the verb phrase “fall through” and the planar space “splits...apart”.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In the last line of the original, the image of sun is employed to symbolize the central power of the country while the “high clouds” (a metaphor for treacherous officials ) obscure it, suggesting that corrupted and crafty officials blind the monarch to justice. Thus, as a loyal subject with integrity, he suffers a false charge and “can not see Choan (长安), a capital city here as a metaphor for the ruler) afar”, which implies that his political fantasy goes down. The depression for the monarch’s ignorance is mixed with his growing feeling of disillusionment.Its translation, on the basis of keeping the metaphor, also represents the the neutralization beauty of “gentleness” and “sincerity” for his “I am sad” reproduces the meaning of “愁”. The simplest words are the most touching words. All worries for the country and grudges against the tribulations are condensed into the three words. All in all, the original’s sense beauty-both metaphor and emotional expression—is perfectly reproduced in Pound’s translation.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)When reading the poem, people can find that the poem is incredibly full of alliteration and repetition, which seems not to be Pound’s free style. In the first part, repetition of Phoenix appears in the beginning of the first two lines, representing the repetitive sound of “凤 (fèng)”. Besides, in the line “The bright cloths and bright caps of Shin/ Are now the base of old hills”, the repetitions of “bright” and the phone [s] in “cloths”, “caps” and “base”give the version some qualities of classical music, which sound suitable for the historical theme. Overall, the translation divides the original into two stanzas: one concerning the contemplation of historical changes; the other about the view of the historical views (The Phoenix Terrace) before his eye and his deep sorrow for his suffering, which explicitly separate the poem into the past and the present. In the poem, time integrates with space and at the same time nature integrates with the speaker’s aspiration, revealing the contradiction between Confucius’ Rushi (入世) and Taoist Chushu (出世). The former refers to the aspiration “To establish intention for the world; to shoulder mission for the people; to inherit discontinued learning for the late saint; and to initiate peace for all ages ("为天地立心，为生民立命，为往圣继绝学，为万世开太平"-张载《横渠语录》)” accepted by Chinese literati throughout generations under the influence of Confucius, which is also presented by the speaker; the latter showed in the historical and natural changes in the poem means transcendence from worldliness and the government should be in harmony with the Nature as Lao Tzu said : <br />
<br />
Heaven and Earth are not kind.<br />
<br />
They regard all things as offerings.<br />
<br />
The sage is not kind.<br />
<br />
He regards people as offerings.<br />
<br />
Is not the space between Heaven and Earth like a bellows?<br />
<br />
It is empty, but lacks nothing.<br />
<br />
The more it moves, the more comes out of it.<br />
<br />
A multitude of words is tiresome,<br />
<br />
Unlike remaining centered.<br />
<br />
[ Translated by Stenudd, Stefan. “天地不仁，以万物为刍狗；圣人不仁，以百姓为刍狗。天地之间，其犹橐龠乎？虚而不屈，动而俞出。多闻数穷，不若守于中”(《道德经》第五章) ]--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:44, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. <br />
In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)All the four poems are in a melancholy tone but they are distinct from each other in Beauty in Sense. The first poem “Separation on the River Kiang” in the most gentle but most overwhelming way expresses negative emotions with only one word (“lone”) betraying the speaker’s sorrow while at the same time integrated with the boundlessness of the River Kiang, which keeps and reproduces the original imagery beauty tactfully; In “Taking Leave of a Friend”, Pound adopts a series of figures of speech such as hyperbole and metaphor, essentially representing the artistic conception of the original, though there are some mistakes in comprehension; “Leave-taking near Shoku” perfectly retells the original, or to say, it is the most loyal one to the original text, particularly in the last but the most important lines, which really give the best interpretation of the speaker’s intention; The last poem “The City of Choan” is improperly involved in Pound’s selection of four poems of departure due to the tiny misunderstanding of the last line in the original but the translation excellently reproduces the historical vicissitudes and the beauty of spatial construction in the original. --[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
(格式调整段首应顶格)In China most of the researches on Cathay have been concerned with the translation comparison of selected texts, all of which have attached importance on the aesthetic presentation of the Pound’s version. But actually, Chinese traditional aesthetic philosophy has not been ever further studied by our English learners such as the Confucian and Taoist artistic philosophy. Thus, it is worth noting the problem that the related researches are fixed in form and monotonous in content. To solve it, studies about Cathay in the future should be underpinned by the Chinese cultural learning and new findings will take root in the untrodden soil of Chinese classical culture.--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 03:45, 14 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Cheng, Baoyan. A Comparative Study of the Liberal Arts Tradition and Confucian Tradition in Education[J]. Asia Pacific Education Review, 2017(18): 465–474.<br />
[2] Ieong, Sao Leng Sylvia. The Sources of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay'': Fenollosa’s Notebooks and the Original Chinese Texts[J]. Comparative Literature: East &West, 2001, 2(1): 142-153. <br />
[3] Lin，Yutang．“Chuangtse，Mystic and Humorist” in The Wisdom of China[M]. London: Michael Joseph，1949．（没有标明页码）<br />
[4] Pound, Ezra. ''Cathay: Translations, For the Most Part From the Chinese of Rihaku''[M]. London: Elkin Mathews, 1915.（没有标明页码）<br />
[5] Stenudd, Stefan. ''Tao Te Ching: The Taoism of Lao Tzu Explained''[M]. Sweden: Arriba, 2011.（没有标明页码）<br />
[6] Seth, Vikram. ''Three Chinese Poets: Translations of poems by Wang Wei, Li Bai, and Du Fu''[M]. New York: HarperPerennial, 1992（没有标明页码）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
[7] Wai-lim Yip. ''Ezra Pound’s Cathay''[M]. Princeton: Princeton University Press.1969（没有标明页码）<br />
[9] 郭建国. 浅论“温柔敦厚”[J]. 名作欣赏, 2013(23): 140-142.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Guo Jianguo. A Study on “Gentleness and Sincerity”[J]. Masterpieces Review,2013(23): 140-142.<br />
[10] 蒋洪新. 庞德的《华夏集》探源[J]. 中国翻译, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiang Hongxin. On the Source of Ezra Pound’s ''Cathay''. Chinese Translators Journal, 2001(1): 56-59.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[11] 焦亚葳,王贵宝. 温柔敦厚: “中和”美学观的典型性表述[J]. 河北学刊, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.. （文献引用格式不对）<br />
Jiao Yawei & Wang Guibao. Gentleness and Sincerity: Typical Statements of Moderation and Hamony[J]. Hebei Academic Journal, 2010, 30(04): 230-232.<br />
[12] 李远国.至美无象——论道家的美学思想[J].中华文化论坛,2004(04):129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Li Yuanguo. The Ultimate Beauty with No Form: A Study on Taoist Aesthetics[J]. Chinese Culture Forum, 2004(04): 129-132.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
[13] 任俐蓉. 由《华夏集》的选诗倾向看庞德对中国诗歌的接受[J]. 文化创新比较研究, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Ren Lirong. Ezra Pound’s Acceptance of Chinese Classical Poetry From the Perspective of the Selection of Original Texts in ''Cathay'' [J]. Innovative Comparative Studies on Culture, 2018, 2(8): 63-64.<br />
[14] 魏家海.庞德创译中国古诗中的中国传统情结[J]. 天津外国语学院学报, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wei Jiahai. Ezra Pound’s Chinese Complex in His Creative Translation of Chinese Classical Poetry[J]. Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 2009, 16(05): 36-41+48.<br />
[15] 叶维廉.道家美学、中国诗与美国现代诗[J].中国诗歌研究,2004(00):1-46+365.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Wai-lim Yip. Taoist Aesthetics, Chinese Poetry and Modern American Poetry [J]. The Research of Chinese Poetry, 2004(00): 1-46+365.<br />
[16] 赵丽梅.李白的诗与道家思想[J].学术探索,2011(06):106-109.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhao Limei. Li Bai’s Poems and Taoism[J]. Academic Exploration, 2011(06): 106-109.<br />
[17] 张林林. 许渊冲“三美”原则视角下的李白诗歌英译美学研究[D].苏州大学,2013.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Zhang Linlin. An Aesthetic Study on the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s “Three Beauties” Principle[D]. Soochow University, 2013.<br />
[18] 张毅. 从许渊冲“三美”原则角度论李白诗歌英译的美感再现[D].哈尔滨工程大学,2007.（文献引用格式不对）<br />
Aesthetic Reproduction in the English Translation of Li Bai’s Poetry - From the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong’s Three Beauties Principle[D]. Harbin Engineering University, 2007.<br />
[19] 张子源. 战争、离愁和女人──《华夏集》的艺术主题[J]. 外国文学评论, 1998(4): 39-44.（文献引用格式不对）--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 01:58, 19 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
Zhang Ziyuan. War, Grief of Parting and Woman - the Subjects of Art in ''Cathay''[J]. Foreign Literature Review, 1998(4): 39-44.<br />
<br />
==A Study on the Four Levels of Translation Based on Newmark’s Theory 张玲 Zhang Ling, 202070080623==<br />
<br />
Zhang Ling, Student no. 202070080623<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. British translation theorist Newmark once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.<br />
<br />
Faithfulness, which is regarded as the basic standard of translation, has always been put in the first place in traditional translation standards. To appreciate the quality of a translation, we mainly see whether the translation can accurately express the meaning of the original text and be faithful to the original. On the level of translation, many translators have put forward their own views. Peter Newmark, a British translation theorist once put forward the view of "textual level, referential level, cohesive level and level of naturalness". According to Newmark's point of view, in the process of expression, the translator must be responsible for the original text and the translation at these four levels, so as to faithfully express the meaning of the original text. From the perspective of level, this paper analyzes the four levels and how the translation should be faithful to the translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:03, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
<br />
textual level; referential level; cohesive level; level of naturalness<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”摆在首位，即“忠实”，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。<br />
<br />
<br />
传统的翻译标准一直将“信”即“忠实”摆在首位，并将其作为翻译的基本标准。鉴赏一篇译文的质量，我们主要会看译文是否能准确表达原文的意思，忠实原文。关于翻译的层次，许多翻译学家都提出了自己的见解，英国翻译理论学家纽马克的曾提出“文本层次、所指层次、粘着层次和自然层次”的说法。按照纽马克的观点，在表达的过程中，译者必须在这四个层次上对原文和译文负责，才能做到忠实地表达原文的意思。本文将具体分析这四个层次，从层次的角度来分析翻译的忠实性。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===关键词===<br />
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文本层次 所指层次 粘着层次 自然层次<br />
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===Textual Level===<br />
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Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, this is the first level that translators should pay attention to, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
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Textual level refers to the literal meaning of the original text. It focuses on determining the specific meaning of a word. In the process of translation, it is the first level that translators should concern, because any translation comes from the original. It is not only the beginning but also the end of translation activities. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:31, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)<br />
<br />
To a great extent, to be responsible for and faithful to the original text is that we must be faithful to the literal meaning of the original. The phenomenon of polysemy exists in both English and Chinese. In the process of understanding the literal meaning of the original text, we often encounter the difficult point of how to deal with polysemy. A polyseme refers to a word which has multiple meanings, usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. Therefore, the same word may have completely different meaning, which will interfere with the understanding of the literal meaning of the original text. Here are some examples. (Luo Jinde, 1998, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g.1<br />
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SL text: It is quite another story now.<br />
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TL text：现在情况完全不同了。<br />
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E.g.2<br />
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SL text: The white-haired girl's story is one of the saddest.<br />
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TL text: 白毛女的遭遇可算是最悲惨的。<br />
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E.g.3<br />
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SL text: A young man came to police station with a story.<br />
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TL text: 一个年轻人来到警察局报案。<br />
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Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word “story”, but its meaning is different like black and white when it is translated. In the first sentence, “story” means “situation” or “case”, and the sentence means that things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means “experience”, and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, “story” means “law case”, and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.<br />
<br />
Although these three examples are very simple, they are very instructive. This three sentences all contain the word "story", but its meaning is different like "black and white" when it is translated. In the first sentence, "story" means "situation" or "case", and the sentence means things are different now. In the second sentence, “story” means "experience", and the sentence means that the experience of the white-haired girl is one of the saddest. In the third sentences, "story" means "law case", and the sentence means that a young man came to police station with a case.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may produce some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. <br />
<br />
Another problem involved in the textual level is that the translated text must accord with the convention of the target language. There are great differences between English and Chinese in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary, because English belongs to Indo-European language while Chinese belongs to Sino-Tibetan language, and they are deeply influenced by the culture of their respective countries. If we stick to the original text and translate it word for word according to the literal meaning of the original text, we may make some sentences that are not in accordance with the convention of the target language or even wrong. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g.4<br />
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SL text:Tom was upsetting the other children, so I show him the door.<br />
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TL text 1: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他带到门那去。<br />
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TL text 2: 汤姆一直在扰乱别的孩子，我就把他撵出去了。<br />
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E.g.5<br />
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SL text: His irritation could not withstand the silent beauty of the night.<br />
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TL text 1: 他的烦恼不能承受夜晚宁静的美丽。<br />
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TL text 2: 面对着宁静的良宵美景，他的烦恼烟消云散了。<br />
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It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not simple literal correspondence. It should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.<br />
<br />
It is not difficult to see from the two translation versions that the second translation is better than the first one, because the former is more in line with the language convention of Chinese. Therefore, it can be seen that literal meaning in the textual level is not just simple literal correspondence. Instead, it should be adjusted according to the convention of target language.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Referential Level===<br />
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The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text. This is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
The referential level refers that translators should grasp the referential meaning of the original text. It is the minimum requirement for translation to figure out the referential meaning of the original. Newmark once claimed, “You should not read a sentence without seeing it on the referential level.” The obscure and implied implication of the original text requires the translator to see the true connotation through the text, which is the minimum requirement for translation. However, sometimes the literal meaning of the original text is not very clear. The translator must figure out the real meaning through the literal meaning and describe them accurately in the target language. At this time, due to the differences between the two languages, there may be a certain distance between the translation and the original. (Newmark, 2001, 22)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In order to deliver the exact referential meaning, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original text. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
In order to deliver the exact referential meanings, translators should give more attention to the translation of pronouns because pronouns are more frequently used in English than in Chinese. There are personal pronoun, impersonal pronoun, relative pronoun and so on, which can be used repeatedly in the same sentence and appear alternately. Therefore, in the process of translation, we may often encounter the problem of ambiguous reference of pronouns. In this time, we need to make a specific analysis of specific words or sentences, and sometimes even to analyze the definite meaning of a certain context. In the process of translation, we often see that one or several English sentences contain multiple personal pronouns. At this time, the direct application of personal pronouns in the original English text not only affects the readability of the translation, but also causes problems in the collocation of words and the cohesion of sentence patterns, so it is difficult to accurately reflect the meaning of the original. Here are two examples.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 6<br />
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SL text: Knowledge is a comfortable and necessary retreat and shelter for us in an advanced age; and if we don’t plant it while young, it will give us no shade when we grow old. (Philip Chesterfield)<br />
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TL text 1：知识是我们老年时舒适而又必需的精神归宿。 如果我们年轻时不种它，它就不会在我们年老时给我们提供树荫。<br />
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TL text 2：知识是人生老年期舒适而又必需的精神归宿。如果年轻时不种下知识之树，老年时就得不到树荫的遮蔽。<br />
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From the two translations, it is not difficult to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor “it” refers to “knowledge”, and the first translation omits this metaphor, which makes readers don’t what it is talking about.<br />
<br />
From the two translations, it is obvious to see that the second translation is better than the first translation. The reason is that there is no need to translate two general pronouns "us" and "we" in the original text, and the meaning of the original text will be clear and accurate only when they are removed. In addition, it is inappropriate to translate "it" into "它". In the original, the metaphor "it" refers to "knowledge", and the first translation omits this metaphor, which may makes readers don’t what it is talking about.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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E.g. 7<br />
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SL text: Mr. and Mrs. Brown were talking about their neighbors, Mr. and Mrs. Smith, and their new house. <br />
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“He must be making a good income to be able to live in a house like that,” said he, “to say nothing of the car they have. It’s a Rolls.” <br />
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“Oh,I don’t think he makes much money,” she replied, “but I fancy she has a private income.” <br />
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“I wonder whether they paid for it themselves or whether her parents gave it to her,” he said． <br />
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She answered, “Yes, they bought it after a lucky week with the football pools. But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” <br />
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“I know which of the two I would sooner have,” was his comment． <br />
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TL text：布朗先生和布朗夫人在谈论他们的新邻居———史密斯先生和史密斯夫人，以及他们的新房子。<br />
<br />
“他能够住那么好的房子一定收入颇丰，”布朗先生说，“更不必说他们开的车了，是辆劳斯莱斯。” <br />
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“哦，我不认为他能赚很多钱，”布朗太太答道， “但我猜史密斯夫人有私人收入。” <br />
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“我怀疑这房子是他们自己买的还是史密斯夫人的父母给她的。”布朗先生说。 <br />
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布朗夫人回答说: “是啊，他们在赢了一次足球六合彩之后买了这房子。但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是史密斯夫人的而不是史密斯先生的。” <br />
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“我知道我宁可拥有这二者中哪一个。”布朗先生评论说。<br />
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In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into “布朗先生” and “布朗夫人”, and “史密斯先生” and “史密斯夫人” in this translation version, rather than “他” or “她”. If the sentence “But as for the car, I can’t speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his.” is translated into “但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的”，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.<br />
<br />
In the original text, Mr. and Mrs. Brown and Mr. and Mrs. Smith are all referred to by personal pronouns he, she, her and his. In order to avoid ambiguous reference of pronouns, many English pronouns, such as he, she, her and his are translated into "布朗先生" and "布朗夫人", and "史密斯先生" and "史密斯夫人" in Chinese translation version, rather than "他" or "她". If the sentence "But as for the car, I can't speak definitely about that, though I think it is hers rather than his." is translated into "但是至于那辆车，我就不太确定了，尽管我认为那是她的而不是他的"，it will cause great misunderstanding for readers and they may feel difficult to understand. This kind of reference can make the characters in the original text correspond to the characters in the translation. At the same time, it also shows that the determination of the referential meaning will affect the accuracy of the whole translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:23, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Cohesive Level===<br />
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Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators can not completely copy the way of connection of the original text in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)<br />
<br />
Cohesive level refers to the connection between sentences in text. Each language has its own unique way of connection which reflects its unique thinking pattern. Therefore, translators may not completely copy the way of connection of the original in translation, but should organize the translation with the authentic cohesive way of the target language on the basis of a full understanding of the original text. Just as Newmark claimed, “At this level, you reconsider the lengths of paragraphs and sentences, the formulation of the title; the tone of the conclusion”, the cohesive level mainly refers to the faithfulness to the original text at the paragraph and discourse level.(Newmark, 2001, 24)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sentences are sometimes very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)<br />
<br />
There are great differences between English and Chinese in grammar, especially in word order. If the word order of the original text is closely followed in translation, the whole text may be distorted. In addition, English sometimes are very long sentences and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, sentences should be broken at appropriate places and necessary adjustments should be made. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 103)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Some SL texts seem to be correct in every sentence, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
Some SL texts seem to be correct, but they are actually unreadable when they are put together. It is like a portrait painting. The eyes, nose, mouth and ears are all well drawn, but when they are put together, they are not like a person's face. Here, in addition to factors such as improper proportion and inconsistent style, there is also an important reason, that is, the "connection" between the five senses is not coordinated. The same problem exists in translation. There are great differences in grammar, especially word order between English and Chinese. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. Sometimes English sentences may be very long and there are many clauses. When translated into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)<br />
<br />
In addition, the length and punctuation rules of English and Chinese sentences are quite different. When translated English into Chinese, it is necessary to break sentences in proper places and make necessary adjustments. Chinese sentences are usually short and sometimes need to be combined when translated into English. In short, in order to make the translation expressive, we must take full account of the differences between the two languages and carefully "connect" each sentence to make it a whole. It is like using an invisible silk thread to string pearls together into a beautiful necklace. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 32)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 8<br />
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ST text: At the opening banquet, Nixon seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position by saying, “there are of course some who believe that the mere act of saying a statement of principles or a diplomatic conference will bring lasted peace. This is naïve.”<br />
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TL text: 尼克松在欢迎宴会上说：“当然，有些人认为只要发表一项声明或举行一次外交会议就能带来持久和平。这是天真的想法。” 他这番话似乎是在阐述东道国的立场。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the structure of the source language text has been rearranged and the word order has been changed in order to ensure the fluency of target language, In Chinese, the subject usually comes first and summative words are usually put at the end. Therefore, in the TL text “Nixon” is put at the first and the position of “seemed to have paraphrases his host’s position” is put at the end. (Zhuang Yichuan, 2002, 224)<br />
<br />
E.g. 9<br />
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ST text: Well, you can imagine how it was with a young fellow who had never been taken notice of before, and now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere; couldn’t sit abroad without constantly overhearing the remark flying from lip to lip, “ There he goes; that’s him!” couldn’t take his breakfast without a crowd to look on; couldn’t appear in an opera-box without concentrating there the fire of a thousand lorgnettes. Why, I just swam in glory all day long -- that is the amount of it.<br />
<br />
TL text: 你可以想象得到那是什么滋味：一个年轻小伙子，从来没有被人注意过，现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去；随便到哪走动一下，总不免听见人家一个个辗转相告：“那儿走着的就是他，就是他！”吃早餐的时候，也老是有一大堆人围着看；一到歌剧院的包厢。就会使得无数观众的望远镜的火力都集中到自己身上。哎，我简直就是一天到晚在荣耀中过日子——十足是那个味道。<br />
<br />
The source language text is a long sentence, so it is necessary to take sentence segmentation into consideration. Otherwise, it may make the translation cumbersome and unintelligible. It's widely believed that the most important difference between English and Chinese is hypotaxis and parataxis and English belongs to hypotaxis language. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes “you can imagine how it was” a sentence alone, and “now all of a sudden couldn’t say a thing that wasn’t taken up and repeated everywhere” is rearranged as four short sentences as “现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去”. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)<br />
<br />
English sentences take subject and predicate as the core, and then add various modifiers on this basis to form a complex structure with numerous branches. Chinese pays more attention to parataxis, and Chinese sentences are stated one by one in chronological order. Chinese uses more than one verb to form multiple short sentences. In this way, the TL text makes "you can imagine how it was" a sentence alone, and "now all of a sudden couldn't say a thing that wasn't taken up and repeated everywhere" is rearranged as four short sentences as "现在忽然之间，随便说句什么话，马上就会有人把它记住，到处传播出去". (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 66)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Level of Naturalness'''===<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. “In all ‘communicative translation’, whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential” (Newmark, 2001, 26). <br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a summary of the above three levels. It is mainly to grasp the natural fluency of the translation as a whole. To some extent, it can be said that the natural level is a process of checking, perfecting and making the translation more perfect. "In all 'communicative translation', whether you are translating an informative text, a notice or an advert, ‘naturalness’ is essential" (Newmark, 2001, 26). --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure “(a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation.” (Newmark, 2001, 24) <br />
<br />
In order to fulfill the level of naturalness, the translator needs to ensure the following principles: (a) that your translation makes sense; (b) that it reads naturally, that it is written in ordinary language, the common grammar, idioms and words that meet that kind of situation. (Newmark, 2001, 24) --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language, and in literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, “the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language” is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)<br />
<br />
It may be helpful to check the naturalness of the target text by temporarily separating oneself from the source language text. In addition to some technical terms, there is almost no complete equivalence in the target language. In literal translation, their meanings often overlap or are included in the vocabulary of the source language. Thus, "the enforced shift from generic to specific units or vice versa, sometimes due to overlapping or included meaning, sometimes to notorious lexical gaps in one of the language" is one of the main problems during the translation process.(Newmark, 2001, 34)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator may as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)<br />
<br />
There are many cases in which the translation is not natural and does not conform to the habits of the target language. In order to eliminate this phenomenon, we must try our best to eliminate the interference of the original text on the basis of understanding the original text, and express the meaning of the original text with idiomatic target language, so as to be faithful to the original text as well as fluent and natural. In translation practice, the translator could as well leave the first draft aside after completing it. After a period of time, from the perspective of the target readers to recheck the translation work and to see whether there is any unnaturalness. In this way, many problems can be found. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 78)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 10<br />
<br />
SL text: Then Lieutenant Grub launched into the old recruiting routine, “See, save and serve! Hannigan, free tour to all the ports in the world. A fine ship for a home. Three meals a day without charge... You mustn’t let such a golden opportunity slip by.”<br />
<br />
TL text: 于是，格拉布上尉开始说起招兵的老一套了：“见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力！汉尼根，免费周游世界上所有的港口。一艘上好的船为家，一天三餐不要钱。......你千万不要错过这样大好的机会呀！”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. Here in the ST text, the sentence “See, save and serve!” only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”. Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs “see”, “save”, and “ serve” that refers to “see the world”, “save some money” and “do something for the country” are translated into “见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!”<br />
<br />
English verbs are divided into transitive verbs and intransitive verbs. The object of intransitive verbs is actually hidden behind this verb, which is often needed to express when translated into Chinese. In the above ST text, the sentence "See, save and serve!" only contains three verbs, while in TL text these three verbs are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". Chinese words and phrases tend to be specific and detailed in meaning, thus the verbs "see", <br />
"save", and "serve" that refers to "see the world", "save some money" and "do something for the country" are translated into "见见世面，攒点钱，为国家出点力!". --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 11<br />
<br />
SL text: The English arrived in North America with hopes of duplicating the exploits of the Spanish in South America, where explores had discovered immense fortunes in gold and silver. Although Spain and England shared a pronounced lust for wealth, differences between the two countries were profound.<br />
<br />
TL text 1: 英国人抱着和西班牙人开拓南美洲一样的动机来到北美洲，西班牙的探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。虽然西班牙和英国都同样明显地贪图财富，但是两国的文化却存在着很大的差异。<br />
<br />
TL text 2: 当年西班牙探险者在南美洲发现了大批金银财宝。英国人来到北美洲的动机也如出一辙。尽管两国对财富的贪欲同样强烈，但是两国在文化上却存在着巨大的差异。<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains a attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.<br />
<br />
Here in this sentence, the original text contains an attributive clause. The TL text 1 puts it after the main sentence, resulting in a very awkward cohesion between the two sentences, and the whole paragraph is fragmented. According to the convention of the target language, the TL text 2 organizes the original according to the time and space order, and puts the attributive clause in the original text before the main sentence, so that the whole sentence is more coherent.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
E.g. 12<br />
<br />
SL text: Her ascent of the crooked staircase was a slower process, and her face, as it rose into the light above the last stair, encountered the gaze of all the party assembled in the bedroom．<br />
<br />
TL text: 她脚步缓慢地攀登着弯弯曲曲的楼梯，当她登上最后一级楼梯、脸膛从暗处进入亮处的时候，意外地发现聚集在室内的人们把目光全都转向了她。<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain several verbs. Here in this TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.<br />
<br />
In Chinese sentences, verbs are used more widely and frequently, and a sentence can contain many verbs. In the above TL text, the sentence structure of the original text "A is B" has been changed and the verbs "上", "走", "攀登" and "放慢" have been added to describe Mrs. Debbie's upstairs movements more clearly and vividly, which does not violate the original meaning but also conforms to the convention of target language. Because English and Chinese belong to two different language families, there are great differences in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Therefore, if we want to achieve real discourse fluency on the level of naturalness, the main way is to focus on the above three levels, so that the translation can be faithful to the connotation of the original text.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:46, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, thus maintaining the integrity of the text. <br />
<br />
Peter Newmark's four levels of translation is used to divide the translation process into four parts. "Four level translation" breaks the limitation of language units and deals with translation from a macro perspective, maintaining the integrity of the text. --[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC) <br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structure should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)<br />
<br />
In therms of textual level, special attention should be paid to the literal meaning of the original text, expression and word selection in the process of translation. In other words, the words in SL text should not be replaced by synonyms, and the grammatical structures should remain unchanged, unless they are meaningless in the target language. (Xu Ling, 2005)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's job is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)<br />
<br />
In the case of referential level, the translator needs to understand the referential meaning clearly. One of the basic principles of translation is to follow the meaning of the source text and the author's intention, especially for highly authoritative expressive texts. However, the meaning of the SL text is not always clear. Therefore, the translator's responsibility is to see through the surface vocabulary of the original text, grasp the implied meaning of the original text, and then translate it accurately. (Qian Gechuan, 2011, 29)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)<br />
<br />
As far as the cohesive level goes, the connection in the source text can not be transferred to the target language version optionally, because each language has its own way of connection, which reflects the unique way of thinking of native language users. The translator needs to reconstruct the translation on the basis of full understanding to make the translation work as coherent as the original. At this level, the the length of paragraphs and sentences, as well as the structure should be taken into consideration again. (Zhang Peiji, 2009, 36)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is the basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)<br />
<br />
The level of naturalness is a basic standard for the target language text. The translation must be fluent and conform to the habits of the target language. Naturalness is essential for various texts such as informative text, notices and advertisements. The translator needs to make sure that his or her translation is meaningful and readable by using common language, grammar, idioms and appropriate words. (Newmark, 2001, 20)--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation under the guidance of theory is much more mature than blind translation.<br />
<br />
However, these four levels are not isolated and often overlap in the process of translation. As a result, some examples may be less representative because they are handled at multiple levels. From the perspective of the whole translation process, it is important for translators to understand translation theories.It not only provides translation skills to solve problems, but also helps translators to make self-criticism. Translation works under the guidance of theory are much more mature than blind translation.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theory, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his translation theory and skills.<br />
<br />
Therefore, in addition to cultivating translation skills, translators also need to have a deeper understanding of translation theory. Due to the limited understanding of translation theory and the lack of understanding of translation theories, there may be a lack of systematic and theoretical analysis and comments. However, translation is only a reflection of the translator's translation ability at this stage. In bilingual translation, it is the translator's lifelong pursuit to improve his or her translation theories and skills.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 08:53, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1]. Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[2]. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[3]. Luo Jinde, Chen Anding 罗进德，陈定安. (1998). 英汉比较与翻译 [Comparison and Translation Between English and Chinese]. 中国对外翻译出版公司[China Translation & Publishing Corporation].<br />
<br />
[4]. Qian Gechuan 钱歌川. (2011). 翻译的技巧[The Technique of Translation].世界图书出版社[World Book Press].<br />
<br />
[5] Xu Ling, Lin Jian, Zhang Ying 许 玲, 林 健, 张 莹. (2005). 浅析翻译的层次[Simple Analysis on Translation Levels]. 天津：天津职业大学[Tianjin: Tianjin Professional College].<br />
<br />
[6]. Zhang Peiji 张培基. (2009). 英汉翻译教程[A Course in English-Chinese Translation]. 上海：上海外国语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].<br />
<br />
[7]. Zhuang Yichuan 庄绎传. (2002). 英汉翻译简明教程[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社[Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press].<br />
<br />
==A Study on Translatability and Untranslatability of English and Chinese Puns and Corresponding Strategies of Translation 曾心媛 Zeng Xinyuan==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Pun is a widely used rhetorical device. It is greatly favored by people because of its humor and rich connotation. But pun translation is very difficult due to its particularity and complexity. This paper analyzes the translatability and untranslatability of pun respectively, and explores the relevant translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
双关语是一种使用广泛的修辞手法。因其幽默诙谐，内涵丰富的语言效果深受人们喜爱，但中英互译时，由于双关语的特殊性和复杂性，双关语翻译显得十分困难。本文分别对双关语翻译中的可译性与不可译性进行了探析，并对其相关翻译策略进行有关探索。<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Key words: puns, translatability, untranslatability, corresponding translation strategies<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
关键词：双关语 可译性 不可译性 相应翻译策略<br />
<br />
=== Introduction ===<br />
<br />
Rhetoric is an important part of language and a significant means to improve the effect of language expression, and it is a language form with rich connotation. As one of the rhetorical devices, pun can increase the sense of humor and irony, so it is widely used in poetry, novels, advertisements and riddles. However, due to the particularity of pun, pun translation is often a difficulty. Translation researchers have been arguing about whether puns are translatable for a long time. <br />
<br />
This paper firstly introduces the definition of pun—pun is a rhetorical way to make certain words or sentences convey double meanings that is, one meaning on the surface, but another meaning in fact. Secondly, it introduces the three main categories of puns - phonetic, semantic and grammatical puns, and analyzes the three classifications and the three main translation strategies—literal translation, free translation and annotation through examples. Through the analysis of examples, it analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of the three kinds of pun translation strategies, and points out that the translator should not only accurately convey semantic information, but also recreate rhetoric in the translation, providing the same feeling to readers that they have in reading the original text and translation.<br />
<br />
=== 1. Definition of pun ===<br />
<br />
The word “pun” was originated from a Latin word “paranomasia”, which refers to “similar in look and semantic meaning”. According to Cihai, “pun” is a rhetorical device that intentionally uses homophone or phonogram and polysemy words which can possible generate equivocality in order to punningly express what the speaker is really trying to say. （Cong Laiting，Xu Luya，2007）So the pun word makes the sentence contain double meanings: the superficial meaning, and deep meaning, because of which pun also can make the language humorous, concise, powerful and meaningful, leaving a deep impression to the audience. It is used widely in our life, such as films and television, advertisements, news, literary works and daily dialogues. <br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, the true meaning of customer’s word is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days make one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.<br />
<br />
American scholar Archibald A. Hill once said that there are three prerequisites in puns: double context, hinge( which refers to polysemy and homophone), and trigger (motive and background of using puns).（Fan Jiacai，1992:182）For example: “You are not eating your fish, anything wrong with it?” the waitress said to him. “Long time no sea,” the customer replied.(Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 21), In this dialogue, “sea” has the same pronunciation as “see”, providing the hinge. As for the double context, which on the one hand, means that the customer is greeting to the waitress, but on the other hand, what the customer actually want to express is that the fish is not fresh enough as it has left sea for a long time. And the trigger is that the customer want waitress to know the fish is not fresh. And there is a famous pun—“ Seven days without water make one weak.” The hinge in the sentence is the word “weak”, a homophone of “ week”. So it can mean “Without water, seven days still equal to a week”, or “Without water for seven days makes one weak.” And the trigger is the common sense that we know both of the sentences make sense.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 2. Three Main Types of Puns ===<br />
<br />
“Pun has many types, including homophonic pun同音双关, paranomasia 近音双关, antalaclasis同词异义双关语,sylleptic pun一词多义双关,asteismus歧解双关语, irony反语,innuendo暗讽,satire讥讽, rhetorical question 修辞问句and allegory讽喻.”（从莱庭，徐鲁亚，2007）But we can mainly divided them into three types: phonetic puns, semantic puns, and grammatical puns.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun in created be using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.<br />
<br />
The first type is phonetic puns, which include homophonic pun, paranomasia, and antalaclasis. This kind of pun is created by using words with similar spelling, pronunciation, and even with same pronunciation. It is widely used in humorous stories, and riddles, by using which can make the language more interesting, amusing, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Take the following dialogues as examples:<br />
<br />
Homophonic pun<br />
Eg. 1. -What is the most contradictory sign in a library?<br />
-To speak aloud is not allowed. (Tong Kaiwen, 2017, 51)<br />
In this dialogue, “aloud” has the same pronunciation with “allowed”, which may sounds like“ To speak aloud is not aloud”, making the dialogue more contradictory, so as to answer the question.<br />
<br />
Eg. 2. -King: My cousin Hamlet, and my son—how is it that the clouds still hang on you?<br />
-Hamlet: Not so, my lord. I am too much in the sun.(Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196)<br />
In the dialogue, “son” pronounces the same as “sun”, and Hamlet’s reply seemingly is to directly answer the King, but the true meaning of his words is that “I don’t want to be your son anymore”, expressing his aversion to the king.<br />
<br />
Paranomasia <br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should had done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.<br />
<br />
Eg. 3. Drunk drivers put a quart before the hearse.(Yao Jinhong,2001,161)<br />
At first sight, people may misunderstand it as “Drunk drivers put the cart before the horse” which means that the drunk driver did something before another thing that he should have done first. But the original meaning is to ask drivers not to drink alcohol before driving. The misunderstanding results from similar pronunciation of “quart” and “cart”, as well as “hearse” and “horse”.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Antalaclasis <br />
Eg.4. -Teacher: George, can you give Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address?<br />
-George: No, but I can give you his original address—the White House in Washington D.C.<br />
What makes the conversation so funny is that the student misunderstood “address”, which teacher meant to give a speech, but the student thought it stands for the home address. Or the student interpreted deliberately the “address” to the wrong meaning, so that he could avoid reciting the speech.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leave strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.<br />
<br />
Eg.5. We must all hang together, or we shall all hang separately.<br />
This is a famous remark of Benjamin Franklin, and the word “hang” has different meanings, the previous one means to stay with and support each other, while the latter one means a punishment. Antalaclasis used here not only emphasizes the author’s language, but also leaves strong impact on the audiences, making it easier to remember and spread.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really want to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.<br />
<br />
The second type is semantic puns, which refer to sylleptic pun. When using this pun, what the author really wants to express is the deeper meaning behind the superficial meaning. Semantic puns can make language entertaining, and are also often used to point at someone but actually abuse another, making the language more sarcastic. We can get a better understanding of this kind of puns in following examples.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch is not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grown, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.<br />
<br />
Eg.6. Money doesn’t grow at trees. But it blossoms at our branches.(Xu Min, 2007, 193)<br />
This is an outdoor road sign advertisement of Lloyd's bank, it uses sylleptic pun that the word branch not only means branch of trees, but also represents the bank itself. The true meaning of the advisement is that if people want their money grow, it would be better to save money in Lloyd's bank. The use of pun in the advertisement makes it more interesting, creative, and attractive.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which add interest.<br />
<br />
Eg.7. -What’s the longest sentence in the world?<br />
-Prison for life.<br />
The word “sentence” in the question is a linguistic concept, and it can also mean a punishment given by a court, which can add interest.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
Eg.8. Women have a wonderful sense of right and wrong, but have little sense of right and left. The “rights” have two meanings in the sentence, the first of which refers to “correct”, being the opposite of wrong, and the second one means a direction. Adding puns here makes language be heavy with sarcasm.<br />
<br />
The third type is grammatical puns, in which the structure of the sentence is changed so that the meaning of the sentence is also changed. Here’s an example.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” function as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. Because the change of grammatical puns, the meaning is also changed.<br />
<br />
Eg. 9. Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like an apple. (Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196）<br />
The word “flies” functions as a predicate, which means circle in the air, while the second “flies” is the subject of the latter sentence, which means a kind of insect. With the change of grammatical puns, the meaning has also changed.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:00, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
=== 3. Translatability of Puns ===<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because that it convey different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering to complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translator may fail to translate both meanings while keep the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences was real, which was called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, but human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things have accompanied with many new words, which enriches languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples that show translatability of puns.<br />
<br />
Translation of puns has been a challenge throughout the history. Puns are widely accepted and used in many fields because it conveys different meanings in short words, making the language more interesting, thought-provoking, giving people a stronger impression. Considering the complexity and specialty of puns, some scholars even think that it is impossible to translate puns because that translators may fail to translate both meanings while keeping the formal equivalence. The British translation theorist Catford argued that some specific cultural things can be recognized and expressed. So in essence they can be translated, but the corresponding ways of expression are missing temporarily, untranslatability resulted from which are temporary, but untranslatability caused by cultural differences is real, which is called relative untranslatability.(Catford, 1965，93 ) The first reason that puns are translatable is that even though every country has its unique history, culture, and language, human beings share the same emotions, and have similar daily lives. Language is a reflection on the reality, so even though the literal symbols that represent one thing vary a lot, the essence, which is the thing itself, does not change. Besides, with the development and advance of Internet and technology, connections between different countries have become closer and closer, enhancing cultural communication and transmission. And the emergence of new things is accompanied with many new words, which enrich languages of different countries，and makes it easier to understand other languages. Last but not least, with unremitting efforts of generations of translators, some words, and sentences have been changed from untranslatable to translatable. All the reasons above indicate that the untranslatability between different languages is temporary, and relative, while translatability is absolute, which is the same when it comes to pun translation. Firstly, please look at some examples showing the translatability of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, but they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny it’s a successful translation of puns.<br />
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Eg.10. Seven days without water make one week.<br />
Some translators translated it into “七天没水使人虚弱”，while others translated into “七天没水就是一周没水”。Although both versions are correct, they changed the structure of one sentence into two sentences, and fail to express the humor.<br />
Here’s another translation. “七天不盈（饮）弱一周”(Cao Shunfa，Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）In this translation, the translator successfully expressed two meanings in concise, and semi-classical Chinese style. The “不盈” pronounces similar to“不饮”, and the previous one refers to “cannot reach”, while the latter one refers to “do not drink”. The “弱” also conveys two meanings, one of which is “ less than…”, and other is “make…weak”. As we can see, although there are some subtle deficiencies in the last translation, for example, pronunciation of “不盈” is not completely equivalent to that of “不饮”, as the first one has a rising tone, and the second one uses a falling tone, we can not deny that it’s a successful translation of puns.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.11. 人曾为僧，人弗可以成佛<br />
女卑是婢，女又何妨称奴<br />
A famous Chinese translator Qian Gechuan thought the two sentences couldn’t be translated, but another excellent translator Xu Yuanchong gave his translation as follows:<br />
A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha,<br />
A maiden may be made a house maid.(Cao Shunfa, Huang Jiangping, 2001, 32）<br />
The original text is a pair of couplets, which originated from such a story. <br />
One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapprove. She wrote the former part of couplet and ask a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willing admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.<br />
The examples above show that some puns can be translated by changing the pronunciation and form of the words. We can also find that puns that are currently considered translatable have similar cultural backgrounds in target language and original language, so that translators can find the most appropriate words to translate.<br />
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One day , the great poet Su Shi’s sister Su Zhen heard that Su Shi was talking with a Zen master Foyin about Buddhist ceremony. As Foyin was bragging about the greatness and boundlessness of Buddhist’s power, and advantages of submerging in Buddhism, giving an extravagantly description of studying Buddhist classics, of which Su Zhen disapproved. She wrote the former part of couplet and asked a maid to give it to Foyin. Foyin realized that it’s a refutation of his views that human could never be a Buddha no matter how hard he tried, but he didn’t willingly admit his mistakes, so he replied with the latter line of the couplet.<br />
Although the couplets are full of irony, they are of great literary value and worth pondering carefully. In each couplet, the two words at the beginning of the phrase can be combined to form the word at the end of the phrase. It is a cleverly conceived pun that it looks like a logograph, but it actually aims to refute Zen master. <br />
In Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation, he not only retained the connotation of the original text, but also successfully reproduced the original text in the form, sound and meaning with “ Buddhist, bud, and Buddha; maiden, made, and maid”, and retained the basic structure and rhyme.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:20, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 4. Untranslatability of Puns ===<br />
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Although translators have made unremitting efforts to turn “untranslatable” puns into “translatable”, there are still many people who think that puns are untranslatable. This chapter will discuss the untranslatability of puns.<br />
A Chinese Scholar Liu Miqing put forward the concept of "translatability limit" in Contemporary Translation Theories, in which he proposed that humor and puns in a language are almost untranslatable. Humor often results from the cleverness and skills of using words. Such words and intentions often disappear in translation of puns .(Liu Miqing, 1998:92)<br />
Those who support the view that puns are untranslatable hold that the historical and cultural backgrounds, psychological thinking habits, regional cultures and religious beliefs of different ethnic groups are reflected in their own languages, so that the languages of various nationalities and countries have their own unique personalities. Therefore, it is impossible to find a word in target language which can completely keep the rhetorical devices, styles, and characteristics of original language. Here are some examples.<br />
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Eg. 12. What does the lawyer do after he dies?<br />
He lies still.<br />
(1). 那个律师死后干什么？<br />
静静地躺着。<br />
The word “lies” has two meanings, the first of which is to lie down, the second one is to make up a story, and “still” also conveys double meanings, one of which is motionless, another is as usual. However, the translation can only deliver the first meaning of the two words, so that readers can’t feel it interesting.<br />
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Eg.13.A professor tapped on his desk and shouted “ Gentlemen—order!” <br />
The entire class yelled: “Beer!”<br />
一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, means quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words maybe untranslatable, but try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.<br />
<br />
In the original conversation, the students misinterpreted deliberately teacher’s word—order, meaning quiet here, into “order something to eat”, but in the translation, the answer of students only expressed the meaning of beer, and the punchline was lost, making the whole sentence unintelligible. It seems impossible to express both meanings in one Chinese word here, and perhaps the best way is to add annotations, however, in this way, the translation can’t keep the form of original text.<br />
All the examples above show that there are limitations of translation. As a translator, we should not only blindly conform to the principles of what is translatable, and untranslatable, instead, we need to improve our literacy and translation skills. We should realize that it is true some words may be untranslatable, but we should try to find the best way to translate them. One small step for puns’s translation is one big step for literature translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:25, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 5. Corresponding Translation Strategies ===<br />
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No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understand the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.<br />
1. Literal translation, the simplest and the most direct translation method, which is to translate source languages directly into the target language according to the literal meaning, while maintaining the same semantics as the original pun. However, it is difficult to express the sense of humor in the original text for some puns translation, and the rhetorical devices of polysemy of the original pun may also be lost. Take translation of examples 2 and 6 as examples,<br />
<br />
No matter what kind of translation, it is closely related to the context, the translation of pun is no exception. For the translator, he should not only understand the literal meaning of the original text, but also understand its social and cultural background, otherwise, he can not understand the originality of the author. The translator obtains the basic meaning, or the superficial meaning of the pun through the source text, and understands the deep meaning of the pun through the illocutionary force.<br />
In the translation of puns, the translator mainly adopts three strategies: literal translation, free translation and annotation. We will analyze which method is more appropriate through the translation of examples in the previous text.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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Eg.(2)国王：我的侄儿，哈姆雷特，我的儿。为什么你满目愁云呢？<br />
哈姆雷特：不，陛下。我在太阳下待得太久了。(Zhao Yuqing, 2019, 196)<br />
Although the literal translation does not directly show the relationship between "sun" and "son", the word “太” implies the meaning of complaint in Chinese. Combining with the context, the word "sun" also represents the king in ancient China, so readers can also feel the deep meaning in the literal translation.<br />
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Eg. (5) “我们必须抱成一团，否则我们将会被单独绞死。” (Zhao Yuqing, 2019,196) Through literal translation, this sentence is indeed easy to understand. Readers can figure out the content of the sentence at a glance, but it does not form a pun, and lacks a sense of humor.<br />
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2. Free translation is more frequently used in pun translation, which mainly emphasizes on the target language, keeping fluency of the target language and retaining a sense of humor to a great extent. Here are the free translation of the 7th, 13rd and 15th examples.<br />
Eg.(6) 树上不能生钱，但我们“枝”行能啊。(This translation is translated by myself.)<br />
Although it is not the best version, it is also an attempt to translate a pun. We may as well analyze its advantages and disadvantages. In this translation, "枝" is used to represent the word branches, corresponding to the “tree” in first half of the sentence. “枝”and “支” are homonymous, and “支行” refers to branch bank. Marking “枝” with quotation marks, which can easily remind readers of the word "branch" and form a homonymous pun with a light tone. The disadvantage is that the word “枝行” does not exist in Chinese, which may lead to incomprehension to some people and the expression is quite colloquial, being informal if the translation is used in formal occasion.<br />
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Eg.(12)那个律师死后还能干什么？<br />
躺着说鬼话。（马红军，2000:34）<br />
The beauty of this translation is that the word “鬼话” in Chinese has both meaning of "ghost’s (dead) words" and "untrue words", which not only retains the form of pun in the target language, but also achieves the effect of humor.<br />
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Eg.(14)What’s the flower that everyone have? Tulips.<br />
人人都有什么花？泪花(Ma Hongjun, 2009,16)<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keep the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” is consist of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator keep the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.<br />
<br />
The translation maybe a controversial one as it actually has changed the original meaning, but keeps the form of pun in original text. In the original text, the answer “tulips” consists of two parts— “ tu” which sounds like “two” and “lips”, but “two lips” has nothing to do with “flower” in Chinese. In this translation, the translator kept the “flower” and gave the answer with another special “flower” that everyone had. Readers can actually feel the pun in the translation, so in my personal opinion, it is a good translation.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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3. Annotation is often used when literal translation or free translation can not fully express the meaning of the source text. Its advantage is that it can make the reader fully understand the double meaning of the pun in source text, but the disadvantage is that it will greatly lose the sense of humor of the pun. Therefore, adding annotation is often the last choice in pun translation. Take examples 5 and 14 for example.<br />
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Eg.(4) 老师：乔治，你能给我们做林肯的葛底斯堡演讲吗？<br />
乔治：不能，但我能给你林肯住址—他以前住在华盛顿白宫。（address在英文中既有演讲也有住址的意思，乔治还以为老师问他要林肯住址呢）<br />
There is no word in Chinese that have both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.<br />
<br />
There is no word in Chinese that has both the meaning of speech and address. Therefore, this translation adopts the method of adding notes and explaining the joke, which can make the language humorous and clear to some extent.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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13. 一位教授敲着桌子喊道：“先生们，安静！”全班一致回答：“啤酒！”（order既表安静也有点单之义，学生故意曲解教授意思，让教授哭笑不得）<br />
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Readers can easily understand the meaning of this translation, but some underlying punchlines are totally imperceptible.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also gave a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.<br />
<br />
As an important medium of interlingual and cross-cultural communication, translation itself is an extremely difficult and complex task. In addition, as one of the figures of speech, pun translation is more difficult. Among the three translation strategies in this chapter, I think free translation is the best strategy in pun translation. For example, in the translation of the eg.14, if the literal translation method is used to translate tulip, readers may not know its meaning. But Mr. Ma Hongjun retained the word "flower" in the original text and could also give a hilarious answer. Although it is different from the original meaning, it not only keeps the form of pun, but also conveys double meanings, which in my personal opinion is a good translation. In short, translators need to take many aspects into consideration when translating puns. They can take strategies like literal translation, free translation and annotation or combine various translation strategies to overcome language and cultural barriers. The translation should convey the information in the original text to the target readers as much as possible, and reproduce the rhetorical effect of the original language, so as to promote cultural exchange.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 6. Conclusion ===<br />
<br />
This paper mainly discusses whether pun is translatable or not. By giving examples of some classic puns, this paper elaborates the classification of puns, and analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of three main strategies in pun translation: literal translation, free translation and annotation. <br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopts some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words. <br />
Secondly, the author thinks that free translation is the most appropriate strategy in the three strategies of pun translation, because it is more important for readers to have the same feeling when reading the pun in the translation and in the original text, and to realize the humor and deep meaning. Then is literal translation. However, it seems that the best translated puns in literal translation are those with similar cultural backgrounds in both languages. For example, the word "sun" in example 2 has the meaning of emperor or supreme authority in both the original context and the target language. Therefore, readers can also realize that the translation means something other than what it’s saying. The final choice is annotation, which can express the content of the original text directly, but the sense of humor and the form of pun are lost to a great extent. Of course, there are still many deficiencies in this paper, for example, the examples is not representative enough; the language is not refined; the classification of puns is not explained in detail, and the translatability and untranslatability of puns are not analyzed according to the text type. The paper can be improved through several aspects below: firstly, by analyzing a large number of classic texts, puns in what kind of text type are translatable, and untranslatable can be summarized. Secondly, deepening the depth of this paper by guiding under a specific theory.<br />
<br />
From my perspective, context is very important in pun translation, and translators need to accurately grasp the author’s ingenious conception in the context, and adopt some methods such as changing pronunciation and form of characters in the target language to find the most appropriate words.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:33, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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=== 7. References ===<br />
<br />
Catford, JC.卡特福德 (1965).翻译的语言学理论 [A Linguistic Theory of Translation]牛津大学出版社 Oxford University Press.93<br />
<br />
Cong Laiting, Xu Luya丛莱庭，徐鲁亚. (2007).西方修辞学[Wester Rhetoric].上海外语教育出版社Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press <br />
<br />
Yao Jinhong姚金红. (2001).英语双关的修辞特点[ The Rhetorical Features of English Puns] 唐都学刊 Tangdu Journal (17) 161<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen 佟凯文. (2017) 双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Rhetoric of Pun and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square.(11) 021-022<br />
<br />
Zhao Yuqing赵雨晴. (2019) 浅析英语双关语及其翻译[Brief Analysis on English Puns and Their Translation].青年文学家Youth Literator (30) 196.<br />
<br />
Zhang Huan, Gong Xiaobin张欢,龚晓斌. (2008) 双关语的可译性限度及其翻译补偿策略初探[The Translatability Limit of Pun and Its Translation Compensation Strategies]牡丹江大学学报 Journal of Mudanjiang University (07) 99-101.<br />
<br />
Tong Kaiwen, Li Xianjin佟凯文,李先进. (2017)双关修辞的幽默效用及翻译策略[The Humorous Effect of Pun Rhetoric and Its Translation Strategy] 英语广场English Square (11):51-52.<br />
<br />
Cao Shunfa, Huang Jianping曹顺发,黄健平.(2001) 浅谈“双关语”的可译性[ On the Translatability of Puns] 重庆交通学院学报(社会科学版) Journal of Chongqing Jiaotong University ( Social Science) (01):31-32.<br />
<br />
Xu Min徐敏. (2007)论双关语的可译性及不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun]外语教育Foreign Language Education (00):193-197.<br />
<br />
Lu Jie吕杰. (2008)浅论双关的不可译性[ On the Untranslatability of Pun] 科技信息Science and Technology Information (31):145+168.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingmin魏玲敏. (2009)浅议双关语的可译性[On the Translatability of Pun]科技信息Science and Technology Information (19):98+93.<br />
<br />
An Wenjing安文婧. (2010)双关翻译中的可译性和不可译性以及双关翻译方法[Translatability and Untranslatability of Pun and Its Translation Methods] 中国科教创新导刊 China Education Innovation Heral (05):71-72.<br />
<br />
Li Hanji李晗佶. (2013) 双关语的可译性探索[Explorations of Translatability of Pun] 青年文学家 Youth Literator (32):135.<br />
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==The Untranslatability of Chinese Classic Poems and its Translation Strategies姚诚 Yao Cheng ==<br />
<br />
<center> 姚诚 Yaocheng 202020080661</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our study. Though poems translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poems from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.<br />
<br />
It is commonly believed poetry translation, of all kinds of translation, is the most difficult and demanding, yet possibly most worthy of our studying. Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people remain divided over the translatability and untranslatability of poems and even the definition of untranslatability. This paper will discuss the translatability and untranslatability of poetry from the perspectives of imagery, “yijing”, the use of allusion, sound and form. Then some corresponding strategies will be given so as to guide our poetry translation practice.--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 02:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
poetry translation, untranslatability, translatability, translation strategies<br />
===摘要===<br />
通常认为，诗歌翻译是所有文本类型翻译中难度最大，要求最高，甚至可能是最有研究价值的类型。虽然人们一直在进行翻译实践，关于诗歌翻译的理论数量也远远多于散文或者诗歌翻译的理论，但是对于诗歌可译与否甚至是可译性的定义都有很大的争议。此文将首先讨论不可译性的本质，然后分别从诗歌的意象，意境，典故使用，声音和形式这几个方面讨论诗歌的可译性，然后提出一些相应的翻译策略以指导我们的翻译实践。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
诗歌翻译，不可译性，可译性，翻译策略<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Poetry is some sort of art that raises our sensuality of beauty through language. Through poetry, poets are able to express their pleasure, anger, sorrow and joy in a specific way which concentrates on sense, sound, rhyme, and now in a direct now in an oblique manner. In poems powerful emotions, remarkable imagination, bountiful rhetoric, and musical rhymes can be easily found. These elements altogether create the uniqueness of poetry. However, facing with the same Muse, an Englishmen, a Germany or a Greek may adapt a different way to present it since poetry owing to its artistic features, is deeply rooted in its native culture. Consequently, poems though may be appreciated by readers, they can be hardly reproduced by translators.(Li Haiyan,2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Though poetry translation has been practiced through time and theories regarding to poetry translation heavily outnumbered these of prose or drama translation. Yet people’ opinion about the translatability and untranslatability of poems remain divided. Some translation theorists and translators seem to agree with translatability for the fact that there exist common grounds of culture in different nations. Such common grounds make it possible for people of different nation and culture to communicate with each other and such possibility constitutes the basis of the translatability of poems: these common grounds enables people of different culture and nation to appreciate the meaning and emotion of poems and echo with each other though they are written in different language(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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However, different nations also greatly differ from each other in historical reality which bring us to the very discussion of untranslatability. As poems are mainly appreciated from sense, sound and form, the untranslatability will be further argued in these three aspects. Then some corresponding strategies will be discussed to guide our actual translation practice.(Rao Weimin 2012,14(06):27-29)<br />
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===The untranslatability of poetry===<br />
====The nature of untranslatability====<br />
Though there are numerous scholars in home and abroad believe that poetry is untranslatable for example Xu Guangqian, Wang Yizhu, Yu Guangzhong, Shelley, Robert Frost etc, people appear to hold different definition of untranslatability. Catford thinks that both language and cultural are untranslatable to some degree. Linguistic untranslatability exists in the inaccurate correspondence of different linguistic structure while cultural untranslatability is shown by the bare correspondence of meaning connoted in different culture.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296)<br />
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But Bassnett holds that the untranslatability nature should be discussed in the role that the context plays during the translation process. Few translations are totally untranslatable while many untranslatable sentences manifested by the lack of cultural correspondence can be compensated or replaced with translation methods. <br />
Some scholar simply maintained that the translatability of poetry means that possibility of poetry translation while equating untranslatability to the difficulties in translation(Rao Weimin 2012,14). <br />
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For example <br />
“人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。女卑为婢，女又可称奴。”<br />
The first part of the couplet was made by Su Xiaomei, sister of Su Dongpo with intention to ridicule Fo Yin and the second part was completed by Fo Yin as a response to Su Xiaomei. This antithetical and net couplet is famous for the meaning connoted in the form and anagram game. It was thought to be totally untranslatable until Xu Yuanchong gave his translation: <br />
“A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha<br />
A maiden maybe made a house maid”(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong’s translation is undoubtedly an excellent one no matter in its meaning or antithesis. Thus, they concluded that form the point of historical development, the translatability nature runs though poetry translation while the untranslatability nature is temporary and can be eliminated as long as the difficulties are solved.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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However, Xu Yuanchong himself appears to stand against this idea. In his opinion, a translated poem is the crystallization of the enormous efforts made both by the original poet and translator. when the original poet is compared to a father, the translator can be considered to be the mother and the translated poem a child. The child will never be utterly same to neither his father nor his mother. The same is also true of poem translation. The translated poem won’t be exactly the same as the original poem not will it be reproduced without the influence of the translator. (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Thus, Xu Yuanchong concluded there is no such question of translatability or untranslatability but the matter of the degree a poem can be translated to. Xu Yuanchong gave the following example:<br />
“流水落花春去也, 天上人间”<br />
Any translation of a poem should take various functions at different levels into consideration. Take meaning for example, what is concerned with the reality or thoughts about the world the poet wants to deliver is commonly regarded as the core of the reproduction. However. The author’s thought is usually connoted in the poem which leads to different interpretation or understanding of the poem. As understanding is the first step in any translation, there would be different kinds of translation of one poem according to the translator’s understanding. And there are at least four versions of translation of this verse:(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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(1)“Flowing waters and faded flowers are gone forever<br />
As far apart as heaven is form earth” (Tr. Chu Dagao)<br />
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(2)“The river flows –<br />
The blossoms fall –<br />
Spring going – gone<br />
in Heaven as on earth ”(Tr. Lin Tongji)<br />
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(3)“One’s spring and youth has passed<br />
never to return<br />
One’s destiny is not of heaven’s<br />
Concern.” (Tr. Xu Zhongjie)<br />
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(4)“Without flowers fallen on the waves<br />
Spring’s gone away<br />
So is the paradise of yesterday.” (Tr. X.Y.Z) (Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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Xu Yuanchong argues since there are at least 4 versions of translation, poetry is of course translatable. Also, similarities and differences can be easily found in the four translated work. Then similarities represent what the original poet wants to convey and the differences exhibit different expression methods adopted by the translator. Different expression methods also reveal the “translated degree” which means to which degree a poem is subjectively translated by the author within his ability. Then “translatable degree” should be discriminated form “translatable degree” which refers to the degree to which a poem can be objectively translated.(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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When Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “人曾是僧，人弗能成佛。 女卑为婢，女又可称奴。” is reassessed with his definition of “translated degree” and “translatable degree”, it is clear that the difficulties that others equate untranslatability to fall into the category of “translated degree”.(Rao Weimin 2012,14)<br />
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Since Xu Yuanchong solved the problem of meaning and anagram game but the form is not fully translated at least in this point: in the original verse, two short clauses “人曾是僧” and ”人弗能成佛” altogether constitute the whole meaning, but in the translation “A Buddhist cannot bud into a Buddha“ there is only one complete sentence. In this sense, this couple is only translatable to a certain degree. So our discussion of translatability will be confined to the field of “translatable degree”(Xu Yuanchong, 1998, 40-30)<br />
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====The untranslatability of imagery====<br />
Image is defined by J.A. Cuddon to be a general term that covers the use of language to represent objects, actions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, states of mind and any sensory or ex-sensory experience (1998:413). Qin Xiubai believes, “imagery is the soul of poetry”. This illustrates the critical status of imagery in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Though Chinese and foreign poets attach great importance to the use of imagery, they, due to disparities in social and cultural background, differ from each other in tradition, ideology and mode of thinking. (Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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When comparison is made between Chinese and Western imagery theory, we can conclude the following features of Chinese imagery: <br />
At first, imageries in ancient Chinese place overwhelming importance on the meaning an imagery delivers rather than the imagery itself. Chinese tend to express their feelings in a very implicit way. The use of imageries consequently became prevalent among Chinese poet. As a result, imageries turn out to be the organic combination of the subjective feeling and an object. For example，“浮云游子意，落日故人情”（李白《送友人》） and “杨柳岸，晓风残月”（柳永《雨铃》）.(Sui Yirong 2011(10):35-38)<br />
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Chinse imagerys boast unique connoted meaning. “浮云”(floating clouds)”落日” (setting sun)、”杨柳”(willow) 、”晓风”(breeze) 、”残月” (wane moon)are typical imageries that Chinese poets used to express the feeing of farewell. When these imageries are literally translated, it can barely intrigue the same feeling in target readers. Another example can also clearly explain this untranslatability of imageries of Chinese poetry. “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is commonly employed by poets to express the lovesickness while “wild swan” or “wild geese” is but some sort of bird. When “鸿雁” or “飞鸿” is simply translated into “wild swan” or “wild geese”, English readers can’t appreciate the translated work as much Chinese reader appreciate the original poem due to the untranslatability of imagery（Yang Qun & Liuyi, 2005(06):93-95+106）.<br />
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On the basis of its appealing to human sense, five types of imagery can be outlined as follows: visual imagery, aural or auditory imagery, tactile imagery, olfactory imagery and other sensory imagery. In addition, since any subject in the globe is either static or dynamic, imageries can also be divided into static and dynamic imagery. Then there come to the other prominent feature of imagery of Chinese poetry: Chinese much prefer static imageries to dynamic ones. Static imagery is comprised of adjectives and adjective phrase, nouns and nouns phrase as well. (Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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For instance, in the Chinese poem 《早发白帝城》 by Li Bai<br />
“朝辞白帝彩云间，千里江陵一日还。两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山。” <br />
At dawn I left the walled city of White King, <br />
Towering among the many-colored clouds;<br />
And came down stream in a day One thousand li to Jiangling. <br />
The screams of monkeys on either bank <br />
Had scarcely ceased echoing in my ear <br />
When my skiff had left behind it <br />
Ten thousand ranges of hills(Tr. Wang Jianjun)(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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“彩云”(colored clouds)、“轻舟”（skiff）、“万重山”（Ten thousand ranges of hills） can be categorized into static imagery. These three images are not only the objects the poet describes, but the very psychology equivalence reflecting the poet’s feeling. The poet express his great delight upon his absolved from exile through the image “彩云”while “轻舟”passing“万重山”shows the poet’ eager to return home. Reading the translated work, readers can hardly grasp the mood of the original poet. Despite the large quantity of static imagery, the use of dynamic is vivid and picture-evoking.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Dynamic imagery refers to the dynamic description in chinse ancient poems such as imageries presented by the verbs of “还” and “过” use in Li Bai’s《早发白帝城》.There are other abundant examples of dynamic imagery: “绿” in “春风又绿江南岸”(王安石《泊船瓜洲》), “闹” in “红杏枝头春意闹”（宋祁《木兰花》）and “弄” in “云破月来花弄影”（张先《天仙子》）bring enormous vivacities to these verses. But such dynamic imageries can’t be hardly translated since exactly corresponded words can’t be found. Even so, the mood can barely be reproduced as “还” and “过” in examples above are translated into ”came down” and “left behind”.(Wang Jiangu 2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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====The untranslatability of “yijing”====<br />
The artistic kingdom has been sung high of throughout the history of Chinese poetry development, and assigned the name as “意境”(“yijing”). The phrase “意境” was translated into “artistic conception” or “ideorealm” by some. However, both of these two terms fail to fully express the core of “意境”（”yijing” ). ”yijing”, too mysterious and intangible as it is, is deemed to be the sprit of poetry. Though “yijing” originated from imagery, it is never a simple aggregate of images but an organic integration of imagery. Poets us concrete images to express their feeling and these two elements then become fully blended in “yijing” which altogether brings and far-retching philosophical effects.(Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto, 2015(12):5-6+34)<br />
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For example, in 《江雪》(柳宗元) <br />
千山鸟飞绝，万径人踪灭。<br />
孤舟蓑笠翁，独钓寒江雪。”<br />
River Snow<br />
A hundred mountains and no bird,<br />
A thousand paths without a footprint;<br />
A little boat, a bamboo cloak,<br />
An old man fishing in the cold river-snow. （Tr. Witter Bynner）(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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At first glance, the poem seems to present a snow picture. However, through images including “大雪”、 “孤舟”、 “老渔翁”、 “寒江”、 “鸟飞绝” and “人踪灭”, a vivid picture of an old man fishing alone in the wild cold snow unfolds before our eyes and delivers us the image of the old fishman who exhibits loneliness and pride and forbears no sacrilege. In actuality, this old man by which the poet expresses his thought of getting rid of the secular and holding himself aloof from the world, is an incarnation of the poets’ sprit. Though any single image has no specific meaning, the organic integration of thess simple images attributes to the profound “yijing” which is exactly the charm of Chinese poems. However, in Bynner’s translation, nothing but a snow picture can be seen.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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The other typical example is 《天净沙》（马致远）<br />
“枯藤老树昏鸦，<br />
小桥流水人家，<br />
古道西风瘦马。<br />
夕阳西下，<br />
断肠人在天涯。”<br />
It seems that the poet randomly puts “枯藤”、“老树”、“昏鸦” and other 7 images together, but the last sentence“断肠人在天涯” fully revels the core concept of the poem and leave us roomy space for imagination. When Chinese sentence characterized by parataxis is translated into English features hypotaxis, the beauty of “yijing” of Chinese classical poetry vanishes to a large degree, if not completely.(Ma QinJun,2015,17(01):83-87) <br />
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====The untranslatability of allusion====<br />
As a gem of Chinese national culture, allusion is characterized by rich cultural connation, highly-concentrated structure and compact expression. In the course of more than five thousand years, numerous Chinese allusions are widely spread. Poets, to avoid direct expression of feeling, would naturally resort to such allusions like myth, legends, or historic event. Due to cultural difference, western reader can hardly understand what is connoted in the poem as much as Chinese reader can appreciate.(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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If these allusions are translated completely translated by explanation, the whole translated poem will be lengthy and no longer be poem in form. On the contrary, if the allusion is simplified, connotations and space for imagination would no longer exist(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
For example:<br />
古别离<br />
孟郊<br />
欲去牵郎衣，郎今何处去？<br />
不恨归来迟，莫向临邛去！<br />
You wish to go, and let your robe I hold.<br />
Where are you going- tell me, dear – today.<br />
Your late returning does not anger me,<br />
But the another steal your heart away. (Tr. Fletcher)(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Undoubtedly, the basic meaning is reproduced when “莫向临邛去” was translated into “But the another steal your heart away.” However, the loss of image leads to the deviation of original information. Actually, “临邛” in the original poem is an allusion which tells the love story between Sima Xiangru, an prominent litterateur of West Han dynasty and an widow Zhuo Wenjun. The widow dared to break tradition hierarchy and ran way with the litterateur and married him at last. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
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Obviously, here “临邛” is no longer a name for a place but a media the poet used to express the widow’s anxiety that her husband would fall in love with someone else in his journey. This anxiety is implicitly express in the original poem. However, the translated poem delivers this feeling in a blunt and frank manner, which doesn’t coincide with the characteristic of ancient Chinese women(Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). Thus, the translation is by no means the perfect reproduction of the original poem. (Sui Yirong ,2011(10):35-38). <br />
The translation of《琴瑟》（李商隐） can also illustrate this point:<br />
锦瑟无端五十弦, 一弦一柱思年华。<br />
庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶, 望帝春心托杜鹃。<br />
沧海月明珠有泪, 蓝田日暖玉生烟。<br />
此情可待成追忆, 只是当时已惘然。<br />
“Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? <br />
Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: <br />
Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; <br />
Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry.<br />
In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes;<br />
From sunburnt emerald let vaporize! <br />
Such feeling cannot be recalled again: <br />
It seemed lost even when it was felt then.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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Five allusion including “琴瑟”、 “庄周梦蝶”、“望帝春心”、“沧海月明”、“蓝天” in used in a poem of only 64 words to express the beaty of obscurity. Though Xu used interrogative and exclamatory sentence as well as such words like “amorous”、”cry” to reproduce this beauty. Butt westers, with little knowledge of Chinese culture will be confused by the relationship between of “string” and ”vanished things” or the connotation of “butterfly”、“cuckoo” and “pearls”.(Li Xinhong 2010,26(06):294-296）<br />
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====The untranslatability of sound====<br />
Poetic language has a natural connection with sound. The monosyllable nature and the four tones of Chinese character make it possible for Chinese poets to have a sometime deep, sometime high rhyme and rhythm which however are hardly limited in Chinese poem for the following three aspect: the harmonious balance between level and oblique tones, requirement for antithesis and rhyme which means the regular repetition of the same vowel. However, it is still much more difficult for English poets to enhance the musicality due to the uncertain syllable of words, stress shift between words, and limitation of rhyme. Consequently, the beauty of sound itself of Chinese classical poems can barely reproduced in English(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158).<br />
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For example,<br />
海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落,<br />
浮云长长长长长长长消。<br />
Sea waters tide, day to day tide, everyday tide and everyday ebb.<br />
Floating clouds appear, often appear, often appear and often go (Tr. Nida)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
Though the meaning of the original poem was fully translated, but the reiterative locution, reduplication words and antithesis which can impress the original reader at their first glance disappear.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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Here is the other example；<br />
“寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚。《声声慢》（李清照）<br />
“Seek, seek, search, search,”<br />
Cold, cold, bare, bare,<br />
Grief, grief, cruel, cruel grief,<br />
Now warm, then like an autumn<br />
Cold again<br />
How hard to calm the heart. (Tr. Clara Candlin)(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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There are seven couple of reduplication words bring the musicality that remind us the poet’s deep sorrow and grief though no single word regarding to sadness is used. The translated works is pale when compared to the original poem in terms of neither meter nor”yijing”. The word-for-word translation in attempt to maintain the repetition of sound reduces the sense of beauty to the most and can scarcely trigger the deep sorrow and grief in the target reader.(Li Haiyan, 2000(04):155-158)<br />
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====The untranslatability of from====<br />
Since Aristotle, heated debates on the difference of poetry and prose have been hold. Yet, poetry should be discriminated from prose in the first place for its form. A translated poetry must be poetry in form for the following reason: at first, the charm of a poem somewhat lies in the beauty of form. Second, target readers should have accesses to the feature and charm of the original poetry, and it is the supreme duty of the translator to ensure that to happen. Third, the translator should be royal to the original poem. However, because of the opaqueness and connotation pervading in Chinse poems, translator in one way or other are prone to translate them into poetry and thus the beauty of form is lost.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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Even though the translator is determined to keep the original form, he can hardly do so. As mentioned earlier, because of implicit character of Chinese, they tend to express their intention or feeling in a direct way so much so that some special form in adopted in classic poetry such as the anagram mentioned earlier.(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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凡鸟偏从末世来，都知爱慕此生才。<br />
一从二令三人木，哭向金陵事更哀。<br />
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This bird appears when the world falls on evil times;<br />
None but admires her talents and her skill,<br />
First she complies, then commands, then is dismissed,<br />
Departing in tears to Jinling more wretched still. (Tr. Yang xianyi & Gladys)<br />
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This phoenix in a bad time came,<br />
All praised her great ability.<br />
“Two” makes my riddle with a man and a tree,<br />
Returning south in tears she met calamity. (Tr. David Hawkes)(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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The original poem was use by Cao Xueqin to make hints of Wang Xifeng’s destiny. Here, “凡” and “鸟” altogether constitute the traditional Chinese character “鳳” which refers to the word “feng” of Lady Wang Xingfeng. Thus, the first couplet tells us though Wang is lady of high caliber but she came at a bad time. Neither “bird” nor “phoenix” can deliver us this hint. Also in the first part of the second couplet, “木” and “人” make the character “休” (“repudiation”) which implies Wang Xifeng would be dismissed by her husband at last. Though the first translation literally tells us her destiny, the anagram is gone. (Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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It is still worser of the second translation, target reader will be utterly confused when he come to “‘Two’ makes my riddle with a man and a tree,”(Wang Jianguo ,2012,39(05):149-150)<br />
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===Translation strategies of Chinese classical poetry===<br />
====Addition of word====<br />
Chinese classical poetry features terse wording so much so that some words are omitted. Thus, considerable words should be added to make the translation more exact in sense. For example,(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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“十年生死两茫茫”<br />
“Ten years now, I’m here, you’re gone. Though not thought, not forgot.” <br />
“For ten long years, the living of the dead knows nought.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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In the second translation, the preposition “for” is added to meet English expression and more importantly, it can strength readers’ feeling the span of time and echo the grief.<br />
Besides, connotation should added to prevent target reader from confusion resulted from culture difference.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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For example,<br />
“纤云弄巧，飞星传恨，银汉迢迢暗渡”<br />
“Clouds float like works of art，Stars shoot with grief at heart． <br />
Across the Milky Way the Cowherd meets the Maid ( In a fairy tale in ancient China，the Cowherd and the Maid were married，but theywere restricted by the Queen Mother to meet each other once a year) ”，An allusion is used for the implicit expression of lovesickness, it would be extremely difficult for target readers to appreciate the full sense of this poem.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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====Deletion of word====<br />
Reduplicated and repetitive words are used to trigger strong emotion. Such word can be sometime deleted to avoid redundance in English. For example, in “飞流直下三千尺” and “千锤万凿出深山”， “三千尺” and “千锤万凿” are actually hyperbolized. If they are literally translated into “It flows down three thousand feet” and “Only through tens of thousands of blows，can it be extracted from the mountains”，not only the beauty of sense but space for imagination are totally lost. After fully understanding of the poem, the numbers can be omitted and thus hyperbole is transformed into typical English adjective used for description.: “an incredible height” and “a hard hammer blows”.(Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)<br />
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====Conversion of word class====<br />
English and Chinese differ from each other a lot in terms of linguist form and structure. In order to make the translation faithful, Conversion of word class is frequently used. (Sun Huali ,2020,42(04):113-116)For example，<br />
“明月几时有，把酒问青天” 《水调歌头·明月几时有》（苏轼）<br />
“How long will the full moon appear?<br />
Wine cup in hand, I ask the sky.” (Tr. Xu Yuanchong)<br />
“How rare the moon，so round and clear! <br />
With cup in hand, I ask of the blue sky,” (Tr. Lin Yuntang)(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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If “把酒” and “问青天” are separably translated into “hold the wine glass” and “ask the sky”, there will be two predicate which is inconsistent with English expression. When we take a close look to Xu’s and Lin’s translation, it is clear that the verb phrase ”把酒” are translated into prepositional phrase. By doing this, the focus ‘问青天” is empathized so that the sense is closer to the original poem(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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There are of course many other ways for poetry translation such as reconstruction of sentence and the use of annotation. No matter what strategies we adopted, it borders on impossibly for us to 100% translate a poem. But we should also bear it in mind that we can always find a way to make the translated work closer to the original poem with brainstorm and ingenuity.(He Jun ,2008(04):124-127)<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
In spite of the very fact that poetry translation has been practiced since very long ago and theories of poetry translation have been much produced. Different opinion was still hold of translatability and untranslatability. This paper confined the definition of untranslatability first and then explained the untranslatability from image, “yijing” the use of allusion, sound and form. Some strategies are given not in the fancy of the full reproduction of the original poem but with wish to reproduce it to as much greater degree as possible.<br />
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===References===<br />
He Jun何峻.从译者的再创造看诗歌由不可译性向可译性转化[On the Transformation from Untranslatability to Translatability of Poetry by Recreation]. Journal of Chengdu University成都大学学报(社会科学版),2008(04):124-127.<br />
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Li Haiyan李海燕.Beauty in Sense, Sound and Form in Poetry Translation —— Translation of Tang Poems From Chinese to English. Journal of Inner Mongolia Educational Institute 内蒙古教育学院学报,2000(04):155-158.<br />
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Li Xinhong李新红.试论中国诗歌之“不可译”[On the untranslatability of Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Lanzhou Education Institute 兰州教育学院学报,2010,26(06):294-296.<br />
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Ma QinJun马庆军.中国古典诗歌的不可译因素[On Untranslatable factors of Chinse Classic Poetry ]. Journal of Tianjia Occupational Institute 天津职业院校联合学报,2015,17(01):83-87.<br />
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Rao Weimin饶卫民.论诗歌翻译的可译性与不可译性[ On the Translatability and Untranslatability of Poetry]. Journal of Anshun Institute安顺学院学报,2012,14(06):27-29.<br />
<br />
Sui Yirong隋荣谊.诗歌翻译[Poetry Translation]. Knowledge of English英语知识,2011(10):35-38.<br />
Sun Huali孙华丽.中国古诗词翻译技巧研究[Translation Methods of Chinese Classical Poetry].Journal of Sanxi University三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版),2020,42(04):113-116.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王剑果.论诗歌翻译中形似的重要性[On the Importance of the Similarity of Form in Poetry Translation ]. Journal of Henan Normal University河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,39(05):149-150.<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
Yang Qun & Liuyi杨群,刘益.中国古典诗歌翻译中的不可译性[On the Untranslatability of Classic Chinese Poetry]. Journal of Nan Hua University南华大学学报(社会科学版),2005(06):93-95+106.<br />
<br />
Zhao Dan & Chen Yangto赵旦,陈养桃.戴着镣铐起舞——诗歌翻译为何难的几点分析[On Difficulties of Poetry Translation]. Literature in Anhui Province安徽文学(下半月),2015(12):5-6+34.<br />
<br />
==The Untranslatability of Xiehouyu 彭育志 Peng Yuzhi==<br />
<br />
<center>彭育志 Peng Yuzhi 202020080635</center><br />
<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguish 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu is a typical idiomatic Chinese folk expression, with its first part descriptive, while the second part, sometimes unstated, carrying the massage. However, this kind of expressions is often culturally loaded, and a great number of them are with puns, which accounts for its untranslatability. This paper will concentrate on distinguishing 4 key elements of the Chinese fork wisecrack and examine which elements of the 4 are bound to lose and therefore prove to some extent the Xiehouyu is untranslatable. Finally, I will try to find some methods to overcome this untranslatability at best.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
<br />
歇后语是典型的中国民间俗语，它由两部分构成，前半部分是描述性的，后半部分则是对前一部分的解释，传达出说话者真正的意图。歇后语形象生动，又富含中国历史文化之意蕴，而且时常语带双关，这使其具备了不可译性。本文旨在区分歇后语翻译中关键的四要素，来考察何种或哪几种要素在翻译时注定会失去，从而证明歇后语在某种程度上是不可译的。但不可译并不代表就放弃翻译它了，本文探究其不可译性的最终目的还是想要找到合适的翻译策略来尽量弥补这一不可译性。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; translation method<br />
<br />
Xiehouyu; Untranslatability; Translation Method--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:50, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
<br />
歇后语；不可译性；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
<br />
<br />
====1.1 Xiehouyu====<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is the typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu is a special Chinese expression created by Chinese people according to their everyday experience. It consists of only a few words and often achieves a humorous or ironic effect. Rooted deeply in Chinese conventions and the long history of China, the Xiehouyu is a typical product of unique Chinese Culture. <br />
A Xiehouyu consists of 2 parts, with the first part illustrating an image or event, the second parts explaining the meaning the addresser wants to express, and often the second part will not be expressed out, leaving a blank for the addressee to fill in. (Li Gongxue, 2014:12)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
====1.2 untranslatability====<br />
<br />
As Catford distinguishes, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)<br />
<br />
According to Catford, there are 2 types of untranslatability: linguistic untranslatability and cultural untranslatability. The former occurs when there are no lexical or syntactical substitutes in the TL for the SL; while the latter is due to the absence in the TL culture of a relevant situational feature for the SL. <br />
Even if there is a relevant situational feature in the TL for the SL, like the English words “home” and “democracy”, whose counterparts can be easily found in different languages, these word pairs still have differences in meaning, depending on the contexts and cultural background. So the cultural untranslatability happens because language is the primary modelling system within a culture, it must be de facto implied in any process of translation.(Susan Bassnett, 2002:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Considering this thesis mainly deals with the translation of Xiehouyu into English, the untranslatability of Xiehouyu will be further discussed by using English and Chinese as <br />
examples.<br />
The first to be discussed is the linguistic untranslatability. The Chinese characters have only one syllable, and with the change of the 4 different tones, different characters are created and even the same sound can represent different characters, which is a far more common case than that in English. While English is a very different story, an English word can have one, two three or even more syllables and it relies on the position of stresses instead of change of tones to alter the meaning of a word or sentence. This makes the translation of puns and poems in both languages very difficult. For example, one line from a Chinese, “东边日出西边雨，道是无晴却有晴。” is untranslatable in that the “晴” (“sunny”)here is a pun, it implies “情” (“love”), but in English, no pair of words can be found with the same pronunciation while the 2 totally different meanings.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second to be discussed is the cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)<br />
<br />
Then we come to cultural untranslatability. Obviously, due to different cultural and historical background, even a same object in Chinese and English can be quite different. Take the words “dog” and “狗” for example. The word “dog” has a positive or neutral connotation in English, with which, the English speakers show their friendly and intimate relationship with others by saying “he is my dog.” Another English idiom put it that “every dog has its day.”, in which “dog” means ordinary people. While in Chinese, things are quite the opposite. “狗” in Chinese has a negative connotation. Many Chinese idioms can serve as the proof, such as “狗仗人势”, “狗嘴里吐不出象牙”, “落水狗”, “丧家之犬” and so on. If these “狗” or “犬” are all translated into “dog”, the English speakers will find it unacceptable.(Feng Cuihua,1995:62)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After discussing the untranslatable elements in Chinese and English, when we come back to the translation of Xiehouyu, it is obvious that all the elements the Xiehouyu has them all, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
It is obvious that Xiehouyu features all these untranslatable elements, which means the Xiehouyu is untranslatable.However, this does not mean the Xiehouyu cannot be translated at all. What we can achieve is an optimal translation. What Xu Yuancong says about the translation of poetry is suitable for the translation of the Xiehouyu, actually to all kinds of translation.<br />
According to him, the translation of a poem is the crystallization of the enormous effort of both the original author and the translator, the former is compared to a father, the latter, mother, then the translation is like their child. The child will never be the same as neither his father, nor his mother. The translation can never be the same as the original work without being affected by the translator. (Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So there is no absolute translation, the problem of translation is a matter of degree. And therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)<br />
<br />
So there is no such thing as absolute translation, and the untranslatability is a matter of degree. Therefore, the focus point of this thesis will be to what extent Xiehouyu is untranslatable, or what elements would be lost in translation and what can be done to achieve the optimal translation.<br />
In the following sections, the structure of the Xiehouyu will be analyzed and the function of Xiehouyu will be examined to see what elements in them are untranslatable and what translation methods can be adapted to make up for this untranslatability to the best.(Xu Yuancong,1988:42)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.1 The structure of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker. In some cases, this is because the descriptive part is vivid enough, both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu, as mentioned above, consists of mainly 2 parts, the first part descriptive, the second part explanatory. Between the 2 parts, there is always a comma or hyphen which serves as a link to indicate certain connection between them. In actual use, the second part is sometimes not stated by the speaker because the descriptive part is so vivid that both the speaker and the hearer are very familiar with it, they both know perfectly what the unstated part is and what that actually mean. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He waits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
Chinese people always say, referring to someone, “狗咬吕洞宾”, leaving the latter part “不识好人心” unstated, for the story of Lv Dongbin and dog is well-known in China, no further explanation is needed. While in other cases, the descriptive part is not that clear and the speaker intentionally leaves a blank to the hearer to fill in. He awaits the hearer to ask why such a description is used. Until then the speaker will reveal the latter part to achieve a humorous or ironic effect. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
If we examine the 2 parts more closely, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)<br />
<br />
When we take a closer look at these 2 parts, more details can be found. The descriptive part is either an object or an event. “十月的萝卜” and “外甥打灯笼” can serve as examples respectively. As for the second part, it may serve as an adjective or an adverb to modify the former，or even the action the former part performs if it is an object or some particular person, as the cases in “老九的弟弟—老十（实）” “韩信点兵—多多益善” and “十月的萝卜—冻（动）了心” respectively. (Li Gongxue,2014:20)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In actual use, we can find the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
It can be easily found in actual use that the former part, the object or the event appearing in the Xiehouyu, is often replaced by the real object or event we want to modify with the Xiehouyu. It is the object or event which the speaker is referring to that is directly modified by the later part of the Xiehouyu. So the function of the Xiehouyu as a whole, in fact depends on the latter part of it. It can serve as an adjective, an adverb or a verb. And therefore, if the aim of translation is only to serve the same function of modifying, the former descriptive part can be simply omitted, only translating the latter descriptive part. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It is deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, which is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
However, the Xiehouyu is a culture-loaded expression. It, deeply rooted in the soil of unique and colorful Chinese history and culture, is best embodied in the first half of the Xiehouyu. It often illustrates a famous figure in Chinese history or an image which vividly reflects Chinese outlook of viewing the world. In a word, the first part is more valuable in the aspect of culture than the second part, which when translated, must be kept at best. As for the latter part, though its main function is to explain the true meaning, there is also a noticeable element in it, the pun in Chinese language, which is the difficult point of translation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 12:36, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===2.2 The classification of Xiehouyu===<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu is descriptive which is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the structure of Xiehouyu above, the first part of Xiehouyu, which is descriptive is the basis for the reader in understanding the meaning of it, while the second part is explanative, in which the meaning of the Xiehouyu will be shown to the reader. Some Xiehouyu have only one meaning in the second part, which is the literal meaning; while in other Xiehouyu, there are 2 different meanings in the second part, which are its literal meaning and the extended meaning. In other words, the former do not employ pun, and the latter is punny. The punny ones can be further divided into 2 categories: the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic punny Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:19)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
So based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate the 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
Based on the discussion above, the Xiehouyu can be classified in to 3 categories: the literally-stated Xiehouyu, the polysemous punny Xiehouyu and the homophonic Xiehouyu. To better illustrate these 3 kinds of Xiehouyu, 3 examples are given below respectively:<br />
Literally-stated Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle – subtle in one’s rough ways <br />
<br />
This literally-stated Xiehouyu above literally means that even a rude man like Zhang Fei, a general of Shu regime, is able to thread a needle, it naturally indicates that someone can be subtle in his rough ways. The first is descriptive which gives the reader a hint and imagination and the second part tells the meaning of it directly. The literal meaning is the practical meaning without an extended one.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. So the Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)<br />
<br />
Polysemous punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
王妈妈卖了磨，推不了的<br />
<br />
Like Dame Wang who sold her grindstone:<br />
You’ve no way to grind your axe any more.<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, “推”(“tui”) is polysemous in Chinese, one meaning to grind, the other meaning to absolve oneself from responsibility. This Xiehouyu thus has 2 meanings. The literal meaning is that Dame Wang sold her grindstone and the other is that one cannot absolve himself from responsibility now，which is difficult for the target reader to understand, requiring more explanation. (Li Gongxue,2014:21)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”are homophonic, both pronounced as “miao”. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
Homophonic punny Xiehouyu:<br />
<br />
连着三个观音堂—庙（妙）！（妙）！（妙）！<br />
<br />
Three shrines to the goddess Kuan-Yin lined up in a row:<br />
Wonderful! Wonderful! Wonderful!<br />
<br />
In the example above, the Chinese characters “庙”and “妙”, both pronounced as “miao” are homophonic. But the former means “temple” the latter means “wonderful.” The meaning “wonderful” is the true meaning that the Xiehouyu wants to convey. (Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and classification of the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)<br />
<br />
After analyzing the structure and catagorizing the Xiehouyu, 4 key elements of the translation of Xiehouyu are found: cultural connotation, image, sound and meaning. The first 2 elements can mostly be found in the descriptive part of Xiehouyu, and the element of meaning can be found in the explanatory part of Xiehouyu, and if it is a homophonic punny Xiehouyu, the sound element can also be found. Considering the aim of translating Xiehouyu, which is to spread Chinese culture to other countries, the 4 elements need to be saved in the translation. A question is that when a Xiehouyu translated, can all 4 of the elements be kept without losing a little bit of them? And if any or all of them is doomed to be lost, what method can be adapted to best regain it or them? <br />
The following part will concentrate on the first questions, taking the 4 elements into consideration, examining whether or not will lose and thus prove the untranslatability of the Xiehouyu.(Li Gongxue,2014:22)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. The possible loss of 4 key elements===<br />
<br />
===3.1 The loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in the Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The cultural connotation in a Xiehouyu results mainly from 3 aspects. The first is the unique Chinese tradition. An example of this category is shown below:<br />
<br />
正月十五贴门神—晚了半月<br />
<br />
Be too late (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation, however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The Xiehouyu above demonstrate a unique Chinese tradition, rich in cultural connotation, which is better to be kept in the translation. however the translator failed.<br />
Traditionally, the Chinese people put up the pictures of door-god(门神) on the door on the first day of the lunar new year to get rid of evil things. Usually 2 pictures will be glued on the door, which is often opened from the middle. So the 2 pictures will be stuck on the 2 sides of the door. As the door-gods, no ordinary people can be called as god by the Chinese. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield, who once guarded the door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
They were Qin Shubao and Yuchi Gong, both of whom were generals in the Tang dynasty. They were warriors on the battlefield and guardian of door for the greatest emperor of Tang dynasty, Li Shimin, to protect him for nightmare.<br />
The picture of door-god should be glued on the first day, which indeed will be too late if glued on the 15th day. The meaning of this Xiehouyu is, as the translation shows, to be too late. But all the translation achieves is conveying solely the meaning of it, which is absolutely inadequate. The translation abandons the former descriptive part, which means the cultural connotation is completely lost.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
he second involves with famous names in Chinese history. As the example below shows:<br />
<br />
韩信点兵—多多益善<br />
<br />
The more the better(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, a famous Chinese name in Chinese, Han Xin(韩信), was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the Xiehouyu above, Han Xin(韩信), a famous Chinese name in Chinese, was mentioned. However, in the translation it disappears. The translator denies the target reader’s access to an interesting anecdote of Han Xin, which is worth-telling. Han Xin was a general in the Han dynasty, the first emperor of which, Liu Bang, once asked him: “how many soldiers do you think can I command?” Han Xin answered, “100000 at most.” “so, what about you?” the emperor asked. Han Xin’s answer was: “the more the better.”, which is what the Xiehouyu actually means.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translation deletes it all, like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The story is so famous in China that once the first 4 Chinese characters are mentioned the next 4 will automatically appear in the hearer’s mind. But the translator deletes them all like buying caskets without the jewels. The cultural connotation is missing due to a translation like that.<br />
The third is about Chinese legends, as is shown in the example below:<br />
<br />
八仙过海—各显神通<br />
<br />
Like the way the eight fairies cross the sea, each displaying his own talent.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. A note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. Considering the cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
In the translation, “八仙” is literally translated as “eight fairies” without any further explanation. The target reader may be confused wondering who the eight fairies are and how they display their own talent. Considering its cultural value, what is in the prior of translation is the story behind the Xiehouyu. Thus a note is needed to illustrate how the eight Chinese legendary figures crossed the vast East Sea with their own magic instead of simply stating “each displaying his own talent”. (Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.2 The loss of image===<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
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千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in the Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)<br />
<br />
The image is lost often when the translation abandons the descriptive and imagery part, as the examples show:<br />
<br />
千里搭长棚—天下没有不散的筵席<br />
<br />
Even the longest feast must break up at last.<br />
<br />
“千里”(“ one thousand Li”) and “长棚”(“ long awning”) are 2 visual images in this Xiehouyu. In the translation, the word “longest” emphasizes more on time rather than space which is stressed by “千里” in the original text. The image of “长棚” is also missing. When Chinese people read the first part, a picture of people seeing off their friends on the 1000-Li awning with wines and dishes appears, which cannot be reproduced by the translation using the phrase “longest feast” which means a feast that last a long time. The special image is undoubtedly missing.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:104)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation give up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
擀面杖吹火—一窍不通<br />
<br />
To know nothing about something<br />
<br />
The translation gives up an important image “擀面杖”, which means rolling pin in English. It’s a solid stick, through which the air cannot be blown to promote the flame. Blowing air through a rolling pin is actually a very amusing and ridiculous situation. It is imagery and the image connects naturally with the meaning in that the Chinese “一窍不通” literally means “one hole is stuck” in English and it also connotes the real meaning of the phrase that one know nothing about something. It is a pity that the translation fails to reproduce this meaning image in the target reader’s mind.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will lose, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
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因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)<br />
<br />
But it should be admitted that not all image will be lost, when the image itself is not unique to Chinese culture but common to human cognition. It can be explained by the example below:<br />
<br />
因风吹火，用力不多。<br />
<br />
Let the wind fan the flames<br />
And take the easiest course. <br />
<br />
As can be seen in the example above, the literal meaning of the Xiehouyu is its real meaning and the 2 parts of it convey universal knowledge in both source language and target language.(Li Gongxue, 2014:63)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3.3 The loss of sound===<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when translating the ones with a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word help convey the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)<br />
<br />
The loss of sound in the translation of Xiehouyu occurs when the Xiehouyu has a pun. There are 2 kinds of punny Xiehouyu, one is polysemous Xiehouyu, the other is homophonic Xiehouyu. The former contains a word or phrase in its second part that has more than one meaning. It has the literal meaning and the extended meaning at the same time. The polysemous word helps conveying the extended meaning to the hearer.(Li Gongxue,2014:60)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound. Which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
As for the homophonic Chinese wisecrack, it uses the homophonic or similar homophonic words to achieve a punny effect.<br />
Those punny Chinese wisecracks are regarded as absolutely untranslatable, because it involves the play of sound, which is clearly demonstrated by the following examples:<br />
<br />
外甥打灯笼—照舅（旧）<br />
<br />
Things will be back as they were before. <br />
<br />
It is a homophonic Xiehouyu. The phrase “照舅” is homophonic to “照旧”, the former meaning “to find uncle with a lantern” while the latter meaning “ the same as before”. The sounds are same, but the meanings are totally different. No 2 English words with the same sound can be found to convey the 2 different meanings as their Chinese counterparts do. The translation has to abandon the sound elements, because it is bound to lose and convey only the meaning of it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot achieve to convey the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)<br />
<br />
隔着门缝看人—把人看扁了<br />
<br />
If you peer at a person through a crack - he looks flat. (pun: Don’t be so prejudiced)<br />
<br />
The example above is a polysemous Xiehouyu. The translation conveys the literal meaning of it then adds a note to indicate it is a pun and explain the extended meaning so that the target reader can understand it. However, simply telling the reader it is a pun is not enough, it still cannot the multiple meanings that is easily perceived by Chinese people with a single phrase in English.It is safe to say that the loss of sound element is inevitable when dealing with the punny Xiehouyu.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:106)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3.4 The matter of meaning=== <br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation, the loss of image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)<br />
<br />
Meaning is the only element which can be saved in the translation of all kinds of Xiehouyu. As Nida believes, “anything that can be said in one language can be said in another language unless the form is an essential element of meaning.” While in the case of the Xiehouyu, the only important formal element is pun. It is a linguistic barrier between Chinese and English. Except the punny Xiehouyu, the loss of cultural connotation and image can be compensated if proper translation methods are adapted. In fact, even the sound image can also be compensated though in very few cases.The next part is to figure out certain methods to reduce the loss of the cultural connotation, the image and sound, though in very few cases, respectively.(Li Qinhua,2018:43)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4 Translation methods to compensate===<br />
<br />
===4.1 Method for the loss of cultural connotation===<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed to complement the connotation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.<br />
<br />
If the cultural connotation is lost in the translation, only a note is needed for compensation. Therefore, the method of literal translation plus annotation can be adapted in this case, as the example shows:<br />
<br />
张飞穿针—粗中有细<br />
<br />
Zhang Fei threading a needle - subtle in one’s rough ways<br />
<br />
Note: Zhang Fei was a general of Shu (221-263) during the Three Kingdoms era of China. In most matters he was crude and careless but quite subtle at times.<br />
<br />
The translation itself is a literal translation without any information of Zhang Fei. But with the note, which depicts who Zhang Fei was and his personalities, the cultural connotation is complemented.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.2 Methods for loss of image===<br />
<br />
===4.2.1 Borrowing===<br />
<br />
To use the method of borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu is to use the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)<br />
<br />
Borrowing in the translation of the Xiehouyu means using the image familiar to the target reader to replace the image in the source language. So that the original meaning of the source language is saved and the target reader’s understanding to it is deepened, as can be seen in the example below:<br />
<br />
猫哭耗子—假慈悲<br />
<br />
To shed crocodile tears<br />
<br />
Cats are raised in China to catch mouse so “猫哭耗子”(“ cats shed tears for mouse”) means pretending to show mercy. Fortunately, the phrase “to shed crocodile tears in western culture also means the evil person pretends to show his mercy towards the victim, because in western legends the crocodiles shed tears when the eat their prey. The replacement of images helps the Xiehouyu better understood by the target readers and make the translation vivid.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:103)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
4.2.2 Literal-liberal translation<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target read understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)<br />
<br />
In some translations of Xiehouyu only the liberal translation is adopted, which leads to the loss of the images. So literal translation is necessary in this situation to help keep the image. An example is shown below:<br />
<br />
瞎子点灯—白费蜡<br />
<br />
Like the blind man lighting the candle – to do something in vain<br />
<br />
The translation not only explains the meaning of the Xiehouyu but also keeps the image – blind man lighting the candle by literal translation. This move helps the target reader understand the meaning as well as seeing the picture behind it.(Zhao Xiaoyan,2014:105)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4.3 Method for loss of sound===<br />
<br />
===4.3.1 imitation plus annotation===<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, the loss of sound elements is difficult to reproduce in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
Due to linguistic differences, It is difficult to reproduce the sound elements in the target language. To achieve this goal, it depends on the translator’s own creativity to imitate the pun in the source language to strive to find a same or similar sound in English which conveys 2 different meanings. Then an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the 2 words in the source language are punned. Below are 2 adequate translations of Xiehouyu which most reproduce the homophonic elements for the target reader:<br />
<br />
云端里老鼠—天生的耗（好）<br />
<br />
The ‘furry pest’ Heaven has to offer<br />
Annotation: This humorous expression depends for its force on a pun between the word hao, meaning “vermin” and the word hao, meaning “good.” In an attempt to render something of this play on words, I have punned “furry pest” with “very best.”(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translator strives to reproduce the sound in the source language by creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)<br />
<br />
卖盐的做雕銮匠，我是那咸（闲）人<br />
<br />
If you endeavor to turn a salt peddler into a sculptor,<br />
He’ll end up making an ‘idle’ use of his time.<br />
Annotation: The point of the second of these two hsieh-hou yv turns on a pun between the expressions hsien-jen meaning “idol of salt” and hsien-jen meaning “idle person”. I have tried to convey this by punning “idol” and “idle”.<br />
<br />
The 2 translations above set the example for the translation of homophonic punny Xiehouyu. The translators strived to reproduce the sound in the source language through creative imitation and a detailed note, explaining how the 2 words in Chinese are punned and how the pun is recreated in English.(Li Gongxue, 2014:40)--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from the difficulty to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.<br />
<br />
The untranslatability of Xiehouyu results from difficulties to keep 4 key elements in it. And why the 4 elements need to be saved in translation is justified by the aim to spread Chinese culture overseas. It need to be admitted that not all 4 elements are going to be lost in translation. The cultural connotation element, the image element and the sound element are often to be lost more or less, of which the sound element is almost doomed to be lost. While the element of meaning is to be kept in the translation.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image element, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.<br />
<br />
In order to compensate those losses at best, several methods can be adapted in translation. To keep the element of cultural connotation, we can use literal translation plus annotation, telling the cultural background or anecdote behind the Xiehouyu, so that the cultural connotation can be better understood.<br />
<br />
To keep the image, we can also use literal translation plus annotation or borrowing, of which the former depicts the image literally and explains what the image means and the latter replace the image in the source language with another image familiar to the target reader, so as to make the Xiehouyu vivid.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As for the loss of sound element, which is hard to compensate, because of the linguistic difference between Chinese and English, the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.<br />
<br />
The sound element, with linguistic differences between Chinese and English, is the hardest to compensate. But the method of imitation plus annotation can be adapted which imitates the sound elements in Xiehouyu, typically the homophonic punny ones, by creating a new pun in English to achieve the punny effect in Chinese. And an annotation is needed to explain to the target reader how the words in the source language are punned and how the pun is recreated in the target language. The method reproduces the sound elements in a pun to its best. However, not all Xiehouyu with sound element can be so fortunate that a pair of English words can be found to reproduce the effect.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing is to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. <br />
<br />
What is obvious is that annotation is of great importance in the translation of Xiehouyu if the 4 elements are to be kept. But too much annotation will inevitably reduce the lucidness of Xiehouyu: to keep one thing means to lose another. That said, there are still many obstacles standing in the way of Xiehouyu translation.<br />
In a word, Xiehouyu is a combination of image, sound, cultural connotation and meaning, when translated into English, it should be translated not only to simply convey the meaning of it, but also to help the image, sound and most importantly, the culture behind it better perceived, understood and accepted by different countries. Only in this way can we say it is satisfactorily translated if we aim to make Chinese culture spread overseas, which is an extremely important task in today’s era of opening and communication. This thesis proves Xiehouyu is to some extent untranslatable, and provides some methods trying to overcome this untranslatability. --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
*Egerton, Clement. The golden lotus [T]. London: Routledge & Kcgan Paul, 1939.<br />
<br />
*Susan, Bassnett. Translation Studies[M]. London: Routledge, 2002.<br />
<br />
*Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang. A dream of Red Mansions [M]: Foreign Language Press, 2003.<br />
<br />
*Cao Xueqin & Gao 'E,曹雪芹,高鹗. 红楼梦[A dream of Red Mansions ]［M］．北京；中国戏剧出版社，2002．<br />
<br />
*Feng Cuihua,冯翠华.英语修辞大全[English Figures of Speech][M]. 外语教学与研究出版社, 1995.<br />
<br />
*Lanlingxiaoxiaosheng,兰陵笑笑生．金瓶梅词话[Chin P'ing Mei]［M］．北京：人民文学出版社，1992．<br />
<br />
*Li Gongxue,李宫雪. 芮译本《金瓶梅》歇后语翻译研究[D][A Study of Xiehouyu Translation in the English Version of ''Chin P'ing Mei'' by David Tod Roy] .天津财经大学,2014.<br />
<br />
*li Qinhua,李庆华.变译视域下汉语歇后语的英译[J][The Translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of Transfered Translation].现代交际,2018(04):93-94.<br />
<br />
*Tang Rongshan,谭荣珊. 从关联理论看《红楼梦》中汉语歇后语的英译[D][On the Translation of Chinese Folk Wisecracks from the Perspective of Relevance Theory].华中师范大学,2013.<br />
<br />
*Xu Yuanchong,许渊冲.诗词英译漫谈 [On the English Translation of Chinese Classic Poetry]Chinese Translation中国翻译,1988(03):40-43.<br />
<br />
*Zhao Xiaoyan,赵晓燕. 从文化语境的角度看歇后语的英译 [The translation of Xiehouyu from the perspective of cultural context][J].淮北师范大学学报,2015(06):102-106.<br />
<br />
==Study on Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 朱旭 Zhu Xu 202070080631==<br />
<br />
<center> 朱旭 Zhu Xu, 202070080631. </center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
As her later representative work, ''shengshengman'' written by Li Qingzhao, praised by later generations as“the Eternal Farewell”, describes autumn scenery, expresses her feeling which has great aesthetic value. It is necessarily of high significance to analyze English versions of ''shengshengman'', which is full of aesthetic features. From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this paper analyzes Xu Yuanchong’s English version of ''shengshengman'' from four aspects: beauty in image, beauty in sound, beauty in lexis, beauty in form in order to study the application of Translation Aesthetics in literary translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Translation Aesthetics; Sheng sheng man; Xu Yuanchong; Literary Translation<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下《声声慢》许渊冲英译本的研究<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
声声慢是李清照后期代表作，被后人誉为“千古绝唱”。在这首词中，作者描写秋景抒发哀情，全词感情浓烈，文学造诣极高。本文从翻译美学角度入手，从意象美、音韵美、用词美、形式美、四个方面对宋词《声声慢》许渊冲的英译本进行分析，分析研究翻译美学理论在文学翻译中的运用。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；许渊冲；声声慢；文学翻译<br />
<br />
===1 Introduction===<br />
Literary translation refers to the process of translating a literary work of source language into target language. There is an interactive relationship between literary translation and literary recipients, the influence of literary receiver on literary translation is more obvious. Due to the great differences between Chinese and Western poetry in terms of language and culture, translator wants to make a perfect translation is impractical, that is to say, in literary translation, it is difficult for the translator to completely transform the source language into the target language. This paper, from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics, studies on Xu Yuanchong’s translation version of ''shengshengman'' from the aspects of image, sound, lexis and form, and probes into the application of Translation Aesthetics in the translation of Chinese poetry(''ci''), it further demonstrates the importance of Translation Aesthetics to literary translation.<br />
<br />
===2 An overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Translation is the activity of expressing the information carried by one language in another language, each language has its own characteristics, and its connotation and extension are influenced by different living environment and cultural background.Translation Aesthetics play an important role in translation studies. Translation Aesthetics have long been in connected for a long time, which the basis of Chinese Traditional translation theory includes aesthetics. Translation Aesthetics is an aesthetics origin revealing translation, to study translation from the perspective of aesthetics, which brings a new theoretical basis for the study of contemporary translation theory. (Li Lei, 2011, 83)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in China====<br />
The subset of Chinese history, poetry and painting are in fact the eternal beauty of direct or indirect narrative, Linyi, interpretation, exploration and development of natural beauty, life beauty, human beauty, personality beauty and spiritual temperament. (Liu Miqing, 1994, 56) Based on the linguistic and expression characteristics of Chinese, Chinese translation and aesthetics have a natural connection. Translation and aesthetics have been officially used as an area of translation research since the 1990s. In the Field of Translation in China, the earliest person who systematically combined translation and aesthetics was Xi Yongji, and ''The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics'' is the first study of translation aesthetics in China. (Li Jie, 140)<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, Western translation theory has occupied a very important position in The Chinese translation circle, new theoretical terms and research methods have dazzled researchers, Western-style logical thought research has entered various fields of scientific research, and the traditional Chinese method of experience is considered unscientific and fragmented. Quite a few researchers have abandoned the traditional Chinese way of study, but Mr. Yu Yongji still thinks calmly, not in the Western way of logical thinking, but by means of Chinese culture's own sense of experience, trying to open up a new way for translation research from the perspective of Chinese traditional aesthetics, so that China's self-made traditional translation theory can be connected by a link, this link is translation aesthetics. In his works, Mr. Yan discusses the aesthetic factors in literary translation from the three aspects of language beauty, imaginary beauty and style beauty. In the translation research methods to the later researchers have brought inspiration.(Yang Xiaoru, 2013, 25);(Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Second, the development of 1995, Mr. Liu Miqing's book ''Introduction to Translation Aesthetics'' published in Taiwan this work through argumentative analysis, revealed the aesthetic origin of translation, analyzed the translation aesthetics and the natural connection between Chinese words and text, put forward the basic theoretical framework for the construction of translation aesthetics. Professor Mao Ronggui's book ''Translation Aesthetics'' came out in 2005, which is divided into four parts: the main article, ask the beauty, the hazy article, the practice article.(Yang, 2013, 25)<br />
<br />
As the book has a novel layout, the content of the article swept the study of the text of the obscure wind, the language is sometimes eternal, sometimes witty, sometimes thought-provoking, sometimes people can't help but let people understand the study of translation theory at the same time really feel the language beauty. This work suggests that language ambiguity and translation aesthetics can be combined to study, which was rarely mentioned among domestic scholars at that time, opening up new ideas for translation research. In his opinion, the study of language ambiguity and how to compensate in its translation is a topic that translation research can not get around, as far as language ambiguity is concerned, Chinese is more than English. Therefore, Chinese translation theory can not lack the study of language ambiguity and its compensation mechanism in translation. The above three works are the more systematic works in the field of translation aesthetics in China.(Mao Guirong, 2005, 98);(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 56)<br />
<br />
Three works reveal the research significance, research tasks, research methods and research categories of translation aesthetics from different aspects. Throughout these three works, in the course of their discussion, most of the translations listed are concentrated in the field of literary translation. With the guidance of translation aesthetic theory, a large number of academic works and papers on translation have come into being from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Translation aesthetics is a very "young" research field, which needs to be further developed and perfected, and needs to be reconsidered and studied.(Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
At present, the remarkable feature is that the study of translation aesthetics is mainly concentrated in the field of literary research. Most of the articles studied from the aesthetic point of view are still focused on the analysis and criticism of translation, comment on the merits, explore the best translation methods and so on, the perspective is relatively narrow, has not been separated from the simple evaluation of the quality of translation under the model, less all kinds of translations as aesthetic objects, can not be from the aesthetic point of view of appreciation, taste, comparison, analysis, resulting in literary works and their translations contain aesthetic factors and their value can not be revealed in full, so that readers can not be fully revealed, so that readers in the study of translation works, The aesthetic value of the original and the translation cannot be fully appreciated. (Sui Rongjing, Li Fengping, 2007, 57)<br />
<br />
====2.1 The Aesthetic Translation Theory in the West====<br />
As we know, western translation theories have been greatly attached to aesthetics for a long time before the entrance of the modern linguistics. The theories are based on the study of philosophy and aesthetics, which has lasted for more than 1800 years. <br />
<br />
The first western exploration of translation began with Marcus Tullius Cicero(106-43 B.C.) and Quintus Flaccus Horace(65-8 A.D.). Their stress was laid on sense for sense translation and the aesthetic criteria of the TL produced. St Jerome(347-420) and St. Augustine(354-430) were the followers in the flow of western translation theories. The former proposed that translation mostly lied on the nature, so the translated text should be as simple as the daily language. The latter proposed that in the process of translation, the translator must notice three styles: simplicity, elegance and sublimity and they were requirements of the readers.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
From the fourth century A.D. to the 17th A.D., with the spread of Christianity, Bible translation became the major concerns of western translators. Martin Luther(1483-1542), as the most influential Bible translator, also laid emphasis on the significance of producing an accessible and aesthetically satisfying vernacular style. Later a noted English translator of Homer George Chapman(1559-1643) realized that the good translation must grasp “spirit” and “tone” of the source text, so the translated text can be regarded as a transmigration of the source text(Susan B.M.,2002, 61) <br />
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Alexander Fraster Tytler (1747-1813), a renowned English translation theorist in the eighteenth century, set up three principles of translation which focus upon the reproduction of idea, style and ease of the original. Benedetto Crose(1866-1952) was a distinguished aesthetician and literary essayist in Italy. In his masterpiece Estetica(1948), he expressed his thought like this: literary translation was a process of art recreation. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) is not only a great poet, but also a famous translator. He said: “Rime looks very important. Take the rimes of a good sonnet, and there is a vacuum.” (Pound, 1929, 30).<br />
<br />
One of the most noteworthy may be the renowned American scholar Eugene A. Nida, who writes in his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'' (2003, 128) that “translating consists in reproducing in the reader language the closet natural equivalent of the source language, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” Here, “meaning” is not only related to lexical elements, but also to other linguistic or non-linguistic factors which contribute to the understanding and appreciation of a literary work. As seen from the history of western translation theory, translators never ceased to take in nutrition from aesthetics. As Liu Miqing (1995, 58) put it: “In the west, the bud of translation theory was first bound to the tree of philosophic-aesthetics and has stood for as long as one thousand and eight hundred years.”(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
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During the long course of development, western and Chinese translation aesthetics have experienced ups and downs and share many similarities in translation principles, approaches, procedures etc. Firstly, both Chinese and western translation theories have gone through the process of development from dispersive statements to monographs which reflects the common law of development. Secondly, they both have experienced the dispute between literal and free translation.(Li Xiangmin, 2020, 79)<br />
<br />
Confined by the limitation of the aesthetic subject's intuition and appreciation and weakness in objective analysis, traditional studies of translation in China are characterized by their fuzziness and ambiguity in logical intension. As compared with Chinese translation studies, western translation studies pay much attention to explicit definition and clearness of logical intention. Influenced by different systems of philosophy, culture and language, they have their distinctive features as well. (Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
Western traditional philosophy, though having passed through different stages, mainly regards human beings and nature as incongruous. It lays stress on dualism rather than holism. While through years Chinese traditional philosophy had laid great emphasis on harmony, integration and the mingling of opposites. Therefore, the differences between western traditional philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophy have exerted a great influence on translation studies. The influence is especially remarkable in the following aspects. Chinese traditional studies of translation trend to pay much attention on the wholes rather than parts, on intuition rather than reasoning. Therefore, the success of a translation work depends mainly on the perception and empirical insight of the translator rather than systematic investigation of its structural elements and logical verification. (Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong, 2006, 54)<br />
<br />
Moreover, in China, translation theories are but a set of much talked-about principles or criteria such as “faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance” and “closeness of spirit” which can hardly break away from controversial discussions on literal and free translation and have been left to stick with classical literary aesthetics or philosophical aesthetics. Western translation studies, on the other hand, are inclined to lay emphasis on rational and impersonal analysis of structural elements. Therefore, western translation theorists are more likely to approach translation studies from various perspectives and fort systematic conclusion on translation theory. They have never ceased to seek theoretical reference from linguistics, poetics, philosophy, semeiotics, cross-culture studies etc to build their translation theories. In all, similarities and dissimilarities in Chinese and western aesthetic traditions may help us find out the commonness and idiosyncrasy, the universality and particularity between them so that we can get enlightenment from western translation theories and develop those of our own.(Li, 2020, 80)<br />
<br />
===3 Previous studies on Li Qingzhao’s Ci-poetry in China===<br />
In China, Bing Xin is the earliest one introducing Li Qingzhao and her works to the English -speaking world. In 1926, she finished her master thesis ''An English Translation and Edition of the Poems of Lady Li Yi-an'' in Wesley College in the United States. In this paper, she systematically explained the fundamental knowledge about Ci-poems and tried to translate twenty-five major Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao. It might be the first time for aca demia of western literature to contact with Ci-poetry. In some west ern countries, a few English translations were published and circulated after that. (Tang Lin, 2012，54)<br />
Chu Dagao (aka Ch'u Ta-kao or TK Chu) is considered as the second one who introduced Li Qingzhao's Ci-poetry to the western world. In 1937, Chu Dagao published his ''Chinese Lyrics''”by Cambridge University Press, which has been difficult to obtain now. In 1987, he published another book ''101 Chinese Lyrics'' by New World Express, with five Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao's in it.(Tang Lin, 2012，56)<br />
<br />
In 1961, Lin Yutang published his famous book ''The Importance of Understanding Translations from the Chinese'' , with Li Qingzhao's Ci-poem ''shengshengman'' and ''Comments on Ci-poetry'' in it. This book aimed to introduce Chinese famous poets and works to the western world. Xu Jieyu published his article about English translation of Lyrics of Li Qingzhao in 1962, which included twenty Ci-poems in it. Specialized translation research on Li Qingzhao at home was done by Weng Xianliang. In 1985, his book ''An English Translation of Chinese Ancient Poems'' appeared for the readers at home and abroad. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuangchong is one of the most experienced translators in China. He translated and published 60 Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao (some uncertain works also involved) in his magnum opus ''Literature and Translation'' in 2003. He drew the outline of the development of Chinese poetry translation in his works, which made a great contribution to popularity Chinese culture and enhancing its status in the world. Mao Yumnei is the daughter of Dr. Mao Yisheng, who is the most famous bridge engineer in China. She obtained her M A. Arts Degree from the Department of English at Washington University. Since the 1950s,she has begun tore search translations on the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures. After few years she published her monograph ''Picking the Best Ci-Poems from the Washing Jade'' with thirty-two Ci-poems of Li Qingzhao in it. (Tang, 2012, 57)<br />
<br />
Since the twenty first century, Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry has attracted more and more audience by its unique artistic flavor. A great deal of scholars has devoted themselves to the translation and introduction of Li Qinghao and her works. YangJian's thesis ''On the English Translation of Ci-poems by Li Qingzhao'' is regarded as the earliest thesis in this period.In 2001, the reputable couple Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang published their works ''Song Lyrics''(《宋词》).Other famous translators who have made outstanding contributions include Gong Jinhao (Gong Jinhao, 1999), Huang Hongquan (HuanHongquan, 2001), and Zhu Chunshen (Zhu Chunshen, 2003)<br />
<br />
In 2005, Li Qing finished her dissertation ''A Contrastive Study on the Translations of Tz 'u Poems by Li Qingzhao'', which published as a monograph in early 2009. Using the comparative method, she systematically induced and analyzed there search on various translations of Li Qingzhao' s Ci-poetry from the perspective of macro and micro.(Li Qing, 2005, 32)<br />
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===4 A case study of ''Shengshengman'' from the perspective of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
<br />
Literary translation plays an imperative role in translation studies, and it’s an intricate process that needs many skills. For one thing, the aesthetic style and aesthetic feeling are very important for the author to compose his work. Therefore, the translator should choose the literary words to transform the aesthetic sense of the source text in the process of translation. For the other thing, literary translation is the representations of all-round artistic quality which can make the target reader get the similar appreciation of the original beauty of the target language context. (Dang Zhengsheng, 2010, 97)<br />
<br />
声声慢 Tune: ”Slow, Slow Tune” <br />
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寻寻觅觅<br />
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冷冷清清<br />
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凄凄惨惨戚戚<br />
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I look for what I miss<br />
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I know not what it is<br />
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I feel so sad, so drear,<br />
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So lonely, without cheer<br />
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乍暖还寒时候<br />
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最难将息<br />
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How hard is it<br />
<br />
To keep me fit<br />
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In this lightering cold!<br />
<br />
<br />
三杯两盏淡酒<br />
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怎敌他晚来风急<br />
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Hardly warmed up<br />
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By cup on cup<br />
<br />
Of wine so dry<br />
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Oh, how could I<br />
<br />
Endure at dusk thedrift<br />
<br />
Of wind so swift?<br />
<br />
<br />
雁过也<br />
<br />
正伤心<br />
<br />
却是旧时相识<br />
<br />
It breaks my heart,alas!<br />
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To see the wild gees pass<br />
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For they are my acquaintances of old.<br />
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<br />
满地黄花堆积<br />
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憔悴损<br />
<br />
而今有谁堪摘<br />
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The ground is coveredwith yellow flowers<br />
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Faded and fallen in showers<br />
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Who will pick them upnow?<br />
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守着窗儿<br />
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独自怎生得黑<br />
<br />
Sitting alone at thewindow<br />
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How could I butquicken<br />
<br />
The pace of darknesswhich won’t thicken?<br />
<br />
<br />
梧桐更兼细雨<br />
<br />
到黄昏点点滴滴<br />
<br />
这次第<br />
<br />
怎一个愁字了得<br />
<br />
On parasol-trees leaves a fine rain drizzles<br />
<br />
At twilight grizzles<br />
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Oh! what can I do with a grief<br />
<br />
Beyond belief?<br />
<br />
====4.1 Beauty in image====<br />
In this part, what is discussed is the Translation Aesthetics in Xu Yuanchong’s Translation of ''Shengshengman'' , and the first sentence of this poem is the typical one reaching coexistence of fiction and reality, the translations of the first sentence are analyzed in this part of the thesis.<br />
<br />
''Shengshengman'' is a representative work of Li Qingzhao, and the seven pairs of reduplicative characters at the beginning are also regarded as a poetic masterpiece. It has also attracted many translators trying to translate it. According to the statistics by Li Qing, Li Qingzhao started her writing as “寻寻觅觅，冷冷清清，凄凄惨惨戚戚”, The sentence and the repeated words are used to make full use of the advantages of Chinese, and strive to create an abstract and only contemplated artistic conception.(Qi jiajia, 2014, 44)<br />
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In the sentence, “寻寻觅觅”is the dynamic state of feeling as if bereft of something,“冷冷清清”is the static state of feeling as if bereft of something,“凄凄惨惨”is the feeling on the surface of inner heart, and“戚戚”is the feeling in the deep inner heart . This sentence seems to describe the inner feeling, but it aims to describe the real situation at that time in fact. (Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin, 2003, 10)<br />
<br />
In his translation, Xu translated“寻寻觅觅”into‘I look for what I miss ', attempting to indirectly convey the meaning of“寻寻觅觅”through the description of environment. that of Lin does not meet the first and fourth requirements. The second four characters,“冷冷清清”, is the description of surround environment (cold and quiet) and the static state of poetess' inner condition as well. Xu translated it into ‘I know not what it is ', which is not in accordance with the original text semantically, but his translation conveys the psychological condition of the poetess because of her suffering. (Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
Hence, for the translation of these four characters, according to the five requirements of Liu Miqing, Xu’s versions of them are completely in conformity with the original poem. The last part of this sentence consists of three pairs of characters,“凄凄惨惨戚戚”,describing the poetess’ inner grief and sorrow. Xu Yuanchong translated these six characters into‘I feel so sad, so drear, So lonely, without cheer ', using alliteration to transfer the stylistic format and stylistic factors of original poem, reproducing the lonely situation of poetess. Xu Yuanchong has a deep understanding of this reduplicative characters. Therefore, he translated this part of the article in “so+adj” structure to explain the feelings of the Li Qingzhao's sadness and reconstruct the character image, which is very in line with the habit of English writing.(Qi, 2014, 44)<br />
<br />
====4.2 Beauty in sound====<br />
Poetry should not only pay attention to the beautiful image, but also the harmony, naturalness and smoothness of phonology. Li Qingzhao attaches great importance to rhythm in her ''ci'', and the musical lyrical language used in ''Shengshengman'' is very distinctive. Xu Yuanchong is also very particular about the beauty of phonology when translating poems. In order to achieve the same effect on the phonology of the translated poems and the original words, he adopted the typical translation techniques of ending rhymes, alliterations, and double tones in the translated poems to make the translated poems read It is full of music, and it fully conveys the sadness of the original word.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 130)<br />
<br />
The vowels /iə/、/ai/、/au/ in the English translation of the poem are all diphthongs, and the sound is made by sliding one vowel to another. They are pronounced like a few sighs. Xu Yuanchong used these vowel sounds to imitate the sigh of a female poet. On the whole, the final rhyme of the entire English translation of the poem are very musical, and the sounds themselves give a sense of desolation, urgency, and anxiety, and accurately express the author's feelings.(Sun Yunyu, 2011, 131)<br />
<br />
Xu choose “swift” to express “晚来风急” , so that the reader can see the image of the poet like withered leaves floating in the wind, at the same time choose the short sound/i/similar to “urgent” , skillfully reproduce the beauty of sound and the beauty of meaning. The rhymes “Alas” and “pass” in Xu’s translation are similar to the words “时” and “识” .The two words “faded” and “fallen” not only have similar meanings, but also rhyme /f/ alliteration. (Pan Jiayun, 2003, 54)<br />
<br />
In the original poem, the word “gaunt” is the same side of the heart, and the meaning is similar. The translator also skillfully rhymed the now and how in the next sentence, “生得黑” being translated as “quicken the pace of darkness”, with the word “thicken” in the next sentence, adding to the sense of rhyme in the poem. (Dong Hui, 2003, 21)<br />
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The word “drizzles” and “grizzles” correspond to the reduplicated words “点点滴滴” in the translation. The short sound /i/ in the choice of words is similar to the sound of “点点滴滴”, here is another long Sound/i:/ to show the continuous sound of a little rain, further enhanced the feeling. The last sentence is a kind of spoken expression. The rhyming of “ief” with the words “grief” and “belief” not only reflects the beauty of the sound of the translated poem, but also pushes the feelings of the whole poem to a climax.(Nie Yanmin, 2014 , 103)<br />
<br />
====4.3 Beauty in lexis====<br />
The author thinks that the sentence “In this lingering cold “is totally express the content in the original image of “乍暖还寒时候” , the keyword “Linger” personifies the inconstancy of the weather at the end of autumn as an image that seems to be going but lingers. In addition, Xu Yuanchong’s translation of “最难将息”，the four abstract Chinese characters, “hard is it to keep me fit” , has added a few extra elements, which makes a female image that frail, sad and vulnerable, unable to adapt to the cold and uncertain weather.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 82)<br />
<br />
In the sentence “三杯两盏淡酒”, “三” and “两” here means the approximate number, but the corresponding English “three” , “two” cannot mean this meaning. To translate this meaning, Xu Yuanchong used “By Cup on Cup”， which means “cup after cup”. It paints a picture that a female wants to drive away the chill in the air with the contents of the cup. The helpless mood incisively and vividly expressed.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
In sentence “雁过也 正伤心 确是旧时相识”, “正伤心”is the role part. To Express this almost desperate sadness, the translator use the word ”alas” to show author’s sorrows. Alas used to express unhappiness, pity, or concern. It’s a sad, disappointed, painful word that conveys the author’s feelings in an appropriate way.(Yang Huiying, Liu Weixing, 2006, 10)<br />
<br />
For the sentence " 满地黄花堆积 憔悴损 "，Xu translated it into “faded and fallen in showers”. He turned the static physical description into a dynamic process of flowers withering, giving people the enjoyment of beauty. In order to show this dynamic beauty, Xu Yuanchong just uses a “showers” to sublimate the silent gesture of falling flowers into a sound water flow, so that the readers can get the sense of hearing in the visual sense.The meaning of the image of “黄花” may be lost on the target language readers, but human beings feel the same about the rise and fall of all things in the natural world So,Xu use the word "faded" and "fallen" to convey it.(Che Mingming, Zhao Shan, 2012, 83,86)<br />
<br />
====4.4 Beauty in form====<br />
The most striking feature of poetry is its unique external form. The number of lines of poetry and the number of words in each line are fixed. As an extension and development of poetry, the form of words breaks through the constant limit of the number of words in poetry. One word, two words, many words, long sentences and short sentences intersect and correspond, and they are scattered and beautiful. In short, because Chinese and English languages belong to different language families, the phonology is very different, and the way of expression is also very different. (Li Lei, 2011, 92)<br />
<br />
Therefore, the English translation of Chinese poems (''ci'') is a very difficult task. It is not easy to reflect the artistic conception of the original text, and it is even more troublesome to retranslate the beauty of form and rhyme of the original text.The different numbers of characters are in an orderly manner, and there is no lack of strong cohesion and centripetal force among the various characters. There is also a unique beauty.(Dai Caihong, 2006, 77)<br />
<br />
As far as the ci ''shengshengman'' is concerned, the number of lines in the front and back is roughly symmetrical, with nine sentences in the front and eight sentences in the back. The length of each sentence is staggered, with nine characters long and three characters short. Sometimes short, the first, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth sentences of the first film and the first, second, fourth, sixth, and eight sentences of the second film are all rhymed, and the first, second, third sentence and the second sentence of the first film, the six sentences creatively use the phonetic rhetoric of repetition.(Dong Hui, 2003, 22)<br />
<br />
Xu Yuanchong is also superior in showing the beauty of form. On the whole, the long and short sentences of the original poem are intertwined, and the appearance has a unique beauty of ci. The translation also uses a variety of long and short sentences, which are simple and refreshing. Xu Yuanchong is also unique in the arrangement of words. The supplementary use of the three subjects at the beginning, from the vertical view, the arrangement is neat and uniform, like a slim tree. Later, with the number of words in the original poem, the single-line arrangement gradually shortened or lengthened; the total number of words in each line of the original poem's 下阙(the last part of ''ci'') is slightly more than that of the 上阙(the first part of ''ci''), so the 下阙 in the translation also uses longer sentences.(Nie Yanmin, 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
According to Xu Yuanchong’s translation, the whole word is translated into 26 sentences, of which 21 sentences are broken from the middle of the long sentence to form a rhyme, which not only corresponds to the original two-character three-word sentence, but also shows the beauty of the original word. So that each sentence shares a similar or identical ending, neatly, orderly and neatly reflecting the beauty of the shape of the end of the sentence, and at the same time achieves the effect of rhyming. On the whole, the translation is long and short, uneven and natural. The similar or same syllables at the beginning or end of the sentence between the lines give the original word a kind of architectural beauty, and the beauty of the original word is better preserved and conveyed.(Nie , 2014, 103)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
''Ci'' is a high-level artistic aesthetic activity. The beauty of poetry is abstract and hazy. To effectively convey this beauty, it is obviously useless to copy and imitate the original text. Poetry translation aims to achieve the reproduction of the original aesthetic effect in the translation. Of course, the so-called aesthetic effect includes many elements, the representational elements such as phonetics, lexis and sentence patterns, and the non-representational elements such as image, ideorealm, artistic conception and so on. The translator, as the aesthetic subject of translation, shoulders the important task of achieving aesthetic expressions. The best way of expression is to actively promote the conversion of the source language to the target language, thus completing the translation of aesthetic literature.In translation practice, translator should fully experience the beauty of the source language and its expressive characteristics, and seek the best of the target language in terms of sound, form, image, and lexis.<br />
<br />
===Bibliography===<br />
Munday, J. (2001). ''Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications''. London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Li Xiangmin.(2020). ''Aesthetic Translation Theories in China and the West. The Frontiers of Society'', Science and Technology. Francis Academic Press, UK<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (2005). ''翻译美学导论''. [An Introduction to Translation and Aesthetics]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司 China Translation & Publishing Corporation<br />
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Xi Yongji. 奚永吉. (2001). ''文学翻译比较美学''. [The Comparative Study of Translation Aesthetics]. 武汉：湖北教育出版社 <br />
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Mao Ronggui 毛荣贵. (2005). ''翻译美学''. [Translation Aesthetics]. 上海：上海交通大学出版社 Shanghai Jiao Tong University Press <br />
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Li Jie 李洁. (2007). 中国当代翻译美学发展的回顾与思考 [The Review and Contemplation on the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国人民大学学报'' (05):139-145. Journal of Renmin University of China<br />
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Yu Jiying, Guo Jianzhong余继英,郭建中. (2006). 美学理念——翻译理论与实践的桥梁——简评《翻译美学》 [Aesthetic Concept——A Bridge between theory and practice of translation —— Comment on Translation Aesthetics]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(04):53-56.<br />
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Sui Rongyi, Li Fengping 隋荣谊,李锋平. (2007) . 翻译美学初探 [A Study of Translation Aesthetics]. ''外语与外语教学'' Foreign Languages and Their Teaching (11):54-57.<br />
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Yang Xiaoru 杨晓茹 .(2013). 翻译美学研究综述 [An Overview of Translation Aesthetics]. ''考试周刊'' Journal of Examination (25):25-26.<br />
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Dang Zhengsheng 党争胜. (2010). 从翻译美学看文学翻译审美再现的三个原则 [Practising the Three Principles for Aesthetic Reproduction of Literary Translation Based on Translation Aesthetic]. ''外语教学'' Foreign Language Education 31(03):96-100.<br />
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Li Lei 李磊. (2011). 中国古典诗词的意境美及其英译再现策略——基于描写翻译理论的视角 [Beauty of Artistic Conception of Chinese Classical Poetry and its English Translation Strategies:A Descriptive Translation Perspective]. ''湖南农业大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Science) 12(03):82-87+92.<br />
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Qi Jiajia 漆家佳. (2014). ''从翻译美学角度看李清照词英译意境美的传递'' [Transfer of Artistic Conception Beauty in Translation of Li Qingzhao's Ci Poems from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics]. 合肥：安徽大学 Anhui University <br />
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Che Mingming, Zhao Shan 车明明,赵珊. (2012). 翻译过程中李清照词意境之美感再现——以许渊冲的翻译为例[The Aesthetic Reproduction in Translation of the Artistic Conceptions in Li Qingzhao’s Ci]. ''重庆理工大学学报(社会科学)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Technology(Social Science) 26(12):83-88.<br />
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Pan Jiayun 潘家云. (2003). “声声慢”翻译赏析与试译[Appreciation Slow Slow Tune and its Reference Translation]. ''外国语言文学'' Foreign Language and Literature Studies (03):53-55.<br />
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Dong Hui 董晖. (2003). 李清照《声声慢》英译文之比较研究[A Comparative Study on English Translations Of LI Qingzhao’s Shengshengman ]. ''唐山师范学院学报'' Journal of Tangshan Teachers College (06):20-22.<br />
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Sun Yunyu 孙芸珏. (2011). 论《声声慢》叠词翻译中“美学对等”的再现[The Reproduction of “Aesthetic Equivalence” in the Translation of Reduplicative Words in Sheng Sheng Man ]. ''重庆邮电大学学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications(Social Science Edition) 23(03):129-133.<br />
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Yang Huiying, Liu Weixin 杨惠莹,刘蔚馨. (2006). 从翻译的审美体验角度谈诗歌翻译中文化形象的转换——兼评李清照《声声慢》英译文 [On the Transformation of Cultural Images in Poetry Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetic —— a comment on the English version of Li Qingzhao's Shengshengman]. ''安徽文学(下半月)'' Anhui Literature (In the Last Ten Days of a Month) (12):10-11.<br />
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Dai Caihong 戴彩红. (2006). “美”眼看“译诗”——解读许渊冲的英译诗《声声慢》 [Translation of Poetry Approached by the Principle of "Beauty"—A Review of X.Y.C.’s Translation of Grief beyond Belief]. ''淮海工学院学报(社会科学版)'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology(Humanities & Social Sciences Edition) (02):76-78+84.<br />
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Nie Yanmin 聂艳敏. (2014). 许渊冲《声声慢》英译本中“三美”论的体现 [The Appreciation of Xu Y uanchong's“Three Aspects of Beauty”in English Translation of Slow, Slow Tune]. ''运城学院学报'' Journal of Yuncheng University 32(06):101-104.<br />
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Tang Lin 汤琳. (2012). ''朱利安·豪斯的翻译质量评估模式在宋词翻译中的应用一以《声声慢》的英译本为例'' [Application of J.House's TQA Model to Translation of Ci-poetry一A Case Study of Sheng Sheng Man]. 长春：吉林大学 Jilin University<br />
<br />
==Study on translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair'' from the perspective of poetics 许鹏飞Xu Pengfei==<br />
<br />
<center>许鹏飞 Xu Pengfei 202020080659</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:===<br />
<br />
This thesis aims to discuss loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in translations of inverted sentences from the perspective of poetics. In literary translation, translators may not strictly follow forms and structures corresponding to original texts due to various reasons, which can help translators convey emotions and content of original texts but also do damage to some functions of originals unconsciously. This thesis chooses some excerpts from two versions translated by Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang respectively. About their translations, Yang Bi tends to choose free translation while Peng Changjiang pays attention to retain forms of original texts. Under the guidance of poetics theory, this part will discuss their different translations of inverted sentences and compare them to the original texts. And the author will analyze loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects in the specific examples from two versions of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation. <br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
<br />
本文旨在从诗学角度探讨倒装句翻译中诗学功能的损失和诗学效果的再现。在文学翻译中，译者时常不会严格遵从原文的形式与结构，这有利于译者对原文情感内容的传达，但也在无形之中损害了原文的某些功能。本文节选了杨必和彭长江二人译本中的部分文段，关于二者对《名利场》的翻译，杨必倾向于意译的方式而彭长江的译本则注意保留原文的形式。在诗学理论指导下，通过分析二者对于倒装句不同的翻译方式以及与原文进行对比研究。然后作者会分析两个《名利场》译本中具体例子的诗学功能损失以及诗学效果的再现。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
<br />
Literary translation;''Vanity Fair'';poetics theory;inverted sentence;poetic effect<br />
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===关键词：===<br />
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文学翻译；名利场；诗学理论；倒装句；诗学效果<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
When it comes to literary translation, it cannot escape from controversy and difficulty. It is considered that literary translation is quite hard because the sense of beauty and emotions may be lost in the process of translation before they reach target receptors. And one or more translators seek to give a good translation of the same original, hence re-translation often occurs. ''Vanity Fair'' is a novel written by English writer William Makepeace Thackeray in 1847 which depicts English society in the early nineteenth century. <br />
<br />
About a hundred years later, Yang Bi translated it into Chinese in 1957. Her translation is free from the shackles of the original language structure, showing charm and original style of Vanity Fair. After Yang Bi’s translation, multiple translations of this book appeared. Among them, Peng Changjiang’s work is an impressive one. His translation, published in 1996, follows the original structure which is quite different from Yang Bi’s version in style, wording, and many other aspects. Both of them give their unique translations to Chinese readers and their translations own their characteristics and merits. Nevertheless, it is inevitable that something in source text may be lost in target text. <br />
<br />
Their different translating strategies of inverted sentences are worthy of discussion. In literary works, an inverted sentence bears its task to achieve some special purposes. To explore these, this thesis will discuss some examples excerpted from the two versions compared with the original text under the guidance of poetics theory. According to comparisons and study, it will analyze poetic effects and poetic function in source text and translations from the perspective of poetics. Based on these, this thesis will focus on loss of poetic function and reappearance of poetic effects about translations of inverted sentences. And how literariness in original texts is retained or damaged in their translations will also be involved.(Yin Boan 2000, 79)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 An Overview of Relevant Theories===<br />
<br />
Before discussing the comparison between translations of Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang, this part will briefly introduce the theoretical basis of this chapter. In this section, the author will first give an introduction to relevant parts of poetics theory and then expounds on functions of language proposed by the Roman Jakobson, especially poetic function. And then this part will give an illustration of internal connections between poetics theory and poetic function. After these, it will briefly discuss inversion and its poetic function.<br />
<br />
====2.1 Poetics theory====<br />
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Poetics originated in ancient Greece. Poetics in tradition is a study on poetry based on Aristotle’s Poetics, while Jakobson enlarges its fields. Roman Jakobson proposed that poetics can be applied in research on literature because its object of study is the art of language. According to Jakobson, the main question that poetics studies are what transforms verbal messages into arts. Poetics theory proposes that literariness in literature distinguishes it from other text types and gives it poetic effects. And it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. (Roman Jakobson 1987,63,69)<br />
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Correspondingly, literariness is the object of literature research. As a result, a vitally important issue in literary translation that needs to figure out is how to retain literariness in original works. This is closely connected with functions of language, especially poetic function, which is dominant and crucial for literature. Besides, cognitive poetics theory considers that the more efforts a reader makes to understand a work, the stronger poetic effects it will produce. (Jakobson 1973, 62; Pilkington 2000, 161 -169)<br />
<br />
The unfamiliar expression is a technique of creating art and grabbing readers’ attention from the poetic perspective. And poetic language is a kind of self-focused message, different expressions can build different informational capacity of messages. Therefore, choices of word order and sentence structure in literary works cannot be ignored and should be seriously concerned in literary translation. That’s why this thesis pays attention to inverted sentences.(Shklovsky 1998, 16; Jakobson 1987, 67, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functions of language====<br />
<br />
At first, the Prague Circle proposed that there are three functions of languages, that are expressive, conative, and referential function. Then, linguists of the Prague Circle also proposed a fourth function—aesthetic function. This function indicates that language can serve art. In 1960, Jakobson raised another three functions: phatic, metalingual, and poetic function. Based on functions, he distinguished six elements in his model of functions that are necessary for communication to occur: context, addresser(sender), addressee(receiver), contact, common code, and message(as cited in Feng Zongxin). Poetic function originated from literariness is the main function of literature and it focuses on the message. (Roman Jakobson 1987,69; Feng Zongxin 2006, 19-34)<br />
<br />
How to use various linguistic devices to achieve the desired purpose is a focus of scholars who study various kinds of linguistic communication. In other words, different communicative purposes determine that linguistic devices should perform different tasks and fulfill different functions. As poetic function pays attention to a message itself and its expressive device is a kind of self-focused message, carriers of information should be focused on. Therefore, forms of original works should be taken into consideration. Combined with poetics, forms of original works can influence literariness, which cannot be ignored in translation.(Roman Jakobson 1981, 19; 1987, 85)<br />
<br />
====2.3 Poetics theory and poetic function====<br />
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In view of formalism, no matter what the art, it needs to be expressed through certain forms. The medium used in literature is language, and studyinge th art of literature is actually studying a language itself. Jakobson argues that poetics is an integral part of linguistics. Thus, the main research method of poetics is studying language through linguistics. As mentioned in 2.1, it is literariness that makes literature a kind of verbal art. And literariness is produced by certain permutation and combination of language. And Jakobson argues that, whereas most language is concerned with the transmission of ideas, the poetic function of language focuses on the ‘message’ for its own sake.(Roman Jakobson 1958, 63)<br />
<br />
Formalist scholars led by Jakobson believe that the intentional violation of conventions results in the variation of forms, and thus forms defamiliarization. The process by which readers gain understanding from reading and decoding these novel and inexplicable forms of language will produce poetic effects and aesthetic feelings. In a short, analyzing poetic function of language in literary works is an indispensable method to appreciate literature from the perspective of poetics.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 8; Shklovsky 1998, 16)<br />
<br />
====2.4 Inverted sentences====<br />
<br />
For some reason, people need to put part or all of the predicate verb before the subject in writing, which produces inverted sentences. There are two types of inversion. One is obligatory and the other is optional(Zhang Keding 2001, 19). The former is decided by grammar and the latter is mainly chosen by writers. This thesis will choose examples of optional inversion to study. The rhetorical functions of optionally inverted sentences can be divided into five categories, that are emphasizing, balancing sentence structure, connecting the preceding and the following, vivid description, and expressing emotions.(Lu Yang 2008, 126)<br />
<br />
Emphasizing, vivid description, and expressing emotions are of vital importance for shaping characters and construction of plots. Therefore, an inverted sentence is a form closely connected with poetic function and poetic effect. In literary works, an inverted sentence is a way of defamiliarization. It uses inversion to achieve literariness by emphasizing some information or emotions to promote the development or shape characters. <br />
<br />
For instance, “Where is your daughter?” “On the table stands she.” Here, it can be observed this inverted sentence is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is a marked and emotional sequence. Daughter is a message questioner has provided in the question. And the respondent gives the answer in an inverted sentence. In this situation, the respondent aims to emphasize the information about the location of the daughter.(Feng Zongxin, 2006: 30) <br />
<br />
This kind of sentence form is a writing skill that an author uses to carry specific messages. Readers need to take efforts to understand an inverted sentence itself and the specific meaning and message implicated by an author. And the poetic function of inverted sentences is of great significance to the realization of poetic effects of a text. It will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 Comparative Analysis of Translations of inverted sentences in ''Vanity Fair''===<br />
<br />
In the history of translation, the phenomenon of suppressing forms has existed for a long time in both east and west. And in terms of translation methods, free translation prevails while literal translation is suppressed. Yang Bi’s translation is full of humor and smoothness. Her natural and expressive translation avoids translationese and removes the trace of interpretation and stiffness, which becomes a classic version of ''Vanity Fair''’s translation in China.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 6)<br />
<br />
However, her inclination to free translation also causes some issues when studying her translation from the perspective of poetics. This point is also prominent in the translation of inverted sentences. After reading her translation, the researcher found that she cares less about sentence forms and usually changes sentence structures. In contrast to Yang Bi, Peng Changjiang adopts a different method to tackle inverted sentences. Actually, their translating styles and strategies are distinct. In the following sections, the author will discuss comparisons between their translation with examples in detail.<br />
<br />
====3.1 Analysis====<br />
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In the following part, it will mainly analyze the two versions’ arrangements of word order and sentence structure in translations of inverted sentences. And it will discuss the influences of their translations on poetic effects and poetic function through analyzing examples of inverted sentences. The researcher chooses five examples from Vanity Fair as followed. <br />
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Example 1 Many a dun had she talked to, and turned away from her father’s door; many a tradesman had she coaxed and wheedled into good-humour, and into the granting of one meal more.(Thackeray 1994, 17)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 她常常和逼债的人打交道，想法子打发他们回去。她有本领甜言蜜语的哄得那些做买卖的回心转意，再让她赊一顿饭吃。(1957, 11)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 有不少逼债人上门，她跟他们周旋，把他们从家里劝走；有不少买卖人，她连哄带骗把他们哄得高兴，让她再赊一顿饭。(2005, 11)<br />
<br />
This text is excerpted from a paragraph that introduces Rebecca Sharp. The author’s language here is very subtle. Thackeray skillfully designs this text. He writes this sentence with Rebecca as the subject in the active voice, and he designs sentences as inverted ones, bringing objects of Rebecca's action to the beginning of sentences. It emphasizes the information about what she had dealt with. This form is a realization of defamiliarization. Readers need to make efforts to understand the complete meaning of this text under this form. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
This text shows us Sharp’s childhood. She had to deal with troubles and make a living when she was still a kid. Exercised by her hard life, she could tackle these. But it does not mean that she deserves this hard life. Therefore, Thackeray puts “many a dun” and “many a tradesman” forward to express Sharp’s passivity in her early life. She had no choice so she was active in actions and passive in acceptance. She seems to be at ease, but it is the life that makes her have no choice. Through this carefully designed sentence structure, the inverted sentence implicitly shows that Sharp lives in a poor and bad environment, while the active voice clearly states that she is smart and mature. <br />
<br />
These sentences realize their poetic effects and poetic function through this special form. It is necessary to pay attention to this form in order to retain the literariness of the source text. But in Yang Bi’s translation, she generally translates this text in a way that converts sentences to active voice and put the subject in front of the sentence. This omits some true meanings and important information about Sharp, which damages literariness. In contrast, Peng Changjiang uses amplification to retain the information of activity and passivity between character and environment. <br />
<br />
In addition, he adds “上门” to show the passivity that Sharp has to face duns as a kid. And he also keeps the order of characters in this sentence, preserving poetic function of language and achieving poetic effects contained in the source text. There is a topic of Vanity Fair that we should notice. Thackeray writes this work with no fame to critically scrutinize the capitalist system and expose the darkness of the society at that time. Defamiliarization here has its underlying intention and message which should be focused on when translating.<br />
<br />
Example 2 So imprisoned and tortured was this gentle little heart, when in the month of March, Anno Domini 1815, Napoleon landed at Cannes, and Louis XVIII fled, and all Europe was in alarm, and the funds fell, and old John Sedley was ruined.(Thackeray 1994, 177)<br />
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Yang Bi’s translation: 这温柔的小女孩子感觉到烦恼和苦闷。那时正是公元一千八百十五年的三月里，拿破仑在加恩登陆，路易十八仓促逃难，整个欧洲人心惶惶，公债跌了价，约翰·赛特笠老头儿从此倾家荡产。(1957, 175)<br />
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Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这颗小小的温柔的心就是这样被禁锢，受煎熬。当时是公元一八一五年三月，拿破仑在戛纳登陆，路易十八逃亡，全欧洲惊恐不安，公债下跌，老约翰·塞德利破产。(2005, 190)<br />
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This sentence describes the situation when Amelia Sedley’s family is broke and she hasn’t get any response from her lover for a long time. Amelia was depressed, worried and distraught under the circumstances. Thackeray uses an inverted sentence here, putting her feelings at the beginning of the whole sentence to emphasize her anxiety and worry. In such a long sentence, the author put her experiences behind her feelings as a subordinate clause. This is a deliberate form that could highlight Amelia’s sufferings in soul and body because of these upheavals. <br />
<br />
When translating, the two adjectives imprisoned and tortured should be focused on in order to express Sedley’s situation and feelings(Zhang Keding 2001, 22). In translations of the two versions, they realize the importance of the order of clauses and translate it in a similar form to the source text. However, when dealing with this inverted sentence, both of their translations change it to a theme-transition-rheme structure. The original one is a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and carries poetic function. <br />
<br />
Changing the sequence of components impairs its poetic function and poetic effects. The emotions in Chinese and English expressions are not equivalent. Besides, the lexicon of Sedley’s feelings used in Peng’s translation is closer to the source text than Yang Bi’s translation. Yang Bi uses a freer way of choosing words to show these feelings. Although they do not follow the original form, it can be forgivable. Because if they followed the structure, it would be translated like “太折磨了，太煎熬了，这颗幼小的心。”. This translation does not conform to Chinese grammatical norms, which breaks the cohesion of this sentence. In this case, translators need to find other methods to make up for the damage of poetic effects in process of changing structure.<br />
<br />
Example 3 What humiliation and fury:what pangs of sickening rage,balked ambition and love;what wounds of outraged vanity, tenderness even, had this old worldling now to suffer under!(Thackeray 1994, 238)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 老头儿是个名利心极重的俗物，想到儿子这样的丢他的脸，气得发昏，只觉得一阵阵的怒气冒上来，彻骨的难过。他的野心和他对儿子的骨肉至情受了个大挫折。他的虚荣心，还有他的一点儿痴心，也遭到意想不到的打击。(1957, 234)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation:这年老的世俗之徒，现在羞怒交加；野心受挫，爱心无着落，气得他发昏；虚荣心，甚至还有点温情，受到了粗暴的伤害，更使他心如刀绞。(2005, 254)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 24, which describes that old Osborne knows that his son wants to marry Sedley from Dobbin. The original sentence uses a rheme-transition-theme structure, which is marked and emotive. Besides, when it comes to word order, normal word order is typical and unmarked while an inverted sentence is atypical and marked. From the perspective of poetics, an atypical and marked expression is defamiliarized contributing to foregrounding while typical and unmarked expression is contributing to backgrounding. Here, Thackeray uses defamiliarization to achieve poetic effects. Thackeray puts the old man's anger, pain, sufferings forward to emphasize his feelings. Character’s emotions are highlighted intuitively in this form of expression. (Zhang Keding 2001, 22)<br />
<br />
Regrettably, it is rare to see such a long inverted sentence in Chinese. So, Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both change this sentence into a theme-transition-rheme structure, which does damage to poetic function of the original. However, they adopt diverse translation strategies that produce different results. Yang Bi splits this sentence into three sentences that is different from Peng Changjiang’s translation. Although her translation may be more in line with Chinese reading habits, the defamiliarization of the original sentence has disappeared. Her splitting of the whole sentence also weakens the continuity and progression of emotion which largely impairs the poetic function of the original sentence. Nor does Peng Changjiang retain this rheme-transition-rheme structure. <br />
<br />
It is a pity that differences between Chinese and English makes it difficult to put long clauses before a subject which will cause a logical problem. In Peng Changjiang’s version, his word order is almost the same as the source text, preserving the flavor and poetic effect of the original to the greatest extent. In addition to slightly changing the inverted sentence, Peng Changjiang still follows the original form, using short clauses to retain the continuity of emotion. Thus, the situation in the source text is vividly reproduced.<br />
<br />
Example 4 Here, too, in this humble tenement, live care, and distrust, and dismay.(Thackeray 2003, 507)<br />
<br />
Yang Bi’s translation: 这家子的生活是够清苦的，他们也有他们的烦恼和心事，也免不了互相猜忌。(1957, 498)<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang’s translation: 这儿，在这卑贱的屋子里，也有忧虑、猜疑和恐慌。(2005, 538)<br />
<br />
This sentence is excerpted from chapter 50, in which Amelia’s family sank into poverty and her life got stuck in trouble. At the beginning of this chapter, it tells the impoverished status of her family and lays the background for Amelia having to send her son away. This example is the first sentence of laying background which sets the tone of this chapter. There is no character in this sentence. which is narrated from the perspective of an objective bystander. And inversion here puts the family’s poverty in front and human feelings behind, which corresponds to the content of this chapter.(Zhang Keding 2001, 21)<br />
<br />
This arrangement implies to readers that care, distrust and dismay may be caused by the family’s humble status. Besides, the word “humble” is a quite agreeable and inoffensive depiction of their situation while this inverted sentence highlights their humble situation. Correspondingly, Amelia’s family is in deep poverty but still trying to maintain the vanity. As mentioned above, this inverted sentence means a lot for producing poetic effects. The writer uses this form to attract readers' attention to this chapter and create literariness combined with the content of this plot. <br />
<br />
Yang Bi and Peng Changjiang both retained the original sequence, with the situation in the first place and emotions in the last. Yang Bi uses “这一家子”, “他们” and “他们的” to connect the whole sentence while Peng Changjiang uses “这儿” and “这”. Comparing the two translations, the latter is closer to the original sentence because it retains the design of no character. What’s more, there are progression and transition of background introduction in this sentence. “这儿” and “这” correspond with “here” and “this”, which retains progression and transition and poetic effects.<br />
<br />
====3.2 Conclusions====<br />
<br />
William Thackeray’s ''Vanity Fair'' is a classic satirical novel, and sarcasm can be seen everywhere in this work. Inversion is a significant form to build this satirical tone. So, translators should make efforts to retain the poetic function and poetic effects of this satirical tone in inverted sentences. Through the discussion of examples in 3.1, it can be found that Peng Changjiang's translations of inverted sentences are more consistent with the form of the original text. Many of the emotions and writing skills contained in this inverted form are fully preserved in his translation.(Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 2015, 90)<br />
<br />
An inverted sentence is a typical example that shows literariness and usually carries an important message. In Vanity Fair, Thackeray uses a lot of inverted sentences to show characters’ personalities, situations and experiences, which is an impressive writing skill. This form has a significant influence on the story, which needs more attention to translate. Whereas, Yang Bi lived in a time when people criticized and suppressed formalism, that’s why her translation seems freer. Because of this, she lays emphasis on stories and diction while omits the power of form so that she does not translate inverted sentences with retaining main structures.(Wang Dongfeng 2010, 7) <br />
<br />
In the era that Peng Changjiang lives, influenced by Russian formalism, people realize the importance of form again. And it can be observed that he pays more attention to forms in his translation of inverted sentences. In his translations, he makes efforts to retain the original sentence structure. When translating according to the form does not conform to Chinese grammar, he will use similar forms to retain poetic effects contained in the original form as much as possible.(Wang Dongfeng, 2010, 11)<br />
<br />
In translation, the basic reason for a change of form is the difficulty of translation, that is, it is possible or necessary to change the form of the original text only when a translation with corresponding smoothness cannot be obtained without changing the form. Arbitrarily changing the form of the original text will destroy its poetic effect and author’s purposes. In this novel, William Thackeray vividly shapes many characters through his careful diction. His expression on the development of plots and delicate feelings of characters cannot be separated from forms.(Wang Dongfeng 2007, 48) <br />
<br />
Inversion is a sentence that changes the order and structure to emphasize a certain sentence component. Its distribution of information is designed by the author to promote the development of the plot. Therefore, a translator should conserve this inverted form as far as possible as long as it does not affect the readability of texts. When an inverted sentence form cannot be retained, we should also pay attention to keep the order of sentence components and structure of rheme and theme as much as possible. And how to deal with inversion properly and retain its poetic effects remains to be further studied.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Summary===<br />
<br />
It is often said in Chinese literature that one has to grasp the content and forget the form. However, This is not always applicable to translation because forgetting forms may result in losing meanings. This thesis makes a comparative analysis of translations of Vanity Fair. Through discussion, it can be seen that forms deliberately chose by the author bear specific functions in this story of vanity. An inverted sentence designed with purposes is an important form that needs attention in translating, especially optional ones. They usually own a task to achieve poetic function.(Lu Yang 2008, 128)<br />
<br />
Sometimes, translators change the original form in order to take care of readers’ language habits. Maybe it is not necessary. This kind of change may produce a good work but will also sacrifice literariness that an author designed on purpose. This does not mean that translators must follow exactly the same form without considering whether it conforms to the grammatical norms of the target language or not. Instead, it means translation should consider the influence of form on poetic function and poetic effect. What’s more, maybe literary writers don’t aim to make every reader understand the whole text. They may write to express feelings and thoughts to let readers explore and feel. <br />
<br />
Translators try to give an equivalent text without damage to forms, which can give readers opportunities to think about what contains in forms by themselves. When changing forms, translators may also ruin writers' emotions on characters or stories contained in forms, which will destroy literariness unconsciously. Literary translations should be more cautiously treated. Every detail may have a specific intention. Without literariness, literary works will lose their souls, and poetic effects on readers will also disappear. Nowadays, with converting attention on forms again, when translators try efforts to make a great translation, they maybe could think about paying some attention to formal correspondence to retain literariness.(Wang Dongfeng 2010,9)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 References===<br />
<br />
[1] Jakobson,R. (1987). ''Language in Literature''[M],Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
[2] Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov[A].In.E.J.Brown(ed.).''Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism''. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Pilkington,A. (2000). ''Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective'' . Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
[4] Shklovsky, V.(1998). Art as technique[A]. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). ''Literary Theory: An Anthology ''(2nd ed) [M].Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
[5] Feng Zongxin 封宗信.(2006). ''《现代语言学流派概论》'' [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]，北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
[6] Zhang Keding 张克定.(2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective] [J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)''[Journal of Foreign Languages],(05):18-24.<br />
<br />
[7] Lu Yang 卢杨.(2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion] [J].''合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)''[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ],22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
[8] Jakobson, Roman. Linguistics and Poetics[A]. in ''Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry''[C]. Hague Mouton, 1958/198la.<br />
<br />
[9] Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective] [J].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal],31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
[10] Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙.(2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''广东外语外贸大学学报'',26(02):90-93.<br />
<br />
[11] Yin Boan 尹伯安.(2000). 重译贵在创新——《名利场》两种译本的评析Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair''[J].''山东师大外国语学院学报'',(04):79-83.<br />
<br />
[12] Thackeray,William.(2003). ''Vanity Fair''.[M] Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
[13] Yang Bi 杨必.(1957). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:人民文学出版社.<br />
<br />
[14] Peng Changjiang 彭长江.(2005). ''《名利场》'' ''Vanity Fair''[M].北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
[15] Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary,[M].Oxford University Press,2009.<br />
<br />
[16]Wang Dongfeng 王东风.(2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective[J].''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'',(04):48.<br />
<br />
<br />
(There are some problems with the format and order of the references. The English names of some newspapers have not been written.)<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1987). Language in Literature. Cambridge,Massachusetts&London:The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson,R. (1973). Modern Russian poetry:Velimir Khlebnikov. In.E.J.Brown(ed.). Major Soviet Writers:Essays in Criticism. Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Jakobson, Roman. (1958/1981a). Linguistics and Poetics. in Selected Writings Ⅲ:Poetry of Grammar and Grammar of Poetry. Hague Mouton.<br />
<br />
Pilkington,A. (2000). Poetic Effects: A Relevance Theory Perspective. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.<br />
<br />
Shklovsky,V. (1998). Art as technique. In Julie Rivkin &Michael Ryan(eds.). Literary Theory: An Anthology (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.<br />
<br />
Thackeray, William. (2003). Vanity Fair. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.<br />
<br />
Feng Zongxin 封宗信. (2006). 现代语言学流派概论 [An Overview of Modern Linguistics]. 北京大学出版社[Peking University Press].<br />
<br />
Lu Yang 卢杨. (2008). 浅谈英语倒装句的修辞功能[On Rhetorical Functions of English Inversion]. 合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of HeFei University of Technology(SocialSciences) ]22(06):126-128.<br />
<br />
Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. (2019). Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Peng Changjiang 彭长江. (2005). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:中国戏剧出版社.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2007). 从诗学的角度看被动语态变译的功能亏损——《简·爱》中的一个案例分析[Function Loss in Passive-active Reversal Concerning Material Processes in Literary Translation: A case study of a piece of translation from Jane Eyre from a poetic perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Language](04):48.<br />
<br />
Wang Dongfeng 王东风. (2010). 形式的复活:从诗学的角度反思文学翻译[Resurgence of form: Reflection on literary Translation from a poetic perspective].中国翻译[Chinese Translators Journal]31(01):6-8,11.<br />
<br />
Yang Bi 杨必. (1957). 名利场[Vanity Fair]. 北京:人民文学出版社[People's Literature Publishing House].<br />
<br />
Yin Boan 尹伯安. (2000). 重译贵在创新——名利场两种译本的评析[Innovation Is the Key to Re-translation:An analysis of two versions of translation of ''Vanity Fair'']. 山东师大外国语学院学报[Journal of Basic English Education](04):79-83.<br />
<br />
Zhang Keding 张克定. (2001). 英语倒装句的语篇功能[Textual Functions of English Inversion from a Pragmatic Perspective]. 外国语(上海外国语大学学报)[Journal of Foreign Languages](05):18-24.<br />
<br />
Zhi Xiaolai, Zeng Lisha 支晓来,曾利沙. (2015). 讽刺口吻在修辞格中的体现——兼评《名利场》的两个中译本[The expression of sarcasm in figures of speech: Comments on two Chinese translations of ''Vanity Fair'']. 广东外语外贸大学学报[Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]26(02):90-93.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 08:01, 18 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 赵晓燕 Zhao Xiaoyan==<br />
<br />
==A Study of the Chinese Prose Translation from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics-Based on the English version of Cong Cong==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
There are great differences between Chinese and English languages. Especially the language of Chinese prose and its form, which have distinctive features, contains rich Chinese cultural characteristics, increasing the difficulties when translate Chinese prose into English. The paper mainly introduces the origins and development of translation aesthetics both in China and abroad, and some translation methods of Chinese prose. The author chooses the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as the representative work to study its translation methods and the way of aesthetics representation with the theory proposed by Liu Miqing, to draw a conclusion that the language features of Chinese prose could be manifested by means of translation aesthetics in the process of translation. By presenting the application of the translation aesthetics in prose translation, this paper is expected to help language learners have a deeper understanding of the translation methods in Chinese and English literature. <br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
中英语言存在较大差异。尤其是汉语散文的语言和形式特色鲜明，蕴含丰富的中国文化特色，使得汉语散文的英译难度加大。本文主要介绍了中外翻译美学的起源和发展以及一些汉语散文的翻译方法，并以张培基教授翻译的《匆匆》英译本为范本，运用刘宓庆教授提出的翻译美学理论，研究其中运用的翻译方法及审美再现的方式，由此得出结论在翻译的过程中借助翻译美学理论可以使汉语散文的语言特色得以体现。通过展示翻译美学在散文翻译中的应用，本文期望帮助语言学习者更深入地了解汉语及英语文学作品翻译的方法。<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Chinese prose translation; translation aesthetics; ''Cong Cong'' <br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
中国散文翻译；翻译美学；《匆匆》<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Literature is an artistic way to express language. The Chinese prose, as one of the important literary genres, with its features that scrambled in appearance but united in spirit, is widely favored by many readers. ''Cong Cong'', as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, was written in 1922 when the May Fourth Movement was coming to an end. At that time, Zhu Ziqing taking the responsibility of literator, with beautiful language and refined structure, delicately described his resignation and plaint for time elapsing, and implied the reality that the young people felt confused about the future of the country. In the prose, Mr. Zhu’s reflection on time not only touched the youth at that time, but also alerted today’s readers. <br />
<br />
The “beauty” of the Chinese prose is the most important as well as the most difficult problem to solve in translation. As the integration of aesthetics and translation, translation aesthetics’ basic principles are used to analyze and explore aesthetic difficulties during the process of interlingual transfer, including the aesthetic constituents of aesthetic object (original text, translation text), the dynamic role of aesthetic subject (translators and readers), the connection of aesthetic subject and object, the types and means of aesthetic reproduction in translation and the standard of translation aesthetics, etc.<br />
<br />
The aesthetical process of Chinese prose translation is to coordinate the conflicts and incoherence which exist in different cultures when translating. People have accumulated much experience in national prose study in the past thousand years, but the study for Chinese prose translation still lagged behind, let alone the study by systematic theories or from the aesthetic orientation. <br />
<br />
Exploring the Chinese prose translation with aesthetic theories, whichever from the view of theory or practice, both of them could be used for reference. Throughout the history of national translation theory development, it is not difficult to find that since ancient times, the traditional Chinese translation theory have reflected abundant aesthetic ideas. According to that, this paper takes the translation aesthetic theory proposed by Liu Miqing as the primary theoretical framework, to study and analyze the English version of ''Cong Cong'' translated by Zhang Peiji. Professor Zhang has devoted to the translation of Chinese modern prose for a long time, making significant contribution to the theory of the Chinese modern prose translation, especially to the translation practice.<br />
<br />
The paper mainly includes twelve parts. The first is the introduction which defines the study subject of the paper, proposing the study purpose and significance through summarizing predecessors’ studies; from the second to the fourth parts mainly introduce theoretical framework of the paper which was proposed by Mr. Liu Miqing, explaining the origins of Chinese translation aesthetics and some involved concepts in the paper such as aesthetic subjects and objects, regular and standard; and the following three parts simply focus on some methods in the process of Chinese prose translation, which mainly involve four methods: Literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. <br />
<br />
By comparing these methods this paper could make people realize the differences of translation methods and choose the proper way when translating; the eighth and the following three parts are based on the previous parts, according to the theories of translation aesthetics and methods, to analyze the translation beauty in ''Cong Cong'', its language, image and style beauty; the final part is the conclusion, through a large number of analysis getting a conclusion, to make it clear that the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be manifested during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation, and that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, therefore translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===An Overview of Translation Aesthetics===<br />
Historically, the development of translation theory both at home and abroad has closely connected with aesthetics, for example, in the west, the famous “three principles of translation” proposed by Alexander Fraser Tytler; and Paul Valery, a great French translator, advocated that the technique of translation mostly depended on the translator’s aesthetic perception for the literature’s truth value; in China, when people translated the ancient Buddhist Scriptures, someone had proposed that, faithful translated texts lacked beauty, whereas beautiful translated texts lacked faithfulness. Yan Fu also put forward “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance” these points in 1896 when translating ''Theory of Natural Selection''. [6](Yan Fu, 2010, 6) <br />
<br />
Although the translation and aesthetics both have a long history of development, they were linked into one conception—Aesthetic-poetic translation for the first time in 1954 by an eminent American scholar, Joseph B. Casagrande. And Wang Zuoliang, a great Chinese scholar and translator, has proposed in Chinese Translation Standard that the translator should put aesthetics at the first place when translating, and leave translation standard behind, which also connected translation with aesthetics. [7](Wang Zuoliang, 1991, 113) And up until now, the connection existing between translation and aesthetics has been widely accepted in the field of translation, and the “translation aesthetics” has become a basic conception.<br />
<br />
===The relationship between translation and aesthetics===<br />
There are various definitions of translation. Oxford English Dictionary explains translation as—to turn from one language into another;[1] (Hornby, 1988, 2149) and the New Webster International Dictionary defines it as—to turn into one’s own or another language. [2](Gove, 1961, 1956) In Chinese dictionary Han Yu Da Ci Dian, “translation” is defined as—to express the meaning of one language by another language. [8](Luo Zhufeng, 1986, 2374) And Eugene A. Nida, the famous American translator has said, “translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style”.[2] (Nida & Taber, 1969, 12-24) <br />
<br />
From these definitions, a conclusion can be made that translation is essentially a process of transforming language and words, so translation can be divided into interpreting and translating; with the development of science and technology, there are human translation and machine translation.[9] (Fang Mengzhi, 2004, 296) What is more, the translation of written language is also divided into two parts, non-literary translation and literary translation. Comparing with the translated texts of non-literary translation, that of literary translation embodies more uncertainty and diversity. Facing with so many options, how the translator makes a judgment and selects one text as the final version requires the translator has a standard for reference. The author believes that aesthetic analysis can be a feasible way in literary translation.<br />
<br />
Although in China and the west, aesthetics has developed for a long time, it was not given the name until 1750 by a German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten. The definitions of aesthetics vary from scholars to scholars, especially in the west. The author selects one of them as the study foundation of this paper. The Basic Principles of Aesthetics written by Liu Shucheng has a relatively clear definition for aesthetics, which says that aesthetics is a branch of learning that deals with the general law of beauty and with the creation or appreciation of beauty; in detail, aesthetics studies the nature of beauty and its law, and the aesthetic connection of subject and object, art and reality, and the aesthetics experience. [10](Liu Shucheng, 2006, 9-20) Aesthetics can be divided into different parts according to its study objects, such as natural beauty, artistic beauty, linguistic beauty and social beauty.<br />
<br />
Based on the previous part, translation is a process of transforming language and words and the aesthetics studies objects including language beauty, so ultimately, it is language that connects translation and aesthetics. As combining translation with aesthetics or taking the aesthetic theory into the translation and practice, a new subject is formed—translation aesthetics. Strictly speaking, translation aesthetics studies the nature and the law of translation beauty and the aesthetic relation between the translator and the original and translated text, and the aesthetic relation of translated text and the original text. <br />
<br />
It is the translator’s aesthetic experience. The process of translating is also the aesthetic activity; the translator could refer to the classification of aesthetic forms to analyze the aesthetic factors in the original text and translated text. Meanwhile, the translating process itself belongs to one of the aesthetic study objects, which includes the translator’s aesthetic experience, process, and judgment. Translating is a dynamic aesthetic and creative process which closely connects with the original text and translated text. The beginning of translation is the original text and the ending of translation is the translated text, while what the author is talking about is aesthetic translation or literary translation, that is to say, both the original and translated text contain many aesthetic factors, which demands more from translators.[11] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 46-51) <br />
<br />
The aesthetic thinking throughout the whole process of literary translation, plays an important role in faithfully expressing the idea of the original text, retaining the vivid language of the translated text and reproducing the style of the original text. So the translator needs to transfer the aesthetic factors in the original text into the translated text, whatever the presentational elements or non-presentational elements, which was proposed by Liu Miqing in the passage Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics published on the Chinese Translators Journal. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) The next part would be the illustration of Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics.<br />
<br />
===Liu Miqing’s thought in translation aesthetics===<br />
Professor Liu’s aesthetic theory mainly includes the translation aesthetics’ category and tasks, its aesthetic subject and object, and the general law of translation aesthetics. In the paper, the writer will give a brief introduction to the translation aesthetic subject and object and its general law.<br />
<br />
In the Basic Conception of Translation Aesthetics, Professor Liu Miqing puts forward that the aesthetic subject is the translator.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 19-24) He thinks that if the translator wants to represent the beauty of the original text, the aesthetic constituents of the original text must connect with the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject, i.e. the translator. And the aesthetic condition of the aesthetic subject includes three aspects, literary ability, aesthetic sense and aesthetic experience. Literary ability as the most basic requirement enlightens people’s aesthetic sense. A translator with higher literary ability will have better sense and reproducibility for the beauty of the original text. <br />
<br />
And aesthetic sense means the ability to sense beauty and the sensibility for beauty, which usually stem from the intuition. If a translator has high literary ability that could deepen his aesthetic sense, in such way, he could possess the relatively high level of aesthetics and could put this ability into the translating practice, to optimize the aesthetic sense. Aesthetic experience is the aesthetic perception and cognition produced by repeating aesthetic activities. Practice makes perfect, abundant aesthetic experience could bring out the best of the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject. A translator without enough aesthetic experience, even if he has high literary ability, facing with a beautiful original text, he could not optimize his aesthetic ability. The aesthetic subject must possess three abilities at the same time, so that he could manifest the beauty of the original text in the greatest extend.<br />
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It is self-evident that the aesthetic object of translation is the original text. Professor Liu proposes that judging the beauty of the original text involves the aesthetic values, and the basis of judging the aesthetic values of the original text is its aesthetic constituents, in other words is the aesthetic elements which compose the features of the original text. Meanwhile, Liu Miqing puts forward two types of aesthetic elements, one is the “aesthetic presentation” elements and the other is the “non-presentational elements”.[12] (Liu Miqing, 1986, 20) <br />
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The aesthetic presentation element in the original text is the beauty in its language form, including the phonetic beauty, which is called the formal beauty of the matter in aesthetics. It normally could be felt directly and be reflected through human’s vision and hearing. For example, a beautiful prose could give people the feeling of beauty through its language, rhythm or phonology. The non-presentational elements, contrasting with the presentational elements, have not direct connection with the language form of the original text. It is usually not intuitionistic and “uncountable” as it often cannot be expressed by words, sentences or texts. <br />
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The aesthetic constituents of the language form usually can be counted, for instance, the number of parallel sentences, rhetorical devices or alliterations all are numerable; while not the non-presentational elements. It is impossible to quantify the features of an article, such as its artistic conception, charm, and linguistic modality. However, these elements are crucial for the aesthetic values of an article. Although they are not given specific language form or material form, they could be sensed. With this point, Professor Liu describes that as “nonquantitative obscure collection” in translation aesthetics. [12](Liu Miqing, 1986, 21) Its core is the obscurity, and through the following Professor Zhang’s translated text people could sense the obscurity clearly.<br />
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Liu Miqing points out that the translation aesthetic experience often goes through the following steps: the cognition for the aesthetic constituents of the aesthetic objects; the conversion of aesthetic cognition; the modifying for the result of conversion; the representation of the result of modifying. In summary, cognition, conversion, modifying and representation these four steps are included.<br />
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===The Translation Methods of Chinese Prose===<br />
Prose is a lively and dexterous literary form, whose structure is flexible and language form is free from the constraint of rhythm. A beautiful prose requests refined language, thoughtful thinking and clear theme, which could give people a beautiful sense. While the prose translation, no matter from English to Chinese or from Chinese to English, is difficult works for all translators. Prose translation is an aesthetic practice, not only requiring the translator to convey the form beauty in the original text, but also to convey the content and style beauty, to achieve the harmony between the original text and the translated text.<br />
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Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.<br />
<br />
Many great translators at home and abroad have put forward various translation theories or methods. In this paper, the author will resort to some prominent theories or methods to illustrate the translation of the Chinese prose.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Literal translation and free translation===<br />
It has a long debate on literal and free translation, which mainly argues about the definition of literal and free translation, or which one should be used in the process of translating; these debates put the literal translation and free translation on an opposite position. [14](Ye Zinan, 2001, 5-8) Some people advocating the literal translation think that the literal translation should not add or reduce any words, by doing so, the meaning and information of the original text could be maintained accurately, while the free translation is on the contrary. <br />
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Others supporting free translation maintain that many translated texts translated literally, are not only text rigid, but also difficult to read and understand. The author thinks that there are two reasons leading to this circumstance. One is that there is great difference between Chinese and English. Facing with this situation, the translator often confronts with two options: a sentence can be translated both literally and freely, at this point, different people have different attitudes toward these two methods, so the disputes appear; and the other is different people have different definitions for literal translation and free translation.<br />
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China has a long history of translation development, and during the process, many great translation masters have appeared, such as Xuan Zang in Tang Dynasty and Yan Fu in modern time, whose achievements all have exerted great influence on the development of translation methods in China. The debates between literal and free translation started from the process of translating Buddhist scriptures when, Dao An, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, who advocated the literal translation, worried that free translation would destroy the information in the original text; while at the same period, Kumārajīva, a monk and translator who came from the Kingdom of Kucha, can not only be able to speak Sanskrit but also to understand Chinese language, thinking that it is necessary to add or dele some contents in order to convey the meaning of the original text better. <br />
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This debate went down to the period of Xuan Zang, who did not clearly state whether he supported literal or free translation. Generally, people titled his methods as “new translation”, in other words, using these two methods at the same time in a proper way. When dealing with different contexts, he applied adding, reducing and some other methods to reserve the meaning and spirit of the original text, which made a perfect combination between literal and free translation. Although until today there are still some disputes about literal and free translation, people have come to a consensus that both of them as the basic translation methods, aiming at conveying the information of the original text to the target language in a loyal way. <br />
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It is wrong to say which one of them is good or bad. And with the development of China’s translation theories, the definitions of literal and free translation have been improved a lot. Generally speaking, literal translation means that the language form of the original text should be maintained as much as possible as well as its words, sentence structure or rhetorical device, meanwhile the translated text is required to be fluent and easy to understand and must be loyal to the original text; and the free translation starts from the meaning of the original text, not only requiring about clearly expressing the literal meaning of the original text, but its implication conveyed to the reader and loyal to the original text. quotation missing--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:34, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Domestication and foreignization===<br />
The origin of two terms can be traced back to the speech On the Different Methods of Translation delivered by a German ideologist Schleiermacher, who thought that translation had two methods, one was that the translator “leaves the author in peace as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him” ; and the other is that “the translator leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him”, but he did not give the two methods a specific name. [4](Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004, 43-60) <br />
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And the Dictionary of Translation Studies published in 1997, edited by Mark Shuttleworth and Moira Cowie, thought that Venuti was the first person who concluded these two methods in 1995 with two terms “domestication and foreignization”. As the extending of literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization break up the constraint of language factors. The literal and free translation mainly focus on the language level, while the domestication and foreignization mainly refer to the cultural level. The literal and free translations are translation methods while the domestication and foreignization are translation strategies. Although they have something in common, the distinct differences still exist.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida, as the representative of domestication, he proposed “functional equivalence” in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation. In this book, he wrote that “in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the messages in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language”, which indirectly expressed the key points of the domestication, that is focusing on the target language, making readers have the same feeling or responding to the original text readers. [3](Nida & Taber, 1969, 24) <br />
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However, Venuti who advocated foreignization, thought the term domestication has some negative connotations, for it lost the features of the original language during the process of translation, which restricted the development of cultural diversity. [5](Venuti, 2004, 16-17) Contrary to the domestication, foreignization advocates to focus on the source language, maintain the exotic features and style of the original language. Just like literal and free translation, domestication and foreignization are contrary as well as complementary. <br />
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So, choosing a proper way in translation people should consider some factors, for example the author’s intention, the translating purpose and the level and demands of readers. And in the process of translating, a translated text is not completely confined within domestication or foreignization, but the translator always takes two or more methods unconsciously. Considering the translating purpose of the literature, the two translation methods are often used in the same text at the same time. It is not difficult to find that all great translated texts use these two methods together under the precondition that the content of the original text could be expressed accurately rather than just simply choose one of them and use it singly in the whole text.<br />
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===The Translation Aesthetics in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
Translation aesthetics is an important branch in translation system, which is widely used to translate poems, prose and fictions. Cong Cong, as one of the master works of Zhu Ziqing, is always appreciated for its beautiful language, vivid image and profound thinking. Chinese prose and English prose are quite different, which makes the translation of Chinese prose difficult. Professor Zhang Peiji has worked a long time on the translation of Chinese prose. His translation methods and theories provide good references. This part the author mainly takes the English version of Cong Cong translated by Zhang Peiji as an example, using Professor Liu Miqing’s translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods and aesthetic representation in ''Cong Cong.''<br />
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''Cong Cong'' was a masterpiece written by Zhu Ziqing, a famous Chinese prose master, on March 28, 1922 and was published on April 11 in the same year. It is a prose about sighing for the elapsing time and warning people to value the time, and is the representative work in the period of May Fourth Movement.The first special point of the prose lies in that Zhu simultaneously used three different personal pronouns: you, I and he. [15](Xue Gongping, 2008, 229) “You” in this prose, is the person whom the author is talking with; is the interlocutor communicating with “me”; people can also call “you” as a fictitious friend. <br />
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At the first paragraph of the prose, the author expressed his feeling of treasuring time and nostalgia for the passing time through rhetorical questions like “I” asking “you” why the time goes by never to return.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 55-60) And in the middle of the prose, the author called the time as “he”, to describe the elapsing of time, expressing “my” abashed and anxious feeling about the passing time. Through using the three personal pronouns the prose described the time and sighed for its elapsing, making readers have a feeling of familiarity as well as vitalize the time and the years.<br />
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The most artistic feature in the prose is the sensual description for the elapsing of time. In order to emphasize the hasty sense of “the time” as an alive object, the author applied both personification and parallelism, to give the time human’s emotion, character and temperament. In the first sentence of the prose, Zhu used parallelism to attract readers’ attention, leading them immerse in the beautiful poetry; and next put forward four questions without answers. In this way, people can clearly realize that the time is invisible and irreversible, which make them feel lost.<br />
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===Aesthetics representation in ''Cong Cong''===<br />
The author is very fond of the English version of modern Chinese prose translated by Zhang Peiji, always willing to study the beauty of his translated text. Cong Cong also is one of the author’s favorite Chinese proses, whose language style attracts the author a lot. These translation methods used by Professor Zhang in Cong Cong completely reflect the application of translation aesthetics in prose translation. <br />
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So in order to learn more about the technique of Chinese prose translation, the idea that using translation aesthetics to analyze the translation methods applied by Zhang Peiji was produced. According to the previous parts, the aesthetic subject is the translator, i.e. Professor Zhang Peiji, who is proficient enough in the field of prose translation, and possesses high level of literary ability and abundant aesthetic experience. Therefore it is unnecessary to pay much attention to the aesthetic subject. In this chapter, the author mainly focuses on the aesthetic object, i.e. the prose, to analyze the beauty of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in language===<br />
The language beauty firstly is reflected by rhyme beauty. Rhyme is one of the basic aesthetic units, and is the important element to make the language beautiful. In the original text, there are many rhymes, and Professor Zhang’s approach toward the rhyme beauty is worth learning. <br />
Example sentence: 那是谁？又藏在何处呢？<br />
Translated text: But who could it be and where could he hide them? [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57) <br />
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Through the rhetorical question, the author expressed his anxiety about the elapsing of time. Professor Zhang applied the alliteration to convey the emotion of the author, which makes reader feel neatly and read fluently, reaching the translating goal.<br />
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And secondly the language beauty is shown by the words beauty. In translation, choosing proper words is crucial for the quality of the translated text, because the English language and the Chinese language have some differences. Paying attention to the cultural differences is also a process to pursue the correspondence in aesthetics. However, it is difficult to choose the proper words sometimes, especially in literature translation. That is to say, in the prose translation, people must select the words with aesthetic values, to reach the standard of “elegance”. Professor Zhang chose the words exquisitely in the translated text, which showed the beauty of the words. Here are some examples:<br />
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①“我不知道他们给了我多少日子” <br />
Translated text: I don’t know how many days I am entitled to altogether.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
“给了” was translated into “entitled to”. “Entitled” is a quite formal word, which means to give someone the official right to do or have something. By using this word, Professor Zhang fully expressed the passive and resigned feeling of the author, achieving the aesthetic effect of the original text.<br />
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②“但我的手确乎是渐渐空虚了”<br />
Translated text: But my quota of them is undoubtedly wearing away. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
In this sentence Professor Zhang used the free translation. “Quota of them” means a certain amount of days or my allotted span, which conveys the anxious and uneasy feeling of the author in a vivid and delicate way, and also can be easily understood by the readers of the target language. And in this sentence, the translator chose the free translation. For the difference between English and Chinese, it is not suitable to translate directly. And from the aesthetic perspective to analyze, it is the process of pursuing corresponding and rebuilding the beauty of the original text. If the translator chose imitation to translate the sentence, not only the meaning but the beauty would lose and may cause misunderstanding as well.<br />
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Thirdly, language beauty especially can be reflected by the rhetoric beauty. In this prose, parallelism was the most used device, second was the metaphor and personification. For all these rhetorical devices, Professor Zhang resorted to all of them in the translated text. That is to say, for rhetorical devices of the original text, Zhang used the literal translation in the translated text, in other words, Professor Zhang retained the rhetoric beauty of the original text. For example:<br />
Example sentence: 燕子去了，有再来的时候；杨柳枯了，有再青的时候；桃花谢了，有再开的时候.<br />
Translated text: If swallows go away, they will come back again. If willows wither, they will turn green again. If peaches shed their blossoms, they will flower again. [16](Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57)<br />
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The original text had three parallel sentences, with bright and neat rhyme, arousing readers’ interests and helping them to catch the theme of the prose quickly. The translated text, which retained the sentence pattern of the original text, also adopted parallelism, making the translated text as fluent as the running water and conveying to the readers the same feeling as the original text. It also can be called “corresponding”, which could retain the formal beauty of the original text and avoid the loss of aesthetic values. What is more, another highlight in the translated text was “if” at the beginning of every sentence, which reminded readers of the famous verse written by Shelley—If Winter comes, can Spring be far away. That is the translator’s masterly design, taking these cultural differences into account and guaranteeing the readability of the translated text.<br />
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===Beauty in image===<br />
Image is the indispensable elements in Chinese literature, using which in an ingenious way can make readers resonate with the author. In Cong Cong, the author applied rich images to express his feelings, of course, these images, without exception, were carefully translated in the translated text. For example, “swallows”, “willows” and “peaches” represented the changing seasons and the elapsing time; “a drop of water falling off a needle point”, “the sun edging away”, “the wisps of smoke and the thin mists” all these specific images were retained in the translated text to express the abstract philosophy, making the same influence on the target language readers’ emotion as the original text on the source language readers, and representing the aesthetic values of the original text. Professor Zhang still used the literal translation to translate these images, through imitation, or accurately speaking, through the corresponding, representing them to achieve the “functional equivalence”.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60)<br />
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===Beauty in style===<br />
The style of the prose Cong Cong is very distinct. Firstly, it had sophisticated structure and distinct systems; secondly, its words were pretty and meaningful, with plain and concise features; thirdly, the emotion of the author was blended into the scene in this prose. And the most prominent feature of the prose was its language style. Throughout the whole prose, the author adopted the colloquial language such as tell “me”, “you”, “he”, “wash hands”, “rice bowl”, “have meal”, “lost in reverie” to describe vividly the elapsing of time and the helpless feeling of the author, which made the prose close to life and easy to understand and accept.[16] (Zhang Peiji, 2007, 57-60) Professor Zhang Peiji adopting literal translation and free translation together and focusing on the domestication, by imitating and rebuilding, properly reproduced the style of the prose in translated text, which is absolutely a good example to learn Chinese prose translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
Literature as a cultural symbol of a country plays an important role in cultural communication, and literature translation as an important branch of translatology, especially prose translation, should be paid more attention. Prose translation as an art, involving form and content these two aspects, and for most translators, it is a challenging task. The translator must pay attention to both aspects, which not only requires the high literary ability, but also the sensitive aesthetic ability. Only by choosing the proper translation methods, can the author create the aesthetic values of the prose translation. What is more, the Chinese modern prose, as a beautiful art, its beauty could be represented during the process of translation by imitation, rebuilding and translator’s re-creation. Meanwhile, now that the Chinese prose translation itself is a process of pursuing beauty, translators need to continuously improve and perfect in practice.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.<br />
<br />
--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[1]Hornby, Albert Sidney. Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary [M]. London: Oxford University Press, 1988, 2149.<br />
<br />
[2]Gove, Philip Badcock. New Webster International Dictionary [M]. Springfield: Merriam Webster, 1961, 1956.<br />
<br />
[3]Nida, Eugene A & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation [M]. Leiden: Brill, 1969, 12-24.<br />
<br />
[4]Shuttleworth, Mark & Cowie, Moira. Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 43-60.<br />
<br />
[5]Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility [M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004, 16-17.<br />
<br />
[6] 严复. 天演论[M]. 北京: 中国画报出版社. 2010, 6.<br />
<br />
[7] 王佐良. 论新开端[M]. 北京: 外语教学与研究出版社. 1991, 113.<br />
<br />
[8] 罗竹风. 汉语大词典[M]. 上海: 汉语大词典出版社. 1986, 2374.<br />
<br />
[9] 方梦之. 译学词典[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2004, 296.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘叔成. 美学基本原理[M]. 上海: 上海人民出版社. 2006, 9-20.<br />
<br />
[11] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学概述[J]. 外国语. 1986, 2: 46-51.<br />
<br />
[12]刘宓庆. 翻译美学基本理论构想[J]. 中国翻译. 1986, 4: 19-24.<br />
<br />
[13] 刘宓庆. 翻译美学导论[M]. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司. 2005, 157.<br />
<br />
[14] 叶子南. 高级英汉翻译理论与实践[M]. 北京: 清华大学出版社. 2001, 5-8.<br />
<br />
[15] 薛功平. 朱自清散文《匆匆》赏析[J]. 科教文汇. 2008, 7: 229.<br />
<br />
[16] 张培基. 英译中国现代散文（一）[M]. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社. 2007, 55-60.--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==A Study on the translations of Cosmetic Trademarks from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 张琪 Zhang Qi==<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the tide of economic globalization, foreign cosmetics brands are actively starting to enter the Chinese market. The trademark symbolizing the lintel of the brand is the first brick that knocks on the door of customers' hearts. The quality of cosmetics trademark translation will directly affect the consumer’s psychology. This essay intends to discuss the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the translation of cosmetics trademarks from the perspective of translation aesthetics. It aims to provide a reference for better standardizing the translation of cosmetics trademarks and let cosmetics trademarks and translation aesthetics work together to reflect people’s pursuit of beauty and humanistic ideas.<br />
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===Key Words===<br />
translation aesthetics；trademark translation；cosmetics<br />
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===题目===<br />
翻译美学视角下化妆品商标的翻译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化的浪潮，国外的化妆品品牌踊跃开始登陆中国市场。象征品牌门楣的商标是叩响顾客心灵之门的第一块砖。化妆品商标翻译质量的好坏会直接作用于顾客的消费心理。本文拟从翻译美学的视角探讨化妆品商标翻译所遵循的美学原则及翻译技巧，旨在为更好的规范化妆品商标的翻译提供参考以及让化妆品商标与美学携手体现人们对美的追求和人文理念。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译美学；商标翻译；化妆品<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
The trademark is a special symbol carefully selected or created by an enterprise to distinguish the products of other enterprises. Its meaning and function have obvious characteristics. A trademark is like a business card, a golden business card for a company's products to stand on the market. The importance of its translation is self-evident. As the market economy in the beauty industry continues to heat up, a dazzling array of branded cosmetics has entered the international market for competition. The fierce competition has made businesses pay special attention to the translation of cosmetic trademarks.Because cosmetics themselves contain beauty and represent beauty, their translation is destined to be an aesthetic process that integrates beautification and optimization. The translation of cosmetics trademarks processed with "beauty" and "excellence" will arouse people's beautiful yearning for cosmetic products, making people feel comfortable and catering to the consumer psychology of female audience. Meanwhile,it will stimulate the desire of demanding and bring consumers a warm aesthetic pleasure.(Li 2000, 58)<br />
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Translation aesthetics is to use the basic principles of aesthetics and modern linguistics to study and explore the aesthetic issues in interlingual transfer, to help translators understand the general laws of translation aesthetic activities, and to improve the ability of interlingual transfer and aesthetic discrimination of translations(Mao 2003,5). Translation aesthetics occupies a special position in translation theory. Translation aesthetics has broad prospects for development. It is still waiting for development. Its research fields can include many major issues in modern translation studies. These issues are exactly what other fields of translation studies cannot be included（Liu 1986，51）<br />
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Taking into account the needs of cosmetic trademark translation and the development and uniqueness of translation aesthetics, this essay will combine the characteristics and functions of cosmetic trademarks to apply translation aesthetics theory to the practice of cosmetic trademark translation. And it will discuss the aesthetic principles and the translation techniques embodied in the cosmetic trademark translation through analyzing a large number of examples. So as to achieve the purpose of successfully attracting consumers to open up markets for businesses. At the same time, translation aesthetics, as a major breakthrough in traditional translation theory and an important supplement to translation theory research, opens up a new perspective for the research on cosmetic trademark translation.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Trademark and Trademark Translation===<br />
====1.1 Definition、Features and Functions of Trademark====<br />
For the definition of trademark, different scholars have had different interpretations. Trademarks are linguistic signs that appear in words and characters. They are a distinctive category in a language vocabulary. They are carefully selected or created by individuals or individual companies to distinguish products from other companies. Therefore, the meaning and function carried by this special symbol have obvious characteristics, which are prominently manifested in the distinctiveness, specificity, associativity of trademark and its function including identification、quality assurance、 legal protection and advertising（Wang 1997，25）. Zhu Fan believes that trademarks are language signs that appear in the form of words with specific and rich symbolic meaning, carrying unique commodity information and cultural information（Zhu 2002,16.)<br />
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Trademarks are words, names, symbols or patterns used by manufacturers or merchants to make people recognize their own products or services and distinguish them from those of other competitors (Zhou 2003, 61). Besides, Modern Chinese Dictionary also defines trademarks. It defines trademarks as "marks, signs (pictures, pictographs, etc.) engraved or printed on the surface or packaging of a product, It is different from other products of the same kind". From the explanations of trademark above, we can find that the trademark has following features: it is a linguistic sign and it’s distinctive. As an important part of commodities , it contains special significance for the companies and enterprises.(Modern Chinese Dictionary 2002, 1677)<br />
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For the functions of trademark, Yujun concludes that the function of the trademark itself is the basic motivation for providing legal protection to the trademark. It is generally believed that trademark functions mainly include identification functions, quality assurance functions and advertising functions. The identification function of a trademark refers to a trademark that helps consumers distinguish between multiple suppliers of similar goods or services. The quality guarantee function of a trademark means that consumers start to regard a specific trademark as a symbol of quality. The advertising function of a trademark means that a trademark is obviously a symbol tool and can be used for advertising. It is worth mentioning that the packaging with the trademark itself has also become the medium of advertising----when so many products are placed on supermarket shelves and other self-service equipment, the advertising medium is particularly important for today's product promotion(Yu 2009, 74-75).<br />
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According to the discuss about the definition、features and functions of the trademark above, we can find that although a trademark is only a small part of a product, it cannot be ignored for the integrity of the product and its function for the value of the product. <br />
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====1.2 Features of Cosmetics Trademarks====<br />
The cosmetic trademark is the image representative of cosmetics. In order to attract consumers' attention in the first time and have sustained appeal, an effective cosmetics trademark is one of the essential and important factors. Through investigation and analysis, the author summarized that cosmetics trademarks have the following characteristics:People’s names, place names, and vocabularies suggesting beautiful images are often used in the content. (1) The name of the person in the cosmetics brand is mostly the name of the founder of the brand, such as Givenchy (founder Givenchy), Estee Lauder (founder Estee Lauder). Brands are sometimes named after other famous people. The name of the Australian brand Aesop (Aesop) reminds people of Aesop's fables, promoting the product's concise and simple concept.<br />
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(2) Place names in cosmetics trademarks reflect the birthplace of the brand or imply the brand concept. Such as Suiss Programme (Swiss, the birthplace of Switzerland), Albin (the name of a chalky cliff on the coast of the United Kingdom, which means a beautiful country with pure whiteness). (3) Brands that use words that imply beautiful images include Angle (angle :French brand angel beauty), A-cademie ( French brand Academie), etc.The form is streamlined with fewer characters to facilitate memory transmission. Such as H2O, DHC, VOV, etc. Some cosmetics brands are named after people whose names are long and inconvenient to remember. They also adopt abbreviated forms, such as CD (Christian Dior), YSL (Yves Saint Laurent), CK (Calvin klein) and so on.<br />
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The rhyme and sound effects are often crisp and sweet, or gentle and soft, which can stimulate consumer psychological harmony and comfort, resonate, and be willing to accept. For example, in the Japanese skin care brand Clean&Clear, both words begin with /kl/, which suppresses alliteration and is full of rhythm, reminiscent of a clean, beautiful, lively and lovely girl image. Both words of the Canadian brand Pretty Rally have two syllables, and both end with /i/. The pronunciation is clear and loud, giving people a crisp and jumping rhythm.<br />
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====1.3 Trademark Translation====<br />
Regarding trademark translation, American advertising master E.S. Lewis put forward the famous AIDA principle in 1898, that is--successful advertising should have: Attention （attracts attention）, Interest (generates interest), Desire (triggers desire), and Action (stimulates action). In other words, as long as the trademark translation can play the above-mentioned role, the translation can perfectly convey the message of the beauty of the original trademark, attract the attention of consumers and trigger a strong desire to buy, this is a successful translation. The trademark translation is not a simple conversion between language symbols, but to reflect the "short and brilliant" characteristics of the trademark itself. The translation must take into account the differences in language and culture, conform to the aesthetic psychology of customers, and realize the established brand function (Wang 2011, 236).<br />
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From the perspective of language form, the structure of a trademark is simple and easy to understand. Compared with other forms of inter-language conversion, the translation process is not affected by the deeper language levels such as sentences, paragraphs, and chapters, so it seems simple, which results in the translation of trademarks. Don't take people seriously. However, Professor Qian Guanlian believes: “People have two levels of requirements for the creation of any tool: practical and aesthetic(Qian 1993, 13).”<br />
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Therefore, the trademark translation should achieve the perfect unity of sound and meaning. At the same time it is necessary to overcome the cultural barriers of the translated language and conform to people's aesthetic taste and consumer psychology. In a word, it is not easy to do a good job in the translation of trademarks. It also needs the guidance of translation theory and also needs to master certain translation skills.<br />
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=== Chapter 2 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====2.1 Aesthetic Origins of Translation Studies====<br />
For the Chinese view of language, language functions and aesthetic judgments are inseparable. Chinese philosophers have been talking about beautiful words and beliefs since ancient times. Lao Tzu put forward the idea of boosting the letter and suppressing the beauty and held a negative attitude towards the beauty of disguise. Confucius proposed reaching the acme of perfection and unification of text and quality, Mencius proposed benevolence and justice for beauty, Xunzi proposed consideration of text and quality and unity of beauty and goodness. Judging from the history of Chinese aesthetics, beauty and faith, text and quality are the oldest and consistent propositions.<br />
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Beauty and text refer to the perceptual form of literary works, and faith and quality refer to the essence of content. The ideal aesthetic state is glasses grace. It is obvious that the dispute between literature and quality in traditional Chinese translation theory is the process and manifestation of Taoist aesthetics giving way to Confucian aesthetics. Since the 19th century, new translation ideas such as Yan Fu's faithfulness, smoothness, and elegance, Ma Jianzhong's good translation, Qian Zhongshu's contextualization theory, and Fu Lei's similarity theory have also further promoted Chinese translation. <br />
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====2.2 Aesthetic Subject and Aesthetic Object Translation==== <br />
The study of academic content such as the aesthetic subject and aesthetic object in translation has always been the content that scholars pay more attention to. The aesthetic subject refers to the person who performs aesthetic activities on the aesthetic object, and the aesthetic subject of translation (TAS) is the translator. As far as translation is concerned, the aesthetic attitude of the aesthetic subject involves the concept of translation, and its task must be twofold: the understanding and appreciation of the original language and the reproduction or creation of the original aesthetic information. The aesthetic subject of translation has two basic attributes. <br />
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One is subject to the aesthetic object, that is, the original text is subject to the translatability limit of the formal beauty of the original language, the translatability limit of the non-formal beauty of the original language, the cultural difference of bilingualism and the time and space difference of art appreciation . The second is the translator's subjective initiative, that is, the translator's initiative, creativity, and the high level of activation and stimulation of the aesthetic potential of the aesthetic object. Chinese aesthetics summarizes these characteristics as "subjective practicality." In translation, if the translator does his best to suppress the objective constraints, translation can still become a handy creative activity.<br />
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The exertion of the subjective agency of translation depends on whether TAS has the following aesthetic conditions. Specifically, it refers to the aesthetic emotions of the aesthetic subject: emotion, knowledge, talent and will. The so-called "emotion" is aesthetic emotion. The so-called "knowledge" can refer to both insight and insight, as well as the vision expanded and enriched by the translator's personal experience. The so-called "talent" refers to actual ability or skill, which is manifested in language analysis ability, aesthetic judgment ability, language expression and rhetoric ability. The so-called "will" refers to the perseverance to learn<br />
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The study of aesthetic objects is mainly for the original text. Because different scholars are in different perspectives, the specific classifications are also different. In "Introduction to Translation Aesthetics", Liu Miqing divides the aesthetic objects into "textual aesthetic appearance" and "non-representative beauty". In fact, it is to appraise the intrinsic beauty of the original language form and the charm of the article. On the other hand, Mao Ronggui refined the aesthetic objects into phonological beauty, rhythm beauty, simplicity beauty, charm beauty, artistic conception beauty, tone beauty, image beauty, neat beauty, stylistic beauty and fuzzy beauty and other forms of analysis ("Translation and Aesthetics"). <br />
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In addition, Huang Long’s article "The Aesthetics of Translation" elaborates on the aesthetic issues of translation from six aspects: rhetorical beauty, artistic conception, beauty, image beauty, typical beauty and macro beauty. Its essence is still the study of translation objects. It can be seen that although the specific classification of this type of research is different, its essence is to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the exterior and connotation of aesthetic objects.Regarding the relationship between aesthetic subject and object, Liu Miqing believes that only when the aesthetic subject and the aesthetic object are organically combined, translation can have an aesthetic effect as an aesthetic reproduction process and the translation can be beautiful.<br />
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====2.3 Aesthetic Interpretation of the Translation of Cosmetic Trademarks====<br />
Trademarks, translation aesthetics and cosmetics are all products of a certain historical stage of social development. The trademark originated from the name attached to the works by the ancient Greek writers, and the trademarks with pictures and texts appeared in the Northern Song Dynasty in China. In the modern market economy society, trademarks constitute a part of products and tend to be universal. Their nature is not only a mark for distinguishing commodities, but also a tool for market competition. [5] Trademarks have revealing and propaganda functions, so that their role in commodity exchange and market competition not only indicates the origin of the goods and guarantees the quality of the goods, but also has the role of advertising and promotion. [6] Therefore, a successful trademark translation can make consumers have beautiful associations, thereby creating brand identity.<br />
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What is beauty? Women would rather cut off three meals for a beautiful dress, men would not regret seeing a beautiful girl hit a tree, humans would not hesitate to climb up the heights without hesitation, all for the sake of beautiful clothes, beauty present and " The physical and mental pleasure brought by "seeing the small mountains" is also called aesthetic feeling. Beauty is essentially a kind of direct or indirect physical pleasure. The physical pleasure induced by "beauty" is elevated to the level of culture, rationality, and spirit, so that human physiological experience has cultural and spiritual connotations of "beauty", and human society can move toward a harmonious and beautiful state due to the pursuit of beauty. [7]<br />
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The aesthetics of translation leads people to appreciate the beauty of the artistic conception of "suddenly looking back, but the person is in a dim light" through the conversion of two languages. The object of research is the aesthetic object (original, target) in translation, the aesthetic subject (translator, reader) in translation, aesthetic activity in translation, aesthetic judgment in translation, aesthetic appreciation, aesthetic standards, and creativity in translation The aesthetic reproduction and so on. [8]<br />
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Both translation aesthetics and cosmetics can bring beauty to people and make people happy both physically and mentally. Cosmetics generally have a pleasant fragrance, which can make a person's appearance clean and beautiful, and is good for physical and mental health. [9] The translation of cosmetics trademarks has become an indispensable object to carry and convey this beauty.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Translations of Cosmetic Trademarks Guided by Translation Aesthetics===<br />
====3.1 Aesthetic principles of cosmetics trademark translation====<br />
=====3.1.1Rhythmic Beauty=====<br />
Rhythmic Beauty means that the trademark name has a bright sound, a clear rhythm, and a sense of music, which gives people a beautiful listening experience. A successful trademark translation should be easy to remember, rich in imagination, and easy to read. For example: <br />
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Clean Clear is translated as "可伶可俐", For the translation of Clean Clear, the first letter of the English trademark is "Cl", it adopts alliteration and the vowels in the middle part are the same. Besides, the pronunciation is very smooth, which like a tongue popping out. When translating into Chinese, separate the singular word "Ling Li", and use the characteristics of Chinese double vowels and compound vowels to make the translated name sound bright. What’s more, the Chinese characteristics of flatness and syllable length change make the trademark sound sonorous, powerful, smooth, and rhythmic.<br />
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For the translation of the trademark "美加净" into "Maxam", it perfectly embodies the beauty of phonology. First of all, the pronunciation of the first syllable of "Maxam" and the pronunciation of "美" in "美加净" form a correspondence. When people see the letter "M", they will think of the Chinese pronunciation of "美" to obtain a feeling of beauty. In addition, the pronunciation of "Maxam" is short but powerful, giving people a fresh and natural feeling, which coincides with the brand concept of Maxam.<br />
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=====3.1.2 Image Beauty=====<br />
On the one hand, Image beauty, as far as translating poetry is concerned, it has the same poetic format and rhythm as the original text. This beauty of form is built on the basis of similarity. For trademark terms, the translation should be in the form of a trademark, and the language should be concise and clear, easy to see, easy to read, easy to understand, and worthy of memory. It is best to use good words. Different countries, nationalities and regions use different characters, and their preferences for certain characters are also very different.<br />
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For example, the Chinese characters that Chinese people like are mostly "福", "寿"喜", "乐", etc. Another example: Avon is translated as "雅芳", Arche is translated as "雅倩", Colgate is translated as "高露洁", Safeguard is translated as " "Shufujia", Rejoice translated as "飘柔", etc. These translated names are linguistically recognizable, easy to read, and easy to see, which is what we call the beauty of form, and "“雅、芳、倩、黛、露、佳、飘、柔” in Chinese have elegant, refined, , graceful and feminine charms. Not only can they leave a good impression on consumers, but they can also be beautiful in the fragrant and aromatic scent when using the product. The products represented by these translation standards have always been trusted, in addition to the product itself, it is also related to the simplicity and memorability of the translation standards.<br />
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On the other hand, the translated name of cosmetics should have "clear meaning, concise graphics, clear image, easy to remember" as its artistic characteristics, and it states the product characteristics intuitively and clearly, so that the product image is clear and prominent, which is easy to resonate with consumers, and is conducive to obtaining good impressions and strong memory impression. According to the language characteristics of Chinese and the language psychology of the Han nationality, the Chinese translation of female beauty products should choose words with beautiful content and sweet rhyme, and the sound should be bright and the rhythm should be clear, giving people the enjoyment of visual and auditory beauty. <br />
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Such as: American cosmetics Maybelline, the Chinese translation is "美宝莲". "Beauty" implies that its function is to make consumers more beautiful, and "lotus" implies that its effect is to make consumers as beautiful as a lotus. Both the sound and the meaning are used. The two languages are integrated, and the sound is bright and the meaning is beautiful.The French skin care product Clarin is named "娇韵诗" in Chinese. It chooses "娇" and "韵" to express the beauty of "feminine and tenderness". The addition of "诗" makes people feel "picturesque and poetic", leaving female consumers with a deep impression.<br />
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=====3.1.3 Conceptual Beauty=====<br />
The conceptual beauty of a trademark refers to that the trademark of a product highlights a certain artistic conception through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of the constituent words, so that people have rich and beautiful associations, and arouse people's yearning and pursuit of beauty. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers. Therefore, it creates beauty in the minds of consumers, so that the products stand out and are accepted by consumers.<br />
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In addition, The conceptual beauty requires that the trademark of the product can make people produce rich associations. That is, through the associative meaning of the vocabulary or the connotation combination of word formation, a certain artistic conception is brought out. For example, the Chinese translation of Biouquan, one of the three major European skin care brands, is "碧欧泉". The author believes that this translation is very clever, and it can be described as a perfect combination of sound, form and meaning. The trademark of the source language has rich connotations. <br />
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Bio- means the life of the skin, and -therm refers to mineral hot springs, because there is a kind of mineral hot springs in the mountains of southern France. It has special effects on the human body, especially the skin, and BIOTHERM products are organic The active factor PETPTM is extracted from this mineral hot spring. In the Chinese translation of its name, "碧" is reminiscent of clear water, blue sky, and full of greenery. "欧" and "泉" refer to the birthplace of the product. The design of the trademark is based on blue, which makes people even have more creative, fresh and natural, elegant and pure feeling.<br />
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====3.2 Translation Techniques under the Guidance of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
=====3.2.1 Free Translation=====<br />
Free translation is based on the meaning of trademark words. The brand name translated by free translation can vividly express the utility of the product through careful selection and addition of words, which is conducive to consumer memory. Free translation neither uses the original name nor the direct Chinese meaning of the original name. Instead, it is based on the characteristics of the product, giving full play to imagination and creating a translated name with another meaning, thereby achieving the purpose of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic value.<br />
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The cosmetics trademark "Lancome", the founder of its brand name Armand Petetjean took inspiration from a beautiful castle "Lancome" surrounded by roses in central France. He believed that every woman is like a rose with her own posture and charm.The translation of the trademark as Lancome is unique, because in China, “兰”means orchid, which represents elegance and beauty. It is the most beautiful flower, like the rose surrounding the castle, exuding fragrance and beauty; “蔻” is a scented herb In Chinese, “豆蔻年华” is often used to describe young and beautiful, as Armand described, every woman is as young and beautiful as a rose. <br />
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Cosmetics Juven "柔美娜", Juven is equivalent to young in English, meaning "young", people think that young is beautiful; the translator adopts free translation, flexibly and creatively translating Ju-ven into "柔美娜", which correctly conveys the efficacy of the cosmetics to consumers---- you can get soft, beautiful and young skin with this product. Another example is cosmetics Clinique (倩碧). Clinique originally means clinic in English. Under the guidance of dermatologists, Clinique has developed the first 100% fragrance-free skin care product. <br />
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The translation of Clinique--“倩碧” can make people have beautiful associations. “倩”, means beautiful ;“碧”, means turquoise, light and clear color; By free translation of such a name, consumers will have beautiful associations-healthy and beautiful, crystal clear skin. Just imagine if literally translated as a clinic, who would dare to use such a product? In addition, examples of free translation include: H2O "水之奥", Prettiean "雅姿丽", etc., which have reached the goal of respecting consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic values.<br />
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=====3.2.2 Transliteration=====<br />
Transliteration refers to a translation method that uses phonemes as a unit to retain the pronunciation of the original text in the translation so as to highlight the main functions of the original text. The transliteration of the trademark is the meaningless of the original trademark , and the translated name can be obtained by using the text symbols of the target language and the target language to express the pronunciation of the original trademark. "Transliteration of a trademark should follow the principle of name obeying the owner, that is, if the original text is in Japanese, it should be pronounced in Japanese, if the original is in French, it should be pronounced in French, if it is German, it should be pronounced in German, and if it is Italian, it should be pronounced in Italian.The same goes for other languages.<br />
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The translated name translated by the transliteration method retains the beauty of the original trademark’s phonology .Although it does not conform to the Chinese rules in terms of word creation, it has ulterior motives in the choice of Chinese characters. After careful selection, it appears novel and unique and caters to women consumers’ curiosity and aesthetic psychology.Besides, it is relatively straightforward, and also brings convenience to translation” . Therefore, most cosmetics trademarks use this translation method. American cosmetics Maybelline, its original name is full of flavor. The Chinese translation of "莲" implies that its effect is to make consumers beautiful like a lotus. It takes its pronunciation, "美宝莲". "美" implies that its function is to make consumption and take its meaning. The two languages can be integrated, which is a superior work.<br />
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=====3.2.3 Literal translation=====<br />
Literal translation is to find words with the same or similar meaning in the target language according to the meaning of the original trademark word. The advantage of the literal translation method is that it retains the original trademark name, conveying the information and feelings of the original name, which achieves harmony and unity in meaning with the trademark pattern. For example, the makeup brand Cover Girl literally translates as "封面女孩", which means that the girl who uses this cosmetic is as glamorous as the model on the cover.<br />
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Natural Beauty "自然美", the concept of this cosmetics brand company spanning seven countries in the Asia-Pacific region is "Nature is Beauty". The literal translation retains the purpose of the trademark to retain fresh and natural beauty. Another example is the famous British health and beauty chain store—The Body Shop(“美体小铺”). Its main products are body care and facial masks. The products are natural and healthy. Literally translated, this brand can retain the purpose of the trademark—to make skin and body become more beautiful and moving. <br />
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In addition, the literal translation of "小护士" as Mininurse is also for purpose. People think of nurses as angels, caring for people who are cared about.The purpose of this translation is to tell consumers that the products of little nurses are as gentle and considerate as nurses, and by this way it achieved promotional purposes.<br />
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=====3.2.4 Creative Translation=====<br />
If neither transliteration nor literal translation can vividly reproduce the characteristics of the original trademark, then consider putting aside the consideration of the original trademark's phonology and meaning and adopting a new and innovative approach. It is not necessary to stick to the similarity of simple phonology, nor to ponder its literal referential meaning. Translators can fully open up new ideas, find new ways, boldly innovate, and give readers unlimited reverie. In other words, the unconventional method is a special free translation method, which refers to the renaming of products under the premise that the culture and customs of the target language country allow it. Although the translated name of the target language is quite different from the original meaning of the original name, it can achieve the same goal by different routes.<br />
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For example, the American brand Neutrogena is translated as "露得清", which is derived from the Latin words "Neutralis" and "Genus", which means "new birth". The combination of the two words implies the meaning of "creating natural effects". When the brand was founded, it was famous for a soap that was comfortable and cleansing the skin, and it was known as the "precious soap from Belgium". "Recommend products suitable for skin" has always been at the core of the Neutrogena brand philosophy. Translating Neutrogena into "露得清", although it doesn't seem to have much connection with its literal meaning, it fits the original intention of clean and clear skin in the brand story.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
From the perspective of translation aesthetics, this essay analyzes the aesthetic principles and translation techniques used in the process of cosmetic trademark translation through specific examples. For the translation of cosmetics trademarks, it is not a simple conversion of one language to another, so it requires that we should be based on the specific circumstances of the aesthetic characteristics of the trademark words, and from the perspective of translation aesthetics, we should fully consider the aesthetic ability of the aesthetic subject and aesthetic needs to accurately and fully reproduce the aesthetic objects—the rhythmic beauty, image beauty and conceptual beauty of trademark to consumers by combining with the respective characteristics of the two languages and cultures of English and Chinese, so as to promote product sales and achieve its commercial value.<br />
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When translating cosmetics trademarks, as Xie Hua pointed out, the translator must flexibly handle language and cultural differences and conflicts according to the context in the translation process. You cannot be imprisoned in words for the sake of literal translation or transliteration or free translation, and make the words rigid. (Xie Hua, 2000); At the same time, in order to successfully express the connotation of the trademark and show the charm of the trademark, translators should strive to get rid of the shackles of rigid equivalence, be flexible and innovative, choose the best method for trademark translation, and try to give the trademark the best appropriate translated name.<br />
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===References===<br />
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==A Study on Ba Jin's Translation of Oscar Wilde's Fairy Tales from the Perspective of Translation Aesthetics 周园曲 Zhou Yuanqu==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as a leading figure in the Aesthetic Movement, was famous for his ornate words and sharp wit. His fairy tales embodies and exhibits his aesthetic ideal. Until now, his two collections of fairy tales The Happy Prince and Other Tales as well as A House of Pomegranates still receive popularity around the world. And one of the most favored translation editions of Wilde’s fairy tales in China was written by Ba Jin. This thesis is aimed to analyze from the perspective of translation aesthetics what Ba Jin did to make the representation of beauty possible. This thesis includes three chapters. In Chapter One, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics, and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics to provide theoretical support for the rest part of the thesis. In Chapter Two, the author explores from the aspect of translation aesthetic subject what aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed to let him reproduce the beauty in the original work. In Chapter Three, the author analyzes Ba Jin's translation from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to see what translation skills he used and what translation theories he held to make it possible to reproduce the beauty in the original work.<br />
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Through analysis, the author finds that a literary translation of high quality should not only deliver the logic information but also reproduce similar aesthetic feelings.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Ba Jin; Oscar Wilde; Fairy tales; Translation aesthetics<br />
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===摘要===<br />
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作为美学运动的代表人物，奥斯卡·王尔德的语言优美华丽，风趣机智，而他创作的童话作品则被认为是其美学思想的最佳载体。直到今天，他的两部童话集《快乐王子》和《石榴之家》依然在世界范围内广受欢迎，而巴金先生的王尔德童话译本则是国内最为推崇的译本之一。本篇论文旨在从翻译美学的角度分析巴金是如何在其译文中再现了原作中的美。本篇论文包括三个章节：第一章介绍了翻译美学的定义、其发展历史以及刘宓庆的翻译美学理论，旨在为后文的论述提供理论铺垫。第二章从翻译审美主体的角度探索了巴金重现原作美所具备的审美条件。第三章作者从音乐美、词汇美、意境美和风格美四个角度，举例对比分析了原文和巴金译文，总结了巴金再现原文美的翻译技巧和翻译思想。<br />
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通过对巴金的王尔德童话译本的分析，作者发现，一篇高质量的文学作品译文不仅要传达原文的基本逻辑信息，还要能为译文读者重现与原文作品相似的美的感受。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
巴金 奥斯卡·王尔德 童话 翻译美学<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
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The fairy tales by Oscar Wilde, like his other works, exhibited his great talent for language. The Happy Prince and Other Stories published in 1888 and A House of Pomegranates in 1891 collected nine fairy tales. All of them were of musical tone and ornate words, creating indescribable beauty of tragedy. The stories sparkling with poetic beauty and wisdom received favor all over the world. <br />
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In China, Wilde’s fairy tales were first translated in 1909. Zhou Zuoren and Lu Xun translated The Happy Prince to classical Chinese and published it in a book named Other Land (《域外小说集》).Although the book didn’t sell well, it introduced Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to China. In 1920s, more translations of the fairy tales were seen in various books and magazines. Mu Mutian in 1922 translated five stories. In the year of 1933, You Baolong translated seven stories of Wilde’s fairy tales. In 1946, Mu Mutian made a complete translation of Wilde’s nine stories. Among all of the Chinese translations, one of the most influential editions was translated by Ba Jin. His translation was firstly published in 1947 and revised and reprinted twice respectively in 1957 and 1980. <br />
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In CNKI, 157 essays conduct research on Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. And the study object of twenty essays is the translation of Oscar Wilde’s stories. Among them seventeen essays covered Ba Jin's translation. Scholars often conduct their research on the following angles: the influence of translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales in China; translator’s subjectivity; reception aesthetics; translation of children’s literature; translation aesthetics. There are three theses adopting an aesthetic view to study Ba Jin's translation of Wilde’s fairy tales. Lin Lin (2007) compared the aesthetic features of the original work and Ba Jin's translation from an aesthetic perspective. Liu Xiaoyin (2012) used Mao Ronggui's theory of translation aesthetics to analyze the aesthetic elements in Ba Jin's translation. Yang Liqiu (2016: Ⅴ) in 2016 built a Excel database to make a textual analysis of the 1981 version of Kuai Le Wang Zi Ji in a systematic manner from lexical, syntactical and discourse levels. Their study on Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s works provide guidance for this thesis and the future studies.<br />
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It is indisputable that Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales read like poetry. Since Ba Jin's translation is one of the most favored translation editions in China, it must have rendered similar aesthetic beauty to its Chinese readers. Therefore, a question arises: how did he convey the same aesthetic effect in his translation? Translation aesthetics provides an appropriate angle for studying this issue.<br />
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In this thesis there are three chapters. Chapter One introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics. Because Liu Miqing systematically expounded a series of issues of translation aesthetics and raised translation aesthetics to a new height, Chapter One also introduces his theory about translation aesthetics so as to provide theoretical support for the discussion in this thesis. Meanwhile, the author also wishes that the introduction of translation aesthetics could interest more people in the study of this field. In Chapter Two, the author discussed from the translator himself what aesthetic conditions he had to transfer the beauty of the original text. In Chapter Three, the author analyzed from four levels including sound, diction, image and style to appreciate Ba Jin's transfer of beauty in Wilde Oscar’s fairy tales.<br />
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===Chapter 1 Translation Aesthetics===<br />
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In order to better analyze Ba Jin's translation work from the perspective of translation aesthetics, in the following part, the author introduces the definition and development of translation aesthetics and Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics.<br />
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====The Definition of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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In A Dictionary of Translation Studies, Fang Mengzhi's defines translation aesthetics as follows: to discuss the special influence of aesthetics on translation; to explore translation’s aesthetic origin; to apply an aesthetic view to learn about the scientific and artistic attributes of translation; applying basic principles of aesthetics to set up different aesthetical criteria for different text styles in translation, and to analyze, interpret and solve the problems concerning aesthetics in the process of transferring language. (Fang，2004: 296)<br />
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====The Development of Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Translation aesthetics is fundamentally related to traditional Chinese translation theories. Meanwhile it makes efforts to turn them into modern translation theories by absorption of western translation studies and application of theories of aesthetics. After tens of years of contribution made by the scholars, it has become one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, with interdisciplinary features and distinctive Chinese characteristics.<br />
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Nearly all of the traditional Chinese translation theories are rooted in philosophy-aesthetics. Zhi Qian, the ancient famous Buddhist scripture translator, held that rhetoric was not needed, which was influenced by Lao Zi's aesthetic idea “Truthful word may not be beautiful, while beautiful words may not be truthful.”(信言不美，美言不信) “Truthful words” and “beautiful words” are actually corresponding to “zhi”(质) and “wen”(文) respectively, the oldest and longest-lasting aesthetic proposition in China. Although in Zhi Qian’s time, “zhi” defeated “wen” as the winner, “zhi” and “wen” were coordinated in the later history. Most of the scholars came to agreement that an excellent prose or poem shouldn’t ignore neither content or diction. Influenced by traditional aesthetics, keeping balance between “wen” and “zhi” became the mainstream of Chinese traditional translation theory. When the modern times began, other important translation theories emerged. Yan Fu put forward “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. Fu Lei’ set forth “being alike in spirit”. Qian Zhongshu came up with “sublimation”. <br />
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In 1960s and 1970s, however, the progress of traditional Chinese translation theories went to a grinding halt. In 1980s, Chinese translation studies began to learn from western translation theories, such as skopos theory, deconstructive translation theory, feminist translation theory and so on and so forth. Some of them contributed directly to translation practice and others attempted to interpret the hidden factors influencing or manipulating the translation activities. As the focus of Chinese translation studies is mostly on the western translation theories, some scholars stressed that Chinese translation studies might lose our own voice in the field of international translation studies. They advocated turning back to traditional translation theories and put forward a new translation theory with distinctive Chinese characteristics. <br />
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In this context, an increasingly number of scholars bend their mind to translation aesthetics. <br />
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Comparative Aesthetics of Literary Translation by Xi Yongji in 1992 is the embryo of translation aesthetics. Following the artistic rule, Xi Yongji showed a positive attitude to the artistic and aesthetic value of the original and target text. He used plentiful examples of comparative literature to make an analysis of the influence of aesthetic factors of literary works on the choice of the translators.<br />
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Aesthetic Linguistics by Qian Guanlian in 1993 lays a linguistic foundation for translation aesthetics. Aesthetic linguistics applies aesthetic approach to study language and endeavors to provide a theoretical explanation for the aesthetic issues in language. <br />
An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics by Liu Miqing in 2005 built a theoretical framework of translation aesthetics. His theories will be elaborated in the next section.<br />
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Jiang Qiuxia's Aesthetics Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization in 2002 is an important theoretical achievement. Jiang in her book explored the influence and aesthetic effect of Gestalt image had on literary translation from an aesthetic perspective. <br />
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Mao Ronggui's Translation Aesthetics in 2005 is the first book that directly uses “translation aesthetics” as its title. The book made an aesthetic comparison of sounds, forms, meanings, sentences and words, and put forward different methods in translation practice. An aesthetic view permeated his discussion. <br />
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====Liu Miqing's Theory about Translation Aesthetics====<br />
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Liu Miqing's theory about translation aesthetics stands as a milestone in the development of translation aesthetics. Because of his dedication to this field, translation aesthetics becomes one of the main frameworks of China’s translation theory, making China’s translation theory distinctive from the model of western translation theory. (Mao, 2005:9) The following part will introduce his main ideas on translation aesthetics.<br />
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In his book An Introduction to Translation Aesthetics published in 2005, his views on translation aesthetics are elaborated systematically. <br />
It explores the aesthetic origin of translation. The writer introduces the history of western and Chinese translation theory. It could be concluded from his book that firstly both of the Chinese and western translation studies are linked to aesthetics from their very beginning; secondly, aesthetics has played a much more active role in the history of Chinese translation theories than it has done in western translation theories.<br />
Two notions in aesthetic translations are put forward. One is translation aesthetic object (TAO) and the other is translation aesthetic subject (TAS). TAO is the original text. Its beauty depends on its aesthetic value. The aesthetic value is analyzed from aesthetic constituents. Liu Miqing divides aesthetic constituents into two systems. The sound beauty, character beauty, word beauty and sentence beauty are included in the formal system. The mood and tone of the original text and the images and symbols in it are incorporated in the informal system. The latter system is also called the fuzzy sets. Correspondingly, TAS refers to the translator. Two basic attributes of TAS are the original text’s objective conditioning on it and more importantly its own subjective dynamics. TAS is constrained by the translatability of the original text’s formal and informal beauty, the cultural differences of two languages and the time-space difference of art appreciation. The subjective dynamics of TAS includes the translator’s capability, aesthetic feeling, knowledge, and tenacity. <br />
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The writer also explores the system of aesthetic consciousness in translation. The cognitive schema of aesthetic translation is put forward. It includes four levels, which are perception, imagination, understanding and representation. And the general rule of representation is followed as comprehension, transformation, improvement and representation. “Imagination” and “empathy” are regarded to be important for the representation.<br />
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===Chapter 2 Ba Jin as Translation Aesthetic Subject of Oscar Wide’s Fairy Tales===<br />
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As it has been discussed in the Chapter One, translation aesthetic subject is the translator. According to Liu Miqing, a beautiful translation depends on two factors, which are the aesthetic constituents of the TAO and the aesthetic conditions of the TAS. Only when the two factors interact with each other, can the translation work fully reproduce the beauty of the original work. (Liu, 1986: 20) Hence, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS are of great importance. Without it, the aesthetic representation would become impossible. <br />
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In translation aesthetics, the aesthetic conditions of the TAS incorporated the translator’s cultural literacy as well as his/her aesthetic consciousness and experience. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. The discussion will include two parts: (1) the translator’s cultural literacy and (2) his aesthetic consciousness and experience.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Cultural Literacy====<br />
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According to Liu Miqing, TAS’ cultural literacy serves as the most basic condition in aesthetic translation activity. It lays foundation for aesthetic consciousness and without it, a translator would become color-blind even though he is in a colorful world of translation. (Liu, 1986: 21) For translators, cultural literacy is like an indispensable pair of spectacles to survey the beauty of a text. As for Ba Jin, he did possess a pair of very sophisticated glasses.<br />
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He was undoubtedly a literary master of the twentieth century, although he often said that “I was no litterateur”. (Ba, 2003: 443) In 1904, he was born in a large gentry family. From his grandfather to his father, they were all government officials. With a well-educated family background, his language learning started early. At the age of five, he was already learning Essence of Classical Chinese (《古文观止》). This childhood experience equipped him with solid language capability of Chinese. From 1920 to 1922, he was a student in Chengdu Foreign Language Specialist School, where he exposed himself to as much western literature and sociological works as possible. It was in this school that Ba Jin learned English and completed his first translation work, the English edition of The Signal. In 1929, he came back from France to China. More excellent work of his came out, such as “Torrents Trilogy” (namely Family, Spring and Autumn) and “Love Trilogy” (namely Fog, Rain and Electricity). <br />
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Although his student life came to an end when he returned to China, he didn’t stop learning. Learning was something that accompanied all his life. He learned from books and learned from life. School and book were not the only source of one’s cultural literacy. Going out of campus and being in that chaotic age, he witnessed people’s suffering and he himself went through ups and downs. His understanding of life was deepened and his sympathy for the masses was aroused. The pursuit of truth, goodness and humanitarianism became life of his works. <br />
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In conclusion, knowledge acquired from books and life experience together constituted Ba Jin's cultural literacy. A good command of Chinese and English and his rich life experience enabled him to have abundant cultural literacy, which played a fundamental role in his comprehension and reproduction of the beauty in Oscar Wilde’s works.<br />
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====Ba Jin's Aesthetic Consciousness and Experience====<br />
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Before Ba Jin's aesthetic consciousness and experience are discussed, it is of necessity to clarify the definition of aesthetic consciousness and experience. In translation aesthetics, aesthetic consciousness refers to the translator’s sensitivity to beauty in the original text. It is usually got from intuition, but for a translator with a high level of cultural literacy, this sensitivity can be deepened. As for aesthetic experience, it refers to accumulated aesthetic sensation acquired from repetitive aesthetic activities. (Liu, 1986: 21)<br />
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Ba Jin's translation thoughts were scattered in the postscript, prologue or epilogue to his translation work. In this Chapter, his aesthetic consciousness and experience will be discussed based on the above sources.<br />
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Among Ba Jin's translation works, the most favored are his Russian translation works and his translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. Why did these translation works possess high quality and receive widespread popularity? In the author’s opinion, it has something to do with Ba Jin's choice of works to translate. In his epilogue to Collection of Ba Jin's Translation Works he said, “I only introduce the work I like.” In fact, one common theme of his translation of Russian works and Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales was that they both accused the capitalists of oppressing the proletariat, which was exactly what Ba Jin would like to criticize. Most people are sensitive to words, pictures, or music that could resonate with them. In this aspect, Ba Jin was no exception. He showed great sensitivity to the words that had deep sympathy for ordinary people. “In my first novel Perishing （《灭亡》）, I quoted conversations from Signal. Thirty years later, I translated it with the same excitement. I love it more than I love my own works. In it, I find my own thoughts and feelings.” (Ba, 2003: 445) For Ba Jin, he was sensitive to the words in the original work as he was to his own works. Hence, he had the aesthetic consciousness he needed to translate others’ works. He was ready for them.<br />
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Most people know Ba Jin as a marvelous writer. What is less well-known is that he is also an outstanding translator. Cao Ying, a famous translator of Russian literary works, commented, “Ba Jin's translation was vivid and loyal to the original text. No one can top him in translation of Gorky’s short stories.” Gao Mang also said that Ba Jin’s language was beautiful and conveyed the lingering charm of the original text. (Wang, 2007: 20) In fact, the quality of Ba Jin's translation works was no inferior to his original works and the characters of the foreign works he translated amounted to over three million characters. He translated novels, fairy tales, prose writings and etc. Through a lot of translation practices, Ba Jin accumulated rich aesthetic experience, which could be found in his epilogues or prologues. One piece of aesthetic experience of his could be concluded as comprehension. “When I like an article, I always try to have a deeper understanding of it. I read it over and over again and constantly think about it. After I understand it, I want to use my words to express the writer’s ideas.” (Ba, 2003: 443) One characteristic of Ba Jin's translation was his loyalty to the original work, which must benefit a lot from his effort to fully comprehend the original work. It is worth mentioning here that Ba Jin's comprehension was more than the understanding the aesthetic constituents of the TAO, he endeavored to empathize. When he translated Chekhov’s works, he said “The difficulty is to properly show the truly benevolent heart of the writer. If the translator couldn’t understand that heart and fails to show it to the reader, what’s the point of the translation?” (Ba, 1991: 3) When faced with the issue of literal translation or free translation, Ba Jin held that a good translator shouldn’t be constrained by the question of choosing only one method of the two, but to consider which one could better help himself/herself to reproduce the artistic conception. Artistic conception was highly valued be Ba Jin. In his postscript to Stories on the Prairie (《草原集》), he (2003: 248) mentioned twice that “I fear that I would ruin the whole artistic conception.” From above, it could be concluded that in Ba Jin's aesthetic experience, faithfulness and artistic conception were worth much attention. The latter is exactly corresponding to the fuzzy sets of TAO in translation aesthetics.<br />
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===Chapter 3 Aesthetic Features in Ba Jin's Translation===<br />
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Chapter Two has talked about from the perspective of TAS how Ba Jin's translation fully conveyed beauty of the Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. It made an analysis of the aesthetic conditions Ba Jin possessed. Thus, in this chapter, the author is going to look at the result of Ba Jin's translation to appreciate his transfer of beauty from Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales.<br />
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In Chapter One, it has been mentioned that whether an original text is beautiful depends on its aesthetic value. And the aesthetic value of an article was analyzed from its aesthetic constituents which covered goodness in the levels of sound, diction and tone of the text and the images and symbols in it. In this chapter, we will appreciate the beauty of Ba Jin's translation by comparing it from four aspects with Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales, which are sound, diction, imagery, and style. The beauty of sound and diction can be classified into the formal system. The beauty of imagery and style belongs to the informal system, i.e. the fuzzy sets.<br />
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====Beauty in Sound====<br />
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Oscar Wilde has a bond with music. Anyone who has read his The Happy and Prince and Other Stories would be touched by its sad and beautiful stories, which could be partly attributed to the melodious words in the book. The forceful rhythm in Wilde’s fairy tales could easily lead his readers into a pure and melancholy world created by him. After the reader finishes reading, the moving plots together with the bright beats echo in their mind. <br />
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Eg1- “Swallow, Swallow, little Swallow,” said the Prince, “far away across the city I see a young man in a garret. He is leaning over a desk covered with papers, and in a tumbler by his side there is a bunch of withered violets. His hair is brown and crisp, and his lips are red as a pomegranate, and he has large and dreamy eyes. He is trying to finish a play for the Director of the Theatre, but he is too cold to write anymore. There is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” (Wilde, 2015: 6)<br />
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Here in the Wilde’s language, we can clearly feel what Ba Jin called “his musical tone”. In the beginning of the conversation, Wilde wrote three “swallow” as the Prince’s salutation to the swallow. The repetition slows down the speed of the language and also the thoughts of the readers. During this deceleration, he/she will put their attention to the following part. Besides, the repetition shows the gentleness of the Prince and his sincerity of request. Parallel structure was also used in this paragraph. For example, “his hair is” and “his lips are”; “he is trying to” and “but he is too cold to”. The use of parallelism adds a bright beat to the language. When Wilde was describing the appearance of the young man, he also used short paratactic sentences, which leaves the whole sentence well-proportioned and rhythmic to read. In the last sentence of this paragraph, assonance was used, for example “grate” and “faint”, which perfectly ends the conversation, depicting the plight which the young man is in.<br />
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Eg1- “燕子，燕子,小燕子，”王子说，“远远的，在城的那一边，我看见一个年轻人住在顶楼里面。他埋着头在一张堆满稿纸的书桌上写字，手边一个大玻璃杯里放着一束枯萎的紫罗兰。他的头发是棕色的，乱蓬蓬的，他的嘴唇象石榴一样地红，他还有一对朦胧的大眼睛。他在写一个戏，预备写给戏院经理送去，可是他太冷了，不能够再写一个字。炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”（Ba, 1981: 11）<br />
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The above paragraph was Ba Jin's version. From his translation, we can see his endeavor to imitate the beauty of sound in the original work. As for the three “swallow”, he didn’t change the repetition and just translated them directly. The same was with the short sentences and parallel structure. He didn’t change the stop of the sentence and began the description of the young man in every short sentence with a “他”. Here, you may think imitation is easy and without too much brain work. But it isn’t true. Vivid imitation requires creation, which is especially seen in somewhere seems to be untranslatable. The translation of “there is no fire in the grate, and hunger has made him faint.” to “炉子里没有火，他又饿得头昏眼花了。”is an excellent example. Ba Jin managed to maintain the beauty of sound to the largest extent. “火” , “昏” , “花” all begins with the initial consonant of the Chinese syllable “h”, which contains the same meaning of the original text and at the same time created similar musical beauty.<br />
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Here is another excerpt of musical beauty in Wilde’s fairy tales:<br />
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Eg2-Bitter, bitter was the pain, and wilder and wilder grew her song, for she sang of the Love that is perfected by Death, of the Love that dies not in the tomb. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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This sentence is taken from The Nightingale and the Rose. It depicted the melancholy and moving scene when the nightingale pressed her heart against the thorn as she was singing. Wilde here used repetition and parallelism to strengthen the musical tone of the language, which made the sentence itself sound like a song. The moving effect of the nightingale’s sacrifice was strengthened be the melody of repetition and parallelism, helping the reader feel a kind of emotional advance when reading it. Let’s look at how Ba Jin transferred the musical tone:<br />
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Eg2-她痛得越厉害，越厉害，她的歌声也唱得越激昂，越激昂，因为她唱到了由死来完成的爱，在坟墓里永远不朽的爱。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
Wilde’s repetition in the translation was rendered as “越…越…” and the parallel structure was kept as “…的爱；…的爱”. When one is reading the translation, he/she could feel the same emotional up and down which climbs up to the summit when one reads the last “激昂” and then goes down as “因为” begins the next sentence.<br />
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From the above example, it can be seen that Ba Jin adopted the approach of imitation to convey the beauty of sound in the original text. But imitation is not easy, it requires a clever mind to create similar aesthetic effects.<br />
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====Beauty in Diction====<br />
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The language in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tale was not only delightful to the ear, but also pleasant to the eye. One will first be enchanted in his melodious rhythm and then be amazed by his choice of words. Every word is like a pearl woven in a net. No one can replace it with another word, for it will then despoil its beauty of integrality. Here is an excerpt from The Happy Prince.<br />
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Eg3-Then the snow came, and after the snow came the frost. The streets looked as if they were made of silver, they were so bright and glistening; long icicles like crystal daggers hung down from the eaves of the houses, everybody went about in furs, and the little boys wore scarlet caps and skated on the ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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This paragraph depicted the street scene after the little swallow gave away all the fine gold off the Prince. The snow and frost fell down. Everything became crystal. Men, women and little boys were all wrapped in warm clothes and went out to enjoy the beautiful snow scene. The sparkling natural scenery and people’s joyful activities constituted a harmonious picture of a snowy day. When describing the tranquil view, Wilde used simile to make the scenery more visually sensible, such as “looked as if” and “long icicles like crystal daggers”. The metaphorical objects he chose added vividness to the snowy view. Apart from the figure of speech he used, the adjectives in the article were also accurate and appropriate. “Bright”, “glistening” and “crystal” were very proper words to portray the sparkling snowy scene.<br />
This picture also impressed Ba Jin and he vividly rendered it in his translation:<br />
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Eg3-“随后雪来了，严寒也到了。街道好像是银子筑成的，它们是那么亮，那么光辉；长长的冰柱象水晶的短剑似的悬挂在檐前，每个行人都穿着皮衣，小孩子们也戴上红帽子溜冰取乐。”（Ba，1981:16）<br />
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Faithfulness is one obvious characteristic in the translation of this paragraph. Ba Jin kept loyal to the figures of speech in Wilde’s stories. The forms of personification and simile didn’t take any change to maintain the original beauty to the largest extent. For example, the translation of “came” to “到了” and “来了”, and “as if” and “like” respectively to “好像是” and “ 像……似的”. Only two places were slightly different from the original work, which were the translation of preposition “in” to the verb “穿” and addition of “取乐” to modify “skating”. The first change he made was necessary, because in Chinese one would not use the collocation of a preposition plus a noun of a certain clothes to describe one’s dressing. The second change was made to emphasize the boys’ happiness hidden between lines of the original text, making it easier for young readers to perceive the contrast the writer used in the story.<br />
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One distinctive language feature of the fairy tale is that it is full of personifications. In the third example, we will see how the translation successfully transferred the vividness of the personifications in the original text.<br />
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First, we will look at the original text:<br />
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Eg4-The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the trees silver. Then they invited the North Wind to stay with them, and he came. He was wrapped in furs, and he roared all day about the garden, and blew the chimney-pots down. “This is a delightful spot,” he said, “we must ask the Hail on a visit.” So the Hail came. Every day for three hours he rattled on the roof of the castle till he broke most of the slates, and then he ran round and round the garden as fast as he could go. He was dressed in grey, and his breath was like ice. (Wilde, 2015: 9)<br />
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The following is Ba Jin's translation:<br />
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Eg4-雪用她的白色大氅盖着草，霜把所有的树枝涂成了银色。她们还请北风来同住，他果然来了。他身上裹着皮衣，整天在园子里四处叫吼，把烟囱管帽也吹倒了。他说：“这是一个适意的地方，我们一定要请雹来玩一趟。”于是雹来了。他每天总要在这府邸屋顶上闹三个钟头，把瓦片弄坏了大半才停止。然后他又在花园里绕着圈子用力跑。他穿一身的灰色衣服，他的气息就像冰一样。（Ba，1981: 22）<br />
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In the original text we can see that in Wilde’s description, “Snow”, “Frost”, “North Wind” and “Hail” were all personified by endowing them with the speaking ability like human’s and several lively verb phrases, such as “roared about”, “blew down”, “rattled on”, “broke” and “ran around and around”. These verbs vividly shaped the four naughty and mischievous winter weather characters. If a translation aims to transfer the same aesthetic effect, the translator must render these verbs as lively as they were in the original text. Ba Jin did this. When one is reading his translation, he/she cannot help being amused by these winter weather characters. As for “roared about”, “blew down” and “broke”, Ba Jin directly translated their corresponding Chinese meaning to “四处叫吼”, “吹到了” and “弄坏了”, keeping the figure of speech of personification. When dealing with “rattled on” and “ran around and around …as fast as he could go”, he made some changes. “Rattled on” was translated to “闹”. “Rattle” in the original text was a description of the noises that “Hail” made. The translation of it to “闹” kept the sound of rattling and meanwhile highlight the mischief of the “Hail”. If “rattled on” is directly translated to “咔嗒咔嗒响了”, the effect of the personification will definitely weakened. Therefore, the single character of “闹” was vivid and concise. As for translation of the running of the Hail, Ba Jin changed the description of running speed in the original text to the portraying of the Hail’s running manner, which was appropriate given that it conveyed effect of the personification.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that at the level of diction, Ba Jin attached importance to faithfulness, the idiomaticity of the target language and the conveyance of the same aesthetic effect.<br />
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====Beauty in Imagery====<br />
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Before we conduct analysis of the beauty in imagery in the original work and the translation, it is necessary to clarify what “imagery” is involved in this thesis. In Oxford English Dictionary, the word “imagery” has two meanings: a. language that produces pictures in minds of people reading or listening; b. pictures, photographs, etc. In this thesis, the imagery refers to the first meaning. <br />
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The tragic beauty of The Nightingale and the Rose often brings its readers to tears. Oscar Wilde, using his musical language and pearl-like words, evoked mental pictures of ethereal beauty in this fairy tale. Here is an excerpt from it.<br />
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Eg5- She sang first of the birth of love in the heart of a boy and a girl. And on the top-most spray of the Rose-tree there blossomed a marvelous rose, petal following petal, as song followed song. Pale was it, at first, as the mist that hangs over the river- pale as the feet of morning, and silver as the wings of the dawn. As the shadow of a rose in a mirror of silver, as the shadow of a rose in a water-pool, so was the rose that blossomed on the topmost spray of the Tree. (Wilde, 2015: 15)<br />
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The above excerpt was Wilde’s delicate description of the rose’s blooming with the nightingale’s song. In his description, there was direct portraying, such as “petal following petal”, which added dynamic beauty to the whole imagery. In addition, he adopted association to describe color of the rose. He associated paleness of the flower with “mist that hangs over the river” and “the feet of morning”, and its silver with “the wings of the dawn”. The mist and light of the dawn were pale-white, just as the budding rose. At the end of this paragraph, Wilde used the same technique of speech to describe the delicacy and tenderness of the blossom bathed in the moonlight. This association not only described the color and appearance of the rose, but also enlarged the version and cloaked the whole scene with a kind of ethereal beauty.<br />
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The following excerpt shows how Ba Jin reproduced the beautiful imagery:<br />
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Eg5- 她起初唱着一对小儿女心里的爱情。在蔷薇树的最高枝上开出了一朵奇异的蔷薇，歌一首一首地唱下去，花瓣也跟着一片一片地开放了。花起初是浅白的，就像罩在河上的雾，浅白色像晨光的脚，银白色像黎明的翅膀。最高枝上开花的那朵蔷薇，就像一朵在银镜中映出的蔷薇花影，就像一朵在水池中映出的蔷薇花影。（Ba，2010: 25）<br />
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“Rose”, “petal”, “mist”, “shadow”, “mirror of silver” and “water pool” were all visualized in his mind. The images appeared one by one before his eyes when he was reading the original work, and mixed together as a whole in his mind. After fully comprehended beauty of the imagery, he used his own words to reproduce the imagery. He used reduplicative words “一首一首” and “一片一片” to depict the continuous melodious singing and the slow blooming of the rose. Through the context and visualization, he knew that morning cannot be simply translated to “早晨”, since the adoption of association was to depict the color of the petal. “晨光” would be an appropriate choice, because only “光(light)” could have a specific color. But “黎明” is different from “早晨” given that the word itself emphasizes the light of daybreak when the sun rises above the horizon. Therefore, he didn’t make any change to it. As for other images that could be directly translated without confusing the reader, Ba Jin translate them according to the original text.<br />
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From the above analysis, the author finds that the image conveyed by Ba Jin was a harmonious whole. The beauty of image in the original text was reproduced vividly in Ba Jin's words. It could be speculated that when rendering the image of beauty in translation, Ba Jin used visualization to revive the image in the original text. And at the same time, he tried to comprehend the emotions in the original text. The combination of pictures and emotions aroused his aesthetic feeling and then he transferred it with his own words in the translation. This kind of empathy is very important in translation aesthetics when a translator attempted to reproduce the beauty of image. In fact, the speculation of Ba Jin's psychological activities when he was doing translation could be partly verified though the epilogue to his 1947 edition fairy tales. “Here I woke up very early in the morning, and I would take a walk along the road. I would go to the foot of the mountain near the field to listen to the singing of the birds. After the walk, I came back to the room in the hotel. The sunlight was so bright so I didn’t want to let it go and do nothing. I sat before the window and translated one of Wilde’s fairy tales entitled The Selfish Giant.” Ba Jin realized the importance of empathy, and his vivid translation of The Selfish Giant also proved the magic of empathy in aesthetic representation. In order to reproduce the beauty of the original text, Ba Jin would put himself in a similar situation with the scene in the original text. Though it is not always feasible or necessary to put oneself in a situation that is physically identical with the scene in a text, Ba Jin's endeavor and his successful translation told us the importance of empathy in transferring the beauty of imagery in an original text.<br />
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====Beauty in Style====<br />
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Oscar Wilde, as one of the leading figures of the Aesthetic Movement, held that “Art for art’s sake”. In his fairy tales, every word and sentence exhibited his pursuit of aestheticism. His words were ornate and of musical tone. His narration was rather quiet and objective. But for some reason, readers would feel a dull pain in the heart when reading these stories. <br />
<br />
Here are three excerpts from Oscar’s fairy tales, which depicted the good-hearted characters’ scene of death.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “What a strange thing!” said the overseer of the workmen at the foundry. “This broken lead heart will not melt in the furnace. We must throw it away.” So they threw it on a dust-heap where the dead Swallow was also lying. (Wilde, 2015: 10)<br />
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Eg7- “Look, look!” cried the Tree, “the rose is finished now”, but the Nightingale made no answer, for she was lying dead in the long grass, with the thorn in her heart. (Wilde, 2015: 16)<br />
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Eg8- “…and there poor little Hans was drowned. His body was found the next day by some goatherds, floating in a great pool of water…” (Wilde, 2015: 34)<br />
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The four dead characters in the above excerpts were all very good-hearted ones who sacrificed their life for love. But when Wilde’s was depicting their death, his words were very simple and objective, without mixing his own feelings. This unemotional narration was very common in his fairy tales. But the more indifferent his tone was, the more shock and sadness he brought to people. How did Ba Jin transfer this style of narration to the readers? Let’s have a look of his translation.<br />
<br />
Eg6- “真是一件古怪的事，”铸造厂的监工说。“这块破裂的铅心在炉里熔化不了。我们一定得把它扔掉。”他们便把它扔在一个垃圾堆上，那只死燕子也躺在那里。（Ba, 2010: 17）<br />
<br />
Eg7- “看啊，看啊！”树叫起来，“现在蔷薇完成了。”可是夜莺并不回答，因为她已经死在长得高高的青草丛中了，心上还带着那根蔷薇刺。（Ba, 2010: 26）<br />
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Eg8- “……可怜的小汉斯就淹死在这儿了。第二天他的尸首被几个牧羊人找到了，正浮在一个大池塘的水面上……”（Ba,2010: 48）<br />
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From the above translation it can be found that Ba Jin didn’t add his own feelings in the translation just because he felt sympathetic for these characters or because he sensed the writer’s implied sorrow and therefore presumptuously thought that this sorrow should be explicitly expressed in the text. He fully comprehended the original text, from the word, rhythm to the writer’s feelings. His conveyance of beauty of the style in the original text was established on his understanding of the whole text. Thus, his translation was accurate, natural and smooth, reproducing the same style without trace of translation. When one is reading his translation, he/she could enjoy the same aesthetic beauty of the original text. The following is an example of his transfer of Oscar Wilde’s irony in The devoted friend.<br />
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Eg9- “‘There is no good in my going to see little Hans as long as the snow lasts’, the Miller used to say to his wife, ‘for when people are in trouble they should be left alone, and not be bothered by visitors. That at least is my idea about friendship, and I am sure I am right. So I shall wait till the spring comes, and then I shall pay him a visit, and he will be able to give me a large basket of primroses and that will make him so happy.” (Wilde, 2015: 25)<br />
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Eg9- “磨面师常常对他妻子说：‘雪花没有化的时候，我去看看小汉斯，是没有好处的，因为人在困难的时候，应该让他安静，不应当有客人去打扰他。这至少是我对于友谊的看法，我相信我是对的。所以我要等到春天来，才去探望他，那时他便可以送我一大篮樱草，这会使他非常高兴。’”（Ba, 2010: 38）<br />
<br />
The Miller in The Devoted Friend was a greedy, selfish and shameless figure. He always asked poor little Hans for a favor as a return for his generous present, a broken wheelbarrow, which he didn’t give to Hans even when Hans was dead. Even though he was rich, he always tried to extort some benefit from Hans. He was one of those who only ask but never give. The above excerpt was Wilde’s satirical description of the Miller’s noble idea of friendship. The words and sentences “should be”, “at least”, and “I am sure I am right” in the original text vividly showed the Miller’s arrogant tone. In Ba Jin's translation, they were translated as “应该”, “至少”, and “我相信我是对的”, which was in accordance with the original text. In the original text, the Miller seemed to be a very considerate friend since whatever he would do, he always put others before himself. He didn’t visit Hans in a snowy day because one should be left alone when he was in trouble, not because he himself feared the biting cold on the way to visit. His extortion of “a large basket of primroses” was because it would make Hans happy, not because he himself coveted the beautiful flowers. This kind of satire in Wilde’s writing was fully reproduced in Ba Jin's translation. The words “他便可以” told the readers what a privilege little Hans would have when the Miller visited him in spring. He would save the trouble of going all the way to the Miller’s home and how happy he would be when he gave the present to the Miller.<br />
<br />
It can be seen from the above analysis that Ba Jin highly respected the original writer’s writing style. In fact, when it comes to translation of style, he said, “Translation should firstly be loyal to the original work. The style of translation should be based upon that of the original work. The tone and lingering charm should be remained as much as possible so as to reproduce the original style.” It is his translation attitude of faithfulness, fully comprehension of the whole text and his own natural and smooth expression that lead the readers back to Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales to appreciate the beauty of style in the original work.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde had an erudite way with words and is often quoted to this day. His collection of short stories is imbued with a timeless quality. The tales possess such romantic charm and moral charge that they read like traditional fables crafted and refined by generations of storytellers over one hundred of years. <br />
<br />
It was Ba Jin who brought those wonderful stories to Chinese readers at large. In his translation, readers could feel the same aesthetic effect. As a literary giant in China, Ba Jin created dozens of marvelous novels and translation works. Learning and practice helped him accumulate rich aesthetic experience and deepened his aesthetic consciousness. The sufficient aesthetic conditions laid solid foundation for his transfer of beauty in Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales. <br />
<br />
On sound level, he mainly used imitation to convey beauty in the original work. Repetition, parallelism and assonance in the original text largely remained in his translation. But his imitation was not rigid. It was a kind of creative imitation in order to better reproduce the sound beauty in the original work. <br />
<br />
On diction level, he thought highly of faithfulness and the idiomaticity of the target language. He tried to choose the most appropriate and vivid word in Chinese to translate the word in the original text so as to being faithful to the aesthetic effect in the original text. <br />
<br />
On image level, he used visualization and empathy to reproduce the beauty in the original text.<br />
<br />
On style level, he stressed the importance of faithfulness and endeavored to maintain the tone and lingering charm as much as possible to reproduce the style of the original work.<br />
<br />
Therefore, Ba Jin's translation of Oscar Wilde’s fairy tales is natural, smooth and beautiful, leading the readers back to the wonderful world Wilde created. One obvious feature of Ba Jin's translation is that he put an emphasis on faithfulness. But his faithfulness transcended only being faithful to the logical information in the original text, being loyal to the aesthetic information was also incorporated in his faithfulness to the original text. This provides us with much enlightenment on translating a literary work. Thanks to Oscar Wilde, it was him who presented us with such beautiful fairy tales. And thanks to Ba Jin, it was him that reproduced the beauty of the original work.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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[1] Bloom, H edit. 2011. Bloom’s Modern Critical Views: Oscar Wilde—New Edition. New York: Infobase Publishing.<br />
<br />
[2] Jiang, Q X. 2002. Aesthetic Progression in Literary Translation: Image-G Actualization. Beijing: The Commercial Press.<br />
<br />
[3] Wilde, O. 2015. The Happy Prince and Other Stories. London: HaperCollinsPublishers.<br />
<br />
[4] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 1981. 快乐王子. 上海：少年儿童出版社<br />
<br />
[5] 巴金. 2003. 巴金译文选集. 北京: 生活·读书·新知三联书店<br />
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[6] 巴金译, 王尔德著. 2010. 快乐王子. 上海: 上海译文出版社<br />
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[7] 方梦之. 2004. 译学辞典. 上海: 上海外语教育出版社<br />
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[8] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学概述.外国语(上海外国语学院学报), (02):48-53.<br />
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[9] 刘宓庆. 1986. 翻译美学基本理论构想.中国翻译, (04):19-24.<br />
<br />
[10] 刘宓庆. 2005. 翻译美学导论. 北京: 中国对外翻译出版公司<br />
<br />
[11] 林琳. 2007. 从美学视角看巴金译《快乐王子及其他故事》. 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
[12] 刘孝银. 2012. 从翻译美学析巴金译王尔德童话.山西师范大学.<br />
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[13] 毛荣贵. 2005. 翻译美学. 上海: 上海交通大学出版社<br />
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[14] 王占斌. 2007.巴金翻译思想探析.英语研究, 5(03):19-22.<br />
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[15] 吴金华. 1999. 试析奥斯卡·王尔德作品的语言特色.宁夏大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):107-109+128.<br />
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[16] 向洪全. 2016. 翻译家巴金研究. 上海：复旦大学出版社.<br />
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[17] 杨立秋. 2016. 巴金翻译美学特征探析.北京外国语大学.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=115047History of Translation Studies 102020-12-18T18:08:30Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658 */</p>
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing== (please add your student number and major)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal and functional equivalence, the former of which pursues the equivalence in form and content and the latter of which pursues equivalence in function between the two languages. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
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functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
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Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Hao Jingfang's science fiction "Folding Beijing" won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu's rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida's functional equivalence to "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". The theory of Nida's functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu's application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers' understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
<br />
===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work Toward a Science of Translating. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. <br />
<br />
In his book The Theory and Practice of Translation, Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
<br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did" (Nida 1993:118). <br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida and Taber (2004：12) stated that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
<br />
"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）<br />
<br />
"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）<br />
<br />
"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to show the original meaning.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
<br />
Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. <br />
<br />
The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: <br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
“ ‘现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。’他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。’他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’” （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）<br />
"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015) <br />
<br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like "…childhood that…".<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.<br />
<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself." <br />
<br />
Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
<br />
"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.<br />
<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
<br />
Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.<br />
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=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
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First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.<br />
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Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
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"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
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Example 2:<br />
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated, only translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
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Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
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"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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It has a personification in this paragraph, "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks and arms", and "like the humblest servants", the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
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Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)<br />
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"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
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=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
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Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.<br />
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For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
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In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
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====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.<br />
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=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
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The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.<br />
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Example 1:<br />
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
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"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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"炒面"is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
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Example 2:<br />
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)<br />
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"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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The foreignizing translation is adopted here, "白酒" is translated into "baijiu" , the translator doesn't use the word like "spirits", it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
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Example 3:<br />
"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
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"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in the translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.<br />
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=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
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Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.<br />
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Example 1:<br />
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
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"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he use the word "shared" and he add the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
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Example 2:<br />
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)<br />
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"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
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Example 2:<br />
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
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"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
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In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. "心意" means money, which is a euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered a euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word "appreciation".<br />
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=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
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Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.<br />
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The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", the translator translated it into "ate heartily", although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers.<br />
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And "（盘子）一片狼藉"translated into "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" translated into "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyzed from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Beijing fold" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western culture, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words.<br />
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In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[1] Hao Jingfang. Folding Beijing [J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy, 2015.<br />
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[2] Nida, Eugene A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,1993<br />
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[3] Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001<br />
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[4] Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004<br />
<br />
[5] 郝景芳.孤独深处[M].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社，2016：1-40<br />
<br />
[6] 谭载喜.新编奈达论翻译[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1999<br />
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[7] 许钧，穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京：译林出版社，2009<br />
<br />
[8] 赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J].文学教育，2011<br />
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[9] 周兴阳.从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[J].新疆大学，2018<br />
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[10] 王桂圆.系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[J].海外英语，2018<br />
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==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
<center>余妮 Yu Ni No.202070080620</center><br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
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''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s version has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. <br />
<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
<br />
The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) which was co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable, for it has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. With the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The following chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author makes a conclusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.<br />
<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, according to the nature of translation. He pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).<br />
<br />
The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, we should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural reaction of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
<br />
Firstly, we should create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully displays the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?<br />
<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture concepts cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost not much snow in southern China all year round. Therefore, based on their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)<br />
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In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabularies. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Re-creation” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).<br />
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Oscar Wilde, born in Dublin, Ireland, is a “born for art” writer. He was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In this play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)<br />
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Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies, revealing the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)<br />
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Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).<br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared to previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
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Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
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Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections. Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
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He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was first published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, his translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest—Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. <br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.<br />
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“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but in different meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)<br />
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It not only facilitated the needs of the audience but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience would be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. <br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same. <br />
<br />
In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language remain the same.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.<br />
<br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
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“There are many allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
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(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
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(1) ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. <br />
<br />
(2) CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack. Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can still benefit from them. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’ s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).<br />
<br />
An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012). <br />
<br />
Paradox is a device favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed. Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
<br />
<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. <br />
<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect. In example 4, what amused the audience was the conclusion contrary to the reasons.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With it, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the readers will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. <br />
<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators. Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty. Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than the source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in the target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.<br />
<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we may have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is the most popular one among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is the variety of rhetorical devices. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, too. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019). <br />
<br />
<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we can have a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”. In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce better translation. Even though we can gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
<br />
Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
<br />
Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
<br />
Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
<br />
Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
<br />
Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
<br />
Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen 202020080603== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
With the development of economic globalization,exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand.The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice. Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
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===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
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===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
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===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. <br />
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The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)<br />
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The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)<br />
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The first is the implied meaning(implictit), which means that the speaker actually wants to experess the meaning: the second is explicit, which the speaker actually says content.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. <br />
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Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
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The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
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understanding: the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and though contend to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. --[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
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The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
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In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)<br />
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===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
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There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)<br />
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Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
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===2. Literary Review===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
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===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
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The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. <br />
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At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
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Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
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It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
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===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===<br />
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Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
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With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
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First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
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On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
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===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
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Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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===3.1 Free Translation===<br />
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The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
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===3.2 Addition of Message===<br />
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Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
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===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===<br />
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As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
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The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. <br />
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Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)<br />
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The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
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*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-166.<br />
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*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
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*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
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*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
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*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.<br />
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* Mao Yueyue, Liu Fan. 毛新月, 刘帆. (2018). 释意理论指导下的会议口译中四字词语的翻译——以习近平总书记十九届中共中央政治局常委同中外记者见面会讲话为例. [Translation of four-letter words in conference interpretation under the guidance of interpretation theory - taking the speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the meeting between the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the 19th CPC Central Committee and Chinese and foreign journalists as an example]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](12): 230-231.<br />
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* Ouyang Changyi. 欧阳长怡. (2010). 论释意理论指导下的记者招待会口译策略及释意训练. [On Interpretation Strategies and Interpretation Training of Press Conference under the Guidance of Interpretation Theory]. 福建省外国语文学会.福建省外国语文学会2010年年会论文集. [Fujian Foreign Language Society. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference of Fujian Foreign Language Society]. 福建省外国语文学会: 福建省外国语文学会[Fujian Foreign Language Society: Fujian Foreign Language Society]<br />
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*Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe. 张杨,李灵哲. (2018). 释意理论指导下的翻译语义策略运用. [The use of translation semantic strategies under the guidance of interpretation theory]. ''佳木斯职业学院学报'' [Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10): 334-336.<br />
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='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
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===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
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In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
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==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
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=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
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====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
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“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
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==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
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(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
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(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
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==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
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=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
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=== References ===<br />
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223<br />
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Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308<br />
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Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.<br />
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Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University <br />
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Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.<br />
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Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.<br />
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Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70. <br />
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Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press<br />
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Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.<br />
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WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
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He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
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Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
<br />
Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
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===1.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
<br />
In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
<br />
In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden's comparison of the translator and slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of Western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
<br />
In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
<br />
===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
<br />
''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies. <br />
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In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
<br />
In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii) <br />
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Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)<br />
<br />
If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook, with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. <br />
<br />
If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)<br />
<br />
The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others. <br />
<br />
I enjoy reading this book because it brings us and those aloof and remarkable scholars more closer. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh before our eyes and narrate their feelings of being translators to us themselves. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47) <br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" through the excerpts collected in Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook. (Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)<br />
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Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
<br />
Lefevere extracted two statements by Dryden and relatively placed them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)<br />
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In the preface, Dryden proposed three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102) <br />
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Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating the poem in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103) <br />
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As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
<br />
Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)<br />
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It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. <br />
<br />
Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
<br />
However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argued that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)<br />
<br />
Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) <br />
<br />
Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars such as Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014) --[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)<br />
<br />
A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73) <br />
<br />
About the value of this book, Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)<br />
<br />
About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2) <br />
<br />
In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
<br />
The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33) <br />
<br />
He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)<br />
<br />
Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)<br />
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Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179) <br />
<br />
The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
<br />
However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
<br />
However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)<br />
<br />
Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the superficial, assertive and rational current views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)<br />
<br />
Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)<br />
<br />
Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)<br />
<br />
Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread throughtout China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987) <br />
<br />
In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features change from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) <br />
<br />
As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) --[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51) <br />
<br />
The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
<br />
The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
<br />
Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
<br />
Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)<br />
<br />
Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
===4.1 From the aspect of the content===<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
<br />
===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently.<br />
<br />
Both of the two books are arranged in a theme way rather than a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and the translating technique. Liu arranges his book differently for the longer essays are collected in the last chapter.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
<br />
Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includes the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which help the readers to better understand the translation principles.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have a profound understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave as well as the figuring out of the reason of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
<br />
Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
===关键词===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
===Introuction===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.<br />
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Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（quotation missing）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
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His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（paragraph too long）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: <br />
<br />
(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. ) <br />
<br />
Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. <br />
<br />
The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)<br />
<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.<br />
<br />
Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. <br />
<br />
The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. <br />
<br />
These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. <br />
<br />
Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. <br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. <br />
<br />
The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. <br />
<br />
Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)<br />
<br />
===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)<br />
<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. <br />
<br />
The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. <br />
<br />
Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. <br />
<br />
This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).<br />
<br />
The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. <br />
<br />
The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
===Trends in Translation Theory Research===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. <br />
<br />
In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980.<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
<br />
[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645==<br />
<br />
吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
<br />
Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
<br />
So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
<br />
Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
<br />
===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
<br />
1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
<br />
The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
<br />
2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
<br />
For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
<br />
Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
<br />
<br />
If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
<br />
Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
<br />
For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
<br />
3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
<br />
Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 11<br />
<br />
我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 12<br />
<br />
“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 13<br />
<br />
耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 14<br />
<br />
“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 15<br />
<br />
我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
<br />
===''' References '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==<br />
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center><br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.(J.A Catford , 1965)<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.( James Holmes,1975)<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.(Wolfram Wilss, 1982)<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.( Peter Newmark, 1981)<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.(Hatim & Mason,1990 )<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.(Mona Baker, 2006)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.(Dong Qiusi, 1951)<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
<br />
In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）<br />
<br />
Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)<br />
<br />
Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.(Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012) <br />
<br />
Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)<br />
<br />
<br />
Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.(Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020) <br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition.(Wang Yin,2017)<br />
<br />
Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation.Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.(Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)<br />
<br />
Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.（Yang Zijian，1993）<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.( Kong Xiangli,2009)<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.(Yi Jing,2009)<br />
<br />
The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
<br />
Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.(Tan Zaixi, 1987 )<br />
<br />
Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
<br />
'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
<br />
Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )<br />
<br />
4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
<br />
As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 ) <br />
<br />
Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
<br />
These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )<br />
<br />
4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
<br />
In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )<br />
<br />
4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
<br />
Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
<br />
Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
<br />
Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
<br />
Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
<br />
For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.(Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
<br />
As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
<br />
Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
<br />
4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
<br />
In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
<br />
4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
<br />
Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
<br />
4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
<br />
Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.(Yang Zijian,1993)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
<br />
4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
<br />
Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
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Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
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Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
<br />
Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
<br />
Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析学习翻译学科目前存在的问题，并提出相关的建议。 <br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''=== <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) <br />
<br />
Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)<br />
<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Study<br />
<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
<br />
As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. <br />
<br />
Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)<br />
<br />
==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. <br />
<br />
The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc.<br />
<br />
At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)<br />
<br />
2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. <br />
<br />
At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)<br />
<br />
Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) <br />
<br />
2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) <br />
<br />
In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training. <br />
<br />
There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
<br />
==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
<br />
3.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018） <br />
<br />
However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
In addition,due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
<br />
3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
<br />
The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. <br />
<br />
The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) <br />
<br />
In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)<br />
<br />
3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
<br />
Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018) <br />
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This kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
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3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
<br />
The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare.（Ou Yonghua 2019） <br />
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Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)<br />
<br />
3.2. Students<br />
<br />
The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
<br />
Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. <br />
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Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
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As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
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3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
<br />
Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information. <br />
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With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015) <br />
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3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
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At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
<br />
==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.<br />
<br />
4.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
<br />
The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)<br />
<br />
The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019) <br />
<br />
4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
<br />
Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. <br />
<br />
Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） <br />
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Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
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4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
<br />
Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of roadmap for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)<br />
<br />
The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
<br />
4.2. Students <br />
<br />
The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
<br />
4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009) <br />
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A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
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4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
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Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. <br />
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Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. <br />
<br />
From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)<br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
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Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
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Chen Cheng.陈诚. (2020).高校英语翻译课程教学现状及改革研究.[ Research on the Teaching Status and Reform of College English Translation Course].淮南职业技术学院学报[''Journal of Huainan Vocational &Technology''] 97-98.<br />
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Chu Xizhi.褚喜之(2009).翻译理论在翻译教学中的重要性.[The Importance of Translation Theory in Translation Teaching].经济研究导刊[''Economic Research Guide'']237-238.<br />
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Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
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Huang Youyi.黄友义.(2018).服务改革开放40年,翻译实践与翻译教育迎来转型发展的新时代.[Servicing Reform and Opening for 40 Years, Translation Practice and Translation Education Usher in a New Era of Transformation and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']5-8.<br />
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Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
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Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
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Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
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Linlin.林琳.(2016).英语文学翻译学习现状及改善措施.[ The Status Quo and Improvement Measures of English Literature Translation Learning].西部素质教育[''Western China Quality Education''] 65.<br />
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Luo Feng.罗峰.(2011).从翻译学学科建设看翻译学在中国的发展.[On the Development of Translation Studies As A Discipline in China].琼州学院学报[''Journal of Qiongzhou University]''115-116.<br />
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Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
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Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
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Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
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Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
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Xu Jun, Mu Lei. 许钧, 穆雷.(2009).中国翻译学研究30年 (1978 -2007).[30 years of Chinese Translation Studies (1978 -2007)].外国语[''Journal of Foreign Languages'']77-87.<br />
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Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
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Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
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Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan== <br />
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center><br />
<br />
<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
译者文化身份对翻译的影响<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Translating a work is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important active role in both translating the content and interpreting it, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.<br />
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Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)<br />
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There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.<br />
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=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===<br />
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.<br />
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Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.<br />
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(While your first quote here may be intended to explain to the reader where the concept of cultural identity came from, I suggest you explain the meaning of the concept proposed by the cited author.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)<br />
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====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====<br />
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.<br />
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In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.<br />
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Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on naturalization strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.<br />
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（Be clear about what exactly domestication or foreignization in your text means and who defines it. Use word “domestication” instead of “naturalization”in general.）--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====<br />
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.<br />
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However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." <br />
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However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12) <br />
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We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese literary world. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.<br />
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We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)<br />
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According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). --[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
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The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.<br />
(Here you used foreignization ,but above the paper,you use alienation,The specific concepts of context should be unified.)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===The cultural identity of translators in translation===<br />
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.<br />
(Here world literature is not very accurate, maybe you can say world translation)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
====In terms of the original intention of translation====<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao himself said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much and so only that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's love for Shakespeare is so strong that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading Shakespeare, not eating it. <br />
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The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.<br />
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Liang Shiqiu believes that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius is to appreciate literature, the general public to read are popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "the highest art only a few people can understand ......, literature and art is not the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".<br />
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Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Byrd Byrd, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)<br />
(Here maybe you want to say Irving Babbitt not Byrd, plz check it again)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "My aim in translating this book is, first, to maintain the charm of the original work to the greatest extent possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey faithfully the meaning and feelings of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha plays more attention to the performance function of drama.<br />
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Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)<br />
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EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，<br />
伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，<br />
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This man hath my consent to marry her．<br />
是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的<br />
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Stand forth，Lysander．<br />
走上前来，拉山德。<br />
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And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）<br />
殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子 （朱生豪. 2013：9）<br />
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In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work. <br />
For example, his translation. <br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)<br />
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拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!<br />
否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。<br />
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Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.<br />
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First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:<br />
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LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)<br />
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Translation of Liang Shiqiu:<br />
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赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，<br />
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否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。<br />
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HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool: <br />
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And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)<br />
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海 上学时她就是个狐狸精。<br />
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她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。<br />
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Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966) <br />
Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature. <br />
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For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.<br />
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Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,<br />
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;<br />
There with fantastic garlands did she come,<br />
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,<br />
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.<br />
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:<br />
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds<br />
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,<br />
When down her weedy trophies and herself<br />
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;<br />
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;<br />
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one<br />
incapable of her own distress,<br />
Or like a creature native and indu’d<br />
Unto that element: but long it could not be<br />
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,<br />
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay<br />
To muddy death.<br />
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）<br />
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The translation of Liang Shiqiu：<br />
(You can say Liang’s version :)--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。 就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。 她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works. <br />
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For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion. <br />
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By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.<br />
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===References===<br />
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Fu Wenhui付文慧．多重文化身份下之戴乃迭英译阐释［The Interpretation of Dai Naidian's English Translation under Multiple Cultural Identities］中国翻译[ Chinese Translation]，2011，32(6):16—20．<br />
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Yan Xiaojiang严晓江． 梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)<br />
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Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.<br />
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Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.<br />
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Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128.. <br />
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Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.<br />
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Wu Delu.吴得禄.译者文化身份对翻译的影响[The influence of translators' cultural identity on translation].读书文摘[Reading Digest].2016(08):211.<br />
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Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．<br />
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Liu Shuang刘双．文化身份与跨文化传播[Cultural identity and cross-cultural communication]外语学刊[Journal of Foreign Languages]，2000(1):87—91．<br />
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Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004<br />
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Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪.译者自序[Translator's Preface].文学界(专辑版)[Literature (album edition)].2010(09):36.<br />
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Shakespeare.莎士比亚 四大喜剧 梁实秋译[The Four Great Comedies translated by Liang Shiqiu].北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press].2001<br />
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Shakespeare.莎士比亚． 仲夏夜之梦 朱生豪译．[A Midsummer Night's Dream translated by Zhu Shenghao].上海:上海世界图书出版公司 [Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company],2013．<br />
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Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋 文学与革命.偏见集[Literature and Revolution. The collection of prejudices].南京:正中书局[Nanjing: Zhengzhong Shuji].中华民国二十三年七月.<br />
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==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
<br />
[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
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[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
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[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
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[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
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[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
<br />
[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
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[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .<br />
<br />
==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==<br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:=== <br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and deeply understand the status of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.<br />
<br />
===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities of translation, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）<br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) <br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.1 John MacFarlane====<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Firth====<br />
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Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) <br />
<br />
====2.3 James Holmes====<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）<br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54） <br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. <br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14). <br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Polysystem Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）<br />
<br />
====2.5 Gideon Toury<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. <br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.<br />
<br />
====2.6 Snell-Hornby<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. <br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97) <br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：<br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts. <br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)<br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) <br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) <br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36) <br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. <br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Conclusion=== <br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Reference===<br />
Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.<br />
<br />
J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.<br />
<br />
Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Snell-Hornby.(1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman 韩子满，Liu Fang 刘芳（2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001).翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive <br />
to the Descriptive Approach].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).<br />
<br />
Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]<br />
<br />
Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰.(2002).多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).<br />
<br />
==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies== <br />
<br />
Translation Strategies <br />
<br />
==Abstract == <br />
<br />
Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.<br />
<br />
Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.<br />
<br />
This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;<br />
<br />
==Introduction==<br />
<br />
The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers define them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical significance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)<br />
<br />
==Content==<br />
<br />
Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classifications from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classification is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classifications. It seems that clear-cut definitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype definitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)<br />
The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reflect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reflects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)<br />
<br />
The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp fiction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)<br />
<br />
Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the definitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few defining characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difficulty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).<br />
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or specific) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “specific activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle specific problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by specific techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classified by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural filtering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
<br />
However, this is not consonant with the dictionary definitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is defined as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) defines translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will influence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identified the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identification, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal significant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can find out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) ==<br />
Darwish (2008) identifies four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70<br />
==<br />
However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might influence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difficulty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).<br />
<br />
==Conclusion==<br />
<br />
In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Laffling(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=114872History of Translation Studies 102020-12-18T14:15:23Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658 */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing== (please add your student number and major)--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal and functional equivalence, the former of which pursues the equivalence in form and content and the latter of which pursues equivalence in function between the two languages. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 13:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===key words===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence. <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.<br />
<br />
From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
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Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
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Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
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Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
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尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
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<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Hao Jingfang's science fiction "Folding Beijing" won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu's rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida's functional equivalence to "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". The theory of Nida's functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu's application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers' understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida's functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
<br />
===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work Toward a Science of Translating. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book The Theory and Practice of Translation, Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
<br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did" (Nida 1993:118). <br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.<br />
<br />
===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
<br />
====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida and Taber (2004：12) stated that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
<br />
"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）<br />
<br />
"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）<br />
<br />
"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to show the original meaning.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
<br />
Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.<br />
<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: <br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
“ ‘现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。’他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。’他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’” （Jingfang Hao 2016:15）<br />
"‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015) <br />
<br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like "…childhood that…".<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）<br />
<br />
"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.<br />
<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself." <br />
<br />
Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
<br />
"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.<br />
<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
<br />
Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
<br />
First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
"The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated, only translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)<br />
<br />
"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks and arms", and "like the humblest servants", the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)<br />
<br />
"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
<br />
Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.<br />
<br />
For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
<br />
====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
<br />
In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
<br />
The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"炒面"is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)<br />
<br />
"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, "白酒" is translated into "baijiu" , the translator doesn't use the word like "spirits", it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
<br />
Example 3:<br />
"哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in the translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
<br />
Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
"…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
<br />
"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he use the word "shared" and he add the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)<br />
<br />
"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
<br />
Example 2:<br />
"一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
<br />
"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)<br />
<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. "心意" means money, which is a euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered a euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word "appreciation".<br />
<br />
=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
<br />
Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.<br />
<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", the translator translated it into "ate heartily", although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers. And "（盘子）一片狼藉"translated into "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" translated into "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyzed from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Beijing fold" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western culture, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words. In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Hao Jingfang. Folding Beijing [J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy, 2015.<br />
<br />
[2] Nida, Eugene A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M].Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,1993<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004<br />
<br />
[5] 郝景芳.孤独深处[M].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社，2016：1-40<br />
<br />
[6] 谭载喜.新编奈达论翻译[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1999<br />
<br />
[7] 许钧，穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京：译林出版社，2009<br />
<br />
[8] 赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J].文学教育，2011<br />
<br />
[9] 周兴阳.从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[J].新疆大学，2018<br />
<br />
[10] 王桂圆.系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[J].海外英语，2018<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
<center>余妮 Yu Ni No.202070080620</center><br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s version has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. <br />
<br />
“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
<br />
The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) which was co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable, for it has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. With the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The following chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author makes a conclusion.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.<br />
<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, according to the nature of translation. He pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).<br />
<br />
The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, we should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural reaction of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
<br />
Firstly, we should create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully displays the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?<br />
<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture concepts cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost not much snow in southern China all year round. Therefore, based on their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)<br />
<br />
In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabularies. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Re-creation” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).<br />
<br />
Oscar Wilde, born in Dublin, Ireland, is a “born for art” writer. He was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.<br />
<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In this play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)<br />
<br />
Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies, revealing the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)<br />
<br />
Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).<br />
<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
<br />
Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared to previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).<br />
<br />
Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).<br />
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From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
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Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections. Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
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He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was first published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, his translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest—Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. <br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.<br />
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“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but in different meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)<br />
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It not only facilitated the needs of the audience but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience would be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
<br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same. <br />
<br />
In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language remain the same.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.<br />
<br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
<br />
“There are many allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
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(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
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(1) ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
<br />
In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. <br />
<br />
(2) CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack. Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can still benefit from them. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’ s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).<br />
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An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting <br />
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<br />
======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012). <br />
<br />
Paradox is a device favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed. Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
<br />
<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. <br />
<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect. In example 4, what amused the audience was the conclusion contrary to the reasons.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With it, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the readers will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. <br />
<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators. Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty. Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than the source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
<br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in the target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.<br />
<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we may have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is the most popular one among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is the variety of rhetorical devices. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016). <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, too. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).<br />
<br />
For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019). <br />
<br />
<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we can have a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”. In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce better translation. Even though we can gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
<br />
Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
<br />
Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
<br />
Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
<br />
Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
<br />
Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
<br />
Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
==Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen 202020080603== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
With the development of economic globalization,exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand.The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice. Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
<br />
===1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. <br />
<br />
The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)<br />
<br />
The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)<br />
<br />
The first is the implied meaning(implictit), which means that the speaker actually wants to experess the meaning: the second is explicit, which the speaker actually says content.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. <br />
<br />
Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
<br />
understanding: the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and though contend to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. --[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)<br />
<br />
===1.2 Introduction of Interpretation===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)<br />
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Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
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===2. Literary Review===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
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===2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
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The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. <br />
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At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
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Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
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It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
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===2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory===<br />
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Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
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With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
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First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
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On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
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===3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
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Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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===3.1 Free Translation===<br />
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The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
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===3.2 Addition of Message===<br />
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Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
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===3.3 Positive and Negative Translation===<br />
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As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
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The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. <br />
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Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)<br />
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The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)<br />
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In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past.--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
<br />
*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-166.<br />
<br />
*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
<br />
*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
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*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
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*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-211.<br />
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* Mao Yueyue, Liu Fan. 毛新月, 刘帆. (2018). 释意理论指导下的会议口译中四字词语的翻译——以习近平总书记十九届中共中央政治局常委同中外记者见面会讲话为例. [Translation of four-letter words in conference interpretation under the guidance of interpretation theory - taking the speech of General Secretary Xi Jinping at the meeting between the Standing Committee of the Political Bureau of the 19th CPC Central Committee and Chinese and foreign journalists as an example]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](12): 230-231.<br />
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* Ouyang Changyi. 欧阳长怡. (2010). 论释意理论指导下的记者招待会口译策略及释意训练. [On Interpretation Strategies and Interpretation Training of Press Conference under the Guidance of Interpretation Theory]. 福建省外国语文学会.福建省外国语文学会2010年年会论文集. [Fujian Foreign Language Society. Proceedings of the 2010 Annual Conference of Fujian Foreign Language Society]. 福建省外国语文学会: 福建省外国语文学会[Fujian Foreign Language Society: Fujian Foreign Language Society]<br />
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* Xiong Wen. 熊雯. (2014). 释意理论视阙下的口译过程研究. [A study of interpretation process under the view of interpretation theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](24): 154-155.<br />
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*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
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*Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe. 张杨,李灵哲. (2018). 释意理论指导下的翻译语义策略运用. [The use of translation semantic strategies under the guidance of interpretation theory]. ''佳木斯职业学院学报'' [Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College](10): 334-336.<br />
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='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
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<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
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===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
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In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
<br />
==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
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=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
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“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
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==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
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(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
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(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
<br />
=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223<br />
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Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308<br />
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Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.<br />
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Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University <br />
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Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.<br />
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Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.<br />
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Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70. <br />
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Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press<br />
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Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.<br />
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WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
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He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
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Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
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Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
<br />
===1.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden's comparison of the translator and slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of Western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
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===2. Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
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''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies. <br />
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In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii) <br />
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Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)<br />
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If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook, with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. <br />
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If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)<br />
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The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others. <br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it brings us and those aloof and remarkable scholars more closer. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh before our eyes and narrate their feelings of being translators to us themselves. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47) <br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" through the excerpts collected in Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook. (Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)<br />
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Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
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Lefevere extracted two statements by Dryden and relatively placed them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)<br />
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In the preface, Dryden proposed three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102) <br />
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Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating the poem in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103) <br />
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As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)<br />
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Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)<br />
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It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. <br />
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Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argued that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)<br />
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Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) <br />
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Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars such as Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014) --[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)<br />
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A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73) <br />
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About the value of this book, Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)<br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===3. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
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In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2) <br />
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In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. <br />
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Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
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The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33) <br />
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He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)<br />
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The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)<br />
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Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)<br />
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Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179) <br />
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The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)<br />
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However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)<br />
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Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the superficial, assertive and rational current views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)<br />
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Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)<br />
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Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)<br />
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Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread throughtout China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in ''Pinimujing'', the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987) <br />
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In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)<br />
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In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features change from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) <br />
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As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) --[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51) <br />
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The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
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The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)<br />
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Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)<br />
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Some scholars expressed their views on ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)<br />
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Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)<br />
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Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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===4. Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
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===4.1 From the aspect of the content===<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While ''A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
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Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
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===4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement===<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently.<br />
<br />
Both of the two books are arranged in a theme way rather than a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and the translating technique. Liu arranges his book differently for the longer essays are collected in the last chapter.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
<br />
Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which includes the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which help the readers to better understand the translation principles.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
<br />
In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have a profound understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave as well as the figuring out of the reason of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 07:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). ''Translation, History and Culture''. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
<br />
Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies''. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
===Key Words===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
===摘要===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
===关键词===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
===Introuction===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.<br />
<br />
Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
===The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（quotation missing）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（paragraph too long）--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: <br />
<br />
(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
<br />
Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）<br />
===Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018). <br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. ) <br />
<br />
Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )<br />
<br />
===The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. <br />
<br />
The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)<br />
<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.<br />
<br />
Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. <br />
<br />
The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. <br />
<br />
These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. <br />
<br />
Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. <br />
<br />
Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. <br />
<br />
The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. <br />
<br />
Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)<br />
<br />
===Analysis of Theoretical Research Status===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)<br />
<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. <br />
<br />
The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. <br />
<br />
Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. <br />
<br />
This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).<br />
<br />
The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. <br />
<br />
The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
===Trends in Translation Theory Research===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. <br />
<br />
In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980.<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
<br />
[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645==<br />
<br />
吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
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===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
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==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
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Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
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Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
<br />
Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
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1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 2<br />
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云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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<br />
Example 3<br />
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花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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<br />
Example 4 <br />
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Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
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With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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Example 7<br />
<br />
番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
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“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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<br />
If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
<br />
Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
<br />
Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 11<br />
<br />
我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 12<br />
<br />
“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 13<br />
<br />
耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 14<br />
<br />
“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 15<br />
<br />
我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
<br />
===''' References '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608==<br />
<center>孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui </center><br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.(J.A Catford , 1965)<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.( James Holmes,1975)<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.(Wolfram Wilss, 1982)<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.( Peter Newmark, 1981)<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.(Hatim & Mason,1990 )<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.(Christiane Nord, 1997)<br />
<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.(Mona Baker, 2006)<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.(Dong Qiusi, 1951)<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
<br />
In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi, 1987)<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）<br />
<br />
Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)<br />
<br />
Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.(Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012) <br />
<br />
Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)<br />
<br />
<br />
Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.(Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020) <br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition.(Wang Yin,2017)<br />
<br />
Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation.Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.(Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)<br />
<br />
Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.（Yang Zijian，1993）<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.( Kong Xiangli,2009)<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.(Yi Jing,2009)<br />
<br />
The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
<br />
Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.(Tan Zaixi, 1987 )<br />
<br />
Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
<br />
'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
<br />
Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )<br />
<br />
4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
<br />
As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 ) <br />
<br />
Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
<br />
These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )<br />
<br />
4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
<br />
In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )<br />
<br />
4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
<br />
Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
<br />
Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)<br />
<br />
Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
<br />
Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
<br />
For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.(Yi Jing, 2009 )<br />
<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
<br />
As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
<br />
Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
<br />
4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
<br />
In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
<br />
4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
<br />
Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )<br />
<br />
4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
<br />
Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.(Yang Zijian,1993)<br />
<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
<br />
4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
<br />
Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.(Liu Miqing, 1989)<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
<br />
Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
<br />
Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
<br />
Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
<br />
Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
<br />
Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
<br />
Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
<br />
Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
<br />
Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
<br />
Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析学习翻译学科目前存在的问题，并提出相关的建议。 <br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''=== <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.<br />
<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. <br />
<br />
Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Study<br />
<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
<br />
As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. <br />
<br />
Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. <br />
<br />
The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc.<br />
<br />
At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.<br />
<br />
2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. <br />
<br />
At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate.<br />
<br />
Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.<br />
<br />
2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction. <br />
<br />
<br />
In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training. <br />
<br />
There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
<br />
==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
<br />
3.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better. <br />
<br />
However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market. (Zhong Weihe 2019)<br />
<br />
Due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.<br />
<br />
3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
<br />
The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. <br />
<br />
Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.<br />
<br />
3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
<br />
Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2020) <br />
<br />
This kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
<br />
3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
<br />
The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare. <br />
<br />
Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011) However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.<br />
<br />
3.2. Students<br />
<br />
The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
<br />
3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
<br />
Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. <br />
<br />
Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. <br />
<br />
As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
<br />
3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
<br />
Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information. <br />
<br />
With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. (Xie Zhentian, 2015) Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.<br />
<br />
3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
<br />
At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
<br />
==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.<br />
<br />
4.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
<br />
The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. <br />
<br />
Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. <br />
<br />
The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. (Ou Yonghua 2019) This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.<br />
<br />
4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
<br />
Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. <br />
<br />
Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） <br />
<br />
Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
<br />
Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline,which carry out the provision of roadmap for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)<br />
<br />
The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
<br />
4.2. Students <br />
<br />
The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
<br />
4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills. <br />
<br />
A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
<br />
Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. <br />
<br />
Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. <br />
<br />
From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. <br />
<br />
Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020) The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
<br />
Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
<br />
Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
<br />
Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
<br />
Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
<br />
Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
<br />
Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
<br />
Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
<br />
Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
<br />
Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
<br />
Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan== <br />
<center>周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 .</center><br />
<br />
<center>The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.<br />
<br />
===Keywords===<br />
translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
译者文化身份对翻译的影响<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Translating a work is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important active role in both translating the content and interpreting it, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.<br />
<br />
Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)<br />
<br />
There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.<br />
<br />
=== Introduction to the identity of the translator===<br />
Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.<br />
<br />
Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.<br />
<br />
"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)<br />
<br />
====Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity====<br />
Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.<br />
<br />
In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.<br />
<br />
Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on naturalization strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.<br />
<br />
====Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity====<br />
Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.<br />
<br />
However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." <br />
As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12) <br />
<br />
We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese literary world. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.<br />
<br />
====Foreignization and domestication Strategies====<br />
According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)<br />
<br />
Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.<br />
<br />
The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features.<br />
<br />
===The cultural identity of translators in translation===<br />
First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature.<br />
<br />
====In terms of the original intention of translation====<br />
The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao himself said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much and so only that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's love for Shakespeare is so strong that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading Shakespeare, not eating it. <br />
<br />
In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believes that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius is to appreciate literature, the general public to read are popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "the highest art only a few people can understand ......, literature and art is not the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".<br />
<br />
When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Byrd Byrd, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95)<br />
<br />
====In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)====<br />
Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "My aim in translating this book is, first, to maintain the charm of the original work to the greatest extent possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey faithfully the meaning and feelings of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha plays more attention to the performance function of drama.<br />
<br />
For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)<br />
<br />
EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord，<br />
伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，<br />
<br />
This man hath my consent to marry her．<br />
是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的<br />
<br />
Stand forth，Lysander．<br />
走上前来，拉山德。<br />
<br />
And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22）<br />
殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子 （朱生豪. 2013：9）<br />
<br />
In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work. <br />
For example, his translation. <br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)<br />
<br />
拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手!<br />
否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.<br />
<br />
First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:<br />
<br />
LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)<br />
<br />
Translation of Liang Shiqiu:<br />
<br />
赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，<br />
<br />
否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。<br />
<br />
HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool: <br />
<br />
And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)<br />
<br />
海 上学时她就是个狐狸精。<br />
<br />
她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。<br />
<br />
Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966) <br />
Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature. <br />
<br />
For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.<br />
<br />
Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook,<br />
That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream;<br />
There with fantastic garlands did she come,<br />
Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples,<br />
That liberal shepherds give a grosser name.<br />
But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them:<br />
There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds<br />
Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke,<br />
When down her weedy trophies and herself<br />
Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide;<br />
And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up;<br />
Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one<br />
incapable of her own distress,<br />
Or like a creature native and indu’d<br />
Unto that element: but long it could not be<br />
Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink,<br />
Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay<br />
To muddy death.<br />
（shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）<br />
<br />
The translation of Liang Shiqiu：<br />
<br />
河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。 就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。 她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works. <br />
<br />
For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion. <br />
<br />
By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Fu Wenhui付文慧．多重文化身份下之戴乃迭英译阐释［The Interpretation of Dai Naidian's English Translation under Multiple Cultural Identities］中国翻译[ Chinese Translation]，2011，32(6):16—20．<br />
<br />
Yan Xiaojiang严晓江． 梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.<br />
<br />
Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.<br />
<br />
Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128.. <br />
<br />
Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.<br />
<br />
Wu Delu.吴得禄.译者文化身份对翻译的影响[The influence of translators' cultural identity on translation].读书文摘[Reading Digest].2016(08):211.<br />
<br />
Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．<br />
<br />
Liu Shuang刘双．文化身份与跨文化传播[Cultural identity and cross-cultural communication]外语学刊[Journal of Foreign Languages]，2000(1):87—91．<br />
<br />
Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004<br />
<br />
Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪.译者自序[Translator's Preface].文学界(专辑版)[Literature (album edition)].2010(09):36.<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚 四大喜剧 梁实秋译[The Four Great Comedies translated by Liang Shiqiu].北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press].2001<br />
<br />
Shakespeare.莎士比亚． 仲夏夜之梦 朱生豪译．[A Midsummer Night's Dream translated by Zhu Shenghao].上海:上海世界图书出版公司 [Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company],2013．<br />
<br />
Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋 文学与革命.偏见集[Literature and Revolution. The collection of prejudices].南京:正中书局[Nanjing: Zhengzhong Shuji].中华民国二十三年七月.<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
<br />
[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
<br />
[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
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[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
<br />
[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
<br />
[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
<br />
[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .<br />
<br />
==An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==<br />
<br />
<center>肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655</center><br />
<br />
===Abstract:=== <br />
This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and deeply understand the status of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
===摘要：===<br />
本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。<br />
<br />
===Key words:===<br />
descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.<br />
<br />
===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 1 Introduction===<br />
<br />
Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities of translation, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）<br />
<br />
Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）<br />
<br />
In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20) <br />
<br />
However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.1 John MacFarlane====<br />
<br />
In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper ''Mode of Translation'' in the ''Durhram University Journal''. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in ''The Principles of Literary Criticism'' that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)<br />
<br />
====2.2 Firth====<br />
<br />
Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240) <br />
<br />
====2.3 James Holmes====<br />
<br />
With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）<br />
<br />
"He divides translation studies into three categories:<br />
(1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life;<br />
(2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena;<br />
(3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54） <br />
<br />
He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive. <br />
<br />
For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）<br />
<br />
Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14). <br />
<br />
However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.<br />
<br />
====2.4 Polysystem Theory====<br />
<br />
In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）<br />
<br />
Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）<br />
<br />
====2.5 Gideon Toury<br />
<br />
Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）<br />
<br />
This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book ''exploration of translation theory''. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book ''Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond'' is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）<br />
<br />
In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally. <br />
<br />
Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)<br />
<br />
He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.<br />
<br />
====2.6 Snell-Hornby<br />
<br />
In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation. <br />
<br />
Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's ''Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach'' is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)<br />
<br />
===Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies===<br />
<br />
====3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.<br />
<br />
Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97) <br />
<br />
Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：<br />
<br />
(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts. <br />
<br />
However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)<br />
<br />
(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22) <br />
<br />
The example they cited is Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's ''Piao(Gone with the Wind)''. They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98) <br />
<br />
====3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies====<br />
<br />
First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201) <br />
<br />
Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36) <br />
<br />
This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)<br />
<br />
On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice. <br />
Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)<br />
<br />
====3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies====<br />
<br />
In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )<br />
<br />
The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 4 Conclusion=== <br />
<br />
Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.<br />
<br />
Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.<br />
<br />
Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.<br />
<br />
===Chapter 5 Reference===<br />
Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.<br />
<br />
J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.<br />
<br />
Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.<br />
<br />
Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.<br />
<br />
Snell-Hornby.(1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.<br />
<br />
Han Ziman 韩子满，Liu Fang 刘芳（2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]<br />
<br />
Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001).翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive <br />
to the Descriptive Approach].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).<br />
<br />
Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]<br />
<br />
Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).<br />
<br />
Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰.(2002).多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).<br />
<br />
==Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major ;Translation Studies== <br />
<br />
Translation Strategies <br />
<br />
Abstract <br />
<br />
Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.<br />
<br />
Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.<br />
<br />
This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;<br />
Introduction<br />
The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers define them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical significance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)<br />
<br />
Content<br />
<br />
Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classifications from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classification is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classifications. It seems that clear-cut definitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype definitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997)<br />
The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reflect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reflects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)<br />
<br />
The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp fiction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)<br />
Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the definitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few defining characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difficulty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6).<br />
Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or specific) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “specific activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle specific problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by specific techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classified by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).<br />
As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural filtering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.<br />
However, this is not consonant with the dictionary definitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is defined as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) defines translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will influence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identified the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identification, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal significant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can find out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280). Darwish (2008) identifies four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).<br />
However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might influence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difficulty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.<br />
<br />
Conclusion<br />
<br />
In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.<br />
<br />
References<br />
<br />
Translation: An advanced resource book . London, England: Routledge.Hervey, S., Loughridge, M., & Higgins, I. (2006).Thinking German translation: A course in trans-lation method, German to English (2nd ed.). London, England: Routledge. Jääskeläinen, R. (1993). Investigating translation strategies. In S. Tirkkonen-Condit & J. Laffling(Eds.), Recent trends in empirical translation research (pp. 99–120). Joensuu, Finland: Universityof Joensuu.Krings, H. P. (1986). Translation problems and translation strategies of advanced German learnersof French (L2). In J. House & S. Blum-Kulka (Eds.), Interlingual and intercultural communication (pp. 263–76). Tübingen, Germany: Narr.Lörscher, W. (1991). 5. Jiraphatralikhit, J., Klinpoon, S., & Kaewjan, S. (2005). An analysis of strategies in translation of the movie subtitle: Behind the painting.Research Gate, 1, 54-71.--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 07:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201214_trans&diff=11178920201214 trans2020-12-13T17:43:46Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Xu Jia 徐佳 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
In fact, reportage research and composition along with organizing and performing in roving theatrical troupes became one of the principal modes of ”internship” for young writers in the socialist educational system as it emerged in Yan’an.<br />
<br />
Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu were all in their twenties at this time, so they had limited literary experience before the 1940s. Thus for Liu and Yang, the Yan’an years helped define for them what literature is supposed to be from process to product. Qin Mu, however, never went to Yan’an; he spent the entire war in Guangdong, Guangxi and Guizhou. Thus though he had experience with some of these procedures of production in progressive circles in those areas, Qin Mu was not saturated in this kind of cultural environment.<br />
<br />
事实上，在延安出现的社会主义教育体系中，报道文学的研究与创作和组织并参演剧团演出一起，成为青年作家的主要“实习”方式之一。<br />
<br />
杨朔，刘白羽和秦牧当时都是二十来岁，所以他们在四十年代前的文学经验有限。对于刘白羽和杨朔而言，那段延安时光帮助他们定义了文学是如何由形成到产出的。秦牧却没有去过延安，他的整个战争时期都是在广东，广西和贵州度过的。因此，即便他在一些抗战区域有相关经验，秦牧仍然是没有被这种文化环境所浸染的。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
Once socialism or communism took the position of power (as in Yan’an during the war against Japan and then throughout the PRC after 1949) critical prose writing (whether essays or reportage) as it had been practiced during wartime became much more dubious from the point of view of cultural officials, and nonfiction needed to become a vehicle of literary celebration of public, historical achievements.[ See for example Yang Shuo, ”Qian jin, gangtie de dajun” (March Forth, Great Army of Steel, 1949), Zhonghua sanwen zhencang ben, Yang Shuo juan (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1998) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951), Yang Shuo juan 13-17, ”Gebi tan shang de chuntian” (Springtime on the Gobi, 1953), Yang Shuo juan 29-33. ] This is precisely the familiar dilemma of Ding Ling, coming into Yan’an society well trained as a keen critic of her environment. It was an awkward transition, except for those who came into the socialist educational cultural system while still relatively young. To them the business of literature was that of constructing an unprecedented new vision.<br />
<br />
社会主义或者说共产主义曾经处于主导地位（如抗日时期的延安，然后贯穿1949中国成立以来整个时期）批判散文写作（无论是小品文还是报告文学）可以说，它已经在战时经过多次实践，从文化官员的角度来说，它变得更加不可信。纪实文学需要成为公众庆祝和历史成就的文学工具【如：杨朔《钢铁的大军》（前进，钢铁的大军，1949），中华散文珍藏本，杨朔卷（北京：人民文学出版社，1998）25-33；《平常的人》（平常的人，1951）25-33；杨朔卷13-17，《戈壁滩上的春天》（戈壁滩上的春天，1953），阳朔卷29-33】。这恰好是丁玲的困境，参加延安协会，作为同一批人中受到良好训练的敏锐批评家。除了那些参加社会主义教育文化系统但是相对年轻的人，这是一次尴尬的转变。对他们来说，文学事业正在建造一个前所未有的新视野。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:37, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
'''Writers’ changing roles changed literary prose'''<br />
<br />
Each of the three authors I am discussing here was born between 1913 and 1919, only a few short years after the fall of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. They were all in their late teens and early twenties at the outbreak of the war against Japan. Being roughly the same age, they shared the same historical and cultural atmosphere, but being in different locations, engaged in the war in different capacities, their transition into the aesthetics of incongruous lyricism took different paths and thus embodied different tensions.<br />
<br />
'''作者的角色变化改变了文学散文的面貌'''<br />
<br />
我在此探讨的三位作家都出生于1913至1919年间，距清王朝灭亡和中华民国建立仅短短几年时间。抗日战争爆发时，三人都是十几岁到二十几岁。他们年龄相仿，有着相同的历史、文化氛围，但由于身在不同的地方，以不同的身份参加战争，他们向不协调抒情美学转型的路径不同，从而表现出不同的张力。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:09, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''作家角色的变化改变了散文的面貌'''<br />
<br />
我在此探讨的三位作家都出生于1913至1919年之间，是清王朝覆灭和中华民国建立后的短短几年。抗日战争爆发时，三人都是十几岁到二十出头。他们年龄相仿，处于相同的历史和文化氛围下，但由于身在不同的地方，以不同的方式参与战争，他们向不协调抒情美学转型的路径不同，从而表现出不同的张力。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Yang Shuo[ 1913-1968, orig. Yang Shujin(?), of Penglai County in Shandong.] is probably the most ”standard” of the three from the point of view of the Communist Party in that he went to Yan’an early (winter 1937) and worked under the direction of the party’s cultural apparatus for the duration of the war there, in the northwest, and in Guangzhou. Like the reportage writer Huang Gang, he was of the right age for this Yan’an-based period to be his principal formative and educational experience, deeply conditioning his approach and attitude toward writing in the 1950s and 1960s. That being said, Yang Shuo was more concerned with issues of literary quality and symbolic meaning than others writing under the direction of the CP, and this concern colored even his most famous works with puzzling tones of ambivalence and reservation.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Liu Baiyu[ 1916-?, orig. Liu Yuzan, of Beijing. See Niu Yunqing, Liu Baiyu pingzhuan (Chongqing: Chongqing chubanshe, 1995).] arrived in Yan’an relatively early too, and was quickly immersed in its literary activism. Only weeks after his arrival, and though Liu was only 22 at the time, Mao Zedong personally assigned him to lead a five-person escort for the American marine observer Evans Carson to visit the guerilla areas in Northern China (one of a variety of types of ”cultural worker” assignments in the communist base areas). Despite this promising start and occasional contact with Mao, Liu published works that incurred the wrath of some critics and officials, became a target in the Yan’an zhengfeng campaign after Mao’s Talks, and underwent a process of mutual and self-criticism at the Central Party School.<br />
刘柏宇[1916-?, 源自. 刘玉赞，北京. 参见牛云清, 刘柏宇 平专（重庆：重庆出版社，1995).]抵达延安也很早，并很快就投入到了当地的文学活动中去。在他抵达数周后，尽管刘当时才22岁，毛泽东亲自派他带领一个五人护卫队，并陪同美国海军观察员埃文斯·卡森参观中国北部的游击地区（一个派遣各种类型“文化工作者”的共产党基地）。尽管开了一个充满前景的好头以及偶尔会与毛主席接触，刘出版的作品还是引起了某些批评家和政府工作人员的不满，因此，他在毛泽东讲话后成了延安正风运动的目标，并在中央党校进行了互相批评以及自我批评的过程。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Though the result of this painful process was apparently ”successful” (Liu went on to hold important cultural administrative positions in the PRC), it also alienated him from certain elements in the literary community and led him to take an aggressively authoritarian role as the Party secretary of the Writers’ Assocation during the Anti-Rightist Campaign in 1957 and 58. This alienation is occasionally revealed in his sanwen works from that point on.<br />
<br />
Qin Mu[ 1919-199?, orig. Lin Juefu, b. Singapore, of Chenghai County in Guangdong. See Huang Zhuocai, Weng Guangyu and Ai Zhiping, Qin Mu pingzhuan (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1989).] is one more step removed because he did not share the Yan’an experience with Yang and Liu. Though he was active in the literary resistance during the war against Japan, and though his biographers insist that he originally planned to go to Yan’an as early as 1938, he never went there (Huang, Weng and Ai, 1989, 26-27). <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Because he did belong to the age cohort and had the same basic inclinations, he did come into contact with the same organizations (the Communist Party, Wenxie) that the others did, and indeed could even have met Yang Shuo in Canton when Yang was sent there on assignment in 1938. He also engaged in similar types of literary intervention, organizing and performing traveling anti-Japanese theater in the countryside, accompanying troops in the field as a writer, and publishing anti-Japanese and anti-KMT/US zawen in Rear or KMT area newspapers. But his experience during the war was not a community experience: Qin at first alone and later with his wife underwent the trials and tribulations of a writer at wartime as an individual, making his own decisions and contacting organizations only when the opportunity presented itself and he wished to do so.<br />
<br />
因为他确实属于同龄人并且具有相同的基本倾向，他也确实和其他人一样和同一个组织如共产党，文协有过接触，而且有可能甚至已经在1938年杨朔被派往广州执行任务时就已经见过杨朔了。他也参与了类似的文学干预活动，在乡村组织并参演巡回的抗日戏剧，以作家身份随同军队前往战场，并在后方或国民党报上发表了抗日及反抗国民党或美国的杂文。但他在这次战争中的经历并不是一次团体经历，秦牧一开始是一个人，之后和他的妻子作为个人作家在战争时期经历了考验和磨难，在此期间独立做出决定，只在机会到来之时或者需要时才会与组织联系。<br />
<br />
因为他与别人年纪相仿， 基本倾向相同，也都与共产党，文协等组织有过接触，而且有可能甚至已经在1938年杨朔被派往广州执行任务时就已经见过杨朔了。他也参与了类似的文学干预活动，在乡村组织并参演巡回的抗日戏剧，以作家身份随同军队前往战场，并在后方或国民党报上发表了抗日，反抗国民党或抗美的杂文。但他在这次战争中的经历并不是一次团体经历，秦牧一开始是一个人，之后和他的妻子作为个人作家在战争时期经历了考验和磨难，在此期间独立做出决定，只在机会到来之时或者需要时才会与组织联系。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:05, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
Thus there is an especially independent streak about him that made relations between him and the Writer’s Association after 1949 somewhat strained. He was attacked in the 1957 zhengfeng movement, and it was not until 1962 that he joined the Communist Party.<br />
<br />
Thus each of these writers exhibited different tensions as they approached writing after 1949, and particularly during and after the Hundred Flowers Campaign. All of them, however, adopted sanwen as a vehicle to express themselves, and while these essays at time seem on the surface to be pat or fulsome propaganda, they continue to be colored by these at times very personal tensions that often make the essays more compelling reading in spite of themselves.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''Procedures and interests of socialist essays'''<br />
<br />
The sanwen of the late 1950s and early 1960s, because of a variety of different such personal and larger cultural tensions, manifest various kinds of ”incongruous lyricism.” All three of these writers had their essays included in textbooks for junior high school and high school during the 1960s and 70s. But these canonic texts represented only the completion of a gradual process of adjustment and must be viewed alongside earlier, less well-known efforts by these authors as well as their works in other genres, particularly fiction.<br />
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社会散文的发展阶段和关注点<br />
<br />
由于不同的个人冲突和更严重的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样“不和谐的抒情性”。这三位作家的散文均已收录进20世纪六七十年代的中学教材中。这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来看待那些经典文本。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
由于各种各样的个人冲突乃至文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出多样的“不和谐的抒情性”。在20世纪六七十年代的中学和高中教材中，这三位作家的散文均编撰进了课本。然而这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来分析那些经典文本。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
社会散文的发展和关注点<br />
<br />
由于各种个人冲突和愈发剧烈的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样的“不和谐的抒情性”。20世纪六七十年代，这三位作家的三位都被收录进中学教材中。而这些经典文本仅代表调整工作的逐步完成，要正确的看待这些经典文本，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:42, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
'''Friction with leftist aesthetics'''<br />
<br />
In the late 1950s and early 1960s the term sanwen was more frequently associated with ”lyricism” (shuqing) and opposed to ”expository” (shuoli) prose essays. In practice, this is indicated by long descriptive passages, the frequent use of direct address to the reader in the second person as well as rhetorically loaded interrogative, imperative and expressive particles. At particularly rhapsodic moments, socialist sanwen texts take on a fu-like rhetoric, syntactic parallelism and a piling up of listed concrete objects and rich varieties of adverbs and adjectives. One is attempted to associate this attempt at of verbal profusion with certain Republican period stylists like Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo, but the socialist version is much more extravagant both in verbiage and emotional exhibitionism.<br />
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与左派美学的摩擦<br />
<br />
在20世纪50年代末和60年代初，“散文”一词更多地与“抒情性”(抒情)联系在一起，而非“说理性”(说理)。在实践中，这表现在冗长的描述性段落，经常使用第二人称直接称呼读者，以及修辞性的疑问句、祈使句和表达性助词。在狂热表达的时候，社会主义性散文呈现出一种赋式的修辞、句法上的排比，具象堆砌以及华丽的词藻。有人试着将这种语言丰富的尝试与朱自清和俞平伯等某些民国时期风格明显的散文家联系起来，但社会主义性散文在语言和情感显露方面更加丰富。<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:31, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
On the level of imagery, a general fascination with images of light, fire and torches left over from the war period[ Particularly evident in Liu Baiyu’s reportage works from the late 1940s.] remains but in part gives way to a new interest in flower imagery in the 1950s.[ Qin Mu’s essays and some of Yang Shuo’s are filled with varieties of flowers and plants, enjoyed in themselves and as symbols of other things. ] Finally a strategy common to all three writers is to conceive of a vista or an experience as a living landscape painting, emphasizing a magnitude of vision and the accompanying emotional exhilaration. In some cases, these highly visual essays are accompanied with illustrations uncannily consistent with the texts’ visualization of the landscape. <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
'''Yang Shuo'''<br />
<br />
Yang Shuo’s 1959 essay ”The Highest Peak of Taishan”[ Taishan jiding, wr. 1959, from Haishi. Yang, 125-129.] features this kind of overt reference to landscape painting. The text simply narrates the author’s ascent of the famous Shandong mountain, but the narrative structure of the climb is interwoven with a figurative structure consisting of three elements. The first is the traditional landscape painting motif: ”All the way from the foothills, looking closely at the mountain landscape, I felt like what was before me was not the lord of the Five Famous Mountains, but more like a green and blue landscape painting of astounding size,” (Yang, 125) an idea he develops as a conceit with figurative descriptive language. Second, Yang writes ”after a while, I began to feel that I was not only looking at a landscape painting, but randomly flipping through a historical manuscript.” (Yang, 126)<br />
<br />
'''杨朔'''<br />
<br />
杨朔于1959年创作的散文《泰山极顶》[《泰山极顶》创作于1959年，选自《海市》。 杨，125-129。]就是这种对山水画的公开引用。 文字只是讲述了作者在著名的山东山峰上的登顶，但攀登的叙事结构与由三个要素组成的形象结构交织在一起。 第一个是传统的山水画主题：“一路上从山脚往上爬，细看山景，我觉得挂在眼前的不是五岳独尊的泰山，却像一幅规模惊人的青绿山水画。”（Yang，125）。他将这种想法发展为一种比喻性的描述性语言。然后杨写道：“一时间，我又觉得自己不仅是在看画卷，却又象是在零零乱乱翻着一卷历史稿本。” （杨，126）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
This in reference to the calligraphy of famous visitors to the mountain carved into its sides and the legends and stories about them. The third and last layer of figuration is the sense that the author is not climbing a mountain, but climbing into the sky.<br />
<br />
The touristy desire to see the sunrise from Taishan’s peak introduced at the essay’s outset and which teases the reader occasionally throughout the text is deftly frustrated in the rhetorical pursuit of what to the author is a higher aim: the recontainment of a Taishan travelogue into the extolling of the historical achievements of socialism. Once he has passed through the Southern Gate of Heaven, the author sees the Shandong landscape spread out at his feet, but what he notices are the grand commune wheat fields (amber waves of grain) as opposed to patchwork agricultural quilt of yore, and smoky plumes in the distance are not scattered homes but factories.<br />
<br />
这指的是著名游客在山上刻的书法以及他们的传说和故事。该比喻的第三层，也是最后一层指的意象不是作者在爬山，而是在攀向天空。 <br />
<br />
文章一开始就介绍了游客想从泰山山顶看日出的期望，这种期望偶尔会在整篇文章中戏弄读者，但在追求对作者来说是更高的目标的过程中，这种期望被巧妙地挫败了，即将泰山游记重新纳入那些值得赞美的社会主义历史成就中。一旦穿过南天门，作者就能看到在他脚下绵延的山东风景，但他注意到的不是往昔像被子一样拼凑的田块，而是壮观的公社麦田(琥珀色的谷浪)，远处像羽毛般的迷雾也不是分散的家庭，而是工厂。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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山的两侧雕刻了著名游客的书法，这里参考了他们的书法，以及他们的传奇故事。第三层比喻，也是最后一层比喻，意不在于作者爬山，而是在于攀登高空。<br />
<br />
文章一开始就介绍：游客想从泰山顶观赏日出，然而在整篇文章中，作者为了追求更高目标：将泰山游记重塑为对社会主义历史成就的颂扬，灵活使用修辞，有时会逗弄读者，让读者受挫。游客一旦穿过南天门，作者就能看到整个山东省的美景在他脚下，但是作者却把注意力放在宽阔的公社麦田（琥珀色的麦浪），麦田对面是一块块农田，还有从远处飘散的羽毛似的迷雾，这迷雾不是从飘出来的，而是从工厂里出来的。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Though the weather had been clear at night near the peak when the party went to bed early in order to get up in time for the sunrise, fog and rain overnight linger to create an overcast sky at dawn. But author’s socialist/communist landscape epiphany of the previous evening eclipses the banal tourist wish for a beautiful sunrise – he has seen ”another kind of” (metaphysical) sunrise, that of the Chinese people/nation on the horizon.<br />
<br />
In his essay about Kunming’s camellias,[ ”Chahua fu” (Ode to the Camellia) written 1961, from Dongfeng di yi zhi. Yang 134-37.] Yang Shuo opens with a discussion with an artist friend about what kind of painting would show the face of the ”motherland” (zuguo). He then turns to his trip to Kunming after returning from travels abroad.<br />
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为了（第二天）能按时起来看日出，游客们很早就上床睡觉了，夜晚在靠近顶峰的地方，天气很是晴朗，但是在黎明时分，一夜之间水雾缭绕，天空乌云密布 。但作者前一天晚上对的社会主义/共产主义景观的顿悟，使平庸的游客对期望看到美丽日出的愿望黯然失色--他看到了地平线上的中国人/民族的“另一种”（形而上的）日出。<br />
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在他关于昆明的山茶花的文章中，[《茶花赋》写于1961年，摘自《东风第一枝》. 杨134-37] 杨朔开篇就写道与一位画家朋友讨论什么样的画能展示 "祖国"的面貌。 接着，他转而谈到从国外旅行回来后的昆明之行。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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顶峰附近晚上的天气已经晴朗，为了第二天能够早起赶上日出，这时聚会早早就结束了。雨雾逗留一整夜，黎明时变得灰蒙蒙的。但是作者前一天傍晚的社会主义/共产主义景观顿悟掩盖了普通游客对美丽日出的渴望，他看到了“另一种”（抽象的）日出，即地平线上的中国人/民族的日出。<br />
<br />
杨朔写关于昆明插茶花的散文时 [《茶花赋》出自《东风第一枝》杨朔134-37]，他先与一位艺术家朋友讨论哪种描绘可以展现“祖国”的面貌。之后，他谈论了从国外旅行回来后的昆明之行。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:36, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
Especially as a ”northerner” he is struck by the beauty of the red camellia flowers around the city and in Huating Temple, where he is escorted by Jin Zhiwen, the landscaper. His attention is drawn to one variety called ”Child’s Face” tongmian. As is almost invariably the case in Yang Shuo essays, the subject he has chosen becomes an opportunity for the author to contemplate the symbolic resonances of its characteristics – in this case the camellia’s sensitivity to proper care, environment and natural enemies, but also the fact that great trees centuries old have been carefully cultivated with hundreds and even thousands of blossoms. A detailed description of the gardener himself provides the author with the key to the signified:<br />
<br />
特别是作为一个北方人，他完全被这座城市周围，以及华亭寺内美丽的山茶花迷住了，在那里，景观设计师金志文护送着他。他的注意力也被一种名叫“孩童脸”的通棉所吸引。杨朔的散文中，大多总是如此，他选择的主题让作者有机会思考其特征，产生象征性共鸣-这种情况下，山茶花需要适当照顾，对环境和自然天敌很敏感，但事实也如此，百年老树都受到精心培育，开出数百甚至数千朵花。对园丁本人详尽描述也是作者了解其重要意义的关键。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:48, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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特别是作为一个北方人，他完全被遍布在这座城市周围，以及华亭寺内的美丽山茶花迷住了，这一路有该市景观设计师金志文陪同着他。他的注意力也被一种名叫“孩童脸”的通棉所吸引。杨朔的散文中，大多总是如此，他选择的主题让作者有机会思考其特征，产生象征性共鸣-这种情况下，山茶花需要适当照顾，对环境和自然天敌很敏感，但事实也如此，百年老树都受到精心培育，开出数百甚至数千朵花。园丁本人的详尽描述也是作者了解所指之物的关键。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:58, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
I fervently gazed at his hands, hands covered with mud-stained calluses. Then I looked at his face, the wrinkles at the corners of his eyes were cut deep, and it was not necessary to ask about his background: I could guess that he was a middle aged man who had been through a lot. If he waled away from you and into the crowd, he would vanish immediately and it would be very hard to find him again – he was just that kind of very ordinary laborer. But it is just this kind of person, month after month, year after year, exerting mind and body, cultivating flowers and plants with all his effort, beautifying our lives. This is how beauty is created. (Yang, 136)<br />
<br />
我热切地注视着他的双手，那双手满是带泥的茧子。然后我看了看他的脸，他眼角的皱纹已经很深了。我没有必要再追问他的背景，因为我可以猜出他是一个饱受风霜的中年男人。如果他现在转身离开钻进人群里，他会很快消失在人海中，要再找到他就很难了——他就是这样一个十分普通的劳动者。但是正是这样普通的劳动者日复一日，年复一年的辛勤劳作，用身心浇灌花朵和树木，美化我们的生活。美就是这样被创造出来的。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:02, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我热切地注视着他的手，那双手布满了沾满泥土的老茧。 然后我看了看他的脸，他眼角的皱纹很深。不用问他的背景， 我可以猜到他是一个饱经沧桑的中年男人。 如果他从你身边晃晃悠悠地走到人群中，他就会立刻消失在人海中，再想找到他就很难了--他就是那种很普通的劳动者。 但就是这样一个人，月复一月，年复一年，耗费着身心，用他的全部心血培育着花草，美化着我们的生活。 美就是这样被创造出来的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
When author observes a group of schoolchildren who have come to see the camellias, the bond is cemented and the ”paint the face of the nation” riddle is solved – paint the Child Face Camelia.<br />
<br />
What is incongruous in Yang Shuo’s lyricism, in many other examples in addition to these, is that no matter how transparent the symbolism and fervent the message of his essay, there is almost always slight ambivalence introduced by negative elements at the fringes: why does the glorification of socialist progress in ”Taishan’s Highest Peak” have to come at the expense of the famous sunrise? What has Jin Zhiren ”been through” that has deepened his wrinkles, and why should that pain be related to the creation of beauty?<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
'''Liu Baiyu'''<br />
<br />
Liu Baiyu’s transition toward sanwen in the PRC came from the direction of reportage literature. Liu had established some reputation as a novelist on the literary scene through key connections he had made with Ba Jin, Zhang Tianyi, Ye Yiqun and other major figures in the 1930s. But by 1949 it was his reportage collections, including Around the Northeast, The Light Shines Down on Shenyang, Cutting across the Central Plains, and The Torches Glow Red in the Yangtse River that were some of the best known works by a communist writer during the civil war in the late 1940s. <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
The late 1950s text ”Lamplight” revisits the experience of the battlefield in a much more peaceful China. ”Lamplight” has a forceful, shrill rhetoric in its development of the image of glowing light through a number of different contexts, from war to socialist economic construction without losing the sense of militant struggle that informed the image of light for Liu from the beginning. [ ”Denghuo” (Lamplight), Liu Baiyu, Hong manao ji (Red agate) (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 1983) 5-11. ] Evidently Liu, though he holds influential positions in the literary establishment of the time, feels alienated by certain elements on the literary scene, particularly in regard to the stigmatization of the experience of the battlefield:<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
. . . nowadays some people treat the subject of war, regardless of right or wrong, regardless of green red black or white always make it look bloody, dark and horrible! They call this ”through the soldier’s eyes,” ”foxhole realism” Hai! This makes those of us who have strapped puttees on our calves and have had the smell of gunpowder about the shoulders want to laugh our heads off. What can you do? There are brave soldiers who fight for what’s right; there are counter-revolutionary murderers; and there are cowardly traitors. Since there are different kinds of soldiers, there have to be different soldier points of view, and there must be different kinds of ”foxhole reality.” Perhaps there are those who would criticize me: how did I get from lamplight to this argument about war, aren’t I getting way off track? Actually, no. The lamplight I am talking about may be a small matter, but it really is a reality of life at war. Getting back to the subject, on the chill wilderness of the Songhua river, trudging through winter snows, wading through summer rapids, from lamplight I was able to understand a certain kind of warmth. (Liu, 7-8)<br />
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...现如今，有些人对待战争话题上，无论对错，不分黑白，总把它们弄得血腥，黑暗又恐怖！他们称之为“通过士兵的眼睛”，“现实主义散兵坑”！这让我们那些腿上绑着绑腿，肩上扛着火药捧腹大笑。你可以做些什么？有勇敢的士兵为正义而战；有反革命的凶手；并且有懦弱的叛国贼。有不同种类的战士就应该有不同种的观点，还得要有不同种类的“现实主义散兵坑”。也许有些人会批评我：我怎么能从那些明亮的地方得出这些关于战争的言论，那我不是跑题了吗？其实上并没有。我在说的点也许是个小问题，但这确实映射出的是战争中实际生活。回到主题，在松花江寒冷的荒野上，穿越冬日的雪地，穿越夏日的急流，从光照下，我能够体会到某种温暖。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:30, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
"The Brilliance of Spring,"[”Qingchun de shanguang,” written 1959, in Hong manao ji, 23-33.] a lengthy, fu-like essay extolling ten years of socialism in China, manifests many of the distinguishing characteristics of Liu’s post-1949 sanwen. Though written in the wake of the Anti-Rightist Campaign, it casts no shadow on the essay and though there is flower imagery, significantly, it does not emphasize diversity (as in ”hundred flowers”). At about 6,000 characters, it is also much longer than most of Yang Shuo’s essays, which are usually about half that long, particularly those most revered and anthologized. ”The Brilliance of Spring” does not start out with a clearly-defined topic; the occasion or motivation of its composition did not become obvious to me until near the end.<br />
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"春光灿烂"（又名《青春的闪光》，写于1959年，载自《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。）这是一篇颂扬中国十年来社会主义发展的长篇巨作，表现了1949年后其散文的显著特点。即使写于反右运动之后，但其并未受其影响，虽然辞藻华丽，但并未没有强调多样性（如 "百花齐放"）。文章字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在3000字左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 "春光灿烂 "一开始并没有明确的主题，制造结尾我才明白它的创作场合和动机。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"春天的辉煌"，[《庆春德山岗》，写于1959年，载《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。]这是一篇颂扬中国社会主义十年的长篇文章，表现了刘勰1949年后散文的许多显著特点。 虽然写于反右运动之后，但没有给文章蒙上阴影，虽然有花的意象，但显著的是，它没有强调多样性（如 "百花"）。 它的字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在一半左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 "春光灿烂 "一开始并没有明确的主题，它的创作场合或动机直到接近尾声时我才明白。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:23, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
The visualization with which the text begins juxtaposes a dawn construction scene complete with a handsome, rugged construction worker in Tian’anmen square with author’s memories of other occasions when he was ”right here, in this spot!” including most significantly, a vision of a Japanese tank rolling up from Qianmen, its treads gouging scars in the ground. Liu also includes memories of the entry of the People’s Liberation Army into Beijing, and the ceremony at which Mao Zedong officially established the People’s Republic, but the author moves from one impression-layer to the next vaguely and ambiguously, punctuated with the refrain ”Here! It was right here!”<br />
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这篇文章以视觉化形式开始，黎明时分，建筑工地上有一个帅气但是衣服破烂的建筑工人在天安门，伴随着作者其他场景的记忆，当他就在“那里，那个位置！”其中就一个很重要的回忆是，一个日本坦克从乾门进入，经过断层泥的地板。刘白羽还有些记忆是关于人民解放军回北京，和毛泽东宣布中国人民共和国成立大典的开幕式，但是作者仅是从一个印象层模糊的转到下一个，吃力的说：“那儿，就在那。”--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 13:18, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
Liu makes a conspicuous gesture away from the scene of Tian’anmen to other significant spaces including oilfields in the Western deserts, a poignant scene of a mother sending her son off to the Korean war, Anshan the ”city of steel,” a humble Party meeting among lumberjacks taking place in a shack deep in the forest far from Beijing, and other sites of significant material and spiritual progress in the PRC. As the essay progresses, a new motif is picked up from the contemporary Tian’anmen scene and repeated with increasing frequency: the ”radiant red face and brilliant eyes” of the young socialist citizens whose verbal pictures Liu paints. There is much hyperbole and the extraordinary breadth of subject matter, convering ten years of socialist achievement packaged in spatial-visual tableaux, like a memorial display case or monument, which was the usual strategy of essays and reportage about the Korean War.<br />
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刘白羽很明显地从天安门这一场景转向其他的景色描写，包括西部沙漠的油田，一个母亲送别儿子去参加朝鲜战争的辛酸场景，“钢都”鞍山，远离北京的深山密林中召开的一次党员会议以及其他的中国的重要的物质遗迹以及以及精神进步。随着文章的不断推进，一个新的主题从当代天安门的场景中产生，并以越来越高的频率重复着。在刘白羽的描述中，年轻的社会主义公民“红光满面，双眼炯炯有神”的口头画面。夸张的成分越多，题材的广度就非同一般，将十年的社会主义成就用空间和视觉的表象来包装起来，就像纪念展柜或纪念碑一样，这是有关朝鲜战争的文章和报道的惯用策略。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 10:52, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Despite the desire to come into close contact with the masses through genuine experiences, it was more common for writers to come into contact with workers, peasants and soldiers through the organizational activities and connections of the Communist Party. In Liu Baiyu’s essays from the 1950s and 60s, you can feel the author incongruously straining to make the most of his experience (straining to maximize its feeling of authenticity) and the characters he describes.[ ”Xie zai taiyang chu sheng de shihou” (Written as the Sun Begins to Rise), Hong manao ji 34-52 [written 1959?]. ] On the level of subject matter, since the (model) workers etc. he writes about are models and leaders, already part of the (embodiments of the) local Communist Party administrative apparatus, they too are straining to give the correct impression, put the right spin on their experiences and ideas, to behave in the way expected of them.<br />
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尽管渴望通过真实的体验来密切联系群众，但作家更多的是通过共产党的组织活动和联系来接触工农兵。 读刘白羽在上个世纪五六十年代创作的文章中，你可以感觉到他为了使自身的经历（努力使其真实感最大化）和他所描述的人物发挥最大作用所做的努力是不太协调的。(《写在太阳初升的时候》，Hong manao ji 34-52 [写于1959年？]) 在主体层面上，由于他所写的（模范）工人等都是模范和领袖，已经是（体现）地方共产党行政机关的一部分，他们也在努力给人以正确的印象，把自己的经验和思想正确地表达出来，按照人们所期望的方式去做。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 15:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
'''Qin Mu'''<br />
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Qin Mu’s case might be distinguishable from the others by virtue of the fact that he established himself as a satirical (zawen) columnist during the civil war, and of course satire in general had to go after 1949.[ Interestingly, Qin Mu continued to write zawen in the 1950s and beyond, publishing a very popular collection in 1960 entitled Yihai shibei (Gathering Shells by the Sea of Art). By then Qin’s zawen were not combative, but expository in nature, reflections on principles of artistic creation, so in a way Qin had redefined the zawen genre for himself. The sanwen collection Hua cheng was published at roughly the same time as Yihai shibei and was distinguished by the author himself as ”more lyrical” than the ”expository” pieces in Yihai shibei. Comparing the essays therein with those of Hua cheng, one is struck by formal differences (the Yihai shibei pieces are much shorter than those in Hua cheng) and by the almost complete lack of figurative or descriptive language in Yihai shibei. However difficult it might be for us to define the differences between zawen and sanwen now, it seems clear that Qin Mu had a clear idea in his own literary practice.] Fortunately he had been accustomed to making fun of Americans and the Guomindang which continued to be safe and politically correct targets in the 1950s, but he had to find positive things to write about as well, and considering his background and the ambiguity of his relationship with the Communist Party, this must have been a difficult transition for him, more difficult than it was for those who were already linked up with the party for years in Yan’an and other base areas.<br />
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秦牧的情况可能与其他人有所区别，因为他在内战期间确立了自己的讽刺专栏作家的地位，当然讽刺一般都要在1949年以后才开始。[有趣的是，秦牧在1950年代及以后继续写杂文，1960年出版了一本很受欢迎的诗集，名为《逸海市北》（艺术之海收集贝壳）。此时的秦杂文不是好斗的，而是本质上的说明文，是对艺术创作原则的反思，在某种程度上，秦对杂文体裁进行了重新定义。三文集《华城》与《逸海市北》大致同一时间出版，作者认为《华城集》比《逸海市北》中的“说明文”作品“更抒情”。与《华城》的散文相比，形式上的差异（亦海市北比《华城》短得多）以及《沂海市北》几乎完全没有比喻或描写的语言。不管现在如何界定扎文和三文之间的区别有多困难，秦穆在自己的文学实践中似乎有一个清晰的想法。]幸运的是，他习惯于取笑美国人和20世纪50年代仍然是安全和政治正确目标的国民党，但他必须找到积极的一面写的东西也要写，考虑到他的背景并且与共产党交好，这对他来说一定是一个艰难的过渡，比那些在延安等根据地已经与党联系多年的人来说，难度更大。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In his 1960 essay ”Earth,” (Tudi), Qin Mu makes a figurative connection between earth how handfuls of earth can serve as symbols of wealth, power, sovereignty, political positions. Part of the visualization involves (like Liu Baiyu) aerial views. As war with its arial reconnaisance and bombing transformed the concept of China’s space into a contiguous whole rather than a network of locales, the wider availability of air travel in the 1950s added a visual dimension to this contiguity that reinforces the connection between earth, China’s physical expance, the map of China, and the concept of nation:<br />
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秦牧在他1960年发表的论文《地球》（土地）中，将地球上的少数几个人如何象征着财富，权力，主权，政治地位作为形象的联系。 可视化的一部分涉及（如刘白玉）鸟瞰图。 随着战争的轰炸和轰炸将中国空间的概念转变为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，1950年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了视觉上的意义，从而加强了地球与中国物质扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系 。<br />
--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:57, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在他1960年的文章《土地》中，秦牧把土地比喻成财富、权力、主权和政治地位的象征。部分可视化包括(如刘白玉)空中视图。随着战争的勘察和轰炸，中国的太空的概念转变成一个连续的整体,而不是一个地区的网络,航空旅行的更广泛的可用性在1950年代增加了一个视觉维度，强化了地球之间的联系,中国物质扩张,中国的地图,和国家的概念:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:11, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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秦牧在1960年的文章《地球》（Tudi）中，将地球如何撮合成财富、权力、主权、政治立场的象征做了形象化的联系。 部分视觉化涉及（像刘白羽一样）鸟瞰图。 由于战争的侦察和轰炸将中国的空间概念转化为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，20世纪50年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了一个视觉维度，加强了地球、中国的物理扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:47, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Once I gazed out an airplane window straight down upon the Pearl River delta; the heavens were crystal clear and I looked down and couldn’t help but cheer out loud because the Pearl River delta looked so magnificent that words couldn’t even describe it. The network of rivers and lakes shimmered in the sunlight while the earth looked like a piece of dark green velvet. The roads seemed as straight as if they had been sliced with a knife while the fields looked as neat as a chessboard. Wow! A hundred thousand years ago people looked to the skies for gods and miracles, but today the real miracle is taking place on the earth below.[ Qin Mu, Hua cheng (Guangzhou: Zuojia chubanshe, 1961) 17-18.]<br />
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一次，透过飞机窗外，我凝视着珠江三角洲：天空清澈见底，我低头一看，不禁大声欢呼起来，因为珠江三角洲看起来壮观无比，简直无可言喻。河流和湖泊交织着在阳光下闪烁，而大地看起来像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路看起来笔直的像是用刀子划的一样，而田野看起来像棋盘一样整齐。哇！十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神灵和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹发生在地下。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:51, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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有一次，我透过飞机的窗户凝视着珠江三角洲;天上一片清澈，我低头一看，不禁欢呼起来，因为珠江三角洲是如此的壮丽，无法用语言来形容。河流和湖泊交织在阳光下闪闪发光，而大地看起来就像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路笔直得好似用刀划过一样，田野整齐得像棋盘一样。哇!十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神灵和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹就发生在这片土地下。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Many of Qin Mu’s essays in the collection Hua cheng (City of Flowers) imaginatively recreate an (occasionally ancient) historical scene, in a specific place the essay focuses on that the author is observing today (or at least gives that impression) like Liu Baiyu’s ”right here on this spot” refrain. In his 1956 essay ”Lyric on the Altar of the God of Grain,” the earthen, square altar referred to in the title is in Zhongshan park in Beijing, and was where aristocrats were traditionally enfoeffed by the emperor.[ Qin, 21-31.] In many ways, this is a continuation of the previous essay (”Earth”), extending reflections on the material symbolism of earth and the glorious wisdom of the ancients.<br />
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在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再现了一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今仍能观察到的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，是传统上皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是对前一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:22, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再创造一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今正在观察的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，在古代是皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是上一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:42, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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This essay distinguishes itself by its relentless return to the altar itself, its self-conscious admiration of the brilliance of the ancients (with overtones of ethnic and cultural pride and reconciliation with the premodern culture of China) as well as a shrilly specific emphasis on unity as territorial sovereignty (”Once we liberate Taiwan and a few coastal islands, [our territorial] unity’s scope will be even more unprecedented.” 30)<br />
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Qin Mu is at his most characteristic, though, in writing educational essays (zhishi xiaopin). Also known as scientific xiaopin, the character of such writings would seem to be defined by their subject matter. [ Another writer of the post-Hundred Flowers period that writes a lot in this vein is Ma Nancun (Deng Tuo), whose popular Yanshan yehua column in Beijing Wanbao lasted for years and was published in four volumes in book form.] But I would like to suggest that the transmission of modern scientific knowledge in these texts is not an end in itself, but rather one answer to the question of ”what to write about?” in socialist sanwen. And it conveys (in addition to the knowledge or information), a certain scientistic, post-industrial atmosphere of enthusiasm that is a style as much as content.<br />
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这篇文章的与众不同之处在于，它不遗余力地回到祭坛本身，自觉地仰慕古人的辉煌(带有民族和文化自豪感以及与中国前现代文化结合的色彩)，且明确强调领土的主权统一。("一旦我们解放台湾和几个沿海岛屿，[我们的领土]统一的范围将更加空前绝后"。30)<br />
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秦牧最有特色的是教育随笔（知识小品），也被称为科学随笔，这种随笔的特点由其主题决定。[ 百花齐放·百家争鸣期后，另一位在这方面写作较多的作家是马南邨(邓拓)，他在北京晚报上的《燕山夜话》专栏持续多年撰写文章，并出版了四卷书。] 但我想说的是，在这些文字中传递现代科学知识本身并不是目的，而是对社会散文中 "写什么？"这个问题的一个回答。而且它传达的（除了知识或信息外）是某种科学的、后工业化的热情环境，它展示风格的同时，也表达了内容。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Qin Mu’s ”Xing xia” (Under the Stars, 1958)[ Qin, 49-60.] begins as a sweeping exploration of stars, moving from the universal experience of gazing at the skies and wondering about the questions of existence to the cultural perspectives of the beliefs and lore of the ancients and finally to the scientific perspective of the astronomical knowledge gathered in recent centuries, decades and years that confirm the author’s faith in science and industrial modernity. The scientific knowledge in fact becomes a context or background against which to look back with some disdain at the superstitious quality of premodern beliefs, not only about the structure of the cosmos, but the extensions of such speculation into areas of human destiny and supernatural beliefs.<br />
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秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式开始，从凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，到古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式作为开端，然后写到凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，又至古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Reading this essay one can see that one of the keys to Qin Mu’s popularity lay not in his conspicuously Marxist-Leninist politics, but in his sweeping, timeless, universal and seemingly all-inclusive scope of vision and contemplation. Many or most of his essays give an exhilarating sense of vastness.<br />
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But this essay does not reach its completion without being recontained, as are Yang Shuo’s landscape meditations, in a political context. Written in the early years of Soviet space exploration, it seems obvious to Qin Mu that Soviet success in this area and the US’s failure is a clear sign of the direction of history. He argues with almost excessive rhetorical force that the failure of space exploration and science in general under capitalism signifies the inability of the capitalist world view to free itself from outmoded beliefs, while socialism is easily and innocently aligned with scientific achievement and progress.<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Qin Mu’s often shrill diatribes on historical materialism and Marxism-Leninism in educational essays (zhishi xiaopin) like this one, or about the history of overseas Chinese or the cosmic theories of warring states philosophers is an incongruous, inverted reflection of Qin’s perennial status as an outsider to the PRC socialist literary orthodoxy, being victimized by literary officials like Liu Baiyu in the anti-rightist campaign and only being admitted to the Communist Party in 1962. It is in his attempts to contain an ambitious gaze that can encompass human and natural history and the furthest reaches of space in a historicized polemic about the supremacy of Marxism-Leninism in the post war years that the incongruity of Qin Mu’s lyricism manifests itself.<br />
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秦牧经常在教育论文中这样尖锐地抨击历史唯物主义和马列主义(知识小品文)，或海外华人史或战国哲学家的宇宙理论，认为这是一个不协调的，颠倒的反映。秦牧作为中国社会主义中正统的局外人，在反右运动中遭到刘白宇这样的文学官员迫害，直到1962年才被共产党接纳。他试图以一个包罗万象的视角，用抒情的方式表达对战后马克思主义主导地位的辩驳。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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秦牧在这样的教育论文（知识小品）中，经常尖锐地抨击历史唯物主义和马列主义，或是关于华侨历史或战国哲人的宇宙理论，认为这些是不协调的。秦牧作为中国社会主义文学正统派的局外人，在反右运动中受到刘白羽等文学官员的迫害，直到1962年才被共产党接纳。正是在他试图在一场关于战后马列主义至高无上的历史化论战中，包含一种能够涵盖人类历史和自然历史以及最遥远的空间的雄心勃勃的目光，秦牧抒情诗的不协调性才得以体现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''Conclusion'''<br />
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The question of whether the ”real” world corresponds to the world these authors describe and narrate is moot; through the act of seeing or imagining the world as they do, they helped create the socialist world. These authors did not slavishly obey orders, writing from formulae they were provided by superiors and other writers; they willingly engaged in the procedures of research and composition that were part and parcel of communist education and literary practice; what they wrote followed from their training, it was the logical and organic extension of that training. They helped write the socialist world into existence.<br />
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'''结论'''<br />
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"真实"世界是否与作者们描述和叙述的世界相符，这个问题是无意义的；通过观察或者想象这个世界，他们帮助创造了社会主义世界。这些作者不盲目地服从命令，按照上级和其他的作者提供的公式写作；他们自愿从事研究和写作，这些是共产主义教育和文学实践的重要组成部分。作者们所写的是训练之后的结果，是训练的逻辑和有机的延伸。他们帮助建立了社会主义世界。<br />
<br />
"真实"世界是否与作者们描述和叙述的世界相符，这个问题是没有意义的；通过向他们一样去观察或者想象这个世界，他们就帮助创造了社会主义世界，这些作者不盲目地服从命令，按照上级和其他的作者提供的模板进行写作；他们自愿从事研究和写作，这些是共产主义教育和文学实践的重要组成部分。他们帮助建立了社会主义世界，他们帮助把社会主义世界写成了现实。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
Slavoj Zizek’s interpretation of Pascal that belief can actually emerge from deliberately going through the motions of ritual and imitating the faithful, and Zizek’s further point that ”reality” in any society is produced by ideological fantasies peculiar to it, suggest a similar interpretation of socialist sanwen.[ Slavoj Zizek, The Sublime Object of Ideology (London: Verso, 1989) 38-43.] Going through the ritual motions of faith, the individual already believes without realizing it, he argues, and then it is only a matter of time before that belief gradually takes control of the conscious mind. But within that ideological fantasy that is the representation of social reality, there are at the fringes and in the shadows suggestions of the impossibility of the vision. What I have referred to as the ”incongruous” in Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu are those almost unconscious suggestions tainting the pristine vision.<br />
<br />
斯拉沃伊·齐泽克对帕斯卡的解释是，信仰实际上可以从刻意通过仪式和对信徒的模仿中产生，齐泽克进一步指出，任何社会中的“现实”都是由它特有的意识形态幻想产生的，这暗示了对社会主义散文的类似解释。[斯拉瓦伊·齐泽克，《崇高的意识形态》(伦敦:Verso, 1989) 38-43]他认为，通过信仰的仪式活动，个体已经在没有意识到的情况下相信了它，而这种信仰对于意识的控制只是时间问题。但是在意识形态的幻想中，社会现实代表在边缘和阴影中暗示着这种幻想的不可能性。我所说的杨烁、刘白羽和秦木作品中的“不协调”，是指那些几乎无意识的玷污了原始视觉的暗示。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 15:35, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
Reading literature from the first seventeen years of the People’s Republic of China requires as much attention to practices within the socialist orthodoxy as to dissidents and victims. Against the prevalent view that socialist literary culture in China was a self-contained system introduced from the Soviet Union as if into a vacuum, socialist sanwen speaks to the mutability of that literary culture and the voice of individual writers in its development, however much sanwen may have been used for propaganda and indoctrination, it retained an ambiguity and reserve inherent in the genre since before the War gainst Japan. Above all, I think this speaks to the enormous importance of various forms of sanwen in modern Chinese literary culture in general, and any general apprach to the modernn Chinese essay must further explore the legacy of socialist sanwen, particularly as today’s sanwen writers for the most part read the works of Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu in their middle school textbooks.<br />
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中华人民共和国成立后的十七年，阅读文学要求将足够的注意力放在社会主义正统者、持不同政见者以及深受两者折磨的人的实践之中。当时流行的观点是中国的社会主义文学是从苏联引进的一个真空的封闭系统，与此相反，社会主义散文展现了文学文化和不断发展的个体作家的声音的可变性，然而，在抗日战争之前，很多散文曾经可能被用来宣传和灌输观念，所以它含有该体裁内在的模棱两可和含蓄的特点。综上所述，我认为这体现了不同形式的散文在中国现代文学文化总体上极其重要，任何对中国现代散文的进行的总体研究必须进一步探索社会主义散文遗产，特别是现今大部分的的散文家都会在中学课本上阅读杨朔、刘白羽和秦牧的作品。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 12:59, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中华人民共和国成立后的十七年，阅读文学要求将足够的注意力放在社会主义正统者、持不同政见者以及深受两者折磨的人的实践之中。当时流行的观点是就像至于一个真空环境之下一样，中国的社会主义文学是从苏联引进的一个自我封闭系统，与此相反，社会主义散文展现了文学文化和不断发展的个体作家的声音的可变性，然而，在抗日战争之前，很多散文曾经可能被用来宣传和灌输观念，所以它含有该体裁内在的模棱两可和含蓄的特点。综上所述，我认为这体现了不同形式的散文在中国现代文学文化总体上极其重要，任何对中国现代散文的进行的总体研究必须进一步探索社会主义散文遗产，特别是现今大部分的的散文家都会在中学课本上阅读杨朔、刘白羽和秦牧的作品。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 15:40, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''Tradition as Construct and the Search for a Modern Identity: A Reading of Traditional Gestures in Modern Chinese Essays of Place ''' [ This article is an extended version of the paper “The Self in the Landscape: Chinese Essays of Place in the Republican Era (1912-1949)” delivered at the conference The Modern Chinese Literary Essay: Defining the Self in the 20th Century, held in Achern, Germany, August 25-27, 2000.]<br />
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''Alexandra R. Wagner''<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst the Sound of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe, 1923), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (Diaotai de chunzhou, 1932), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from the Langya Mountain” (Langyashan youji, 1936) are three modern Chinese essays in which place and memory serve as the main textual and conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and search for meaning unfolds. Examining these “essays of place” with a focus on the dynamics between place, on the one hand, and personal as well as cultural memory, on the other, challenges the prevailing views of modern travel or landscape essays as either lyrical evocations of scenery, backdrops for personal experiences and thoughts, or sources for information on locations.<br />
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““作为建构的传统和对现代身份的寻求：对中国现代地方杂文中传统姿态的解读”” [本文是民国时期（1912-1949）中国地方散文《风景中的自我》的扩展版。在2000年8月25日至27日于德国阿彻恩举行的“中国现代文学论文：定义20世纪的自我”会议上发表。亚历山大·瓦格纳（Alexandra R.Wagner）<br />
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'''摘要''' 朱自清的“桨声与灯影中的秦淮河”（桨声与灯影里的的秦淮河，1923年），郁达夫的“钓台春日”（钓台的春昼，1932），以及方令儒的“琅琊山” （琅琊山游记，1936年）是三篇中国现代散文，其中，地点和记忆是主要的文本和概念元素，通过这些文本和概念，作者进行了身份认同和对意义的寻求。审视这些“地方散文”，一方面侧重于地点与个人记忆以及文化记忆之间的动态关系，另一方面，挑战现代游记或风景散文的主流观点，认为它们要么是对风景的抒情，要么是个人经验和思想的背景，要么是地点信息的来源。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:13, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
The aggregation of cultural and personal memory in these essays foregrounds the skepticism and uncertainty that characterize the mindset of Chinese writers situated in a transitional period moving from tradition to modernity. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the essays are ultimately texts on writing as a continuous and open-ended exploration. <br />
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Examining the “traditional gestures” central to the essays by Zhu, Yu, and Fang most prominently demonstrates this questioning of apparent meaning. Activities closely tied to places, such as climbing mountains, traversing lakes and rivers, and contemplating past history during visits to ruins and other sites are highly reminiscent of poetic onventions that have informed the long pre-modern literary history of travel and landscape writings.<br />
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这些文章中文化和个人记忆的聚合，凸显了处于传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家心态的怀疑和不确定性。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章归根结底是关于写作的文本，是一种持续而开放的探索。<br />
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审视朱、余、方三家文章中的 "传统姿态"，最突出地体现了这种对表层意义的质疑。与地方密切相关的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊、河流，以及在参观遗迹等过程中对过去历史的思考等，都让人高度联想到在漫长的前现代文学史上的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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这些文章中文化记忆和个人记忆的聚集，突出了处于从传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家的怀疑和不确定性特征。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章最终成为关于写作的文本，是一种持续的、开放式的探索。<br />
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对朱先生、于先生和方先生所著文章的核心“传统手势”的研究，最突出地证明了对表面意义的质疑。与地方紧密相连的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊和河流，以及在参观遗迹和其他遗址时思考过去的历史，都让人联想到在漫长的前现代文学史的的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:19, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
As manifestations of cultural memory, such activities are more than simply concrete actions; they are gestures, i.e. “acts made as a sign of attitude.” These traditional gestures suggest an affinity between pre-modern and modern texts, yet at the same time, the essays consistently question the significance and consequence of this apparent affinity. This questioning is achieved, first, by the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, by introducing elements of imperfection and incompletion throughout the essays, and, third, by the self-referential aspects of the essays.<br />
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作为文化记忆的表现形式，这些活动不仅仅是具体的行动。它们是手势，也就是“态度表征的行为”。这些传统手势表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切关系，然而，同时这些文章始终对这种明显的亲和力的意义和结果存在质疑。这种质疑的实现，首先是通过作者与居住在这片风景中的人们的相遇；其次，通过在文章中引入不完美和不完善的元素；第三，通过文章的自我参照。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为文化记忆的表现形式，这种活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动，而是一种姿态，即 "作为一种态度的标志而做出的行为"。这些传统的姿态暗示了前现代和现代文本之间的密切关系，但与此同时，这些文章一直在质疑这种明显的密切关系的意义和后果。这种质疑的实现，一是通过作者与居住在风景中的人的相遇；二是通过在文章中引入不完美和不完整的元素；三是通过文章的自述来实现。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为文化记忆的体现，这些活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动； 它们是姿态，即“态度表征的行为”。 这些传统姿态暗示了前现代文本与现代文本之间的亲和力，但与此同时，论文也不断质疑这种明显亲和力的重要性和后果。 首先，作者与居住在风景中的人们相遇，然后是通过在论文中引入不完美和不完整的元素，其次是通过论文的自我参照。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:01, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最为文化记忆的体现形式，这种活动不单单是具体的行动，它们更是一种姿态，也就是“用以表征态度的行为”。这些传统的姿态表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切联系；然而，与此同时，这些文章也在不断地质疑这种表面联系的影响和结果。这种质疑，首先是通过作者与居住在当地的本地人的邂逅；其次是在全文中体现出一些不完美和不完整的因素；最后是通过文章的自我参照这三个步骤来实现的。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
Adopting traditional gestures of contemplating place and past can be seen as an attempt to place the author in a privileged and thus assured position, offering him a way to authoritatively define himself within, yet separate from, his surroundings. However, encounters with people inhabiting the places make the author “interact” with these places. Rather than being objects of perception and contemplation only, places become parts of the perceiving and contemplating subject. The idea of place as distinct from the observer, providing a setting against which he can define himself as well as measure the changing times is deceptive.<br />
采用传统的姿态来思考地方和过去，可以看作是将作者置于一种特权地位，从而保证他的地位，为其提供了一种根据周围环境给自己定义，但又与之分离的权威方式。然而，与居住在这些地方的人的相遇，使作者与这些地方产生了 "互动"。地方不只是感知和思考的对象，而是成为感知和思考主体的一部分。将地方与观察者区分开来，提供一个环境，让观察者可以据此来定义自己以及衡量时代的变化，这种想法是具有欺骗性的。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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采用传统的姿态思考地方和过去，可以看作是将作者置于特权以及确定的地位的一种尝试，为其提供一种根据其周围环境，但又脱离其环境然而，给自己定义的权威性的方式。然而，和居住在这些地方的人相遇，使得作者和这些地方有了“互动”。地方除了作为感知和思考的物体，还成为了感知和思考主体的一部分。地点和观察者分离、提供观察者给自己下定义的背景、衡量时代的变化，这些想法都具有欺骗性。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 13:40, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
In addition, elements of imperfection and incompletion disrupt the narrative in these essays and thus similarly question the reliability of traditional gestures in the search for stable definitions of selves. Self-referential aspects of the texts also draw attention to the essays’ constructedness, thus questioning the idea that the texts have a single, accurate (and thus authoritative) interpretation and significance.<br />
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In sum, an “ironic” reading of the traditional gestures in these essays of place foregrounds the concept of tradition as a vital part and construct needed to engage in a discourse on tradition and modernity from which modern texts ultimately evolve.<br />
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此外，不完美和不完整的因素扰乱了这些文章的叙述，因此同样质疑传统姿态在寻找稳定的自我定义时的可靠性。文本的自我参照方面也引起了对文章的结构性的关注，从而质疑了文本具有单一、准确（因而具有权威性）的解释和意义的观点。<br />
总而言之，对这些散文中传统姿态的“讽刺”解读，预示了传统的概念作为现代性话语的一个重要组成部分，现代性最终需要从这一部分演变而来。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 11:57, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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此外，不完美和不完整的因素扰乱了这些文章的叙述，从而同样质疑传统姿态在寻求稳定的自我定义方面的可靠性。文本的自我参照性也引起了人们对文章建构性的关注，从而对文本具有单一的、准确的（因为也是权威的）解释和意义的观点提出了质疑。<br />
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总之，对于这些地方性文章中传统姿态的“讽刺”解读，凸显了传统概念是参与传统与现代文本所需的重要部分和建构，而现代文本最终也是在这个基础上发展起来的。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 09:14, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst Sounds of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (''Qinhuaihe''), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (''Diaotai''), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from Langya Mountain” (''Langyashan''), are three notable essays of place in which place and memory serve as the main conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and meaning unfolds. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the texts become ultimately texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays. <br />
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In the essays, the authors engage in activities such as climbing mountains, traversing rivers, and contemplating history and historical figures while visiting ruins and other sites. <br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br />
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Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br />
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Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
朱自清的《浆声灯影里的秦淮河》（《秦淮河》）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台的春昼》（《钓鱼台》）和方令孺的《琅琊山游记》（ 《琅琊山》）是三篇有关地点的著名散文。在这几篇文章中，地点和回忆是主要的概念性元素，作者通过这些元素来具体展开关于身份认同以及具体含义的阐述。通过质疑明显的含义和文学习俗，这些文本最终象征着作者的不懈努力与探索，因此成为了文本的开放性文本。<br />
<br />
在这几篇散文中，作者在参观历史遗址时都参加了诸如爬山、过河、对历史以及历史人物进行深思的活动。<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br />
<br />
Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br />
<br />
Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 11:26, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台上的春昼》（钓鱼台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。<br />
<br />
在这些散文中，作者在参观遗址和其他地方时，还参与了登山、穿越河流、思考历史和历史人物等活动。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:52, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓台上的春昼》（钓台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:53, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》（钓台）、方令儒的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
For example, all three essays contain elements reminiscent of the poetic convention of contemplating the past (''huaigu''), often conveying regret over gone times and places. Images exposing the transience of human life in an enduring landscape suggest the writer’s uncertainty about the present and future, implying his desire to find a more lasting place within his existing surroundings. <br />
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In their apparent affinity to poetic conventions, traditional gestures seem to promise the writer a degree of authority and certainty in observing and interpreting surroundings and thus in determining his position and role in them. An ''ironic'' understanding and reading of such gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang's essays however, exposes the concept of tradition as construct indispensable for a discourse on modernity. <br />
<br />
Evoking and sharing the cultural memory of place writing, Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays not only contain, but also constitute traditional gestures.（文献无需翻译） <br />
<br />
FFor a concise explication of this poetic convention, see Hans H. Frankel, ''The Flowering Plum and the Palace Lady: Interpretations of Chinese Poetry'' (New Haven and London, 1976), chapter 9 “Contemplation of the Past.”（文献无需翻译）<br />
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例如，这三篇文章都包含了凝视过去的诗学传统的元素（怀古），常常表达对逝去的时光和地方的遗憾。在一幅经久不衰的风景画中，展现人类生命的无常，暗示着作者对现在和未来的不确定性，暗示着他希望在现有的环境中找到一个更永恒的地点。<br />
<br />
传统的姿态与诗歌的传统有明显的亲近感，它似乎给了作者一定程度的权威性和确定性来观察和解释周围的环境，从而确定自己在其中的定位和角色。然而，通过对朱自清、郁达夫和方灵如的文章中这些姿态的反讽地理解和解读，揭示了传统观念构筑现代性话语所不可或缺的。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 05:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
Modern texts evolve from a questioning and reassessment of well-established meaning and value, rather than from a mere rejection of what are perceived to be traditional notions, customs, and ideals. Once tradition is divested of its absolute claim and subject to interpretation and reconstruction, modernity can emerge. <br />
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Generally, the term “gesture” describes an activity as “something done to convey one’s intentions or attitude.” The traveler’s activities are more than actions that have an obvious purpose, such as getting to a location or viewing a certain site. Roland Barthes’ notion of gestures in writing and writing as gesture suggests the multiplicity of meaning within essays of place and ultimately bears out the idea of essays of place as texts on writing. In ''The Responsibility of Forms'', Roland Barthes describes “gesture” in art as<br />
<br />
“Gesture.” Def.2. ''Oxford American Dictionary''. New York: Avon Books, 1980. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
''The Oxford English Dictionary'' defines “gesture” as “a move or course of action undertaken as an expression of feeling or as a formality; especially a demonstration of friendly feeling, usually with the purpose of eliciting a favorable response from another.” Def.4.b. ''The Oxford English Dictionary''. 2nd Ed. (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1989).（文献无需翻译）<br />
现代文本从对已确立的意义和价值的质疑和重新评估演变而来，而不仅仅是对被认为是传统观念、习俗和理想的排斥。一旦剥夺了传统的绝对权利，接受了解释和重建，现代性就会出现。<br />
<br />
一般来说，“手势”指的是“为了传达某人的意图或态度的行动。旅行者的活动不仅仅是有明显目的的行动，比如到达某个地点或参观某个地点。罗兰·巴特关于书写中的手势和作为手势的书写的概念暗示了地点散文中意义的多样性，并最终证明了地点散文作为写作文本的观点。在《形式的责任》一书中，罗兰·巴特将艺术中的“姿态”描述为一种行为的多余。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
[s]omething like the surplus of an action. The action is transitive, it seeks only to provoke an object, a result; the gesture is the indeterminate and inexhaustible total of reasons, pulsions, indolences which surround the action with an atmosphere [. . .]. Hence, let us distinguish the message, which seeks to produce information, and the sign, which seeks to produce an intellection, from the gesture, which produces all the rest (the “surplus”) without necessarily seeking to produce anything. <br />
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Traversing mountains and lakes are activities with a concrete objective. As “gestures” or “surplus action,” those activities are signs of attitudes that in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays ultimately serve to constantly question and change meaning by providing possibility instead of demarcation of meaning and signification. <br />
<br />
Barthes, Roland. “''[Readings: Gesture] Cy Twombly: Works on Paper.” The Responsibility of Forms''. By Barthes. Trans. Richard Howard, (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985) 160.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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According to Roland Barthes, every text is ultimately a product of gestures Discussing the work of American painter Cy Twombly (b. 1928), Roland Barthes furthermore says about the workings of gestures:（文献无需翻译） <br />
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[t]he artist [ . . . ] is by status an “operator” of gestures: he seeks to produce an effect and at the same time seeks no such thing; the effects he produces he has not obligatorily sought out; they are reversed, inadvertent effects which turn back upon him and thereupon provoke certain modifications, deviations, mitigations of the line, of the stroke. Thus in gesture is abolished the distinction between cause and effect, motivation and goal, expression and persuasion (Barthes 160).（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s ''Qinhuaihe'' describes a pleasure excursion on the Qinhuai River he and his friend Yu Pingbo embark on one summer evening. Singsong girls and their musicians, offering their services to passengers in the roaming boats, provide popular entertainment on the river. Zhu and Yu try to enjoy the atmosphere produced by a combination of natural scenery, history, lantern lights, and sound of oars and of music. Despite mingling with other boats whose passengers happily solicit the singsong girls’ services, they remain passive observers. Zhu's narrative culminates in his and Yu’s direct encounter with the singsong girls, who approach them to solicit business. This encounter mortifies and confounds Zhu, turning the trip into a disconcerting experience. Both Zhu and Yu reject the singsong girls’ solicitations, and soon after the encounter, they head back to the pier. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'' describes his travels in the countryside after having hurriedly left Shanghai to avoid being rounded up by Nationalist forces in the spring of 1931. Watching boats taking locals to their ancestral graves, Yu decides to visit his hometown in time for the Qingming festival. After only a few days with relatives and friends however, he becomes restless and leaves for a trip to Diaotai (Fishing Terrace) on Fuchun Mountain. He stops over at Tonglu for the night and despite the late hour climbs Tongjun Mountain located across the river. The next day, Yu visits the memorial hall on Fuchun Mountain dedicated to the Eastern Han recluse Yan Ziling and then climbs the famous Diaotai.<br />
<br />
郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》一书中，描写了1931年春天他为逃避国民党军队的抓捕，匆匆离开上海后在乡下的旅行的故事。郁达夫看见船只把过世的当地人带回祖墓埋葬，于是他决定在清明节前回到家乡。 然而，与亲戚和朋友团圆几天之后，他变得躁动不安，便前往富春山钓台旅行。 他停留在桐庐过夜，尽管天色已晚，他爬上横跨在河面的桐郡山。 第二天，郁达夫参观了富春山纪念东汉隐士严子陵的纪念馆，攀登了著名的钓台。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:51, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》描述了他在1931年春天为避免被国民党军队围捕，匆忙离开上海后在农村的旅行。看着载着当地人去往他们祖坟的船只，郁达夫决定在清明节的时候回家乡看看。然而，在与亲戚朋友相处几天后，他变得焦躁不安，便前往富春山的钓台。他在桐庐停留了一夜，尽管时间已晚，他还是爬上了河对岸的桐君山。第二天，郁达夫参观了富春山纪念东汉隐士严子陵的纪念馆，攀登了著名的钓台。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:50, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
Fang Lingru and a group of friends visit various historic sites scattered in the mountains they traverse during a spring outing. The most famous site is the pavilion named by Ouyang Xiu and celebrated in his famous ''An Account of the Pavilion of the Drunken Old Man'' (Zuiweng ting ji). The group decides to stay overnight at the ''Temple of Cultivation'' (Kaihua si), located deeper in the mountains, and spends the rest of the day touring the mountains and their cultural imprints guided by a monk. In the evening, the friends enjoy the nocturnal atmosphere and quietude of temple and mountains. The next day, the day of the Qingming festival, the group tours two more mountains before returning to Nanjing in the evening.<br />
<br />
在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜，并在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 06:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜。在休息之前，众人在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，大家又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:48, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
All three essays contain attempts to adopt gestures of contemplating times and places while traversing varied landscapes. Yet, three elements in the essays destabilize significance and consequence of those gestures, undermining their power to confirm identities and signaling the questioning nature of the texts. These three elements are first the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, elements of incompletion and ambiguity that unsettle the traditional gestures, and, third, as supplementary elements, the essays’ self-referential strategies. The following readings of Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays explain and illustrate one of each of these elements respectively.<br />
这三篇文章都试图在穿越不同的风景时采用思考时间和地点的姿态。然而，文章中的三个因素动摇了这些姿态的意义和后果，削弱了它们确认身份的力量，并暗示了文本的质疑本质。这三个要素，一是作者与居住在这片风景中的人的接触，二是对传统姿态的不完善和模糊，三是作为补充的自我参照策略。以下阅读朱、于和方的文章，分别解释和说明这些元素中的一个。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 11:47, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
'''Encounters with People in Zhu Ziqing’s Qinhuaihe'''<br />
<br />
Encounters with people populating the landscape have two effects. First, these encounters force the author to interact with the landscape. It becomes impossible for him to demarcate his position and identity by contemplating places from an autonomous vantage point. Zhu and Yu’s encounter with the singsong girls is the central human encounter in Zhu’s ''Qinhuaihe''. Initially, the singsong girls’ presence on the river does not appear to displease or disconcert Zhu. However, he maintains this sanguine perception by keeping a distance to the singers’ boats. The distance allows him to assume the traditional gesture of traversing a river to take in and contemplate its scenery and history from an independent viewpoint.<br />
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It is important to point out that a clear distinction between traveler and landscape does not mean the travelers’ disassociation from his surroundings. Rather it points to the clear demarcation of positions and roles necessary to form a stable unified whole from two distinct units.(文献无需翻译)<br />
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'''朱自清的《秦淮河》中的相遇'''<br />
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与居住在风景中的人的相遇有两个效果。首先，这中相遇迫使作者与场景互动。这样他就不能通过从对自己有利的视角来划分自己的位置和身份。 朱自清、郁达夫二人与歌女的相遇，是朱自清《秦淮河》中最核心的人际交往。起初，歌女们在江上的出现，似乎并没有让朱自清感到不快或不安。然而，他通过与歌女们的船保持一定的距离来维持这种乐观的看法。这种距离使他能够以一种传统的姿态在江上穿行，以独立的视角来欣赏和思考江上的风景和历史。<br />
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需要指出的是，旅行者与风景的明确区分，并不意味着旅行者与周围环境的脱离。相反，它指向的是明确的位置和角色的划分，这对于从两个不同的环境中形成一个稳定的统一整体是必要的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
'“朱自清的《秦淮河》的相遇”<br />
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遇到有人居住的景观有两个影响。首先，这些遭遇迫使作者与景观互动。对于他来说，通过从自治的有利位置考虑地点来划分自己的位置和身份变得不可能。朱和俞与歌星女孩的相遇是朱的《秦淮河》中人类的主要相遇。最初，歌星女孩在河上的存在似乎并没有使朱朱感到不悦或不安。但是，他通过与歌手的船保持一定距离来保持这种乐观的感觉。距离使他能够采取传统的穿越河流的姿势，从一个独立的角度来欣赏和思考河流的风景和历史。<br />
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重要的是要指出，旅行者与风景之间的明显区别并不意味着旅行者与周围环境脱节。相反，它指出了从两个截然不同的单元形成一个稳定的统一整体所需的职位和角色的明确划分。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:05, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The encounter with the singsong girls witnessed by other passengers unsettles gesture and atmosphere. By diminishing the safe distance between writer and observed place (which so far included the singers), the encounter forces Zhu to play an active role in his surroundings. The singers step out of the landscape picture, and Zhu becomes part of the place against his will.<br />
Ironically, however, the ensuing interaction nevertheless exposes an unbridgeable gap between author and people inhabiting the landscape. Zhu’s confrontation with the singsong girls reinforces an experience of distance, misapprehension, and alienation rooted in the dilemma of modern intellectuals.<br />
<br />
朱自清与歌星女孩的相遇是在其他路人的围观下，这使得气氛紧张起来，他的行为也变得不安。 通过减少作家和被观察者之间的安全距离（到目前为止，包括歌手在内），相遇迫使朱自清在他的世界中发挥了积极作用。 歌手们走出了画面，而朱自清成为了其中的一部分，这是违背了他的意愿的。<br />
然而，具有讽刺意味的是，随后的互动却暴露了作者与居住在画面中的人们之间不可逾越的鸿沟。朱自清与歌星女孩的对峙加强了距离感，误解和疏离感，这些都根植于现代知识分子所遇到的困境中。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 15:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在其他路人的围观下朱自清与歌星女孩相遇了，这使得气氛紧张，他也变得不安。通过减少作家和被观察者之间的安全距离（到目前为止，包括歌手在内），相遇迫使朱自清在他的世界中发挥了积极作用。 歌手们走出了画面，而朱自清成为了其中的一部分，这是违背他的意愿的。<br />
然而，讽刺的是，随后的互动却暴露了作者与居住在画面中的人们之间不可逾越的鸿沟。朱自清与歌星女孩的对峙强化了源自现代知识分子困境的距离感，误解和疏离感。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 17:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Zhu is both tempted by the offer and ashamed about even entertaining such a sentiment. Being publicly approached by women who sell their services to men and confronting his inner conflicting emotion embarrasses Zhu, who considers himself a moral and modern individual professing to condemn the exploitation of underprivileged social groups. <br />
<br />
The text moves from the portrayal of external space and atmosphere to a detailed self-dissection of Zhu's psyche and thoughts, a strikingly modern feature. As Zhu's progressive sensibilities interfere with acting out his desire, this psychological passage further disrupts the cohesion of the text as traditional gesture.<br />
<br />
朱自清受到诱惑的同时又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。朱自清自认为是高尚现代的人，他公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪和内心的矛盾情绪，朱自清却感到尴尬。<br />
<br />
文本从对外部空间和氛围的描写，转向对朱自清的心理和思想细致的自我剖析，具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的进步情感干扰了他的欲望的表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:30, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清在受到诱惑的同时，又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。他自认为是高尚的现代人，会公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪，他的内心极为矛盾，感觉十分尴尬，<br />
<br />
文本通过对外部空间和氛围的描写，以及对朱自清的内心思想的自我剖析，均具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的先进情感干扰了他的欲望表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清在受到诱惑的同时，又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。他自认为是高尚的现代的人，他公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪，他的内心极为矛盾，也十分地尴尬。<br />
<br />
文本通过对外部空间和氛围的描写，转向对朱自清的内心思想的自我剖析，具有显著的现代特征。朱自清的先进思想抑制了他的欲望，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 15:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The encounter quickly deflates and undermines Zhu's attempt to adopt traditional gestures, causing confusion and conflict rather than reassurance of positions and identities in the river’s ultimately unpredictable space. Zhu’s experience of place is marked by a tension arising from an attempt to assert his independent position within his surroundings, the futility of the attempt, and the concurrent impossibility to become part of his surroundings.<br />
<br />
Significantly, only when Zhu’s inner conflict has abated somewhat, he and Yu are rewarded. On their way back, they pass a boat with a solitary singer coming toward them.<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
<br />
The singer is sitting in the bow of the unlit boat, singing only to herself. This unexpected episode has an at least temporarily redeeming quality for Zhu. However, his feeling of contentment lasts only a fleeting instant, and soon he and Yu are back in the bustling amusement district. Importantly, Zhu and Yu do not truly encounter the solitary singer. Possibly, the singer did not even notice them. This brief moment comes closest to successfully adopting a traditional gesture. As long as they maintain a distance, fulfilling the significance of the gesture seems possible. Ultimately however, Zhu, not in control of the gesture, is unable to prolong this moment.<br />
<br />
歌者坐在没有灯光的船头，只对自己唱歌。这个意外的插曲，对朱棣来说，至少有一种短暂的满足。然而，他的满足感只持续了一瞬间，很快他就和余先生回到了繁华的游乐区。其实朱和宇并没有真正遇到那个孤独的歌手。也有可能歌手根本没有注意到他们。但这短暂的一瞬间最接近传统的姿态。只要他们保持一定的距离，传递这个姿态的意义似乎是可能的。然而最终由于朱先生没有保持好这一姿态，他没能延长这个瞬间。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
歌妓坐在没有灯光的船头，独自唱着歌。对朱自清来说，这个意外的插曲暂时弥补了之前的遗憾，然而，这种满足感只持续了一瞬间，很快他就和俞平伯回到了繁华的闹市。其实二人并没有真的遇到那个孤独的歌妓，也有可能歌妓根本没有注意到他们，但这短暂的一瞬间最接近传统的语言姿势。只要他们保持一定的距离，这个姿态的意义似乎就有可能被传达出来，然而最终由于朱自清没有维持这一姿态，所以没能延长这个瞬间。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
He is left in utter despondency. Threat and intimidation Zhu experiences are signified well by the way he perceives his surroundings immediately after passing the lone singer’s boat. Passing under a tall bridge, it seems to Zhu “as if the darkness was opening its huge mouth, about to swallow [their] boat.” Zhu is left in a no-man’s-land between private desire and modern awareness.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Incompletion and Ambiguity in Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'''''<br />
<br />
Elements of incompletion and ambiguity further question the significance of traditional gestures. By unsettling the essay’s narrative, these elements suggest an ironic reading of the texts that undermines the reliability of traditional gestures when searching for stable definitions of selves and surroundings.<br />
<br />
他陷入了彻底的绝望。朱棣棣所经历的威胁和恐吓，从他经过独唱者的船后立即感知周围环境的方式就可以看出。经过一座高高的桥下，在朱棣看来，"仿佛黑暗张开了巨口，要把他们的船吞掉"。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br />
<br />
'''郁达夫的''钓鱼台''的不完整与模糊'''<br />
<br />
不完整和模棱两可的元素进一步质疑传统手势的意义。这些元素使文章的叙事变得不稳定，暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，破坏了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:20, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他陷入了深深的怅惘。经过歌舫后，他立即感知到周围环境变化，从这里就可以看出朱自清所感受到的压迫和不安。船过大中桥时，朱自清写道，"如黑暗张着巨口，要将我们的船吞了下去"。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br />
<br />
'''郁达夫《钓台的春昼》的不完整性与模糊性'''<br />
<br />
不完整性和模棱性的要素对传统手势的意义提出更多的质疑。通过打乱文章的叙述方式，这些要素暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，削弱了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:55, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Obstacles in Yu Dafu’s path paired with a restlessness he experiences in places destabilize the gestures he tries to adopt. The significance of his trip remains ambiguous.<br />
<br />
The evening before reaching Diaotai, Yu sets out to climb Tongjun Mountain to visit a Daoist temple. Upon disembarking from the ferryboat, he immediately falls over a loose rock on the dark and rugged mountain path. The image of a stumbling Yu on his solitary endeavor to climb the mountain at night is almost comical. His idea to climb the mountain at this hour appears unreasonable and undermines any effect the attempt to adopt a traditional gesture might have.<br />
<br />
郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上与他在一些地方感到了不安，这都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br />
<br />
在到达钓鱼台的前一天傍晚，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山，去一座道观。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他摔倒在了一块松动的石头上。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也打破了他想要的任何意义。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
出现在郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上他在一些地方感到的不安，都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br />
<br />
在到达钓鱼台的前一天傍晚，为了参观一座道观，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他被一块松动的石头绊倒了。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也破坏了采用传统姿态可能产生的任何影响。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:38, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The ferryman hands Yu a pack of matches to help him find the way. At first, Yu is “groping [his] way up the mountain,” but as he approaches the top, moonlight begins to illuminate his path. A vast sky and a broad vista into the distance and onto the town seem to increase Yu’s chances of adopting the traditional gesture of contemplating place and past. As he approaches the temple however, an apparently locked gate in the low wall surrounding it obstructs Yu’s progress. After pacing up and down for a while not knowing what to do, he finally tries the gate, and surprisingly it opens. Ironically, Yu’s trip is delayed and almost cut short not by a locked gate but by his indecision and hesitation.<br />
<br />
渡船人递给他一包火柴帮他找路。一开始，郁正“摸索着上山”，但当他接近山顶时，月光开始照亮他的道路。辽阔的天空和小镇的广阔景色似乎增加了郁采用传统方式思考地方和过去的机会。然而，当他走近庙宇时，四周低矮的墙壁中一扇明显锁着的门阻碍了他的前进。在不知所措地踱来踱去后，他最终尝试开门，而门惊喜地被打开了。更具有讽刺意味的是郁的行程延误，不是因为一扇紧锁的大门，而是因为他的犹豫不决。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
船夫递给他一盒火柴帮助他找到路。起初，于是“摸索着上山”，但当他接近山顶时，月光开始照亮他的道路。广阔的天空和广阔的视野延伸到远处的城镇，似乎增加了俞正声采用传统的姿态，思考地点和过去的机会。然而，当他接近寺庙时，围绕寺庙的矮墙中一个明显被锁住的门阻碍了他的前进。他踱来踱去，不知如何是好，最后他试了试大门，结果门开了。具有讽刺意味的是，于的行程被推迟，甚至几乎被缩短，不是因为一扇锁着的门，而是因为他的优柔寡断和犹豫。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 11:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Although he finds the temple gates indeed securely shut for the night, Yu is at this point quite content to sit on the wall adjacent to the gate from where he can overlook the river and enjoy the scenery. He gazes at the stars, clouds, and moon above and the lights of the boats below gently wavering in the wind. At last, Yu’s position allows him to contemplate place and past from an elevated and independent vantage point. The unparalleled scenery of Tongjun Mountain inspires Yu to contemplate the lives of the Eastern Han (25-220 A.D.) recluse Yan Ziling and that of the two Dai brothers, Dai Bo and Dai Yong of the Easter Jin (317-420), who made this area their home.<br />
<br />
虽然他发现寺庙的门夜晚确实是紧紧关着的，但此时他还是很满足于坐在与门相邻的城墙上，从那里他可以俯瞰河流，欣赏风景。他凝视着天上的星星、云朵和月亮，以及下面在风中轻轻摇曳的船只的灯光。最后，郁达夫的位置让他能够从一个更高的、独立的有利位置思考过去。同郡山无与伦比的风景激发了郁达夫对东汉(公元25-220年)隐士严子陵和东晋(317-420年)戴波和戴勇的生活的思考，他们把这里作为自己的家。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:53, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Yu fully appreciates and identifies with their decision to lead a hermit’s life foreshadowing his own life of seclusion soon to begin. The clapper of the night watch in town finally wakes Yu to reality. Startled, he runs back head over heels to the boat. This abrupt ending to Yu’s reverie and his sudden anxiety to get back to the boat sharply contrast with the reflective atmosphere and sentiment of the passage. The traditional gesture is abruptly terminated. Like the clapper startling Yu, this abrupt ending to the nightly scene startles the reader.<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
On the boat to Diaotai, Yu, tired from admiring the scenery, falls asleep and dreams of a gathering with some old friends in an inn along the river. The text does not make it explicitly clear that Yu is dreaming. This becomes fully clear only when the boatman wakes Yu as they approach Diaotai. <br />
<br />
在去钓鱼台的船上，赏风景赏累了，他睡着了，梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并没有明确表示郁达夫是在做梦，只有当船夫在接近钓鱼台的时候把他叫醒，这才变得完全清楚。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his dream, the friends chat and make merry, but after all has been said and done, the atmosphere turns cheerless and awkward. At the center of the dream is a poem Yu composed a few years ago at a similar occasion. It is a political poem written in traditional septa-syllabic regulated verse style, lamenting the chaotic state of the country and expressing the dissatisfaction of intellectuals with the government.<br />
<br />
在他的梦里，朋友们聊天，嬉戏，但这一切都结束后，气氛变得不愉快和尴尬起来。梦的中心是一首郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，哀叹国家的混乱状态，表达知识分子对政府的不满。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在去钓鱼台的船上，郁达夫疲于赏景，而后进入梦乡。他梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并未表明这是郁达夫在做梦，只有当船夫在临近钓鱼台叫醒他时，一切才水落石出。<br />
在他的梦境里，朋友们一起聊天、嬉戏，但当一切都结束后，气氛变得无趣且尴尬。梦的中心出现郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，其哀叹国家的混沌，表达知识分子对政府部门的不满。<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:42, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
One prominent traditional image in the poem is the loyal official who, “feigning madness,” (yang kuang) speaks the truth that goes unheeded. Here, a well-known traditional gesture is embedded in a text within a text. Before the gesture can come to full fruition, however, it is again terminated, this time by the boatman who wakes Yu.<br />
<br />
在这首诗中，一个突出的传统形象是这个忠诚的官员，他假装疯狂（佯狂）地说出了未被注意的真理。这里，一个众所众知的传统手势被嵌入到文本中的文本中。然而，在做这个手势之前，他这一次再次被叫醒于的船夫终止了。<br />
Significantly, Yu's perception of his surrounding has completely changed. Before falling asleep, he saw green mountains encasing the clear river and sandbanks with blossoming flowers; in short, tranquil and picturesque scenery. As the boat approaches Diaotai, however, “river and mountain scenery all around had suddenly changed.” (文献无需翻译)<br />
<br />
很明显，于对他周围的看法改变了。在入睡之前，他看见连绵的青山环绕清澈的河流，沙洲上百花盛开，总之就是一幅祥和的如画风景。然而，当船接近钓台时，周围的山水画已经不知不觉间改变了。<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing, “Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 95.(文献无需翻译)<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu, “Diaotai de chunzhou,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 204.<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu, 206(文献无需翻译)--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
The river has narrowed and the mountains have moved extremely close, “as if ahead was no further way.” The towering mountains create an oppressively lonely atmosphere, in which even the sound of the oars seems disheartened; the echo is audible only after a long while, amplifying the “ancient silence,” the “silence of extinction” enveloping the boat. The sun is gone, and only a soughing wind comes and goes. <br />
<br />
The surrounding has turned ominous. Yu’s anticipation turns into apprehension. Compared to his reverie on Tongjun Mountain, Yu now perceives Diaotai as desolate and gloomy, eerily echoing the chaos and tumult evoked in his poem. He describes dilapidated stone structures overgrown with weeds.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Approaching Yan Ziling’s ancestral hall, now no more than decrepit walls and broken tiles, Yu begins to feel “a little afraid, afraid to encounter the ghost of Master Yan, old and dried-up like strips from a towel gourd.” Yu’s rapidly growing skepticism and discomfort upon approaching the setting further suggest the impossibility to find meaning and identity by adopting traditional gestures in places.<br />
<br />
On the Fishing Terrace, Yu is curiously reminded of a postcard depicting the William Tell Memorial Hall and its scenery in Switzerland. The colors of mountains and rivers he sees from Diaotai are strikingly similar to those on the “collotype postcard.”<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
However, in the scenery he views from Diaotai, “the variations are a little greater, the surrounding in all directions is just a little more jumbled and chaotic, that’s all, but this is actually a plus, enough to represent the East’s desolate beauty of national degeneration.” Ironically, Yu’s comparison between the postcard picture and his view stresses the similarities between the colors of the landscapes only. He views a place that in its very structure carries the marks of present crisis. Associating his description of the scenery with Switzerland generally associated with national stability and social order only intensifies the image of national chaos and debility. <br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Superficially conforming to the traditional gesture of contemplating (and lamenting) place and past, the comparison here is not one between present and past, but one between two presents. Yu's view evokes scenery on a foreign postcard, which in its modern photographic quality and miniature size cannot evoke the past, challenging the idea of a traditional gesture. <br />
<br />
After having had some wine in the hall, Yu walks up to the Buddhist shrine whose derelict walls are covered with poems, most of them of poor quality. In a corner near the ceiling, he finds an inscription by the Qing loyalist and fellow villager Xia Lingfeng (Xia Zhenwu, 1854-1930), whose commitment Yu admires despite objecting to Xia’s political convictions. Yu inscribes the poem from his dream next to Xia’s.<br />
<br />
这里的对比并非介于今昔之间，而是两个现在时间的对比，从表面上看，这与传统的伤怀表达方式不谋而合。余想起了外国明信片上的风景，其现代摄影质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，因而挑战了传统的表达方式。<br />
<br />
在祠堂里喝了点酒后，俞走到佛龛前，佛龛斑驳的墙壁上满是诗词，其中大部分文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了一首由夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）题的词，夏灵凤是清朝的拥护者，也是本村的村民。尽管余反对夏灵凤的政治信念，但他仍然钦佩他的忠诚。因而余在夏灵凤的词旁边也作了一首诗。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:32, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
虽然表面上符合传统的伤怀表现手法，但这里并非今昔对比，而是两个现时的比较。余秋雨的观点让人联想到外国明信片上的风景，以其现代摄影的质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，挑战了传统的表达方式。<br />
<br />
在祠堂里喝了点酒后，余秋雨走到佛龛前，佛堂废弃的墙壁上挂满了诗词，其中大都文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了清朝忠臣、同乡夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）的题词，虽反对夏的政治立场，但他还是很欣赏夏的忠诚，因将梦中的诗词题在夏的旁边。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 07:05, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Initially, Yu's act of inscribing the poem suggests that he sympathizes and identifies with Xia. However, since Yu does object to the substance of Xia’s ideals and motives, the gesture of writing a poem next to Xia’s only stresses the ambiguity of such an act. With the gesture of inscribing his poem along with others of inferior quality and next to that of a Qing loyalist Yu willingly obscures his own political stance and inadvertently questions the relevance of his act. The traditional-style poem placed in an obscure corner on the wall as one among many is ineffective, and the gesture of inscribing it loses its significance. Yu’s position and role in his time and place remains ambiguous and difficult to define. Ironically, while Yu’s essay saves the poem and its context from obscurity, it also exposes the very ambiguity of his act.<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
'''Self-referential strategy in Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan'''''<br />
<br />
By foregrounding a texts’ constructedness, self-referential strategies question the idea of a texts’ definite and authoritative meaning. Suggesting the texts’ plurality of meaning further substantiates their significance in negotiating perspectives, positions, and identities.<br />
<br />
Concluding the narration of her two-day trip, Fang Lingru writes: “There are still many more scenic spots and ancient sites on Langya Mountain; if it’s meant to be, I’ll come another time to visit again. ''There is nothing more I can add to this piece'' (my emphasis).” <br />
<br />
Fang Lingru, “Langyashan youji,” ''Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan'', eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 148.<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
Yet, she goes on to recommend a particular dish and wine the group had at a restaurant in Chuzhou before returning to Nanjing. This rather banal and anticlimactic addendum to her narrative is then followed by two more paragraphs, describing her sentiments upon returning home. <br />
<br />
When I got home, it was already ten o’clock at night, and a fine drizzle filled the air. Just before leaving, the old monk Shangkuan had tied three Spring Azalea sprigs to my rickshaw, which I planted immediately upon coming home. Now the twigs have already developed tender sprouts; by this time next year, they will blossom. XX named them “Bodhi Shangkuan.”<br />
<br />
然而，在返回南京之前，她继续推荐该伙人在滁州一家饭店享用过的特殊菜肴和美酒。然后，在她叙述的这个平淡而滑稽的附录中再加上了两段，描述了她回家后的情绪。<br />
<br />
当我回到家时，已经是晚上十点了，细雨蒙蒙。临走时，老和尚尚宽把三只杜鹃花春天的小树枝绑在了我的人力车上，我刚回家时就把它们种了下来。现在，树枝已经长出嫩芽了。到明年这个时候，它们将会开花。 XX将其命名为“菩提上宽”。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
然而，在返回南京前，她继续给这些人推荐他们此前在滁州一家饭店已经吃过的特别菜肴和美酒。她的叙述非常乏味且跟着一个虎头蛇尾的附录。之后，这段叙述之后又加了两端来描写她回家后的感受。<br />
当我回到家，已经深夜十点了，且下着淅淅沥沥的小雨。在离开前，老和尚上宽把三个春季的杜鹃花小枝绑在了我的人力车上，一回家我就立即把它们种了。现在，这些小枝已经长出嫩芽了。明年这个时候，它们就会开花了。XX给其取名为“菩提上宽”--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:06, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I’ve been feeling extremely tired lately, but thinking back to the trip into the mountains, I can say that it was flawless, and I have no regrets. <br />
<br />
It is a cliché to state at the end of a text that nothing can be added. Fang’s appended restaurant and food recommendation suggests her eagerness to relate every detail from the trip. However, extending her narrative by two paragraphs, she effectively contradicts her own assertion that everything worth saying has been said. This contradiction and the contrast between her matter-of-fact-style in which she ostensibly ends the essay and the intimate tone and personal content of the concluding paragraphs highlight the act of writing and constructing the text.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
The final paragraphs further question the effect of adopting traditional gestures to find stable meaning and purpose in and through one’s surroundings. For Fang the gesture of translating visits to sites and ruins into detailed description evoke the past is not sufficient. Her encounter with the monk ultimately renders her experience on Langya Mountain significant. The flowers she received from him signify the possibility of growth, nurturing, and encouragement. By contrast, the significance of the sites themselves remains ambiguous.<br />
<br />
文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了传统手势的效果，在传统手势中，文章的意义和目的仅仅通过环境体现出来。对方令孺来说，如果运用简单的翻译手势，只是详细描述到访的琅琊山遗址是远远不够的，因为与那名僧人的相遇才是她琅琊山一行最有意义的事情，她从僧人那里收到的花代表着生长的可能性、象征着养护和激励，相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义确是模糊不清的。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:49, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
在文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了采用传统手势在环境中寻找稳定意义和目的而产生的效果。对方令孺来说，只对到访的琅琊山遗址进行详细描述是远远不够的。遇见这名僧人让她的琅琊山一行意义非凡。她从僧人那里收到的花象征着成长、呵护和鼓励。相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义仍然是模糊的。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
The last two paragraphs of Fang’s essay complete the framework of personal reflection that encases the largely dispassionate narration of her trip. Personal memory is the ultimate locus of meaningful experience and the creative force underlying the essay. Exhausting facts and details in representing an experience does not bring a text to its end despite assertions to the contrary. Fang’s last sentence suggests that remembering the trip in close connection with the human encounter constitutes a source of satisfaction for her, rather than the emulation of traditional gestures that seem to promise an authoritative rendition of place and time. <br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br />
<br />
Conclusion<br />
The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br />
Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br />
她的记忆和文章如同植物一般，充满活力且不断变化着。她宣布文本的结束，为相同文本的延续所破坏。方舟子论文中的提到的自我参照策略最终肯定了可能性和潜能，而非完整性和终结性。最终的结论就是，在朱、余、方的散文中采用的传统诗歌节奏并没有消除作者的不确定性和矛盾心理。在每篇文章中，不同的因素素质疑这些姿态的可靠性和意义，突出了作家的经验和地位在其所参观过地方的模糊性。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 08:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
Traditionally, the poet contemplating place and past was a solitary figure estranged from his times and surroundings, often questioning the present state of affairs. From the perspective of literary history, however, sharing this gesture and its variations with other poets in a long line of succession offered writers a way to secure rather than question their role and identity. Through canon formation and the writing of literary history, acts and themes such as contemplating places and past came to be understood as customary endeavors gaining and increasing their significance from their perceived continuity. Such understanding is part of the ''construction of traditions'' to legitimize poetic authority and continuity, or - as during the May Fourth movement - change and eradication. <br />
<br />
Relevant to the argument here is the idea of canon formation and the way it works. The argument does by no means suggest that all texts based on or containing certain traditional gestures and conventions are indeed similar and unchanged over the long pre-modern period. Nor does it suggest that in pre-modern travel and landscape writings the writer can indeed successfully confirm his identity and role through following the conventions of his time. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
传统上，这位诗人考虑的地方和过去是一个与他的时代和周围环境疏远的孤独人物，经常质疑现在的事态。但是，从文学史的角度来看，与其他诗人一路相继分享这种姿态及其变化，为作家提供了一种确保而不是质疑其角色和身份的方式。 通过教规的形成和文学史的写作，诸如冥想地点和过去之类的行为和主题被理解为习惯性的努力，这些努力和主题从其连续性中获得并增加了其重要性。种理解是使诗歌权威和连续性合法化的“传统建构”的一部分，或者像在“五四”运动中那样，改变和根除。<br />
<br />
与这里的论点相关的是佳能形成的思想及其运作方式。 该论点绝不暗示所有基于或包含某些传统手势和约定的文本在很长的前现代时期中确实是相似且不变的。 它也没有暗示在前现代的旅行和风景画中，作家确实可以通过遵循当时的惯例成功地确认其身份和作用。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:02, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
Instead of confirming the writer’s authority as mediator and interpreter of time and place, traditional gestures in modern essays such as Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s foreground his precarious role and position within his time and place. Attempting to adopt traditional gestures ultimately exposes the gestures as constructs that do not provide an indisputable way of understanding and representing surroundings and one’s position and role in them. <br />
<br />
By deconstructing the cultural and literary traditions, May Fourth intellectuals and writers tried to establish a practical dichotomy between conservative past and progressive present and future to confer authority upon the modern text.<br />
<br />
朱、俞、方等人的现代散文没有肯定作者作为时间、地点的中间人和译者的权威，而是强调作者在时间和地点中的不稳定角色和地位。采用传统手势最终会将手势揭示为一种构造，而这种构造并没有为再现环境及理解手势的地位和作用提供一种无可争辩的方式。<br />
<br />
通过解构文化和文学传统，五四知识分子和作家试图在保守的过去与激进的现在甚至未来之间建立一种实用的赋予现代文本权威性的二分法。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:53, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清、郁达夫和方令孺等人在现代散文中的传统姿态非但没有确认作家作为时间、地点的中间人和译者的权威，反而凸显了他们在时间和地点中不稳定的角色和地位。试图采用传统姿态最终揭示作家姿态的方式称之为建构，这种建构并不能为理解和再现境以及作家在其中的地位和角色提供一种无可争议的方式。<br />
<br />
五四知识分子和作家通过对文化和文学传统的解构，试图在保守的过去和进步的现在与未来之间建立一种赋予现代文本权威的实用二分法。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
As the above readings show however, modern texts inevitably comprise a ''discourse'' on what is made out to be tradition and modernity. This discourse inscribes, negotiates, and transforms tradition within the modern text albeit in an ever varying and irrepressible way. The texts’ complexity, subtexts, and plurality of meaning arises from a ''negotiation'' between familiar conventions and new and modern perspectives in search of identities, roles, and positions in a changing time and place. Ultimately, the texts are texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays.<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
'''From Historical Narrative to the World of Prose: The Essayistic Mode in Contemporary Chinese Literature'''<br />
<br />
''Wang Ban''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
As a genre, the essay in contemporary China can be seen as a symptom of the decline of historical consciousness and narrative. This comes through most sharply when compared with the previously established literary paradigm: the Chinese novel in the realistic mode. For many decades the fiction of revolutionary realism served as ideological apparatus and medium for providing coherent temporal perceptions about past, present, and future.<br />
<br />
'''从历史叙事到散文世界: 当代中国文学的散文模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文作为一种体裁在当代中国被视作历史意识和叙事走向衰弱的象征。当将其与先前建立的文学典范—现实主义模式的中文小说对比时，这一点尤为明显。数十年来，革命现实主义的小说都是意识形态的工具和媒介，它为提供连贯的对于过去，现在和未来的时间观念而服务。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 11:41, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''从历史叙事到散文世界:中国当代文学的散文化模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文作为一种文学体裁，在当代中国被视为是一种历史意识和叙事意识衰落的表现。与之前确立的文学范式——现实主义模式下的中国小说相比，这一点表现得最为明显。几十年来，革命现实主义小说一直作为一种意识形态工具和媒介，提供了关于过去、现在和未来的连贯的时间感知。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 06:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''从历史性叙事到散文世界：中国当代文学的散文模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文是一种文学体裁，中国当代的散文可以被视为历史性意识和叙事的衰落象征。与之前已建立的文学范式对比可明显得出这个结果：现实主义模式下的中国小说。许多年来，小说中革命性的现实主义是作为对过去，现在和未来提供连贯短暂的感知力的意识形态的结构和中介而服务的。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 10:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
The realistic novel's central assumption is epic best described by Georg Lukacs, who construes the epic form as a projected ideal that is realizable through narrated social and historical actions. Little thought needs to be taken to see that a revolutionary epic is a strenuous but finally triumphant harmony of ideal and reality. The rise of the essay in the recent decades epitomizes the turn of literary writing from the epic coherence of ideal and life to the dispersed and fragmented sensory or sensual pleasures and sheer appreciation of images or anecdotes.<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
The essay retreats from historical consciousness and responds warmly and lightheartedly to the advent of consumer culture. It is designed to satisfy the modest needs of the urban consumer whose sensibility is becoming “essayistic,” prosaic, ahistorical and everyday, preoccupied with the most intimate and quotidian matters. This paper takes a look back at Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay and attempts to trace the linkage between the modern essay and the rise of urban consumer culture. Then through an analysis of Wang Anyi's novella ''The Story of Our Uncle'' (Shushu de gushi), I demonstrate how the retreat from historical consciousness to what I would call the essayistic structure of feeling is dramatized by Wang's groping, explorative essay/fiction. <br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
The main character Uncle's career illustrates the waning of historical consciousness. This paper seeks to point out that the essay's ambivalence lies in its freedom from the straitjacket of the grand narrative and in its contribution to the withering of historical consciousness in the rising consumer culture in China. <br />
<br />
'''The Essay and the Novel'''<br />
<br />
The essay as a cultural form can be grasped in its relation to the novel. In twentieth-century China the novel in the epic, realistic mode had been the dominant form of literature and a pivotal ideological apparatus--probably up to the mid-1980s. The Chinese realistic novel can be construed as epic in the way formulated by Georg Lukács.<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Its epic characteristic lies in its historical scope and teleology, its engagement with social and political issues, its intertwining of the individual's fate with collective projects, its aesthetics of the exemplary hero, and its striving for transcendence within everyday immanence. The novel of socialist realism in the Mao era strove to achieve an imaginary unity of transcendent ideals and quotidian reality. It depicts a universe in which the world and the self “never become permanent strangers to one another” (Lukács 29) and the individual's growth is of one piece with communal destiny. In the post-Mao era, often dubbed the New Period, works of fiction appeared to be different but were still imbued with an epic impulse. <br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
It is true that the 1980s saw the emphatic upsurge of interest in the subjectivity of the autonomous individual, but far from an atomistic ego of appetitive self-interest, fictional characters were still figured as the subject of history. For all its seeming revolt against the previously dominant mode, the image of the newly awakened modern self in the fiction of the New Period went hand in hand with the socio-historical process of socialist modernization, individuals serving as agents of this process. Thus, Fredric Jameson's concept of national allegory--in which the individual's fate tells a larger story of collective destiny – was well received in Chinese criticism and made to apply with equal ease to the realistic novel of the Mao era as well as those advocating reforms. <br />
<br />
Critics have noted that in the 1980s thought emancipation movement (sixiang jiefang), the fundamental literary mode and historical consciousness were derived from the Hegelian-Marxist version of the unity of subject and object, the individual and history. So the self that was upheld was not an autonomous self cut off from the collectivity of social processes, but was assimilated and modeled by the requirements of the modernization drive. See Qi Shuyu, 103-104.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
<br />
诚然，在20世纪80年代，人们对自主个体的主体性产生了浓厚的兴趣，但小说中的人物角色远不是出于利己主义的欲望，而是仍然被视为历史的主体。新时期小说中新觉醒的现代自我的形象与社会主义现代化的社会历史进程携手前行，个人充当了这一进程的代理人。因此,詹姆逊的国家概念的寓言——个人的命运讲述一个更大的集体命运——在中国大受好评的批评,使平等轻松地应用于毛泽东时代的现实主义小说,以及那些鼓吹改革。<br />
批评家们注意到，在20世纪80年代的思想解放运动中，主体与客体、个体与历史统一的黑格尔-马克思主义版本衍生出了基本的文学模式和历史意识。因此，所维护的自我并不是一个脱离社会过程的集体的自主的自我，而是被现代化进程的要求同化和塑造的自我。可见 Qi Shuyu, 103-104.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 06:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
If this view of the novel sounds anachronistic to contemporary China, we may justify it by a reference to the striven-for unity of revolutionary ideals and social reality, of theory and practice, a prominent tenet in the utopian legacy of Marxism. As literary counterpart of this projected unity the Chinese realistic novel presents a mythical and epic structure in which dream and history, individual and collective become one. In Lukács the epic is contracted with the novel, because the latter is a form stripped of the former’s immediate and unproblematic unity of ideal and reality (56).<br />
<br />
如果这部小说的观点在当代中国听起来不合时宜，我们可以通过引用革命理想和社会现实、理论和实践的统一来证明其合理性，这是马克思主义乌托邦遗产中的一个突出宗旨。作为这种统一性的文学对应物，中国现实主义小说呈现出一种神话和史诗结构，在这种结构中，梦想和历史、个人和集体成为一体。 在卢卡斯看来，史诗是缩略的小说，因为后者是一种脱胎于前者的直接的、没有问题的理想与现实的统一的形式(56)。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:41, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果这部小说的观点在当代中国听上去不合时宜，那么我们可以参照争取革命理想与社会现实、理论与实践的统一来证明其正确性，这是马克思主义乌托邦遗产中一个突出的信条。作为这种统一性的文学对应物，中国现实主义小说呈现出一种梦想与历史、个人与集体合一的神话史诗结构。在卢卡斯看来，史诗与小说紧密相连，因为后者是一种剥离了前者直接的、毫无问题的理想与现实统一的形式（56）。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 14:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
In other words, the novel in the Western realistic tradition is troubled by the intrusion of time, which causes fractures in the epic, time-defying harmony between self and collectivity, dream and actuality. But Lukács still insists that the novel is a kind of epic, because it strives to close the fissures created by the gap of time, hence potentially able to attain the epic status on a higher level. <br />
<br />
The gap between ideal and reality is minimized in the Chinese novel, which appears to be more epic than the realistic novel in the West. The novel of revolutionary realism is closer to poetry, marked with tremendous lyricism, as Charles Laughlin notes with regard to the socialist sanwen in his essay “Incongruous Lyricism” in this volume.<br />
<br />
换句话说，西方现实主义传统小说因受到时间的侵扰而困扰，这种侵扰导致自我与集体、梦境与现实之间的史诗性、时间性和谐出现裂痕。但是卢卡斯仍然坚持小说也是一种史诗，因为小说试图对时间差造成的断裂进行修复，因此有潜在可能达到更高层次的史诗地位。<br />
<br />
在中国小说里，理想和现实的差距被最小化，中国小说看起来似乎比西方的现实小说更加具有史诗性质。革命现实主义小说更接近于诗，同时巨大的抒情性为标志，正如查尔斯·劳夫林在本卷文章“不协调的抒情诗”中提到的社会主义散文那样。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 14:48, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
It would not seem incongruous when lyrical exuberance, equated with revolutionary idealism and utopianism, is maximized in the novel as a way to transcend and close the gap between a historical time marked by imperialist invasions, sufferings, and poverty on the one hand, and the ultimate ideal of communism culminating in the epic harmony of ideal and reality, theory and practice, on the other. The novel in this mode is supposed to be more than a text you read, curled up in your couch in a snowy winter night in solitary comfort. It was ideological, educational, edifying, its grand narrative projecting material praxis. It aimed to instigate you to go out into the streets or impoverished villages and get organized with other fellow humans to make history.<br />
<br />
和革命现实主义和乌托邦主义一样，慷慨激昂的抒情小说中一方面最大化地弥合了历史上帝国主义入侵时期苦难和贫穷之间的差距，另一方面，实现共产主义最终理想，实现理想与现实、理论与实践的史诗般的和谐。这种模式的小说应该远不止我们在寒冬飘雪的夜晚舒舒服服地蜷缩在沙发上阅读的文本。而是意识形态的、教育性的、启迪式的宏大叙事题材实践。这种小说旨在促使你上街或到贫穷的村庄，和其他人们组织起来创造历史。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 15:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The rise of the essay in contemporary China is a sign that the novel in the epic mode has become an endangered species. This is not merely the problem of genre, nor am I suggesting that readers are flocking to essays and abandoning novels. My point is that the novel as a medium of envisioning social life and registering experiences of temporality is giving way to the essay, or more generally to the essayistic structure of sensibility. I play with the idea of essayistic in order to refer to the essay as a canonical textual form as well as those discursive moments in other literary genres embodying an “essayistic” quality and a “prosaic” structure of feeling.<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
One crucial point to made is that this emotional structure accords with the everyday sensibility of a city-dweller and consumer. This is one reason why it is instructive to contract the essayistic with the novel. The essay deals with a prosaic and mundane world. In Hayden White’s recapturing of Hegel’s distinction of poetry and prose, “The world in which prosaic utterance developed must be supposed to have been one in which experience had become atomized and denuded of its ideality and immediately apprehended significance, and voided of its richness and vitality” (87).This prosaic world of fragmented experience is to the Chinese novel as the Lukácsian novel is to the epic: a fall from an original oneness. In contemporary China, neither the novel nor poetry seems to be a means of closing this widened gap. My purpose in the essay is to examine the position of the essayistic in relation to the novel, and the related sensibilities in relation to history.<br />
<br />
关键的一点是，这种情感结构与城市居民和消费者的日常情感相符。这就是为什么说把散文家和小说联系起来是有益的。散文处理的是一个平淡且平凡的世界。在海登怀特对黑格尔的诗歌和散文的区分的重述中，他指出，"在散文性语句发展的世界里，经验已经被原子化，它的理想性和即刻领会的重要性被剥夺，它的丰富性和生命力丧失"（87）。这个由碎片化经验构成的散文性世界对于中国小说来说就像卢卡斯小说对于史诗的意义一样：从原始的单一性中堕落。在当代中国，无论是小说还是诗歌，似乎都不是弥合这一差距的手段。本文旨在考察散文家在小说中的地位，以及与历史相关的情感。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
The Hegelian Marxist perspective I sketched earlier is helpful here for understanding the shift from the novel to the essay. For Hegel art is necessary because it strives for a seamless, organic apotheosis of transcendent spirit and mundane reality. This view, though historical, can lead to two contradictory conclusions. In Hegel art is historical because it is a stage of the Spirit's journey to its self-realization. As art evolves as historically transitory forms of the Spirit, the movement of history leads to the abolition of certain forms of art, or the demise of art altogether. On this account the novel would be a casualty of the Spirit’s historical movement and self-realization. For Hegel art becomes problematic and obsolete because the “world of prose” has attained the empirical form erstwhile aspired to by art. In the world of prose, the Spirit has realized itself both in thought and in socio-political praxis, exemplified by the Prussian state.<br />
我前面所概述的黑格尔马克思主义观点有助于理解从小说到散文的转变。对于黑格尔来说，艺术是必要的，因为它努力实现超越精神和世俗现实的无缝、系统的神化。 这一观点虽然是历史的，但可以得出两个相互矛盾的结论。 黑格尔认为艺术是历史性的，因为它是圣灵走向自我实现过程中的一个阶段。 当艺术演变为历史上短暂的精神形式时，历史运动导致某些形式的艺术被废除或者完全消亡。 因此，小说将成为圣灵历史运动和自我实现的牺牲品。对于黑格尔来说，艺术变得有疑问和过时，因为“散文世界”已经达到了过去艺术所渴望的经验形式。 在散文的世界中，圣灵在思想和社会政治实践中都实现了自己，普鲁士国家就是例证。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 11:35, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
我前面所概述的黑格尔马克思主义观点有助于理解从小说到散文的转变。对于黑格尔来说，艺术是必要的，因为它努力实现超越精神和世俗现实的无缝、系统的神化。 这一观点虽然是历史的，但可以得出两个相互矛盾的结论。 黑格尔认为艺术是历史性的，因为它是圣灵走向自我实现过程中的一个阶段。 当艺术演变为历史上短暂的精神形式时，历史运动导致某些形式的艺术被废除或者完全消亡。 因此，小说将成为圣灵历史运动和自我实现的牺牲品。对于黑格尔来说，艺术变得困难重重且过时，因为“散文世界”已经达到了过去艺术所渴望的经验形式。在散文的世界中，圣灵在思想和社会政治实践中都实现了自己，普鲁士国家就是例证。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:57, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
The polity embodied by the Prussian state is for Hegel is the epitome of theory put into practice, a real image of realized art. As Luckács remarked of Hegel, “Thus art becomes problematic precisely because reality has become non-problematic” (Lukács 17).<br />
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Lukács, however, draws a contrary lesson from this historical, or more precisely the “end-of-history,” “end of art” thesis. Taking issue with Hegel's view of art as “aestheticized” body politic, Lukacs argues that the problem of the novel is a mirror image of a world gone out of joint. In modern times the novel is still alive as the impulse of art is still pressing. The novel is aesthetically and epistemologically vital and necessary not because the established reality has achieved what art can only dream. On the contrary, the novel is a desperate attempt to patch up a broken reality and inject little doses of meaning into a world emptied of spontaneous and totalisable significance.<br />
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普鲁士国家所体现的政体是黑格尔是付诸实践的理论缩影，是现实艺术的真实形象。 正如拉克奇（Luckács）评论的黑格尔的那样，“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术才成为问题所在”（卢卡奇17）。<br />
然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点得到了截然不同的教训。 卢卡奇对黑格尔将艺术视为“审美化的”身体政治的观点持怀疑态度，他认为这本小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。 在现代，由于艺术的冲动仍在继续，小说仍然活着。 这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，并且不是必需的，因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:46, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于黑格尔来说，普鲁士王国代表的政体是理论成为现实的缩影，是现实艺术的真正形象。正如卢卡奇(Luckács)评价黑格尔时所说的：“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术就成了问题所在。”（卢卡奇 17）<br />
然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点中得到了截然不同的教训。卢卡奇不认同黑格尔“将艺术看作美学政体”的观点，他认为这部小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。艺术的冲击力仍在继续，因此现代小说依然保持着其生命力。这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，这是必需的，并不是因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Therein lies its modern irony, the irony of dreaming the perfection of the world while knowing acutely the impossibility of perfection. Interestingly, Lukács' insight into the ironic, self-reflexive nature of the novel provides a glimpse on the condition of the essay. In the Chinese realistic novel, to be sure, the historical totality of communist utopia emerging out of a mundane reality is the shining symbol of inspiration, bearing a superficial resemblance to the Hegelian realization of Spirit in the state. But the faith in the final triumph of communist utopia and the attainment of a fully emancipated society is presumed by the novelistic discourse as law-like and predetermined, hence realistic and inevitable. Thus the decline of the novel, the novel in the epic mode, can be read as the decline of the grand, Marxist narrative of historical teleology. In contrast, the rise of the essay harbingers a more fragmentary, disjoint, and private form of signifying practice that is springing up in the cracks and gaps of a fallen reality, a world out of joint.<br />
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==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
The world out of joint is a compelling image of today's China going commercialized, globalized, and fragmented in all aspects of life. The phrase “out of joint' here is meant to denote both the explosive vitality and disorienting chaos, the drama and trauma of the Chinese scene unfolding in the past decade. To grasp China as a vast market place, a rising consumer society, an emergent culture of mass media and spectacles, I refer the reader to numerous reports by journalists, economists, and a vast number of essays written by writers who have recently turned to the personal essay as a forum. Literature, as a historical vision and ideological apparatus, is hanging in the balance.<br />
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脱节是当今中国在生活各个方面走向商业化、全球化和碎片化的一个引人注目的形象特点。在这里，“脱节”一词意指蓬勃发展的活力和令人困惑的混乱，以及过去十年中中国社会的戏剧性和创伤。要了解中国是一个巨大的市场，一个正在崛起的消费社会，一个新兴的大众媒体文化和奇观，我建议读者参考大量的记者、经济学家的报道，以及大量的文章，这些文章的作者最近转向个人文章作为论坛。文学作为一种历史的视野和意识形态的工具，悬而不保。<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 04:46, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
失控的世界是当今中国走向商业化、全球化和生活各方面碎片化的一个引人注目的形象。 这里的 "失控 "一词，既是指活力无限，也是指混乱不堪，以及过去十年中国社会戏剧性的创伤。 要了解中国这个庞大的市场、崛起的消费社会、新兴的大众传媒和文化奇观，我推荐读者阅读众多记者、经济学家的报告，以及近来转而以个人散文为阵地的作家所写的大量文章。 文学，作为一种历史眼光和意识形态的工具，正处于悬而未决的状态。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:59, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Like many other spheres of culture, it has become commodified and entered the marketplace, being packaged into one more item in the mass media and entertainment industry. This altered social context is crucial to understanding the essay as a literary form and a cultural medium of expression in contemporary China. But this link between the culture of commodity and the essay, or the essayistic mode of writing and feeling, is not a brand new phenomenon of the last decade.<br />
<br />
For a tracing of the historical linkage we may turn to the earlier period in modern literary history. Eileen Chang's essays and her reflection on the essay form are the compelling and successful instance of the marriage between the essay and mass culture. Nicole Huang’s paper in this volume looks at some aspects of this marriage as manifest in Chang’s essay.<br />
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==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
This marriage finds its new manifestations in the work of the contemporary writer Wang Anyi, who is writing in a renewed urban context in many ways similar to that of Chiang. An analysis of Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay will help us understand Wang's work. Eileen Chang's views give the essay form a clear shape as it emerged in an urban and consumer culture. Wang Anyi's essays and especially the essayistic moments in her fiction mark the return of this consumer-oriented genre under new historical circumstances.<br />
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'''Eileen Chang and the Essay in the Urban Setting'''<br />
<br />
The story and essay writer Eileen Chang has been seen as one source for Wang Anyi's work. Although Eileen Chang wrote fictions of urban life set in Shanghai and Hong Kong in a mixture of traditional and modernist styles, her writing is a sharp contrast and an antidote to the grand narrative of the May Fourth Enlightenment and revolution in modern Chinese literature.<br />
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This view of Hegel's on art is evoked by Lukács in his preface to ''The Theory of the Novel'', 11-23.<br />
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==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
Her stories relish the irrelevancies, minor manias, trivia, and anxieties and depict random episodes of the urbanite's life. The intriguing depiction of the narrow romance and personality of the petty urbanites, ''xiaoshimin'', is her forte and attraction. The prose of life in a cramped and congested urban setting is not only the hallmark of her fiction, but also constitutes the major themes of her essays. While her essays correspond to and illuminate her fiction, her thoughts on essay writing serve to highlight the aesthetic quality of the essayistic in modern Chinese literature. <br />
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Eileen Chang's essay collection ''Floating Words'' (sometimes translated as ”Written on Walter”) is a compelling example of the essay as it emerged in Chinese urban culture. In the opening essay entitled “The Child Utters his Words without Constraints” (Tongyan wuji) she equates her essays to the chatty, whimsical, and willful airing of pent-up feelings whenever and wherever she can, like an unrestrained child. <br />
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==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Writers like her, she says, have little to do with earth-quaking, epoch-making historical events and should drop the dream of immortality attainable from self-portrayal by writing a popular autobiography. The satisfaction and salvation for a writer are writing “bits and pieces about matters concerning oneself” (7). The matters of self-concern, as Chang continues, include money, dress, eating, important personages and their grotesque undersides, and family relations. Within a few pages of this first essay we have a range of sundry themes expressing interest in consumer habit, survival in the city, personal and social relations in an increasingly compartmentalized urban culture. Running down the table of contents of this essay collection, we have trouble classifying what the essays focus on, except to say that they essay opinion and play around with perceptions just about anything in city life. They touch upon whatever flickers through the mind, passes in view, appeals to the senses, any stereotypical or routine scenes or acts in the urban setting.<br />
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她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯的兴趣，在城市的生存，个人和社会关系在一个日益分割的城市文化。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及任何在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯，在城市中生存，在一个日益分割的城市文化中个人和社会的关系的兴趣。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及一切在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:17, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
There are, to give a taste of their randomness and miscellany, pieces about living in an apartment, beating up people, private and intimate words, shallow impressions about art, changing dresses, woman, rains, the umbrellas, even about a routine act of going upstairs. <br />
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While it is surely impossible to box these essays into a general category and abstract a unifying principle, Eileen Chang points beyond this charmed collection of essays to the grand historical narrative and thus provides a useful reference point for what the essay refuses to do. If it is not clear what the essay is, Chang shows what it is not. She sees the essay in its withdrawal from and rejection of historical discourse and in its all-consuming absorption in the mundane and fragmented urban scenes. The nature of the essay seems to lie in its irrelevance to history as a literary principle:<br />
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为了展现他们的随意和杂乱，有很多关于公寓生活，打架斗殴，私密话语的碎片，对于艺术，服饰变换，女性，雨天，雨伞，甚至上楼这种日常动作的浅谈。<br />
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当然这些文章不可能被归入一个大概范畴，从而抽象为一个统一的原则，但张爱玲在这本迷人的散文集之外，指出了宏大的历史性叙事，从而为这篇文章不能做的事情提供了一个有用的参考点。如果不明白某篇文章是什么，张会说明这篇文章不是什么。她认为这篇文章是对历史话语的回避和拒绝，是对世俗和支离破碎的城市场景的全身心地投入。这篇文章的本质似乎在于它与作为文学原则的历史无关：--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 06:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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为了让人感受到它们的随意性和杂乱感，有关于公寓生活，打架斗殴，私密话语等碎片化场景，有关于艺术、换衣服、女人、雨、雨伞等浅薄印象，甚至有关于上楼的这种日常动作，都被记录下了。<br />
<br />
虽然肯定不可能把这些文章归入一个大类，抽象出一个统一的原则，但张爱玲却把这本充满魅力的文章集指向了宏大的历史叙事之外，从而为散文拒绝做的事情提供了一个有益的参考点。如果不清楚散文是什么，张爱玲就说明它不是什么。她看到了散文对历史话语的抽离和拒绝，看到了散文对平凡而零碎的城市场景的全盘吸收。散文的本质似乎在于，作为一种文学原则，它与历史无关。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
I have no desire to write history, nor am I qualified to make judgement on the historian's perceptions. But privately I hope they would say more things that are irrelevant. Reality as such is not systematic; it is like seven or eight chatter-boxes sounding simultaneously, creating confusion. But amidst this incomprehensible sound and fury there occur moments of illumination, poignant and bright, enabling us to hear the tune and understand a bit, only to be swallowed up by the thickening darkness. Painters, writers, and composers connect these chancy, fragmented discoveries and create artistic wholes. (41)<br />
<br />
As a fiction writer Chang does not believe in artistic perfection. She creates “imperfect” and flawed characters in her fiction, as she repeatedly claims. In her essays she holds it important to write about the irrelevancies, for, as she proclaims, all life' charms are to be found in the irrelevancies. (42)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay reflects certain aspects of Chinese modernity that provides a context for understanding the essay form as an increasingly prominent cultural medium. The essay for her is a writing practice opposed to the historically oriented and politically charged literature, to the teleological historical narrative, and to the monumental work of art. Formalistically the essay is random, self-contradictory, expressive, and therapeutic. Eileen Chang's essays are a radical departure from Lu Xun's miscellaneous essay (''zawen''). Despite its similarly disjoint, personal, and casual form, the ''zawen'' à la Lu Xun is polemic, militant, acid, socially and political engaged. It seizes upon the small and transitory but its gaze goes past them to the culturally and historically significant. This engaged character puts the ''zawen'' in a close lineage with the didactic tradition of May Fourth literature aimed at raising readers' consciousness or jolting them out of the half-sleep of tradition and convention.<br />
<br />
张爱玲对散文的思考反映了中国现代性的某些方面，这为理解作为日益突出的文化媒介的散文形式提供了一个语境。对她来说，这篇散文是一种与历史导向和充满政治色彩的文学、目的论的历史叙事和不朽的艺术作品相对立的写作实践。从形式上来说，这篇散文是任意性的、自相矛盾的但又富有表现力和治疗性。张爱玲的文章是对鲁迅杂文的彻底背离。尽管鲁迅笔下的“杂文”体现出类似的不连贯性、个人化和随意的形式，但它是论战性的、激进的、尖刻的、社会的和政治的。鲁迅的文章捕捉到的是渺小而短暂的事物，但其目光越过它们，投向其背后体现的文化性和历史性。这个引人入胜的特点将“杂文”与五四文学的说教传统紧密联系在一起，旨在提高读者的意识，试图将他们从传统和习俗的沉睡中唤醒。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 08:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
The rise of consumer mentality, urban culture, and the new role of the writer as a professional breadwinner brought to prominence the values of entertainment, charm, taste, performance, charisma, and glamour--values inherent to urban culture with a good appetite for entertainment, images, and spectacles. This emergent socio-historical context was overshadowed and marginalized by the dominant political ideology and historical narrative in the decades after Eileen Chang's short-lived popularity. <br />
<br />
Andrew Jones of UC-Berkeley is at work to translate Eileen Chang’s essay collection into English and he uses the phrase “Written on Water.”<br />
<br />
In his recent book ''Shanghai Modern'' Professor Leo Lee has admirably traced Eileen Chang's writing and the commercial urban culture she was immersed in. See the Chapter “Eileen Chang: Romances in a Fallen City,” 267-303.<br />
<br />
消费者心态，城市文化以及职业性养家糊口的新角色：作家的兴起，突显了娱乐，魅力，品味，表演，魅力和诱惑力的价值，这些都是城市文化所固有的价值，并且它们对于 娱乐，印象和景象有着不错的需求。 在张爱玲昙花一现之后的几十年中，这种新兴的社会历史背景被占主导地位的政治意识形态和历史叙事所掩盖和边缘化。<br />
<br />
加州大学伯克利分校的安德鲁·琼斯（Andrew Jones）正在将张爱玲的论文集翻译成英文，并使用了“在水上的书写”一词。<br />
<br />
在他最近的著作《上海现代》中，leo教授怀有钦佩地追溯了张爱玲的著作以及她所沉浸的商业城市文化。请参见《张爱玲：堕落的浪漫》 267-303章。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 14:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
In the 1990s and in Wang Anyi's work, this historical context re-emerged with sharpness and vengeance. I will argue that the fate of the essay or the aesthetic quality of the essayistic cannot be understood without considering the revival of urban and consumer culture and its increasing detachment from the historical consciousness.<br />
<br />
'''Telling a Story Where There is no Story to Tell'''<br />
<br />
Wang Anyi's work in the 1990s shows how deeply the urban mass culture has penetrated and transformed literature. The novel in the epic mode depends upon some preconceived story pattern which delivers ideological and historical convictions about temporal perceptions of past, present, and future. One symptom of the shift from the novel to the essay is the acute sense of lack of story, the sense that the archetypal stories that writers used to rely on to generate their narratives are no longer convincing.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以尖锐和复仇的笔触重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式提供了意识形态和历史信念，关于对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型是故事的严重缺失，作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
----<br />
<br />
在20世纪90年代，以及在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以充满尖锐的笔调和复仇的情感重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆20世纪90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式传达了意识形态观念和历史观念，这些观念与对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知有关。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型表现是严重缺失故事的敏锐感觉，即作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在20世纪90年代，在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以充满尖锐的笔调和复仇的情感再现了。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆20世纪90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式传达了意识形态观念和历史观念，这些观念与对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知有关。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型表现是严重缺失故事的敏锐感觉，即作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 14:53, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
For Wang Anyi this poverty of stories is directly linked to the urban setting. The title of one of her essays on literature “The City Has no Story to Tell” (Chengshi wu gushi) highlights the disappearance of sharable, communicable narratives in the city's amorphous atmosphere and the anonymous urban crowd. This essay makes quite clear the sociological transformations that have given rise to the generic shift from story to non-story, or from narrative fiction to the essayistic mode. In it Wang sets up a contrast between the village community and urban social organization. The tightly knit rural communities, such as villages and small towns, are the nurturing ground for sharable stories. As the social relations are largely those of family, kinship or clan, human contact and communication are more intimate and primarily face to face. Individuals act out their life stories in a pre-given trajectory and within a received social network of work, authority, and hierarchy.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
The stories both told and lived, recounted over and again against a backdrop of traditional orientation and self-evident norms. Traditional values and age-old customs shape the stories people tell each other and assure their intelligibility and guarantee cultural continuity. In short, the temporal and spatial perceptions are inherited and sedimented over time and can be repeated in new stories. <br />
<br />
This argument about village community brings to mind Benjamin's critique of the modern novel and re-evaluation of the communal storyteller. The village community is embedded in an inexhaustible fund of stories and exemplified by the culturally cohesive role of the storyteller. Benjamin's familiar argument takes on new significance when the contract between village and city is construed as a metaphoric tension between the self-assured story-telling in the epic mode of the Chinese novel and the disappearance of the story in the city.<br />
<br />
这些故事讲述和生活，在传统取向和不言而喻的规范的背景下一遍又一遍地叙述。传统价值观和古老的风俗习惯塑造了人们相互讲述的故事，保证了故事的可理解性和文化的连续性。简言之，时间和空间的感知是随着时间的推移而继承和沉淀的，并且可以在新的故事中重复。<br />
<br />
关于乡村社区的论点让我想到了本杰明对现代小说的批判和对公共叙事者的重新评价。 乡村社区被埋在无穷无尽的故事基金中，并以讲故事者的文化凝聚力为例。 当乡村与城市之间的契约被解释为中国小说史诗模式中的自我保证的故事讲述与城市中故事的消失之间的隐喻张力时，本杰明的熟悉论点具有新的意义。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
More importantly, the tension foregrounds the accelerated modernization process that has rendered almost obsolete, in less than a decade, the relatively habitual and time-worn socio-psychic infrastructure. It brings into sharp focus the market oriented, amorphous urban setting where the individual becomes atomic individuals, cut loose from the social moorings of kinship, community, and family, from lineage and history. Thrown into the competitive marketplace and transient impersonal relations, the individual has to rely on his or her own ingenuity and resources.. Since they come from different areas and are isolated from each other in the compartmentalized life spheres and specialized work, urban dwellers only have their own vastly different stories to tell, stories which are narrowly biographical and not readily meaningful to other people. There are more stories to tell, it is true, but the apparent multiplication of stories imply the poverty of a communicable story.<br />
<br />
更重要的是，紧张局势预示着加速的现代化进程，在不到十年的时间里，这一进程几乎淘汰了相对熟悉的社会心理基础设施，现在它已显得陈旧不堪。这种局势给以市场导向的形势和未定型的城镇环境带来了极大的关注度，在这里，独立的个体变得微不足道，疏远亲属、社区和家庭关系，疏离血缘关系和历史关系。 人们被迫投入竞争激烈的市场，投身于短暂的没有人情味的关系里，他们必须依靠自己的天赋和资源。因为来自不同的地方，他们与彼此因生活领域和特定工作而相互隔离，住在城市的人只能说说关于自己的截然不同的故事，这些故事只限于谈论自己，所以对于其他人没有可读性，也无意义。的确，是有很多的故事可以说，但是故事的激增也暗示了好传播故事的缺乏。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:45, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
This is what Wang means by saying there is lack of stories in the city. The endlessly varied confusion and lack of common interest lead to disjoint, fragmentary, anecdotal, performance-driven forms of writing often found in essays written for the consumer's relaxed state of mind, or mindlessness after a nice dinner.<br />
<br />
'''From the Historical to the Essayistic: the Fall of the Intellectual'''<br />
<br />
Wang Anyi's ''The Story of Our Uncle'' illustrates the transition from the historically and ideological oriented literature to a form that could be characterized as essayistic. The novella was written in 1990, a time of drastic change for Chinese society and culture as a whole. From a culture dominated by an ideologically oriented and centralized state China was moving quickly into a brave new world of frenzied economic development, investment, consumerism, and pop culture. Something fundamental had drastically shaken the basic fabrics of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
这就是王先生所说的城市缺少故事的意思。 无穷无尽的各种困惑和缺乏共同的兴趣，导致了不连贯的、零碎的、轶事的、以表现为目的的写作形式，这些写作形式常常出现在为消费者轻松的心境而写的散文中，或者在一顿丰盛的晚餐后的无心之作中。<br />
<br />
'''从历史主义到文章主义：知识分子的堕落'''。<br />
<br />
王安忆的''舅舅的故事''说明了从历史性、意识形态性的文学向可称为散文性的形式过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、投资、消费主义和流行文化的勇敢新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本结构。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 12:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
王安忆的''叔叔的故事''表明了文学的形式由历史导向和意识形态导向往散文导向的过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、充盈着投资、消费主义和流行文化的崭新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本架构。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
''The Story of Our Uncle'' registered a very sensitive aspect of the epoch-making changes in China. Rather than interpret this novella as a literary text, I will look at it as a document tracing a shift in literary and social history. Focusing on a novelist's career, the novella delineates the qualitative shift in the value and function of literature in a time when ideology and politics were giving way to the market, economic development, and consumerism--all under the rubric of modernization. From the vicissitudes of a writer we may see how the novel as a cultural form loses its ground and how literary sensibility shifts to the essayistic. This generic shift provides a glimpse onto the fundamental social transformations in the 1990s.<br />
<br />
《我们叔叔的故事》反映了中国划时代变化的一个非常敏感的方面。与其把这部中篇小说解读为文学文本，不如把它看作是一部追溯文学和社会历史变迁的文献。这部中篇小说以小说家的职业生涯为主线，描绘了在意识形态和政治逐渐让位于市场、经济发展和消费主义的时代，文学的价值和功能发生了质的转变，所有这些均为响应现代化的号召。从一个作家跌宕起伏的人生经历中，我们可以看到小说作为一种文化形式是如何失势的，文学情感是如何转向散文主义的。这种常见的转变让我们看到了20世纪90年代的基本社会变革。<br />
<br />
Critics have noticed the presence of essayistic quality in Wang's writing, especially in her fiction.In ''The Story of Our Uncle'', one finds the essayistic prevailing over narrative.<br />
<br />
评论家们已经发现了王安忆散文创作的本质，这一特点在科幻小说中表现突出。在《我们叔叔的故事》中人们发现散文的比重多余叙事。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:47, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
《叔叔的故事》记录了中国划时代变化的一个非常敏感的方面。与其将这部中篇小说解读为一个文学文本，不如将其视为一部追溯文学和社会历史变迁的文献。这部中篇小说以一个小说家的职业生涯为主线，描绘了在意识形态和政治让位于市场、经济发展和消费主义的现代化背景之下，文学的价值和功能发生了质的变化。从一个作家经历的沧桑巨变中，我们可以看到小说作为一种文化形式是如何失去地位的，文学感召力又是如何向散文主义转变的。这种普遍性的转变让我们看到20世纪90年代社会的根本性变化。<br />
评论家们注意到了王安忆在创作的作品，尤其是她的小说中存在散文性。在《叔叔的故事》中，人们发现散文的成分多于叙事的成分。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 02:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
The text reads more like an essay-- rambling, random, analytical, disjoint, gossipy, chatty--than a straight narration, a fact acknowledged by the author herself. In this narrative-essay a young writer on behalf of his generation attempts make a biographical assessment of an older writer they call our uncle. One would be disappointed to expect an engaging action or dramatic story. Though the text retains the outward, apparent shape of a novella it is a hybrid composed of diverse genres, with literary and art criticisms, gossip, conjecture, history, philosophizing, anecdotes, and stories all rolled into one. The narrator suggests that this novella is an essay in the double sense of textual form and playful, explorative literary exercise. He proclaims in the opening paragraph that this is a story assembled out of a hodgepodge of elements, and there is no way to distinguish truth from falsehood.<br />
<br />
这篇文章读起来更像是一篇散文——散漫、随意、有条理、絮絮叨叨、喋喋不休——而不是直接的叙述，这一点作者也承认。在这篇叙述-散文中，一位年轻作者代表他这一代人试图对一位他们称之为叔叔的老作家进行传记性评价。如果有人以为这会是一个引人入胜的行动或者一个戏剧性的故事，那么他就要失望了。尽管文本保留了小说的外在明显特征，但是它是一个由不同体彩杂糅成的混合体，集文学、艺术批判、八卦、猜测、历史、哲学、轶事和故事于一体。叙述者认为，这篇小说是一篇具有双重意义的散文，既有文本形式，又有充满游戏趣味和探索性的文学练习。他开篇就宣称，这个故事是各种元素糅合而成的大杂烩，无法区分真假。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:48, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
“Many blanks need to be filled up with imagination and inference,” and the story is filled with “subjective coloring” (181). The subjective, arbitrary, even whimsical character of the text is further associated, as the narrator notes, with the mode of production that writers have adopted as they are geared toward an emergent literary market. Writers, the narrator says, are people who spend their time making up stories. One day “we started circulating his (Uncle's) maxims.” To the laborers like us the maxims are significant, for they are capital in commodity production and can produce surplus value, which can put back to expanded reproduction. ''The Story of Our Uncle'' is thus premised on fragmentary axioms, an arbitrary principle of composition, random fantasy, and the form of commodity.<br />
<br />
“许多空白需要想象和推断来填补”整个故事充满主观色彩.(181)正如叙述者所写“作家为了融入日益繁盛的文学市场，作品总有着一些主观，任意甚至任性的色彩”；作者是花时间编故事的人。有一天，“我们会开始传播他(叔叔)的格言。”对于像我们这样的劳动者来说，这些格言很重要，因为他们是商品生产的资本，可以生产剩余价值，这些剩余价值可以扩大再生产。因此，《我们叔叔的故事》是以支离破碎的公理、任意的构成原则、随机的幻想和商品的形式为前提的。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
“许多空白需要想象和推断来填补”整个故事充满主观色彩.(181)正如叙述者所写“作家为了融入日益繁盛的文学市场，作品总有着一些主观，任意甚至任性的色彩”；作者是花时间编故事的人。有一天，“我们会开始流传他(叔叔)的格言。”对于像我们这样的劳动者来说，这些格言很重要，因为他们是商品生产的资本，可以生产剩余价值，这些剩余价值可以扩大再生产。因此，《我们叔叔的故事》是以支离破碎的公理、任意的创作原则、随机的幻想和商品的形式为前提的。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:53, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
In a strictly formalistic sense, Wang's text complies with the usual comments and generalizations on the essay as a literary form. In Theodore Adorno's well-known essay entitled “The Essay as Form” we find numerous descriptions well suited to an analysis of the essay in the Chinese context. Adorno pits the essay against the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural condition of reification. The essay is envisaged as an ''enfant terrible'' or a serious playboy seeking the utopia space of the pleasure principle. Thus the essay turns up its nose to the notions of totality, completeness, systematicity, the universal and the eternal. It is marked by fragments, excessive fantasy and interpretation, exploration, and experiments. Its supposed form is actually formlessness. Abandoning the rigid conceptual schemata, it seeks and engages the object in its historical specificity and quotidian trivia.<br />
<br />
从严格的形式主义意义上讲，王的文本符合论文中通常的评论和概括的文学形式。 在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《作为形式的散文》中，我们发现了许多非常适合在中国语境下对论文进行分析的描述。 阿多诺将这篇论文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来的社会文化条件化相提并论。 这篇文章被认为是“恐怖的婴儿”或寻求娱乐原则的乌托邦空间的严肃的花花公子。 因此，本文对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性的概念大加赞赏。 它的特点是碎片，过多的幻想和解释，探索和实验。 它的假定形式实际上是无形式。 它摒弃了僵化的概念图式，而是以对象的历史特殊性和“琐事琐事”来寻找和参与对象。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:35, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
从严格的形式主义上讲，王的文本遵循了对散文作为一种文学形式的评论和概括。在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《文章的形式》中，我们发现许多描述都很适合在中国语境下对这篇文章进行分析。阿多诺将该文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来物化的社会文化环境相对比。人们将这篇文章设想为“恐怖的婴儿”或是一个严肃的花花公子在追寻享乐主义的乌托邦。因此，文章对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性加以批判。该文碎片化，充斥着幻想，过度解释，探索性和实验性；没有预设的形式，摒弃了僵化的概念图式；追求写作的历史特殊性和日常性。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 12:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
While Adorno's comments are apt and in tune with much of Eileen Chang and Wang Anyi's musings on the essay, the philosophical framework in Adorno that the essay rebels against is different: the essay is up against the high-minded conceptual tyranny of Western philosophical tradition. In the Chinese literary convention the essay is not so clearly defined against something so established. Its polemic pole, I have tried to argue throughout this essay, is to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of revolutionary realism. <br />
<br />
The essay is a literary exploration trying to break out of the conceptual and discursive straitjacket. Adorno quotes Max Bense and says that the essay “is distinguished from a treatise:<br />
<br />
虽然阿多诺的评论很贴切，与张爱玲、王安忆对散文的很多思索是一致的，但散文在阿多诺那里所反抗的哲学框架是不同的：散文是与西方哲学传统的高高在上的概念暴政对抗的。 在中国的文学传统中，散文所反抗的东西并不是那么明确的。 我试图通过这篇文章论证：散文应被认定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物：革命现实主义小说。 <br />
<br />
本文是试图突破观念和话语束缚的文学探索。 阿多诺引用马克斯-本塞的话说，散文 "区别于论著。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:00, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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虽然阿多诺的评论是恰当的，符合张爱玲和王安忆对散文的思考，但阿多诺的哲学框架是不同的：散文反对西方哲学传统高高在上的概念暴政。 在中国的文学传统中，散文并没有如此明确地定义反对既定的东西。我试图用本文论证，散文被认为是目的论历史的启蒙运动和马克思主义范式及其文学对应物：革命现实主义小说。<br />
本文是一次试图打破概念和话语束缚的文学探索。 阿多诺引用了马克斯·本塞的话说，“这篇文章有别于一部专著：--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
The person who writes essayistically is the one who composes as he experiments, who turns his object around, questions it, feels it, tests it, reflects on it, who attacks it from different sides and assembles what he sees in his mind's eye and puts into words what the object allows one to see under the condition created in the course of writing. (17)<br />
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The dropping of a grand, complete vision and opting for the incomplete, trivial, and the experimental are what makes for the essay. The German word Versuch, attempt or essay, Adorno writes, is the place where “thought's utopian vision of hitting the bullseye is united with the consciousness of its own fallibility and provisional character” (16). This “indicates . . . something about the form, something to be taken all the more seriously in that it takes place not systematically but rather as a characteristic of an intention groping its way” (16).<br />
<br />
See Wu Liang and Wang Anyi, “A Conversation on Reality and Fiction,” in Wang Anyi, Reality and Fiction (Jishi yu xugou) 325.<br />
<br />
Adorno, 3-23.<br />
散文式写作的人是在实验中创作的人，他把客体转过来，质疑它，感受它，检验它，思考它，他从不同的角度攻击它，把他在脑海中看到的东西组合起来把客体在写作过程中创造的条件下允许人们看到的东西用文字表达出来。(17)<br />
放弃宏大的、完整的愿景，选择不完整的、琐碎的、实验性的，是这篇文章的组成部分。德语单词Versuch，尝试或文章，阿多诺写道，是“思想命中靶心的乌托邦愿景与意识到自身的错误和临时特性相结合的地方”。这“表明……一些关于形式的东西，一些需要更加认真对待的东西因为它不是系统地发生的而是作为一种意图的特征去探索它的方式。<br />
参见吴亮和王安忆《现实与小说的对话》，载于《王安忆:现实与小说》(季实余序购)325页。<br />
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阿多诺,3-23。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:23, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
An intention groping its way into the mysteries of the Uncle's life aptly describes the essayistic quality of Wang's novella. As a text assembled out of disparate materials-- hearsay, gossips, and guesswork, fantasy, and conjecture, the narrative enacts a wide array of pre-given discourses and narrative patterns to grope at the “real” life of the Uncle. These discourses and narratives are in their own turn commented on as objects of inquiry and critique on a “meta” level and treated as options in an experimental writing. As an intellectual the Uncle is typical of hundreds of thousands others persecuted in the political campaigns whose suffering and re-instatement in the post-Cultural Revolution period is now a cliche. But at the very outset the novella unpacks the myth of the suffering intellectual into forking paths of narrative.<br />
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探索叔叔生活之谜的意图恰如其分地描述了王中篇小说的散文主义特质。作为一个由传闻、闲话、猜测、幻想和猜想这样不同的材料组合而成的文本,叙事中出现了大量预先设定的话语和叙事模式，以探索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些话语和叙述在“元”层面上作为探究和评判的对象被评论，并在实验性写作中被视为可选择的事物。作为一名知识分子，叔叔是在政治运动中遭受迫害的数十万人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和恢复现在已成陈词滥调。但从一开始，这部中篇小说就把受苦知识分子的故事解构成了分岔的叙事路径。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:28, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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一种试图探索叔叔生活奥秘的意图恰当地描述了王的小说的本质特征。作为一篇由不同材料-道听途说，流言，猜测，幻想和猜想-拼凑而成的文本，叙事赋予了大量预先给定的话语和叙事模式，以摸索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些论述和叙述依次被评论为“元”层面上的探究和批判对象，并在实验写作中被视为选项。作为一个知识分子，叔叔是成千上万在政治运动中受到迫害的人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和重生现在已经是老生常谈了。但从一开始，中篇小说就将饱受苦难的知识分子的神话展开，开辟了叙事的道路。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
One can make up a narrative of the Uncle on his way to the place of exile, for instance, by recourse to a tragic-sublime scenario of political victims echoing Dostoevesky. Riding in a beat-up truck drudging through the vast, snowy Siberian landscape in the Northwest plateau, the victim/hero would ponder the significance of life and fate with an elderly wise man. One could also cast the Uncle in a lackluster, comic or even grotesque light, reduced to a mere creature of survival, trapped in a narrow village life. Like thousands of other writers, Uncle was persecuted and exiled because of his writing. But this fabled story of the tragic-heroic writer is again playfully retouched into three different versions by Uncles' own retelling after the fact. In the first telling, his persecution is a political story, indicting the tyranny of the political system. Then it is an existential story, intimating the mysterious and ironical workings of fate.Thirdly, it is a prophetic story, in the fashion of an Aesop fable, full of prescience and bodings of catastrophe.<br />
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比如，人们可以利用陀思妥耶夫斯基式的政治受害者的悲情场景来编造一个叔叔流亡的故事。主人公坐在一辆破旧的卡车上，在广阔的、被白雪覆盖的东北高原上艰难前行，和一位智叟一起思考生命的意义。同样，人们也可以把叔叔塑造成一个毫无生气、滑稽甚至怪诞的形象，一个在小村庄中艰难求生的人。像其他成千上万的作家一样，遭到迫害和流放。但是这个英雄悲剧作家的传奇故事经过叔叔的叙述后，被幽默地改编成三个不同的版本。在第一个叙述中，他受到的迫害是一个政治故事，控诉政治制度中的暴政。其次，这是一个存在主义故事，暗示着命运的神秘和讽刺。第三，这是一个预言性故事，以伊索寓言的方式，充满了预言和大灾难的预兆。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 11:15, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
比如，人们可以通过陀思妥耶夫斯基式的政治受害者的悲情场景来编造一个叔叔去流亡地的故事。主人公坐在一辆破旧的卡车上，在广阔的、白雪覆盖的东北高原上艰难前行，他会和一位睿智的老人一起思考生命和命运的意义。人们也可以把叔叔塑造成一个毫无生气、滑稽甚至怪诞的形象，沦为一个被困在狭小乡村生活中的求生之物。像其他成千上万的作家一样，遭到迫害和流放。但是这个英雄悲剧作家的传奇故事在叔父们在事后的复述后又被幽默地改编成三个不同的版本。在第一个叙述中，他受到的迫害是一个政治故事，控诉政治制度的暴政。第二，这是一个存在主义的故事，暗示着命运的神秘和讽刺。第三，这是一个预言性的故事，以伊索寓言的方式，充满了预言和大灾难的预兆。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
This intention groping its way into the Uncle's life draws upon various types of narrative patterns and aesthetic resources. This is by no means a literary embellishment for pure rhetorical variety or pleasure. The narration is saddled with the difficulties of understanding and getting the Uncle's life's straight. The difficulty is not the usual generational gap, but reflects different historical experiences and memory that separate the young from the old. This difference not only drives a wedge into the writers as a group, but also gives rise to the divergence of generic practice and the aesthetics informing it. This divergence is the key to understanding the essay and the essayistic.<br />
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进入叔叔生活的这种意图利用了各种类型的叙事模式和美学资源。 这绝不是纯粹的修辞变奏或娱乐的文学装饰。 叙述难于理解和理解叔叔的生活。 困难不是通常的代沟，而是反映了将年轻人与老年人区分开的不同的历史经验和记忆。 这种差异不仅使作为一个整体的作家成为楔子，而且引起了通用实践和为其提供信息的美学的差异。 这种差异是理解论文和论文论的关键。<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 11:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种对叔父生活的探索，借鉴了各种类型的叙事模式和审美资源。这绝不是一种纯粹的修辞变化或乐趣的文学修饰。故事的叙述充满了理解和理解叔叔生活的困难。困难不是通常的代沟，而是反映了不同的历史经验和记忆，把年轻人和老年人分开。这种差异不仅导致了作家群体的分裂，而且导致了一般实践和审美观的分歧。这种分歧是理解散文和散文家的关键。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:06, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这旨在用各种类型的叙事模式和审美资源探索叔叔的生活。这绝不是纯粹为了变换修辞或者获得乐趣而进行的文学修饰，而是叙述着理解叔叔生活的困难。困难不是普通的代沟，反映了年轻人和老年人的不同历史经历和记忆。这种差异不仅将作家群分裂开来，而且也导致了共性实践与传达共性实践的美学的分歧。这种分歧是理解散文和散文论的关键。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 11:27, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
The older generation, having experienced political persecution and historical traumas at the first hand, is deeply grounded in a historical consciousness and a teleological narrative. The Uncle is intensely committed to writing literature as praxis for social change. His meteoric rise to the leading writer in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution indicates that the position of what Gramsci called the “organic” intellectual remains strong, even thriving. The popularity of his novels shows that a work of literature can make a tremendous hit and is an effective medium for criticizing the flaws of the system and raising the social, political consciousness of readers. It revives the legacy of the New Literature of May Fourth and is rightly re-baptized as the literature of the New Period (xin shiqi wenxue). It is the voice of the farsighted and the vanguard in China's modernization drive. Despite all his traumas and sufferings, the Uncle's generation, writers in their forties and over in the narrative time, remains firm in their belief in the organic totality of socio-historical process and the people's capacity in steering the course of history. Literature is simply one vehicle that carries this historical mission.<br />
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老一辈人亲身经历过政治迫害和历史创伤，有着较强的历史意识和目的性叙述能力。叔叔致力于以文学写作推动社会变革。他在 "文革 "后一跃成为领军作家，说明葛兰西所说的 "有机 "知识分子的地位依然稳固，甚至是蒸蒸日上。他创作的小说大受欢迎，这表明一部文学作品可以引起巨大的轰动，是批判制度缺陷，提高读者社会意识、政治意识的有效媒介。他的小说重扬了 "五四 "新文学的遗风，重新受洗为新时期文学。它是有远见之人的发声，是中国现代化进程中的先锋。叔叔那一代四十多岁的作家，在这段叙述时间里，尽管经历了种种创伤和苦难，但他们仍然坚信社会历史进程的有机整体性和人民引导历史进程的能力。文学只是承载这一历史使命的载体。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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老一辈人亲身经历过政治迫害和历史创伤，有着较强的历史意识和目的性叙述能力。叔叔致力于文学写作以推动社会变革。"文革 "后，他在一跃成为领军作家，说明葛兰西所说的 "有机 "知识分子的地位依然稳固，甚至是蒸蒸日上。他创作的小说大受欢迎，这表明一部文学作品可以引起巨大的轰动，它是批判制度缺陷，提高读者社会意识、政治意识的有效媒介。叔叔的小说重扬了 "五四 "新文学的遗风，重新受洗为新时期文学。它是有远见之人的传声筒，是中国现代化进程中的先锋。叔叔那一代四十多岁的作家，在这段叙述时间里，尽管经历了种种创伤和苦难，但他们仍然坚信社会历史进程的有机整体性和人民引导历史进程的能力。文学只是承载这一历史使命的载体。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 17:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The historical consciousness embodied by the Uncle is to find its corresponding form in an epic mode of writing: the realistic novel. The Uncle's general outlook on the world is epic in the Lukácsian sense. The young narrator captures this ''Weltanschauung'' very accurately: <br />
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The political life of the past few decades has filled up his personal experience and life. This enables Uncle to keep his worldview firmly anchored to reality and politics. The state and government encompass the whole world for him and form the vast backdrop for human activity. Patterns of people's behavior and conduct are but representatives of social life. The concept of culture sounds very abstract and empty to him. For him art should also perform real and political functions. (214-215)<br />
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叔叔所体现的历史意识是为了在史诗般的写作方式中找到其对应的形式：写实小说。 在卢卡奇的意味上，叔叔对世界的总体观是史诗般的。这位年轻的叙述者非常准确地捕捉到了这个世界观：<br />
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叔叔过去几十年个人经历和生活被政治所充斥，这使他能够将自己世界观牢牢地依托于现实和政治。 国家和政府围绕着他的全世界，并构成了人类活动的广阔背景，人们的行为方式只是社会生活的代表。对他来说，文化的概念听起来很抽象，十分空洞的，甚至认为艺术还应该发挥现实和政治作用。（214-215）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 17:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
The young generation, in contrast, is not so firmly grounded. Growing up in a period when the dominant ideology is in decline, they are left floating in the winds of various imported ideologies and newfangled isms. Creatures of the newly emergent market and players of nihilistic intellectual fashions, they produce literature without any commitment to a socio-historical mission. Literature is but a playful, aesthetic game unburdened with any responsibility and weighty purposes. Art has become an artful, artsy activity, floating free of socio-historical grounding. Literary activity to them means, more specifically, attending pen conferences, pursuing hot fashions, innovating fresh forms and tastes, brandishing new theories, making up sensational and marketable stories. All this also leads to the enhancement of a writer's charisma and even sexual appeal. Indeed, to the young generation it is old fashioned to see literature as having historical or social significance; literature becomes more and more sexy and commercial.<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
The story of the Uncle is an allegory of withdrawal from history and the dangers involved, exemplified in his crisis-ridden metamorphosis from a historically grounded writer to a playful artist, from novelist to essay writer. The Uncle's earlier success thrusts him to the status of literary celebrity and stardom: he becomes a prominent figure in the media. As the younger writers pursue fashions and cater to new consumers with playful, entertaining, artsy literary goods, the Uncle feels the need to catch up. His new position as a glamorous writer allows him to become a globetrotter. At the invitation of literary and academic circles and literary institutions around world eager to know a newly opened China, he journeys from country to country giving talks and socializing at literary cocktail parties. Increasingly, sightseeing and superficial impressions of exotic foreign countries become the only materials he can summon: he becomes a tourist and a writer of travelogue.<br />
叔叔的故事寓意着从历史和其中的危险中脱身，从一个历史背景鲜明的作家变身成为爱打趣的艺术家，从一个小说家变成了散文作家，他经历了重重危机。叔叔的早期成功让他成为了文学名人，常常出现在媒体上。年轻作家追求时尚，他们创作有趣的，充满娱乐性，艺术性的作品来迎合消费者，叔叔觉得自己也该随上大流。作为知名的作家，他的新职位让他有机会环球旅行。文学和学术圈以及文学机构都想要了解刚刚开放的中国，他往返与不同国家进行演讲，参加各种酒会。渐渐地，他能写得的只有观光旅行和对异国的简单印象，于是他就成为了旅行家和游记作家。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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<br />
《叔叔的故事》寓意着从历史和其中的危险中脱身，从一个历史背景鲜明的作家变身成为爱打趣的艺术家，从一个小说家变成了散文作家，他经历了重重危机。《叔叔的故事》早期成功让他成为了文学名人，常常出现在媒体上。年轻作家追求时尚，他们创作有趣的，充满娱乐性，艺术性的作品来迎合消费者，《叔叔的故事》也该随上大流。作为知名的作家，他的新职位让他有机会环球旅行。文学和学术圈以及文学机构都想要了解刚刚开放的中国，他往返与不同国家进行演讲，参加各种酒会。渐渐地，他能写得的只有观光旅行和对异国的简单印象，于是他就成为了旅行家和游记作家。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 12:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Going along with the role of a player in an increasingly cosmopolitan, global, and consumer oriented literary market is a new philosophy of writing, which favors a showy, playful, essayistic quality at the expense of the epic, social and historical. The Uncle is reborn, the younger narrator rightly observes, into a new life, and into an enclosed new realm of pure artistic creativity. He addresses serious social problems playfully in the style of black humor and through anachronistic narrative techniques. He becomes more and more detached from the grave political issues of the day. His new outlook is derived from a purely aesthetic principle.<br />
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在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者正确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:50, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和随笔性。年轻的叙述者精确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭式的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，戏谑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与越来越疏远当今严肃的政治问题。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 02:21, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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不断扩张的都市化，全球化，顾客为导向的市场，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性，社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性、和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔再生了，他进入了一个新的生活，进入到一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和 不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般的对待严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 13:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Emptied of historical substance and filled up with fragmentary and rambling impressions in his global trips, both life and writing of the Uncle thin out into personal, irrelevant, discontinuous fragments. His writing begins to take on the essayistic quality, and borders on sheer images or simulacra, getting closer and closer to those of the younger generation. Real human relations are “only a literary conceit.” (227), he echoes the younger generation. Within the aesthetic shelter the “Uncle can no longer become excited or moved and is immune to suffering.” Tragic suffering is now only a literary category, and “the awareness of this is the hallmark of Uncle's becoming a pure writer” (225). Parallel with this essayistic quality is the Uncle's changed life style. His is more taken with things he would have considered vulgar, low, or quotidian;<br />
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生活和写作都被历史的内涵掏空，随之被全球旅行中的零碎和漫不经心填满，让叔叔自己变成了个人的、无关紧要的、不连续的碎片。他的写作开始有了散文的气质，并接近于纯粹的影像或模拟，越来越接近年轻一代的人。真实的人与人之间的关系“只是一种文学上的臆想”。(227)，他与年轻一代遥相呼应。在审美的庇护下，“大叔再也不能变得兴奋或感动，而且对苦难免疫”。悲剧性的苦难现在只是一个文学范畴，“对这一点的认识是大叔成为一个纯粹作家的标志”（225）。与这种文章化特质并行的是大叔的生活方式的改变。他的更多的是对那些他认为庸俗、低级、庸常的东西的接受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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在他的环球旅行中，历史的物质被清空，而充满了零碎的、漫无边际的印象，关于叔叔的生活和写作都逐渐变成个人的、无关的、不连续的片段。他的作品开始呈现出散文式的品质，接近纯粹的影像或拟像，越来越接近年轻一代的作品。真正的人际关系“只是一种文学幻想”。(227)，他回应了年轻一代。在美学的庇护下，“叔叔不再激动或感动，对痛苦免疫。”悲剧的痛苦现在只是一个文学类别，“意识到这一点是叔叔成为一个纯粹作家的标志”(225)。与这种随笔风格相对应的是叔叔生活方式的改变。他更喜欢那些他认为庸俗、低俗或司空见惯的事情;--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
he becomes more listless and yuppish. He has developed a strong interest in women and sexual intrigues and conquests; he indulges in vulgarity and trivial pursuits, exulting in money and showy, exotic collectibles. In short, he metamorphoses from an image of the epic novelist and organic intellectual to a middle class, professional writer, whose favored form is the essay and whose lifestyle takes on the “essayistic” quality of a ramble for self-pleasure.<br />
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The transformation in the Uncle reflects the retreat of literature from a historically grounded medium to a form light-hearted, playful entertainment and a theatrical performance. The problem with this change, as the novella's ending suggests, is that it is self-deceptive. Despite the Uncle's willful creation of an aesthetic cocoon, history manages to intrude in the end as return of the repressed, in the person of his murderous son. His son embodies all the painful memory and disgraceful experience of the Uncle's life, unfit for the epic treatment in his novels and repressed in his ethereal, airtight, essayistic experiments.<br />
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他变得更加无精打采而又热情洋溢。他对女性以及性爱和征服产生了浓厚的兴趣。他沉迷于庸俗和琐碎的追求，对金钱和艳丽的异国情调的收藏品狂喜不已。简而言之，他从史诗般的小说家和有机知识分子的形象变成了中产阶级专业作家，他的偏爱形式是随笔，其生活方式具有自我满足的“随笔”性质。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《叔叔》的转变反映了文学从一种历史根基的媒介退缩到一种轻松、有趣的娱乐和戏剧表演的形式。正如中篇小说的结尾所暗示的那样，这种变化的问题在于它是自欺欺人的。尽管《叔叔》蓄意创造了一个美丽的茧，但由于被压抑者的归还，他的杀手之子最终还是入侵了历史。他的儿子体现了《叔叔》创造中所有的痛苦记忆和可耻的经历，不适合他小说中的史诗般的治疗方式，而对他空灵、透气、杂文主义的实验则表现出压抑。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
The son's attempted murder of his father signifies the revenge of a history that the Uncle is trying to shut off from the serene, trouble-free aesthetic realm. Our concern, however, is not with the interpretation of the story per se, but with the way the Uncle's fate indicates the shift in literary form. If the Uncle's story apparently traces the trajectory of a novelist to a writer who not only writes travelogues and essays but also is imbued with essayistic sensibility, then the essay in contemporary China is a release from the epic form of writing and historical discourse. It is a release into the literary market and consumer taste, a response to the pervasive secularization of life and rising consumerism.<br />
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儿子企图谋杀他父亲的行为象征着一段历史的复仇，而这段历史是叔叔试图将其与宁静、无烦恼的美学领域隔离开来的。然而，我们关心的不是故事本身的解释，而是叔叔的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果“叔叔”的故事明显地将小说家的轨迹追溯到一个作家，他不仅写游记和散文，而且充满了散文情感，那么当代中国的散文就是从史诗形式的写作和历史话语中解放出来的。这是对文学市场和消费品味的释放，是对生活普遍世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 11:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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儿子企图谋杀他的父亲这一行为象征着一段极具历史意义的复仇，叔父试图从宁静、无忧无虑的美学领域中脱离出来。然而，我们的关注点不在于对故事本身的解读，而是叔父的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果说《叔叔的故事》追溯了一个小说家转变为作家的轨迹——在写游记和随笔的同时，倾注了散文式的细腻情感——那么当代中国的随笔就是史诗写作和历史话语的一种释放。这是对文学市场和消费者口味的一种释放，是对无处不在的生活世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It comes as the image of a loosening up of the previous, ideologically controlled life, which is now becoming more private, more disjoint and fragmented, more removed from the totalistic social and political process. Yet history has not become the simulacrum to play with, as envisioned by the younger narrator or the Uncle himself as he catches up with the fashions. China’s social reality does not square so nicely with the essayistic playfulness one may wish. Thus the essay as a cultural form is caught in a tension between withdrawal from the burden of history and the possible return of the repressed.<br />
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它是一种对以前的被控制意识形态的生活的解放，它现在变得更私人，更脱节和碎片化，更远离极权主义的社会和政治进程。然而，历史并不是像年轻的叙述者或叔叔自己在追赶时尚时想象的那样可操控的。中国的社会现实与人们所希望的散文式的嬉闹并不那么吻合。因此，散文作为一种文化形式，处于一种从历史的负担中解脱出来与可能回归压迫状态之间的张力之中。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 17:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
'''Mulish Essays: the Genre of ''Zawen'' in Contemporary China<br />
'''<br />
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''Mary Scoggin''<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
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Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? This paper illustrates the trope of tone through the particularly ,sonorous' work of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his ''zawen''. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for ''zawen'' in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, ''zawen'' depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages. Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, ''zawen'' is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices.<br />
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拗口的文章：当代中国“杂文”的体裁<br />
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玛丽·斯高格<br />
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文章中的语气是一种讽刺的修辞手法;你怎么能通过印刷的油墨来引导声音中所携带的东西呢?本文通过邵云翔的《诗文》来说明这种修辞手法。邵云翔是一位官方诗人，他退休后以将诗歌化为论战体的杂文而闻名。在当代中国，“杂文”独特而又备受围攻的社会文化空间，揭示了“调”在汉语写作中的机制、意识形态和意义。与其他文学体裁相比，“杂文”更依赖于泥土般的喧嚣、忧郁、固执的声音来传达它的信息。像大多数诗歌一样，但又不像大多数小说和戏剧，“杂文”本身是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:36, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, ''zawen'''s ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can find their seat and sit in it, or take offence. While readers love and hate their morally and politically provocative ''zawen-of-the-moment'', writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations.<br />
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诗歌至少需要大声朗读，重复和品尝才能真正达到效果，而与诗歌不同的是，杂文在报纸的背面短暂地露面，读者边看边发出神秘笑声，叹息声或鼻息声，还没等读者找到座位坐下，就迅速将其扔掉。读者对道德和政治上具有挑衅性的“当下杂文”又爱又恨，而作者跨越式的书写杂文，并通过出版机构来建立大量互文性的对话。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 17:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
Eventually they even preserve ''zawen'', long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the ,dagger and spear' is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of social dialogue.<br />
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In contemporary textbooks and manuals of Chinese essay composition, the “miscellaneous essay,” [literally, “mixed essay,” referred to as ''zawen'' hereafter] is presented as a particularly “Chinese” essay genre within a global view of universal literary categorization.<br />
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杂文中的典故，笑话和挖苦的细节常令人茫然，在这些细节被人遗忘之后，“杂文这一体裁最终得以保存”， 读者经常将自身职业价值汇编成一些小册当做是自己的离散描述杂文，然后将分小册发给朋友和仰慕者。 因此，鲁迅的“匕首与长矛”流派不仅是狡猾的政治武器，而且是复杂的自我雕塑，为社交对话的残酷语调所勾勒。<br />
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在当代中国散文写作的教科书和手册中，“杂文”（直译为“杂文”，以下简称杂文）在全球普遍文学分类的全球视野中被视为一种特别的“中国”散文类型。 --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最终，作者们甚至能在那些令人眼花缭乱的细枝末节的典故、笑话和挖苦被遗忘之后，仍然保留着"杂文"。他们常常把自己职业生涯的价值编成小本子，作为自己的话语肖像送给朋友和仰慕者。因此，鲁迅的 "匕首和长矛 "流派不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的自我雕塑，被社会对话中的尖酸刻薄所雕琢。<br />
在当代中国散文的教科书和手册中，"杂文"[字面意思是 "杂文"，以下简称杂文]被作为一种极具 "中国性"的文章体裁，呈现在普遍的文学分类的全球视野中。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 06:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最后，在那些令人眼花缭乱的细枝末节的典故、笑话和挖苦被遗忘之后，他们甚至仍然保存着杂文，常常把他们职业生涯的价值编成小本子，作为自己的语录送给朋友和崇拜者。因此，鲁迅的“匕首和长矛”流派不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的自我雕塑，被社会对话中的尖酸刻薄所雕琢。<br />
在当代中国作文的教科书和手册中，“混杂的文章”，【字面意思是“杂文”，以下简称杂文】被作为一种特别“中国”的文章体裁，呈现在普遍的文学分类的全球视野中。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:16, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
Lu Xun, the genre's initial back-handed champion, quipped sardonically that although he searched the standard encyclopedia thoroughly, he was unable to locate the genre of “tsa-wen” in any authoritative foreign classification. Lu Xun's sarcasm includes both defiance and self-conscious uneasiness about a writing practice that Chinese circumstances, he felt, rendered peculiar and unseemly upon a world stage. Compare the comments of a recent critic of ''zawen'':<br />
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In Chinese affairs, there is a strange phenomenon that has held true until the present time, and that is; the value of any certain thing has to be established by a foreigner or by some common foreign publication.<br />
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鲁迅是这一文体的最初的反对者。他曾讽刺说，他翻遍了标准的百科全书，但在任何权威的外国分类中都找不到 "tsa-wen "这一文体。 鲁迅的讽刺既有对一种写作方式的蔑视，也包含了自觉的不安，他认为中国的环境使这种写作方式在世界舞台上变得奇特而不雅。 比较最近的一位批评家对''杂文''的评论：<br />
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在中国的事务中，有一种奇怪的现象一直持续到现在，那就是：任何一件事物的价值都必须由外国人或一些外国的普通出版物来确定。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 01:56, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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鲁迅一开始就反对这一文体。他曾讽刺道，即使翻遍了标准的百科全书，也无法在任何权威的外国分类中都找到 "tsa-wen "这一文体。 鲁迅的讽刺既含有对这一文体的蔑视，也带着一丝不安，他认为中国当时的环境让这一文体在世界舞台上变得奇特而不雅。 比较一位批评家对''杂文''最近的评论：<br />
<br />
在中国，有一“怪象”一直持续到现在，那就是：任何一件事物的价值都必须由外国人或一些外国的普通出版物来确定。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:07, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
As for this thing called modern Chinese ''zawen'', because its Chinese characteristics are too strong, Westerners truly have a hard time understanding them, and thus have difficulty in researching this subject... the American writer Pearl Buck said something like: 'this thing called ''zawen'' is too peculiar, you really cannot understand it.' That is why only Chinese people themselves can evaluate this phenomenon called zawen. (Yan Xiu in Zhang Hua [all translations by Scoggin unless otherwise noted])<br />
In this passage, Yan Xiu, an eminent writer and critic, articulated Lu Xun's defiance of the foreign authority to categorize essay genre in a relatively explicit way, while also maintaining a typical ''zawen''-esque playfulness of style. He continues his commentary;<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
But we do not need to worry about this long period of neglect in which foreigners do not recognize ''zawen.'' Even if a foreigner were to burst his/her mind researching Chinese zawen, I am afraid that they would not be able to research anything out of it even if they researched themselves flat broke and starving. But Chinese people all understand them easily. If they were not able to maintain the abiding appreciation and understanding of Chinese readers, this practice would have been lost. The historical reasons and significance for the creation and propagation of ''zawen'' in China are worth serious research and theorizing (ibid.).<br />
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Bravely dismissing the risk of bankruptcy, I do propose to research and theorize the culture of this funny genre of essay in all of its supposed inscrutability.<br />
但是，我们不必担心长期以来外国人不承认杂文。虽然外国人来研究研究中国的杂文会大打折扣，因为他们无法研究其中的任何内容，尽管他们也研究自己的破产和饥饿。但杂文对中国人来说都很容易理解。 如果外国人不能保持对中国读者的长期欣赏和理解，这种事情便会不复存在。在中国创造和传播杂文的历史原因和意义值得认真研究和理论化（同上）。<br />
虽然没有了破产的风险，但我真的建议去研究和论证这种有趣论文类型的文化，因为它具有所有假定的不可理解性。<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:26, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但我们不必担心这种外国人长期不承认杂文的情况。即使一个外国人产生了其研究杂文的心思，恐怕他们自己研究得身无分文，饿死也研究不出来什么。但中国人都很容易理解他们。如果他们不能保持中国读者对他们的欣赏和理解，这种做法就会失传。杂文在中国产生和传播的历史原因和意义，是值得认真研究和理论化的（同上）。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
One ubiquitous characterization of zawen from textbooks and manuals is built upon the metaphor of the mule. This metaphor suggests a number of qualities, including hybrid vigor and strength, stubborn bad-temper, and resilience in the face of obstacles. Mules kick, spit and bray with distinctive exuberance. ''Zawen'' are often considered an awkward combination of “part-poetry, part politics” (Lin). Cross-bred traits extend the qualities of a mule; ''zawen'' are bred to toil at the most difficult of human labor, they are strong, hard-working and rather famously unloved creatures, best known for their expressive obstinance. <br />
<br />
So how does an essay kick, spit and bray? In Chinese theoretical discussion of ''zawen'' the metaphor moves from kinetics to sound; ''zawen'''s kick is located in its “tone,” a term taken from music, although the sound here is can be distinctly unlovely.<br />
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从教科书和手册中对杂文的一个普遍的描述是建立在骡子的隐喻之上的。这个比喻暗示了一些品质，包括混杂的活力和力量，顽固的坏脾气，以及面对障碍时的弹性。骡子的踢腿、吐口水和嘶叫有着独特的活力。“杂文”通常被认为是“部分诗歌，部分政治”的笨拙组合(林)。杂交的特性拓展了骡子的品质；杂文是被培养来从事最艰难的人类劳动的，他们强壮、勤劳，而且是出了名的不被喜爱的生物，最出名的是他们表现出的固执。<br />
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那么，一篇文章是如何鞭笞、唾弃和咒骂的呢?在汉语“杂文”的理论探讨中，隐喻由动力转向声音；“杂文”的“踢腿”在它的“语气”，一个来自音乐的术语，尽管这里的声音可能明显是不可爱的。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:44, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
教科书和手册中对杂文的一个普遍的描述是建立在骡子的隐喻之上的。这个比喻表明了它的一些品质，包括混杂的活力和力量，顽固的坏脾气，以及面对障碍时的耐性。骡子的踢腿、吐口水和嘶叫有着独特的活力。“杂文”通常被认为是“部分诗歌，部分政治”的笨拙组合(林)。杂交的特性拓展了骡子的品质；杂文是被培养来从事最艰难的人类劳动的，他们强壮、勤劳，而且是出了名的不被喜爱的生物，最出名的是他们表现出的固执。<br />
<br />
那么，一篇文章是如何鞭笞、唾弃和咒骂的呢?在汉语“杂文”的理论探讨中，隐喻由动力转向声音；“杂文”的“踢腿”在它的“语气”，一个来自音乐的术语，尽管这里的声音可能明显是不可爱的。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
Elsewhere I have examined the function of “tone” through the lens of the published record of debate over tone between literary editors (see Scoggin 2001). I have posited the idea that approaches to writing ''zawen'' fall into two interdependent strategies, one overt and one covert, both blending the tactics of politics and poetics in perfect measure. Overt ''zawen'' are relatively bold and obvious in their churlish tone, reflecting confidence in a tolerant audience. Covert ''zawen'' are sometimes difficult to identify, disguised or hidden within other genre of writing, but still drawing upon the distinctive tones of ''zawen'' through intertextuality and other tricks. <br />
<br />
Below, I examine the mechanics of ''zawen'' tone through contrasting these two style of ''zawen'' issuing from a single pen, that of poet and noted ''zawen'' writer Shao Yanxiang.<br />
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在其他地方，我通过已发表的文学编辑之间关于语气的争论记录（见Scoggin 2001）来考察“语气”的功能。我认为，杂文的写作方法可以分为两种相互依存的策略，一种是显性的，另一种是隐性的，两者都是政治策略和诗学策略的完美结合。公开的杂文相对大胆和明显的粗鲁语气，反映出对一个宽容的观众的信心。隐性扎文有时很难识别，伪装或隐藏在其他文体中，但仍然通过互文性和其他技巧利用扎文的独特音调。<br />
下面，我通过对比诗人、著名杂文作家邵燕祥这两种杂文的风格，来探讨杂文声调的形成机制。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
The two essays discussed below form opposites sides of a spectrum of variable transparency, and vastly differing publishing circumstances, although they were composed only months apart by the same individual, one before and one after a specific political event in China. I argue here that unifying the two ''zawen'' is a particular subset of modal tropes, qualified as the verbal equivalent to a mule's kick, bite or bray. The expression of this unclearly delineated but distinctive subset of modal tropes is the single central mission of ''zawen'' as a genre in Chinese literature and society. Chinese theoretical debates over “tone” specifically address the function of this kind of modal trope. While sometimes as bald and direct, as in the overt ''zawen'' “Pei pei pei! ”?discussed below, many zawen conceal their weapons, depending upon contextual circumstances of publishing to pack their punch, as does the essay “East Station,” also discussed below.<br />
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下面讨论的这两篇文章形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章是由同一个人撰写的，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸”?中，许多杂文隐藏他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如文章《东站》，也将在下面讨论。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:09, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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下面讨论的这两篇文章从相反的角度形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章由同一个人撰写，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸！”?中，许多杂文隐藏起他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如将在下面讨论的文章《东站》。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 11:34, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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Both types of ''zawen'' should be read “ethnographically,” in concrete social and historical circumstances. After covering some of the primary textual elements of ''zawen'', I will demonstrate the significance of more subtle contextual gestures of ''zawen'', which must be read out of the process of submitting and publishing ''zawen''. Through the contrast of these two essays, I will explicate and generalize about the formation and mechanics and of tone in modern Chinese literary history, and offer a thesis upon the reception of Chinese literature in Western scholarship as well.<br />
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杂文的两种类型都应该置于具体的社会和历史环境下，以“民族志”的方式解读。在介绍杂文一些基本的文章要素后，我会揭示杂文更细微的语境姿态的意义，而这个只能从提交和出版杂文的过程中解读出来。通过对比这两篇文章，我会我将对中国现代文学史上基调的形成、机制和基调进行阐述和概括，并就西方学术界接纳中国文学这件事发表一篇论文。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
An Demonstrative Sample – “'Pei Pei Pei!'?”<br />
''<br />
A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there should be no more “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place. (Shao 1993, 181)<br />
So begins an essay entitled “呸呸呸!”? composed in February of 1989. I will return to the circumstances of publication shortly, but first I will demonstrate the trope of tone through this representative sample ''zawen.<br />
''<br />
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一个“呸呸呸！”的示例<br />
一个文学圈外的朋友让我给他找来一些呸呸呸的文章来读一读，我只好面无表情地看着他，无话可说。他就解释说，他在报纸上看到某省领导在一次宴会上宣布，各地不应再说“呸！呸！呸！”了，所以很明显到处都在说呸！呸！呸！。(邵1993，181) 1989年2月创作的一篇题为《呸呸呸！》的文章是由此开始的。关于发表时的情形，我将在不久后再谈，但首先我会通过这篇有代表性的杂文样本来解释语气的特例。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 02:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
A word like “Pei!” contains what we can call a modal trope, a figure of speech that captures mood and emotion, expressing not only subjunctive or declamatory mood, as adverbial modal tropes such as “could” and “should” may do in English, but also more subtly embedded mood in the semantics of lexical items (the meanings in words) expressing outrage, joy, command, sarcasm, threat, pathos, irony (Friedrich, 30-32). Usually modal tropes work together with other functions of language but in the case of “pei!” the modal trope is more nearly pure, it stands primarily for the emotional tone it communicates. A parallel sample in English might be something like “tut, tut, tut!” although “tut” fails to pack the censorious reproach of the Chinese “pei!”<br />
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像“呸！”一词包含一种我们可以称之为情态比喻的修辞手法，反应了说话人的心情和情绪，不仅表达了虚拟语气或宣告语气，和英语中的“可以”和“应该”这样的副词情态作用一样，而且更巧妙地将语气嵌入表达愤怒、喜悦的词汇项（单词中的含义）的语义中，用以表达命令，讽刺，威胁，悲伤，讽刺的情感（弗里德里希，30-32）。情态比喻通常与语言的其他功能共同作用，但在“呸！”这一例子中，情态比喻更接近其本身的作用，主要代表它所传达的情感基调。一个类似的英语例子可能是“tut, tut, tut!”（“啧啧，啧啧，啧啧！），但是“tut, tut”未能涵盖中文里“呸”的挑剔责备之意。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:07, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
像“呸！”一词包含一种我们可以称之为情态比喻的修辞手法，反应了说话人的语气和情感，不仅表达了虚拟语气或感叹语气，和英语中的“可以”和“应该”这样的副词情态作用一样，而且更巧妙地将语气嵌入表达愤怒、喜悦、命令、讽刺、威胁、伤感、反讽的词汇项（单词中的含义）的语义中（弗里德里希，30-32）。情态比喻通常与语言的其他功能共同作用，但在“呸！”这一例子中，情态比喻更接近其本身的作用，主要代表它所传达的情感基调。英语中一个类似的例子可能是“tut, tut, tut!”（“啧啧，啧啧，啧啧！），但是“tut, tut”未能涵盖中文里“呸”的挑剔责备之意。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:39, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
In the case of this title, modal functions are reinforced by several formal tropes. Note the repetition (three pei's!) and the complex punctuation consisting of an exclamation point and a question mark, separated by quotation marks. In the case of “Pei pei pei!”?, the ''zawen'''s own voice is not the primary expression of the tone of disgust. The quotation marks invoke disgust only to distance it, while the question mark further challenges it. The title alone demonstrates modal function with very little distraction; one character, two repetitions and three punctuation marks move this title in several modally intense directions at once with almost no referential content at all.<br />
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就此标题而言，几个正式比喻加强了情态功能。注意引号将”呸！呸！呸！“以及由一个感叹号和一个问句组成的复杂标点分离开来。在”呸呸呸“的例子中，厌恶的语气并不主要是由”杂文“本身表达出来的，引号引起的厌恶只是为了疏远它，然而问号进一步挑战了它。标题本身只是用小小的娱乐意味展示了情态功能；一个汉字，两个重复和三个标点符号同时动摇了此标题的情态强度方向。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:32, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
就此标题而言，几个正式比喻加强了情态功能。注意重复“呸！呸！呸！”以及由一个感叹号和一个问句组成的复杂标点分离开来。在“呸呸呸”这一例子中，厌恶的语气并不主要由“杂文”本身表达，引号引起的厌恶只是为了疏远它，然而问号进一步挑战了它。标题本身只是用小小的娱乐意味展示了情态功能；一个汉字，两个重复和三个标点符号同时动摇了此标题的情态强度方向。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:20, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
“Pei pei pei!”? performs a transparent metadiscursive comment upon ''zawen'', in this case defending the extracurricular genre favored by declasse intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang, himself, a “retired” poet who had resigned with bitterness from his career at the central Chinese poetry journal ''Shikan'', and devoted his post official career to writing zawen. Upon learning of this unnamed “provincial leader's” complaint about “pei pei pei”-ing, and sensing that he himself bore some responsibility for this reportedly lamentable state of affairs, Shao writes that he discovered that the provincial leader had indeed characterized a kind of caustic, sarcastic disparaging discourse about the party, the nationality and the people, as “pei pei pei-ing all over the place” and that he had further warned that this kind of talk was spreading a mood of despair and hopelessness. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
In the remainder of this essay Shao ridicules said provincial leader's complaint as circular, admitting no culpability on the part of his own fellow ''zawen''-writing social critics. <br />
<br />
The tone of “Pei pei pei!”? is that of pointed irony, expressed recursively upon three levels. The first level is located in the words themselves, including the use of “pei” I have described above. This “first order” irony, as I have described it (Scoggin 1997), is an elementary type of sarcasm, a part of the conventional rhetoric of any language, written or spoken, and not usually misunderstood by a competent interpreter.<br />
<br />
在文章的剩余部分绍讥讽道省领导的申诉是一个闭环，不承认他的同伴所写的社会批判性杂文有任何的罪恶。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸”的语气是尖锐的讽刺，递进的传达着三个层次的含义。第一层含义是基于词语本身，包括我在前面所提到的“呸”的使用。正如我所描述的那样（Scoggin 1997），这种“一阶”讽刺是讽刺的一种基本类型，是任何语言的传统修辞学的一部分，无论书面或口语，通常都不会被有能力的口译员误解。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 09:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在文章的剩余部分绍讥讽道省领导的申诉是一个闭环，不承认他的同伴所写的社会批判性杂文有任何的罪恶。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸”的语气是尖锐的讽刺，以递进的方式传达着三个层次的含义。第一层含义是基于词语本身，包括我在前面所提到的“呸”的使用。正如我所描述的那样（Scoggin 1997），这种“一阶”讽刺是讽刺的一种基本类型，是任何语言的传统修辞学的一部分，无论书面或口语，通常都不会被有能力的口译员所误解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:46, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
Other examples of this level of tone in “Pei pei pei!”? would include the attitude of “stupidity” Shao Yanxiang assumes when he claims that he looks for pei pei pei ing “all over the place” but cannot find any at all, and the repeated use of expressions he lifted from the pointedly unnamed “provincial leader's” talk, including the primary charge of “mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal” Shao is refuting, and also the leader's assertion of “discipline and rectification,” which Shao has skillfully turned into a counter charge. <br />
<br />
A second level of irony requires contextual knowledge on the part of the reader. This includes assumptions that would be obvious to most readers.<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸!”？中这种程度的语气的例子包括，邵彦祥在“到处”寻找呸呸呸，却一无所获时所采取的“愚蠢”的态度，以及他从完全不知名的“省级领导”的谈话中反复使用的表达方式，包括主要的“嘲笑、讽刺和轻蔑的解雇”，邵逸祥反驳道，还有领导对“纪律严明”的断言，邵巧妙地把这句话变成了反击。<br />
<br />
第二层次的反讽需要读者的语境知识。这包括对大多数读者来说显而易见的假设。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“呸呸呸！”中这种音调水平的其他示例吗？其中包括”愚蠢”的态度，邵燕翔宣称当他在“到处”寻找呸呸呸的时候，却在哪儿也找不见它了，以及从完全不知名的“省领导的”的讲话中，他指出了那些重复的使用，包括邵伟反驳的主要指控“嘲弄，嘲讽和轻蔑”，以及领导人对“纪律和整顿”的主张，邵伟已巧妙地将其反驳。<br />
<br />
第二层次的反讽需要需要该部分读者的语境知识。这包括了对于大多数读者来说都显而易见的假设。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 13:06, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
For example, Shao Yanxiang claims that he has never heard of the idea that “literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” But just such a position has clearly been long-standing socialist policy for many kinds of public writing, including media news and literature. References to historical events in terms like the cultural revolution tones of “newspaper [published] by all the people” and Han Shaogong's controversial Post-Mao short story “Ba Ba Ba” fall somewhere in between the first and second levels of ironic tone. <br />
<br />
A third level, which I have labeled “indexical irony,” makes use of immediately contextual information such as the actual publishing outlet of the essay (in this case, the mainstream ''Literature Journal'' essay column “Literature and the People's Lives,” which Shao mentions at the end of the article) and Shao's own writing persona.<br />
<br />
例如，邵彦祥声称他从未听说过“文学出版物应在稳定人民思想，增进信仰，不使人民意志消沉方面有所帮助”这一思想。 但是，这种立场显然已经成为包括媒体新闻和文学在内的许多公共写作的长期社会主义政策。 对历史事件的引用，例如“全民[报纸]的文化大革命”和韩少功备受争议的毛泽东短篇小说“八八八”，都介于第一和第二讽刺语调之间。<br />
<br />
第三个层次，我称之为 "索引性反讽"，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏 "文学与百姓生活"）和邵自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:13, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
比如，邵燕祥声称，他从来没有听说过 "文艺刊物要对稳定民心、增加信仰、不挫伤民心意志有帮助 "的观点。 但就这样的立场，显然是包括媒体新闻和文学在内的多种公开写作的长期社会主义政策。 像 "全民办报（出版）"的文革调子和韩少功的争议性后毛短篇小说《巴巴》等词语对历史事件的提及，都属于第一和第二层次的反讽调子。 <br />
<br />
第三层次，我称之为 "索引性反讽"，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵逸夫在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏《文学与人民生活》）和邵逸夫自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:17, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
''Zawen'' often make extensive use of this third, intimately contextualized level. In this case Shao claims that he can find no “pei pei pei” articles, but many readers would recognize that he himself is well known for writing ''zawen'' that would certainly qualify.<br />
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In “Pei pei pei!”? Shao Yanxiang has deliberately sought out an accusation that he then counters with withering acerbity. Complaint, combat and disgust are just the beginning of the range of contentious moods that ''zawen'' represent. ''Zawen'' accuse, retaliate, needle, and snarl; but as I will demonstrate shortly, they can also moan and sigh with considerable subtly. Either way they clothe all this, quite often, in word games of subterfuge and indirectness, which -- beyond the intellectual puzzle of circumlocution also common in other genres of verbal art -- carries the weight of ''zawen'''s mission in the singular feature of tone.<br />
<br />
<br />
“杂文”常常广泛运用第三层次，即与语境化紧密联系的层次。在这种情况下，邵燕祥声称他找不到“呸呸呸”的文章，但许多读者都知道，他本人以写“杂文”而闻名，这肯定是符合条件的。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸!”? 邵燕祥故意找人指责他，然后用尖酸刻薄之语加以反驳。抱怨、战斗和厌恶只是“杂文”所代表的一系列有争议情绪的开始。“杂文”是指责、报复、针锋相对、咆哮的；但正如我稍后将演示的那样，它们也可以相当巧妙地呻吟和叹息。不管怎样，他们常常把这一切穿插在诡辩和间接的文字游戏中，这一点——除了在其他语言艺术流派中常见的迂回曲折的智力谜团之外——承载着“杂文”的使命，即声调的独特特征。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:01, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
As a ''zawen'' writer, the “provincial leader's” complaint is exactly the sort of accusation intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang are accustomed to facing. His defense links the ''zawen'' mission to many others we could find in diverse settings; he is also answering, for example, Spiro Agnew's famous condemnation of “nattering nabobs of negativism” in American public discourse, and displaying the cross-cultural breadth of a “Jeremiad,” evident in the travel-worthy allusion of the very term, rooted in biblical texts. In this and other ''zawen'', Shao defends the contemporary Chinese genre of zawen as genre of protest and complaint. He borrows the insult of a critic to distinguish thoughtless emotional battering from the carefully aimed spar, which is both his own ideal and the standard mission of the genre of ''zawen.''<br />
作为一个“杂文”作家，对于来自“省领导”的批评，像邵彦翔这样的知识分子已经习惯面对。他对领导做出的解释让人们把写杂文和我们可以在不同环境中找到的其他任务联系起来;例如，他还解释了斯皮罗·阿格纽(Spiro Agnew)为什么要谴责美国公共演讲中著名的”喋喋不休的消极主义者，并说明了这种悲哀在跨文化上，在这个源自圣经的术语的典当中的广泛性。在这篇杂文和他其他的作品中，邵表示当代中国的杂文是用来表达抗议和不满的文体。他借用了批评家的侮辱言论来区分无意识的情感伤害和有意的争吵，这既是他自己的理想，也是“杂文”应该表现的。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 15:08, 11 December 2020 (UTC)”<br />
<br />
作为一名“杂文”作家，“省领导”的抱怨正是像邵燕祥这样的知识分子习惯面对的那种指责。他对领导做出的解释让人们把写杂文和我们在不同环境中可以找到的许多其他任务联系起来；例如，他还回答了斯皮罗·阿格纽（Spiro Agnew）在美国公共话语中对“消极主义的喋喋不休”出名的谴责，并展示了"耶利米德"的跨文化广度，这一术语在源于圣经文本的关于旅行的字词中显而易见。 在《杂文》和其他杂文中，邵燕祥为当代中国的杂文流派做辩护，认为杂文是抗议和抱怨的流派。他借用批评家的侮辱来区分思想上的情感打击和精心策划的争吵，这既是他自己的理想， 也是 “杂文” 流派的标准使命。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 09:05, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
'''A Restrained Sample – “East Station”'''<br />
<br />
I have outlined how one essay demonstrates the function of ''zawen'' in a particularly transparent way, but some of the best and most effective zawen are covert operations. On the opposite side of spectrum of transparency, we can place a relatively understated and “essay-like” ''zawen'', also by Shao Yanxiang. “East Station” was submitted for a national ''zawen'' competition in a southern evening newspaper in 1994. It was judged too “sensitive” to publish by the zawen editor, but nevertheless it was privately noted by the editors as the unofficial winner of the competition. At first glance there is very little to mark it as a ''zawen'' at all, not to mention a seditious ''zawen''.<br />
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受约束的样本–“东站”'''<br />
<br />
我已经概述了一篇文章如何以一种特别透明的方式展示“ 杂文”的功能，但是一些最好，最有效的杂文是秘密行动。 在透明度范围的另一面，我们可以放一个相对低调的，也像邵燕香一样的“散文式”“ 杂文”。 1994年，“东方站”在南方晚报上提交给全国“ 杂文”竞赛。它被杂文编辑认为过于“敏感”而无法出版，但编辑私下指出它是非官方的比赛获胜者。乍一看，几乎没有什么可以将其标记为“ 杂文”的，更不用说煽动性的“ 杂文”了。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:47, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
It is a rather lyrical survey of historical images centering upon refugees, migrants, political and literary figures on their passages to and from Beijing. It does, however, contain a few of the indications of first level irony that traditionally mark a ''zawen'', such as a “quotation” placed for its jarring effect, as in the opening passage below.<br />
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Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer East Side of Front Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br />
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此文是以流民，移民，政治和文学人物往返北京为中心的历史形象的抒情研究。然而，它确实包含了一些传统上标记“杂文”的第一层讽刺的暗示，例如为了其刺耳效果而放置的“引语”，如下面的开头段落所示。<br />
三十年前的北京，如果提到“东站”，大家都会知道是指位于正门外东侧的北京东站。如今，这座半西化建筑风格的不起眼的建筑，夹在喧嚣闹市的高楼大厦之间，支撑着一块“铁路工人俱乐部”的小牌子，已是“古文物”，昔日的繁华辉煌早已一去不复返了。<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
The somber opening paragraph is in part marked as a zawen by the appearance of snapshot “quote,” in which what might have been a significant icon of Beijing history is reduced to a cheesy “Railway workers club” sign hanging on a architecturally half-breed building not even worthy of preservation. Other ironic comments of this sort include Shao's sarcastic reference to Guo Moruo;<br />
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And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time, he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor.<br />
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沉闷的开场白部分是由快照“引文”的出现而标记为杂文的，其中可能是北京历史上的一个重要标志，被简化为一个俗气的“铁路工人俱乐部”标志，悬挂在一座半成品建筑上，甚至不值得保存。 其他类似的讽刺评论包括邵逸夫讽刺郭沫若；<br />
1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主党人齐聚北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎，他们流下的泪水是喜悦的。当时，他写了一首诗“为了这个荣誉，人民的洒了多少鲜血。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I do not know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br />
<br />
In a similar but more deeply contextualized vein would be Shao Yanxiang's allusion to Tu Fu's escape during the An Lu Shan rebellion during the Tang Dynasty contained in the quoted term “fortuitous rescue.” Shao's general structure in this piece is a recurring cyclical allegory that parallels the Japanese, the Nationalists and the Communists in bitter condemnation of the last, as only one more invasive army disturbing the lives of ordinary Chinese people. The People's Traffic Police also take their place in this cycle, a silly reminder that we are still in the realm of ''zawen''.<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
Obviously this kind of first and second-level rhetorical sarcasm and historical irony alone is not enough to define an essay as a ''zawen'', but the difficulty of assigning an essay its genre is also no obstacle; ambiguous “mixedness” is part of ''zawen'''s identity. This covert zawen depends most fundamentally upon indexical irony, to an extent that surpasses “Pei Pei Pei!”?, above. One crucial feature that makes “East Station” a ''zawen'' is the entirely untextual fact that Shao Yanxiang submitted it in a competition specifically designated for ''zawen'' in a provincial evening newspaper. The editors did not reject the piece as “non-''zawen'',” on the contrary, they complained that it contained too much of the requisite ''zawen'' pique. In order to understand this, we must again go beyond the actual words of the piece.<br />
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仅从一级和二级讽喻修辞及历史讽刺角度分析显然不足以将一篇文章定义为“杂文”，但将一篇文章分类的难题也不是什么障碍；含糊“混杂”是“杂文”的特点之一。杂文的隐蔽性更多地依赖于索引性讽刺，在某种程度上来说，它超越了“呸呸呸！”。把《东站》这篇文章归为“杂文”的一个关键因素是由于其完全无文本性这一事实，邵燕祥在地方晚报“杂文”特辑上发表这篇文章。编者也不否认这篇文章不是一篇“杂文”；相反地，他们抱怨这篇文章涵盖太多“杂文”必不可少的气息。为了解这一点，我们必须再次透过文字本身来看这篇文章。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:49, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
In a late night conversation in which the managing editor and two guests including myself drank beer and discussed the ''zawen'' competition to which “East Station” was submitted, the editor mused about the publication that wasn't. She said;<br />
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Actually Shao Yanxiang submitted two manuscripts, but I had to return one. (Reaching around to a drawer) Well, I wanted to return it to him, but then I couldn't bear to. The original is still here, I wonder if you will understand? It requires some background...At the time it was the head editor that rejected the manuscript. He also felt badly, but there was no question but that it could not be printed, because it would certainly cause trouble...This happens with your friends, but I really felt uncomfortable about this one.<br />
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在那个深夜，总编辑与包括我在内的两位客人喝了啤酒，我们还讨论了杂文竞赛，有本参赛的书叫“东站”。想到那本未出版的书。 编辑陷入了深思，她说：<br />
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实际上邵炎祥上交了两份手稿，但我必须退回一份。 （她接着走到抽屉边）是的，我想把这份还给他，但我还是不忍心。 原稿还在这里，我想知道你们是否会明白？ 这需要对当时的背景有一些了解...当时是首席编辑拒绝了手稿。 他也感到难受，但无疑这本书不能被印刷出来，因为到时候肯定会引起麻烦……他是你们的朋友，但是我真的对此感到不舒服。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
Because this essay was just written so well. He just wrote about the East Station, but he used Beijing East Station to talk about his view on everything. (Scoggin Fieldnotes) <br />
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She continued to discuss the essays that were just too “that way” (''neige le'') as they came in for the competition. “One day the police came and looked through that box all afternoon!” she added. The managing editor's two guests that evening jumped on her comment, “They what!?” But she retained the appearance of serenely refusing to interpret this police visit as a sinister gesture.<br />
It was just manuscripts, why should they look at those? They said they were just reading, there were two of them, I really don't know, I guess they enjoyed reading them too.(ibid)<br />
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因为这篇作文实在是写得太好了。他只是写了东站，但是他用北京东站来谈他对一切的看法。(史可法场记)<br />
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她继续谈论参赛的散文，认为文章太"那样"了。她继续说道：“有一天，警察来了，整个下午都在翻阅那个盒子！”当晚，主编的两位客人突然评论道：“他们干什么！”但她平静地拒绝将这次警察访问解释为一种险恶姿态的外貌。<br />
这只是手稿， 他们为什么要看那些？他们说他们只是在读书， 有两个， 我真的不清楚， 我想他们也喜欢读吧。（同上）--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:17, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因为这篇文章写得太好了。他只是写了东站，但他用北京东站谈他对一切的看法。(史可法场记)<br />
她继续谈论参赛的散文，认为文章太"那样"（奈格乐）了。她继续说道：“有一天，警察来了，整个下午都在翻阅那个盒子！”当晚，总编辑的两位客人突然说道，“他们在干什么！？”但她仍然保持着平静的样子，拒绝把这次警方的访问解释为一种邪恶的姿态。<br />
这只是手稿，他们为什么要看那些？他们说他们只是在看书，有两个，我真的不知道，我想他们也喜欢看吧。（同上）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:14, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
When she finally found the manuscript (tucked away where snooping police would not have found it) she decided to give it to me. She said she had called Shao Yanxiang to tell him that they could not print it, and even though he had said he understood, she still hated to bring the matter to his attention again by sending the essay back to him, and now it seemed too late. Since I was also acquainted with him, and clearly admired him, giving the manuscript to me as research material seemed to her to be a fitting conclusion to the whole matter. <br />
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In the original manuscript of “East Station” is signed, as is the custom, with the date it was composed at the bottom, “September 13, 1989.” Although it was submitted to the newspaper in 1994, in a private note scrawled to the editors, Shao added; “Please don't cut or change this date.<br />
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当她终于找到手稿时（藏在窥探警察找不到的地方），她决定把它给我。她说，她曾打电话给邵燕祥，告诉他，他们不能打印。即使他说，他理解，她仍然不愿意再次提请他注意的问题，把文章给他，现在似乎为时已晚。由于我也认识他，显然很敬佩他，把手稿给我作为研究材料，在她看来是整个事情最合适的结果。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在原稿上签着“东站”，按照习俗，与日期“1989年9月13日”一起在底部。虽然1994年它提交给了该报，但用一份私人便条向编辑们草草写了字，但邵补充说：“请不要剪掉或更改此日期。”--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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终于她找到了手稿，并且决定把它给我。她说，她曾打电话给邵燕祥，告诉他，这本书不能印刷出版。邵燕祥说他理解，但她还是不愿意把手稿还给他，以免让他再次想起这件事，但现在似乎为时已晚。由于我也和他熟识，并且显然很敬佩他，把手稿给我当做研究材料，在她看来是最好的选择。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with 'more that thirty years ago' at the beginning of the essay.” The emphasis upon these dates forces a new consideration of the essay as a whole. Suddenly the parallel between Nationalist, Japanese and Communist cycles of refuge and expulsion he mentions are rendered a sinister reference to a modern “rebellion” in the spring and summer of 1989. The date heightens the threat of Shao's concluding two sentences; “Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.” The scrawled note links 30 years, 1989, “today,” and the defiant “inches of proof” that mark East Station as a zawen, even beyond the micro structure of submission channels. For all its elusively distant tone, East Station suddenly became a pointed, angry, and, even in 1994, unpublishable ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的'三十多年前'相吻合"。对这些日期的强调，迫使我们对文章的整体进行新的考虑。突然间，他提到的国民党、日本和共产党的避难和驱逐周期之间的平衡，被恶意渲染成1989年春夏的现代 "叛乱 "。这个日期强调了邵的最后两句话：“今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。" 这张潦草的纸条将30年、1989年、"今天 "和不顾一切的 "寸土寸金 "联系在一起，这标志着东站作为一个杂文，甚至超越了提交渠道的微观结构。尽管东站的语气难以捉摸，但它突然变成了一个尖锐的、愤怒的、甚至在1994年还无法出版的杂文。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:15, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
新火车站于1959年开始运营，与本文开头的“三十多年前”相适应。” 对这些日期的强调迫使我们对论文作为一个整体进行新的考虑。 他提到，国民党，日本人和共产党人的避难和驱逐循环之间的相似之处突然变成了对1989年春夏的现代“叛乱”的阴险参考。这一日期加剧了邵的结论的威胁。 今天也将成为历史。 北京的每一寸土地都将提供其历史的证明。” 散乱的笔记将1989年的30年（今天）与挑衅的“几分证据”联系起来，这标志着东站成为杂文，甚至超出了提交渠道的微观结构。 尽管遥不可及，但东站突然变得尖锐，愤怒，甚至在1994年，也无法发表“杂文”。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
'''A Larger Trend: Revealing Ugly Truth through Troubled Tones'''<br />
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It is almost a matter of definition, then, that discordant, troubling tones are the characteristic, even of the most beautiful ''zawen''. I have not illustrated “ugly” ''zawen'' here, but they do exist, and in profusion. Many ''zawen'' are suffused in a preachy, pedantic tone that is sometimes quite off-putting to Chinese and non-Chinese readers alike. And yet, like the larger category of essays in Chinese literature, ''zawen'' remain a popular staple in the literary supplements of Chinese newspapers, and many prominent writers turn later in their career to writing ''zawen''. In contemporary history the “mule” genre of ''zawen'' has also played a significant political role far beyond its humble posture (see Scoggin 1997).<br />
<br />
一个更大的趋势。通过烦恼的语气来揭示丑陋的真相。<br />
那么，这几乎是一个定义的问题，不和谐的、令人不安的音调是特征，即使是最美丽的杂文也是如此。我在这里没有说明 "丑陋 "的杂文，但它们确实存在，而且数量很多。很多文都充斥着一种说教的、迂腐的语气，有时让中国和非中国的读者都很不喜欢。然而，就像中国文学中更大的散文类别一样，杂文仍然是中国报刊文学副刊中的热门主打，许多著名作家在其职业生涯的后期都会转向写杂文。在当代历史上，"骡子 "文体也发挥了重要的政治作用，远远超出了它的卑微姿态（见Scoggin 1997）。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''一个更大的趋势：用混乱的声音揭示丑陋的真相'''<br />
这几乎是一个定义的问题，那么，不和谐的、麻烦的音调是特点，即使是最美丽的杂文也如此。我在这里没有说明“丑陋的”杂文，但它们确确实实存在，而且数量繁多。许多杂文充斥着一种说教、迂腐的语气，这对中国和外国读者来说有时是相当令人讨厌的。然而，与中国文学中较大的一类散文一样，杂文仍然是中国报纸文学副刊的主要内容，许多著名作家在后来的职业生涯中都转向写杂文。在当代历史上，“骡子”类型的杂文也发挥了重要的政治作用，远远超出了其谦卑的姿态（see Scoggin 1997）。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
What is it about this genre that draws prominent writers, and commands significant attention of the Chinese readership? The answer lies, I think, in assumptions about the mechanics of tone rooted in Chinese literary history. To examine this problem we need to leave particular zawen behind and examine a larger picture that views Chinese literature via the globalized perspective that contemporary Chinese critics take.<br />
<br />
''Zawen'' as a category causes problems for Chinese as well as non Chinese classification, but there is a revealing divide between Western and Chinese treatment of zawen. With few exceptions, ''zawen'' has been neglected as a subject of the study of Chinese literature from outside of China until recently (the Achern conference on the Modern Chinese Literary Essay being a rare exception, with several papers devoted to zawen.)<br />
<br />
这种类型吸引了杰出的作家，并引起了中国读者的极大关注？我认为答案在于中国文学史的机械性假设。要审视这一问题，我们需要抛开特定的杂文，从当代中国批评家的全球化视角审视中国文学。<br />
“杂文”作为一个范畴，给汉语和非汉语的分类都带来了问题，但中西方对“杂文”的处理有着明显的分歧。“杂文”是近年来国外华文文学研究中一个被忽视的课题，但也有少数例外（阿奇恩中国现代文学随笔会议是一个罕见的例外，有几篇论文专门讨论了扎文）。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 13:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
While the problem of the status of zawen is not important in itself, I propose difficulties with this particular genre can reflect larger issues of significance to the study of Chinese literature and culture more generally. ''Zawen'' can highlight some special features of Chinese writing that are latent in other, more respectable forms of Chinese literature and culture. My research on ''zawen'' showed many instances of zawen being held up as a unique outgrowth of Chinese particularities, such as a fondness for brevity in verbal art, a tendency to take intellectuals more seriously than they are taken in contemporary societies elsewhere, as well as a few “perversions” that are supposedly unique to China, such as political tyranny that is strikingly detail-oriented, or collective aversion to verbal performance that is too straightforward (Scoggin 1997).<br />
尽管杂文现状问题本身不是很重要，但是在更大层面上，即站在研究中国文学与文化的角度上看，克服掉研究这种特别类型的困难还是有很大意义的。“杂文”可以突显中国写作的一些独特特征，这些特征潜在于中国文学与文化中的其他更为体面的类型里面。在我对于“杂文”的研究里，展现了很多可证实杂文作为中国人性格发展结果的例子，比如说，喜爱口头表达的简洁，较比现代社会，以前的文人墨客被看得更重，以及一些中国独有的“反常”现象，比如明显关注细节的政治暴政或者对于过于直白的口头表现的集体厌恶。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 08:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br />
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==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
Some of these claims for Chinese exceptionalism may be overblown; but I think that the genre, driven by what I argue is its central mission of tone, makes observable certain strains and practices that have acted as stumbling blocks to international research on other aspects of Chinese culture. <br />
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Chief among those obstacles to the study of Chinese literature is what I call the “bad literature” complaint.[ For recent affirmations of this complaint, see Huters 1990, McDougall 1997, Link, 2000. Earlier views in American sinology tie "bad literature" directly to the effects of political tyranny. ] Summarizing several quite different lines of argument, the suggestion is that with all the promise of Chinese literature holds as a naturally poetic language, with rich, revered and well-preserved traditions, with the particular visual and grammatical advantages of the Chinese character and linguistic structure, and further with dedicated literary “troops” to use the modern Chinese metaphor for institutions of organized and supported writers, modern Chinese literature has failed to produce truly great literature.<br />
<br />
这些对中国例外论的主张也许有些夸大其词。但我认为，在我所说的语调中心使命的推动下，这一体裁产生了一些明显的张力和做法，它们成为了国际上对中国文化其他方面研究的绊脚石。<br />
在中国文学研究的这些障碍中，最主要的是我所说的“糟糕文学”抱怨。[最近对这一投诉的肯定，见胡志德1990，麦独,1997，林克，2000，美国汉学早期的观点将“糟糕文学”与政治暴政直接联系在一起。]总结几条截然不同的论据，我们的建议是，尽管中国文学的所有希望都是一种自然诗意的语言，有着丰富、受人尊敬和保存完好的传统，具有汉字和语言结构的独特视觉和语法优势，而且还具有专门的文学作品“军队”，用现代汉语比喻制度中有组织、有支持的作家，中国现代文学未能产生真正伟大的文学作品。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
Obviously this generalization is subject to objection at many, if not all of its points. I would argue, however, that the consistency with which similar arguments emerge, defensible or not, points to themes of some significance. Complaints frequently accrue over the following literary practices;<br />
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1)Indulging in churlish tones, including hectoring, scolding and otherwise “yelling” in print<br />
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2)Adhering to one or another “politically correct line” <br />
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3)Participating in personal squabbles and vendettas, sometimes involving extraliterary persecution of both writers and targets <br />
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4)Exhibiting an “obsession” with China, and an oversized sense of responsibility for its fate<br />
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显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都遭到反对。然而，我要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br />
1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br />
2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br />
3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br />
4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都会遭到反对。然而，我（在此）要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br />
1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br />
2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br />
3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br />
4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:03, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
Interestingly, these complaints of “bad literature” are usually not strongly refuted by Chinese literary critics. Fair, true or not, this sort of summary criticism of the Jeremiah complex in Chinese literature in general is relevant to my discussion because these very faults that warrant the most notice are deliberately magnified in the genre of ''zawen'', and may be, I believe, essentially outgrowths of an almost unconscious commitment to the type of tone that defines the ''zawen'' genre most purely. I argue that what has happened here is that readers and analysts have failed to recognize a literary strategy that reflects deeper ideas about how tone is supposed to operate in verbal practice.<br />
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有趣的是，中国文学评论家通常不会强烈反驳这些对“烂文学”的抱怨。不管是否公平与真实,在中国文学中，这种耶利米情结的总结批评大体上和我的研究是相关的,因为这些最值得注意的错误在" 杂文"中被故意放大了。我认为,这本质上也许是纯粹对定义“杂文”体裁语气类型的无意识承诺的发展。我认为，这里的问题在于，读者和分析人士未能认识到一种文学策略，这种策略反映了语气在口头练习中应该如何发挥作用的更深层次的观点。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:08, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
These “off” tones are not just flaws and mistakes resulting from tyranny or exaggeration, nor are they mere signs of amateur literary expression, the struggles of a culture trying to modernize. Instead they are held to be nearly involuntary markers, not of beauty, but what we will have to call for lack of a better word, “truth,” revealed by critical examination of shortcomings and problems that appear to stem from, again for lack of a better word, “culture.” Culture, in the high modern ideology adopted more or less wholesale in contemporary Chinese theoretical systems is opposed to the neutral modernity of newspaper editorials and literary short stories and the other canonical genres of modern writing practices. <br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
Culture is not general, it is particular and peculiar, and Chinese culture exerts a powerfully perverse influence upon most genres of literature practiced in China.<br />
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Examining tone in the broader context of Chinese culture reveals some of particular ways that social exchange, reference and the other mundane duties that plain (neutral, modern) words are supposed to carry out, must be crosscut with characteristically Chinese tone in order to communicate with the authority of truth, in explicit defiance of social requirements for polite and face-saving locutions held to be necessary in a uniquely Chinese way. Thus, complaint about “bad literature,” from a Chinese perspective may not be a mere reflection of failure but, rather, an expression of protest, a modal trope, mule's kick that works with stubborn tenacity to reveal unpleasant truths.<br />
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文化不是普遍的，而是特殊又独特的，中国文化对中国过去大多数流派的实用文学产生了强大的反常影响。<br />
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在更广泛的中国文化语境中考察语气揭示了一些特定的社会交换的方式，必须以具有中国特色的格调横切，参照语和普通词语（中性，现代）词语应该承担的角色必须与具有特色的汉语语调相交汇以便与真理的权威沟通。显然，这无视以独特的中国方式所必需的礼貌和爱面子的社会要求。因此，从中国人的角度来看:对“不良文学”的抱怨可能不仅仅是失败的反映，而是一种抗议的表达，一种情感化的的比喻，一种用顽强的韧性来揭示令人不快事实的骡踢。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 02:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
''Zawen'' provide frequent commentary on precisely this issue. Lan Ling, a major opponent of “New Tone” zawen theory provides a characteristically provocative commentary on writing “the ugly truth” through zawen. In an essay that asks why such a fuss is made when a “upright and esteemed elderly writer” pronounces that he intends now to speak/write “the truth,” (he refers to Ba Jin, see ''Suiganlu'') Lan Ling demonstrates the difficulty of establishing truth through his own experience:<br />
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It was several decades ago that they “struggled” me saying I was “reactionary.” I responded, “I am fundamentally not reactionary (''fandong''), in fact, I am actionary (''zhengdong'').” They said, “There you go with sophistry, you are lying, who has ever heard of such a thing as 'actionary'?” … But if what I said was false, that of course meant that what they said was true, and thus my political label was accomplished: “reactionary.” After several decades this conclusion was overturned and rectified, so now what I had said became the truth. (Lan, 85). <br />
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==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
The irony and false fatalism of this ''zawen'' is characteristic of its style. In this essay he claims to give up distinguishing the truth of his own speech; “No matter how difficult it is, this miserable person [I] still want to speak, and as for whether it is true or not, let someone else go analyze it.” (Lan, 85) Lan Ling reveals that he has created, in the heat of struggle, a misnomer; there is no such word as “actionary.” But, in the end, in its awkward and involuntary way, his retort rings true, what way is there to be, if not reactionary? Displaying all four characteristics of the “bad literature” complaint I have listed above, this piece is still an admired ''zawen''. It is the moody, but honest, kick of the mule.<br />
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这种“杂文”中的反讽和错误的宿命论是其风格的特点。在这篇文章中他宣称放弃了甄别言论中的真伪；“不管有多困难，这个可怜的人[我]仍然想说，至于说的真假，就让别人去分析去吧。”（兰，85）兰陵表示，在激烈的斗争中，他出现过用词不当的情况；就比如没有像“actionary”这样的词。”但是最后他的反驳以笨拙和不自觉的方式听起来像是真的，即使不是反动派的话，还能是哪种呢？这篇文章展示了我以上所列举的“不良文学”的全部的四个特点，它仍然是一篇受人敬佩的“杂文”。它令人悲伤，但是真诚又执拗。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 14:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这类杂文的风格特点是讽刺和虚假的宿命论。在这篇文章中，他声称要放弃辨别自身言论的真假，"无论多么困难，这个可怜的人（我）还是要说，至于说的是不是真的，就让别人去分析吧"。(兰，85)兰陵透露，他在斗争的热潮中，创造了一个误区，没有 ’行动力‘这个词。”但是，最后，他以笨拙和不由自主的方式作出的反驳，听起来又像真的，如果不是反动性，还能有什么方式呢？这篇文章表现出我上面所批判列举的 "劣质文学 "的四个特征，但它仍然是一篇令人钦佩的杂文。它是有情调的，却诚实有执拗。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 09:09, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
''Tone in Historical Context''<br />
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As evidence that it is the modal trope that inspired the genre of zawen from its inception, I conclude this essay with a brief look at historical manifestations of tone. It is key, and often part of the Chinese subtext, that the notion of tone (discussed alternately ''diao, yin, yun'') ultimately originates beyond words, in music. Even as a metaphor that must obliterate the acoustic qualities of sound when applied to written Chinese, tone maintains ties to the power of something that is in, or is like, sound, emphasizing physical, oral, informal and emotional qualities that are not part the rational process of exposition, this is the “poetry” of ''zawen''. Tone plays a role in a tremendous range of social events that surround and comprise writing. It occurs in the figure of music as a central metaphor in the most influential theories of literature and poetry.<br />
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历史背景下的音调<br />
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为了证明这是情态修辞启发了扎文这一体裁的产生，我在这篇文章的结尾简要介绍了音调在历史中的表现。音调的概念（也是人们讨论的“调”，“音”，“韵”）最终源于音乐中的文字，这很关键，而且这也经常是中文潜台词的一部分。即使它作为一个隐喻，在应用于中文书写时，它必须消除声音的声学品质，但语气仍与声音中或类似声音的事物保持联系，强调客观，口头，非正式和情感方面的品质，而这并不是声音的一部分。理性的阐释过程，这就是杂文的“诗”。音调在围绕和组成写作的众多社交活动中发挥着作用。它出现在音乐人物中，成为最有影响力的文学和诗歌理论中的中心隐喻。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 10:32, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
For example, spoiled music can signal a larger or more abstract disturbance; in the classic novel Dream of the Red Chamber a heroine breaks a string on a instrument and sees her impending death; in a well known folk story a high ranking official Yu Boya hits a sour note and knows that a potential assassin is lurking in the woods, listening. Music figures centrally in the Confucian Great Preface to the Book of Odes:<br />
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The affections emerge in sounds; when those sounds have patterning they are called “tones” [音] The tones of a well-managed aged are at rest and happy; its government is balanced. The tones of an age of turmoil are bitter and full of anger; its government is perverse. The tones of a ruined state are filled with lament and brooding; its people are in difficulty (Translated in Owen).<br />
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例如，被破坏的音乐能预示更大或更抽象的不安。在经典小说《红楼梦》中，女主人公弄断了乐器上的一根弦，看到了自己即将到来的死亡。在一个广为人知的民间故事中，高官俞伯牙拨弄出了一个尖锐的音符，便知道有一个刺客正潜伏在树林里。音乐在儒家的《诗经大序》中占有核心地位。<br />
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情感显现在声音里，当这些声音有了图式，就叫 "音"。在太平盛世里，音调是安然而欢快的，政通人和。在动荡年代里，音调是苦涩而充满愤怒的，政府是不作为的。破国的音调充满了哀叹和忧郁，人民处于水深火热之中（欧文译）。</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201214_trans&diff=11178820201214 trans2020-12-13T17:39:44Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Xu Jing 许晶 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
In fact, reportage research and composition along with organizing and performing in roving theatrical troupes became one of the principal modes of ”internship” for young writers in the socialist educational system as it emerged in Yan’an.<br />
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Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu were all in their twenties at this time, so they had limited literary experience before the 1940s. Thus for Liu and Yang, the Yan’an years helped define for them what literature is supposed to be from process to product. Qin Mu, however, never went to Yan’an; he spent the entire war in Guangdong, Guangxi and Guizhou. Thus though he had experience with some of these procedures of production in progressive circles in those areas, Qin Mu was not saturated in this kind of cultural environment.<br />
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事实上，在延安出现的社会主义教育体系中，报道文学的研究与创作和组织并参演剧团演出一起，成为青年作家的主要“实习”方式之一。<br />
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杨朔，刘白羽和秦牧当时都是二十来岁，所以他们在四十年代前的文学经验有限。对于刘白羽和杨朔而言，那段延安时光帮助他们定义了文学是如何由形成到产出的。秦牧却没有去过延安，他的整个战争时期都是在广东，广西和贵州度过的。因此，即便他在一些抗战区域有相关经验，秦牧仍然是没有被这种文化环境所浸染的。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
Once socialism or communism took the position of power (as in Yan’an during the war against Japan and then throughout the PRC after 1949) critical prose writing (whether essays or reportage) as it had been practiced during wartime became much more dubious from the point of view of cultural officials, and nonfiction needed to become a vehicle of literary celebration of public, historical achievements.[ See for example Yang Shuo, ”Qian jin, gangtie de dajun” (March Forth, Great Army of Steel, 1949), Zhonghua sanwen zhencang ben, Yang Shuo juan (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1998) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951) 25-33; ”Pingchang de ren” (An ordinary man, 1951), Yang Shuo juan 13-17, ”Gebi tan shang de chuntian” (Springtime on the Gobi, 1953), Yang Shuo juan 29-33. ] This is precisely the familiar dilemma of Ding Ling, coming into Yan’an society well trained as a keen critic of her environment. It was an awkward transition, except for those who came into the socialist educational cultural system while still relatively young. To them the business of literature was that of constructing an unprecedented new vision.<br />
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社会主义或者说共产主义曾经处于主导地位（如抗日时期的延安，然后贯穿1949中国成立以来整个时期）批判散文写作（无论是小品文还是报告文学）可以说，它已经在战时经过多次实践，从文化官员的角度来说，它变得更加不可信。纪实文学需要成为公众庆祝和历史成就的文学工具【如：杨朔《钢铁的大军》（前进，钢铁的大军，1949），中华散文珍藏本，杨朔卷（北京：人民文学出版社，1998）25-33；《平常的人》（平常的人，1951）25-33；杨朔卷13-17，《戈壁滩上的春天》（戈壁滩上的春天，1953），阳朔卷29-33】。这恰好是丁玲的困境，参加延安协会，作为同一批人中受到良好训练的敏锐批评家。除了那些参加社会主义教育文化系统但是相对年轻的人，这是一次尴尬的转变。对他们来说，文学事业正在建造一个前所未有的新视野。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 12:37, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
'''Writers’ changing roles changed literary prose'''<br />
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Each of the three authors I am discussing here was born between 1913 and 1919, only a few short years after the fall of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China. They were all in their late teens and early twenties at the outbreak of the war against Japan. Being roughly the same age, they shared the same historical and cultural atmosphere, but being in different locations, engaged in the war in different capacities, their transition into the aesthetics of incongruous lyricism took different paths and thus embodied different tensions.<br />
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'''作者的角色变化改变了文学散文的面貌'''<br />
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我在此探讨的三位作家都出生于1913至1919年间，距清王朝灭亡和中华民国建立仅短短几年时间。抗日战争爆发时，三人都是十几岁到二十几岁。他们年龄相仿，有着相同的历史、文化氛围，但由于身在不同的地方，以不同的身份参加战争，他们向不协调抒情美学转型的路径不同，从而表现出不同的张力。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:09, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''作家角色的变化改变了散文的面貌'''<br />
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我在此探讨的三位作家都出生于1913至1919年之间，是清王朝覆灭和中华民国建立后的短短几年。抗日战争爆发时，三人都是十几岁到二十出头。他们年龄相仿，处于相同的历史和文化氛围下，但由于身在不同的地方，以不同的方式参与战争，他们向不协调抒情美学转型的路径不同，从而表现出不同的张力。--[[User:Kang Lingfeng|Kang Lingfeng]] ([[User talk:Kang Lingfeng|talk]]) 10:55, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Yang Shuo[ 1913-1968, orig. Yang Shujin(?), of Penglai County in Shandong.] is probably the most ”standard” of the three from the point of view of the Communist Party in that he went to Yan’an early (winter 1937) and worked under the direction of the party’s cultural apparatus for the duration of the war there, in the northwest, and in Guangzhou. Like the reportage writer Huang Gang, he was of the right age for this Yan’an-based period to be his principal formative and educational experience, deeply conditioning his approach and attitude toward writing in the 1950s and 1960s. That being said, Yang Shuo was more concerned with issues of literary quality and symbolic meaning than others writing under the direction of the CP, and this concern colored even his most famous works with puzzling tones of ambivalence and reservation.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Liu Baiyu[ 1916-?, orig. Liu Yuzan, of Beijing. See Niu Yunqing, Liu Baiyu pingzhuan (Chongqing: Chongqing chubanshe, 1995).] arrived in Yan’an relatively early too, and was quickly immersed in its literary activism. Only weeks after his arrival, and though Liu was only 22 at the time, Mao Zedong personally assigned him to lead a five-person escort for the American marine observer Evans Carson to visit the guerilla areas in Northern China (one of a variety of types of ”cultural worker” assignments in the communist base areas). Despite this promising start and occasional contact with Mao, Liu published works that incurred the wrath of some critics and officials, became a target in the Yan’an zhengfeng campaign after Mao’s Talks, and underwent a process of mutual and self-criticism at the Central Party School.<br />
刘柏宇[1916-?, 源自. 刘玉赞，北京. 参见牛云清, 刘柏宇 平专（重庆：重庆出版社，1995).]抵达延安也很早，并很快就投入到了当地的文学活动中去。在他抵达数周后，尽管刘当时才22岁，毛泽东亲自派他带领一个五人护卫队，并陪同美国海军观察员埃文斯·卡森参观中国北部的游击地区（一个派遣各种类型“文化工作者”的共产党基地）。尽管开了一个充满前景的好头以及偶尔会与毛主席接触，刘出版的作品还是引起了某些批评家和政府工作人员的不满，因此，他在毛泽东讲话后成了延安正风运动的目标，并在中央党校进行了互相批评以及自我批评的过程。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 15:33, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
Though the result of this painful process was apparently ”successful” (Liu went on to hold important cultural administrative positions in the PRC), it also alienated him from certain elements in the literary community and led him to take an aggressively authoritarian role as the Party secretary of the Writers’ Assocation during the Anti-Rightist Campaign in 1957 and 58. This alienation is occasionally revealed in his sanwen works from that point on.<br />
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Qin Mu[ 1919-199?, orig. Lin Juefu, b. Singapore, of Chenghai County in Guangdong. See Huang Zhuocai, Weng Guangyu and Ai Zhiping, Qin Mu pingzhuan (Guangzhou: Huacheng chubanshe, 1989).] is one more step removed because he did not share the Yan’an experience with Yang and Liu. Though he was active in the literary resistance during the war against Japan, and though his biographers insist that he originally planned to go to Yan’an as early as 1938, he never went there (Huang, Weng and Ai, 1989, 26-27). <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
Because he did belong to the age cohort and had the same basic inclinations, he did come into contact with the same organizations (the Communist Party, Wenxie) that the others did, and indeed could even have met Yang Shuo in Canton when Yang was sent there on assignment in 1938. He also engaged in similar types of literary intervention, organizing and performing traveling anti-Japanese theater in the countryside, accompanying troops in the field as a writer, and publishing anti-Japanese and anti-KMT/US zawen in Rear or KMT area newspapers. But his experience during the war was not a community experience: Qin at first alone and later with his wife underwent the trials and tribulations of a writer at wartime as an individual, making his own decisions and contacting organizations only when the opportunity presented itself and he wished to do so.<br />
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因为他确实属于同龄人并且具有相同的基本倾向，他也确实和其他人一样和同一个组织如共产党，文协有过接触，而且有可能甚至已经在1938年杨朔被派往广州执行任务时就已经见过杨朔了。他也参与了类似的文学干预活动，在乡村组织并参演巡回的抗日戏剧，以作家身份随同军队前往战场，并在后方或国民党报上发表了抗日及反抗国民党或美国的杂文。但他在这次战争中的经历并不是一次团体经历，秦牧一开始是一个人，之后和他的妻子作为个人作家在战争时期经历了考验和磨难，在此期间独立做出决定，只在机会到来之时或者需要时才会与组织联系。<br />
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因为他与别人年纪相仿， 基本倾向相同，也都与共产党，文协等组织有过接触，而且有可能甚至已经在1938年杨朔被派往广州执行任务时就已经见过杨朔了。他也参与了类似的文学干预活动，在乡村组织并参演巡回的抗日戏剧，以作家身份随同军队前往战场，并在后方或国民党报上发表了抗日，反抗国民党或抗美的杂文。但他在这次战争中的经历并不是一次团体经历，秦牧一开始是一个人，之后和他的妻子作为个人作家在战争时期经历了考验和磨难，在此期间独立做出决定，只在机会到来之时或者需要时才会与组织联系。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 05:05, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
Thus there is an especially independent streak about him that made relations between him and the Writer’s Association after 1949 somewhat strained. He was attacked in the 1957 zhengfeng movement, and it was not until 1962 that he joined the Communist Party.<br />
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Thus each of these writers exhibited different tensions as they approached writing after 1949, and particularly during and after the Hundred Flowers Campaign. All of them, however, adopted sanwen as a vehicle to express themselves, and while these essays at time seem on the surface to be pat or fulsome propaganda, they continue to be colored by these at times very personal tensions that often make the essays more compelling reading in spite of themselves.<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''Procedures and interests of socialist essays'''<br />
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The sanwen of the late 1950s and early 1960s, because of a variety of different such personal and larger cultural tensions, manifest various kinds of ”incongruous lyricism.” All three of these writers had their essays included in textbooks for junior high school and high school during the 1960s and 70s. But these canonic texts represented only the completion of a gradual process of adjustment and must be viewed alongside earlier, less well-known efforts by these authors as well as their works in other genres, particularly fiction.<br />
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社会散文的发展阶段和关注点<br />
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由于不同的个人冲突和更严重的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样“不和谐的抒情性”。这三位作家的散文均已收录进20世纪六七十年代的中学教材中。这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来看待那些经典文本。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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由于各种各样的个人冲突乃至文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出多样的“不和谐的抒情性”。在20世纪六七十年代的中学和高中教材中，这三位作家的散文均编撰进了课本。然而这些经典文本仅代表着调整工作的逐渐完成。同时，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）来分析那些经典文本。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:44, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
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社会散文的发展和关注点<br />
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由于各种个人冲突和愈发剧烈的文化冲突，20世纪50年代末至60年代初的散文呈现出各种各样的“不和谐的抒情性”。20世纪六七十年代，这三位作家的三位都被收录进中学教材中。而这些经典文本仅代表调整工作的逐步完成，要正确的看待这些经典文本，我们得结合这些作家早期不太出名时的作品以及其他体裁的作品（尤其是小说）。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:42, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
'''Friction with leftist aesthetics'''<br />
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In the late 1950s and early 1960s the term sanwen was more frequently associated with ”lyricism” (shuqing) and opposed to ”expository” (shuoli) prose essays. In practice, this is indicated by long descriptive passages, the frequent use of direct address to the reader in the second person as well as rhetorically loaded interrogative, imperative and expressive particles. At particularly rhapsodic moments, socialist sanwen texts take on a fu-like rhetoric, syntactic parallelism and a piling up of listed concrete objects and rich varieties of adverbs and adjectives. One is attempted to associate this attempt at of verbal profusion with certain Republican period stylists like Zhu Ziqing and Yu Pingbo, but the socialist version is much more extravagant both in verbiage and emotional exhibitionism.<br />
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与左派美学的摩擦<br />
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在20世纪50年代末和60年代初，“散文”一词更多地与“抒情性”(抒情)联系在一起，而非“说理性”(说理)。在实践中，这表现在冗长的描述性段落，经常使用第二人称直接称呼读者，以及修辞性的疑问句、祈使句和表达性助词。在狂热表达的时候，社会主义性散文呈现出一种赋式的修辞、句法上的排比，具象堆砌以及华丽的词藻。有人试着将这种语言丰富的尝试与朱自清和俞平伯等某些民国时期风格明显的散文家联系起来，但社会主义性散文在语言和情感显露方面更加丰富。<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 12:31, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
On the level of imagery, a general fascination with images of light, fire and torches left over from the war period[ Particularly evident in Liu Baiyu’s reportage works from the late 1940s.] remains but in part gives way to a new interest in flower imagery in the 1950s.[ Qin Mu’s essays and some of Yang Shuo’s are filled with varieties of flowers and plants, enjoyed in themselves and as symbols of other things. ] Finally a strategy common to all three writers is to conceive of a vista or an experience as a living landscape painting, emphasizing a magnitude of vision and the accompanying emotional exhilaration. In some cases, these highly visual essays are accompanied with illustrations uncannily consistent with the texts’ visualization of the landscape. <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
'''Yang Shuo'''<br />
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Yang Shuo’s 1959 essay ”The Highest Peak of Taishan”[ Taishan jiding, wr. 1959, from Haishi. Yang, 125-129.] features this kind of overt reference to landscape painting. The text simply narrates the author’s ascent of the famous Shandong mountain, but the narrative structure of the climb is interwoven with a figurative structure consisting of three elements. The first is the traditional landscape painting motif: ”All the way from the foothills, looking closely at the mountain landscape, I felt like what was before me was not the lord of the Five Famous Mountains, but more like a green and blue landscape painting of astounding size,” (Yang, 125) an idea he develops as a conceit with figurative descriptive language. Second, Yang writes ”after a while, I began to feel that I was not only looking at a landscape painting, but randomly flipping through a historical manuscript.” (Yang, 126)<br />
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'''杨朔'''<br />
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杨朔于1959年创作的散文《泰山极顶》[《泰山极顶》创作于1959年，选自《海市》。 杨，125-129。]就是这种对山水画的公开引用。 文字只是讲述了作者在著名的山东山峰上的登顶，但攀登的叙事结构与由三个要素组成的形象结构交织在一起。 第一个是传统的山水画主题：“一路上从山脚往上爬，细看山景，我觉得挂在眼前的不是五岳独尊的泰山，却像一幅规模惊人的青绿山水画。”（Yang，125）。他将这种想法发展为一种比喻性的描述性语言。然后杨写道：“一时间，我又觉得自己不仅是在看画卷，却又象是在零零乱乱翻着一卷历史稿本。” （杨，126）--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
This in reference to the calligraphy of famous visitors to the mountain carved into its sides and the legends and stories about them. The third and last layer of figuration is the sense that the author is not climbing a mountain, but climbing into the sky.<br />
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The touristy desire to see the sunrise from Taishan’s peak introduced at the essay’s outset and which teases the reader occasionally throughout the text is deftly frustrated in the rhetorical pursuit of what to the author is a higher aim: the recontainment of a Taishan travelogue into the extolling of the historical achievements of socialism. Once he has passed through the Southern Gate of Heaven, the author sees the Shandong landscape spread out at his feet, but what he notices are the grand commune wheat fields (amber waves of grain) as opposed to patchwork agricultural quilt of yore, and smoky plumes in the distance are not scattered homes but factories.<br />
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这指的是著名游客在山上刻的书法以及他们的传说和故事。该比喻的第三层，也是最后一层指的意象不是作者在爬山，而是在攀向天空。 <br />
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文章一开始就介绍了游客想从泰山山顶看日出的期望，这种期望偶尔会在整篇文章中戏弄读者，但在追求对作者来说是更高的目标的过程中，这种期望被巧妙地挫败了，即将泰山游记重新纳入那些值得赞美的社会主义历史成就中。一旦穿过南天门，作者就能看到在他脚下绵延的山东风景，但他注意到的不是往昔像被子一样拼凑的田块，而是壮观的公社麦田(琥珀色的谷浪)，远处像羽毛般的迷雾也不是分散的家庭，而是工厂。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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山的两侧雕刻了著名游客的书法，这里参考了他们的书法，以及他们的传奇故事。第三层比喻，也是最后一层比喻，意不在于作者爬山，而是在于攀登高空。<br />
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文章一开始就介绍：游客想从泰山顶观赏日出，然而在整篇文章中，作者为了追求更高目标：将泰山游记重塑为对社会主义历史成就的颂扬，灵活使用修辞，有时会逗弄读者，让读者受挫。游客一旦穿过南天门，作者就能看到整个山东省的美景在他脚下，但是作者却把注意力放在宽阔的公社麦田（琥珀色的麦浪），麦田对面是一块块农田，还有从远处飘散的羽毛似的迷雾，这迷雾不是从飘出来的，而是从工厂里出来的。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Though the weather had been clear at night near the peak when the party went to bed early in order to get up in time for the sunrise, fog and rain overnight linger to create an overcast sky at dawn. But author’s socialist/communist landscape epiphany of the previous evening eclipses the banal tourist wish for a beautiful sunrise – he has seen ”another kind of” (metaphysical) sunrise, that of the Chinese people/nation on the horizon.<br />
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In his essay about Kunming’s camellias,[ ”Chahua fu” (Ode to the Camellia) written 1961, from Dongfeng di yi zhi. Yang 134-37.] Yang Shuo opens with a discussion with an artist friend about what kind of painting would show the face of the ”motherland” (zuguo). He then turns to his trip to Kunming after returning from travels abroad.<br />
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为了（第二天）能按时起来看日出，游客们很早就上床睡觉了，夜晚在靠近顶峰的地方，天气很是晴朗，但是在黎明时分，一夜之间水雾缭绕，天空乌云密布 。但作者前一天晚上对的社会主义/共产主义景观的顿悟，使平庸的游客对期望看到美丽日出的愿望黯然失色--他看到了地平线上的中国人/民族的“另一种”（形而上的）日出。<br />
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在他关于昆明的山茶花的文章中，[《茶花赋》写于1961年，摘自《东风第一枝》. 杨134-37] 杨朔开篇就写道与一位画家朋友讨论什么样的画能展示 "祖国"的面貌。 接着，他转而谈到从国外旅行回来后的昆明之行。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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顶峰附近晚上的天气已经晴朗，为了第二天能够早起赶上日出，这时聚会早早就结束了。雨雾逗留一整夜，黎明时变得灰蒙蒙的。但是作者前一天傍晚的社会主义/共产主义景观顿悟掩盖了普通游客对美丽日出的渴望，他看到了“另一种”（抽象的）日出，即地平线上的中国人/民族的日出。<br />
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杨朔写关于昆明插茶花的散文时 [《茶花赋》出自《东风第一枝》杨朔134-37]，他先与一位艺术家朋友讨论哪种描绘可以展现“祖国”的面貌。之后，他谈论了从国外旅行回来后的昆明之行。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 15:36, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
Especially as a ”northerner” he is struck by the beauty of the red camellia flowers around the city and in Huating Temple, where he is escorted by Jin Zhiwen, the landscaper. His attention is drawn to one variety called ”Child’s Face” tongmian. As is almost invariably the case in Yang Shuo essays, the subject he has chosen becomes an opportunity for the author to contemplate the symbolic resonances of its characteristics – in this case the camellia’s sensitivity to proper care, environment and natural enemies, but also the fact that great trees centuries old have been carefully cultivated with hundreds and even thousands of blossoms. A detailed description of the gardener himself provides the author with the key to the signified:<br />
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特别是作为一个北方人，他完全被这座城市周围，以及华亭寺内美丽的山茶花迷住了，在那里，景观设计师金志文护送着他。他的注意力也被一种名叫“孩童脸”的通棉所吸引。杨朔的散文中，大多总是如此，他选择的主题让作者有机会思考其特征，产生象征性共鸣-这种情况下，山茶花需要适当照顾，对环境和自然天敌很敏感，但事实也如此，百年老树都受到精心培育，开出数百甚至数千朵花。对园丁本人详尽描述也是作者了解其重要意义的关键。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 14:48, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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特别是作为一个北方人，他完全被遍布在这座城市周围，以及华亭寺内的美丽山茶花迷住了，这一路有该市景观设计师金志文陪同着他。他的注意力也被一种名叫“孩童脸”的通棉所吸引。杨朔的散文中，大多总是如此，他选择的主题让作者有机会思考其特征，产生象征性共鸣-这种情况下，山茶花需要适当照顾，对环境和自然天敌很敏感，但事实也如此，百年老树都受到精心培育，开出数百甚至数千朵花。园丁本人的详尽描述也是作者了解所指之物的关键。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 11:58, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
I fervently gazed at his hands, hands covered with mud-stained calluses. Then I looked at his face, the wrinkles at the corners of his eyes were cut deep, and it was not necessary to ask about his background: I could guess that he was a middle aged man who had been through a lot. If he waled away from you and into the crowd, he would vanish immediately and it would be very hard to find him again – he was just that kind of very ordinary laborer. But it is just this kind of person, month after month, year after year, exerting mind and body, cultivating flowers and plants with all his effort, beautifying our lives. This is how beauty is created. (Yang, 136)<br />
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我热切地注视着他的双手，那双手满是带泥的茧子。然后我看了看他的脸，他眼角的皱纹已经很深了。我没有必要再追问他的背景，因为我可以猜出他是一个饱受风霜的中年男人。如果他现在转身离开钻进人群里，他会很快消失在人海中，要再找到他就很难了——他就是这样一个十分普通的劳动者。但是正是这样普通的劳动者日复一日，年复一年的辛勤劳作，用身心浇灌花朵和树木，美化我们的生活。美就是这样被创造出来的。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 14:02, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我热切地注视着他的手，那双手布满了沾满泥土的老茧。 然后我看了看他的脸，他眼角的皱纹很深。不用问他的背景， 我可以猜到他是一个饱经沧桑的中年男人。 如果他从你身边晃晃悠悠地走到人群中，他就会立刻消失在人海中，再想找到他就很难了--他就是那种很普通的劳动者。 但就是这样一个人，月复一月，年复一年，耗费着身心，用他的全部心血培育着花草，美化着我们的生活。 美就是这样被创造出来的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
When author observes a group of schoolchildren who have come to see the camellias, the bond is cemented and the ”paint the face of the nation” riddle is solved – paint the Child Face Camelia.<br />
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What is incongruous in Yang Shuo’s lyricism, in many other examples in addition to these, is that no matter how transparent the symbolism and fervent the message of his essay, there is almost always slight ambivalence introduced by negative elements at the fringes: why does the glorification of socialist progress in ”Taishan’s Highest Peak” have to come at the expense of the famous sunrise? What has Jin Zhiren ”been through” that has deepened his wrinkles, and why should that pain be related to the creation of beauty?<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
'''Liu Baiyu'''<br />
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Liu Baiyu’s transition toward sanwen in the PRC came from the direction of reportage literature. Liu had established some reputation as a novelist on the literary scene through key connections he had made with Ba Jin, Zhang Tianyi, Ye Yiqun and other major figures in the 1930s. But by 1949 it was his reportage collections, including Around the Northeast, The Light Shines Down on Shenyang, Cutting across the Central Plains, and The Torches Glow Red in the Yangtse River that were some of the best known works by a communist writer during the civil war in the late 1940s. <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
The late 1950s text ”Lamplight” revisits the experience of the battlefield in a much more peaceful China. ”Lamplight” has a forceful, shrill rhetoric in its development of the image of glowing light through a number of different contexts, from war to socialist economic construction without losing the sense of militant struggle that informed the image of light for Liu from the beginning. [ ”Denghuo” (Lamplight), Liu Baiyu, Hong manao ji (Red agate) (Beijing: Wenhua yishu chubanshe, 1983) 5-11. ] Evidently Liu, though he holds influential positions in the literary establishment of the time, feels alienated by certain elements on the literary scene, particularly in regard to the stigmatization of the experience of the battlefield:<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
. . . nowadays some people treat the subject of war, regardless of right or wrong, regardless of green red black or white always make it look bloody, dark and horrible! They call this ”through the soldier’s eyes,” ”foxhole realism” Hai! This makes those of us who have strapped puttees on our calves and have had the smell of gunpowder about the shoulders want to laugh our heads off. What can you do? There are brave soldiers who fight for what’s right; there are counter-revolutionary murderers; and there are cowardly traitors. Since there are different kinds of soldiers, there have to be different soldier points of view, and there must be different kinds of ”foxhole reality.” Perhaps there are those who would criticize me: how did I get from lamplight to this argument about war, aren’t I getting way off track? Actually, no. The lamplight I am talking about may be a small matter, but it really is a reality of life at war. Getting back to the subject, on the chill wilderness of the Songhua river, trudging through winter snows, wading through summer rapids, from lamplight I was able to understand a certain kind of warmth. (Liu, 7-8)<br />
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...现如今，有些人对待战争话题上，无论对错，不分黑白，总把它们弄得血腥，黑暗又恐怖！他们称之为“通过士兵的眼睛”，“现实主义散兵坑”！这让我们那些腿上绑着绑腿，肩上扛着火药捧腹大笑。你可以做些什么？有勇敢的士兵为正义而战；有反革命的凶手；并且有懦弱的叛国贼。有不同种类的战士就应该有不同种的观点，还得要有不同种类的“现实主义散兵坑”。也许有些人会批评我：我怎么能从那些明亮的地方得出这些关于战争的言论，那我不是跑题了吗？其实上并没有。我在说的点也许是个小问题，但这确实映射出的是战争中实际生活。回到主题，在松花江寒冷的荒野上，穿越冬日的雪地，穿越夏日的急流，从光照下，我能够体会到某种温暖。--[[User:Gui Yizhi|Gui Yizhi]] ([[User talk:Gui Yizhi|talk]]) 15:30, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
"The Brilliance of Spring,"[”Qingchun de shanguang,” written 1959, in Hong manao ji, 23-33.] a lengthy, fu-like essay extolling ten years of socialism in China, manifests many of the distinguishing characteristics of Liu’s post-1949 sanwen. Though written in the wake of the Anti-Rightist Campaign, it casts no shadow on the essay and though there is flower imagery, significantly, it does not emphasize diversity (as in ”hundred flowers”). At about 6,000 characters, it is also much longer than most of Yang Shuo’s essays, which are usually about half that long, particularly those most revered and anthologized. ”The Brilliance of Spring” does not start out with a clearly-defined topic; the occasion or motivation of its composition did not become obvious to me until near the end.<br />
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"春光灿烂"（又名《青春的闪光》，写于1959年，载自《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。）这是一篇颂扬中国十年来社会主义发展的长篇巨作，表现了1949年后其散文的显著特点。即使写于反右运动之后，但其并未受其影响，虽然辞藻华丽，但并未没有强调多样性（如 "百花齐放"）。文章字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在3000字左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 "春光灿烂 "一开始并没有明确的主题，制造结尾我才明白它的创作场合和动机。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:01, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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"春天的辉煌"，[《庆春德山岗》，写于1959年，载《红玛瑙集》，23-33页。]这是一篇颂扬中国社会主义十年的长篇文章，表现了刘勰1949年后散文的许多显著特点。 虽然写于反右运动之后，但没有给文章蒙上阴影，虽然有花的意象，但显著的是，它没有强调多样性（如 "百花"）。 它的字数在6000字左右，也比杨朔的大多数散文要长得多，一般来说，杨朔的散文都在一半左右，尤其是那些最受推崇的散文和文集。 "春光灿烂 "一开始并没有明确的主题，它的创作场合或动机直到接近尾声时我才明白。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:23, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
The visualization with which the text begins juxtaposes a dawn construction scene complete with a handsome, rugged construction worker in Tian’anmen square with author’s memories of other occasions when he was ”right here, in this spot!” including most significantly, a vision of a Japanese tank rolling up from Qianmen, its treads gouging scars in the ground. Liu also includes memories of the entry of the People’s Liberation Army into Beijing, and the ceremony at which Mao Zedong officially established the People’s Republic, but the author moves from one impression-layer to the next vaguely and ambiguously, punctuated with the refrain ”Here! It was right here!”<br />
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这篇文章以视觉化形式开始，黎明时分，建筑工地上有一个帅气但是衣服破烂的建筑工人在天安门，伴随着作者其他场景的记忆，当他就在“那里，那个位置！”其中就一个很重要的回忆是，一个日本坦克从乾门进入，经过断层泥的地板。刘白羽还有些记忆是关于人民解放军回北京，和毛泽东宣布中国人民共和国成立大典的开幕式，但是作者仅是从一个印象层模糊的转到下一个，吃力的说：“那儿，就在那。”--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 13:18, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
Liu makes a conspicuous gesture away from the scene of Tian’anmen to other significant spaces including oilfields in the Western deserts, a poignant scene of a mother sending her son off to the Korean war, Anshan the ”city of steel,” a humble Party meeting among lumberjacks taking place in a shack deep in the forest far from Beijing, and other sites of significant material and spiritual progress in the PRC. As the essay progresses, a new motif is picked up from the contemporary Tian’anmen scene and repeated with increasing frequency: the ”radiant red face and brilliant eyes” of the young socialist citizens whose verbal pictures Liu paints. There is much hyperbole and the extraordinary breadth of subject matter, convering ten years of socialist achievement packaged in spatial-visual tableaux, like a memorial display case or monument, which was the usual strategy of essays and reportage about the Korean War.<br />
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刘白羽很明显地从天安门这一场景转向其他的景色描写，包括西部沙漠的油田，一个母亲送别儿子去参加朝鲜战争的辛酸场景，“钢都”鞍山，远离北京的深山密林中召开的一次党员会议以及其他的中国的重要的物质遗迹以及以及精神进步。随着文章的不断推进，一个新的主题从当代天安门的场景中产生，并以越来越高的频率重复着。在刘白羽的描述中，年轻的社会主义公民“红光满面，双眼炯炯有神”的口头画面。夸张的成分越多，题材的广度就非同一般，将十年的社会主义成就用空间和视觉的表象来包装起来，就像纪念展柜或纪念碑一样，这是有关朝鲜战争的文章和报道的惯用策略。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 10:52, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
Despite the desire to come into close contact with the masses through genuine experiences, it was more common for writers to come into contact with workers, peasants and soldiers through the organizational activities and connections of the Communist Party. In Liu Baiyu’s essays from the 1950s and 60s, you can feel the author incongruously straining to make the most of his experience (straining to maximize its feeling of authenticity) and the characters he describes.[ ”Xie zai taiyang chu sheng de shihou” (Written as the Sun Begins to Rise), Hong manao ji 34-52 [written 1959?]. ] On the level of subject matter, since the (model) workers etc. he writes about are models and leaders, already part of the (embodiments of the) local Communist Party administrative apparatus, they too are straining to give the correct impression, put the right spin on their experiences and ideas, to behave in the way expected of them.<br />
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尽管渴望通过真实的体验来密切联系群众，但作家更多的是通过共产党的组织活动和联系来接触工农兵。 读刘白羽在上个世纪五六十年代创作的文章中，你可以感觉到他为了使自身的经历（努力使其真实感最大化）和他所描述的人物发挥最大作用所做的努力是不太协调的。(《写在太阳初升的时候》，Hong manao ji 34-52 [写于1959年？]) 在主体层面上，由于他所写的（模范）工人等都是模范和领袖，已经是（体现）地方共产党行政机关的一部分，他们也在努力给人以正确的印象，把自己的经验和思想正确地表达出来，按照人们所期望的方式去做。--[[User:He Changqi|He Changqi]] ([[User talk:He Changqi|talk]]) 15:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
'''Qin Mu'''<br />
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Qin Mu’s case might be distinguishable from the others by virtue of the fact that he established himself as a satirical (zawen) columnist during the civil war, and of course satire in general had to go after 1949.[ Interestingly, Qin Mu continued to write zawen in the 1950s and beyond, publishing a very popular collection in 1960 entitled Yihai shibei (Gathering Shells by the Sea of Art). By then Qin’s zawen were not combative, but expository in nature, reflections on principles of artistic creation, so in a way Qin had redefined the zawen genre for himself. The sanwen collection Hua cheng was published at roughly the same time as Yihai shibei and was distinguished by the author himself as ”more lyrical” than the ”expository” pieces in Yihai shibei. Comparing the essays therein with those of Hua cheng, one is struck by formal differences (the Yihai shibei pieces are much shorter than those in Hua cheng) and by the almost complete lack of figurative or descriptive language in Yihai shibei. However difficult it might be for us to define the differences between zawen and sanwen now, it seems clear that Qin Mu had a clear idea in his own literary practice.] Fortunately he had been accustomed to making fun of Americans and the Guomindang which continued to be safe and politically correct targets in the 1950s, but he had to find positive things to write about as well, and considering his background and the ambiguity of his relationship with the Communist Party, this must have been a difficult transition for him, more difficult than it was for those who were already linked up with the party for years in Yan’an and other base areas.<br />
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秦牧的情况可能与其他人有所区别，因为他在内战期间确立了自己的讽刺专栏作家的地位，当然讽刺一般都要在1949年以后才开始。[有趣的是，秦牧在1950年代及以后继续写杂文，1960年出版了一本很受欢迎的诗集，名为《逸海市北》（艺术之海收集贝壳）。此时的秦杂文不是好斗的，而是本质上的说明文，是对艺术创作原则的反思，在某种程度上，秦对杂文体裁进行了重新定义。三文集《华城》与《逸海市北》大致同一时间出版，作者认为《华城集》比《逸海市北》中的“说明文”作品“更抒情”。与《华城》的散文相比，形式上的差异（亦海市北比《华城》短得多）以及《沂海市北》几乎完全没有比喻或描写的语言。不管现在如何界定扎文和三文之间的区别有多困难，秦穆在自己的文学实践中似乎有一个清晰的想法。]幸运的是，他习惯于取笑美国人和20世纪50年代仍然是安全和政治正确目标的国民党，但他必须找到积极的一面写的东西也要写，考虑到他的背景并且与共产党交好，这对他来说一定是一个艰难的过渡，比那些在延安等根据地已经与党联系多年的人来说，难度更大。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In his 1960 essay ”Earth,” (Tudi), Qin Mu makes a figurative connection between earth how handfuls of earth can serve as symbols of wealth, power, sovereignty, political positions. Part of the visualization involves (like Liu Baiyu) aerial views. As war with its arial reconnaisance and bombing transformed the concept of China’s space into a contiguous whole rather than a network of locales, the wider availability of air travel in the 1950s added a visual dimension to this contiguity that reinforces the connection between earth, China’s physical expance, the map of China, and the concept of nation:<br />
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秦牧在他1960年发表的论文《地球》（土地）中，将地球上的少数几个人如何象征着财富，权力，主权，政治地位作为形象的联系。 可视化的一部分涉及（如刘白玉）鸟瞰图。 随着战争的轰炸和轰炸将中国空间的概念转变为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，1950年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了视觉上的意义，从而加强了地球与中国物质扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系 。<br />
--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:57, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在他1960年的文章《土地》中，秦牧把土地比喻成财富、权力、主权和政治地位的象征。部分可视化包括(如刘白玉)空中视图。随着战争的勘察和轰炸，中国的太空的概念转变成一个连续的整体,而不是一个地区的网络,航空旅行的更广泛的可用性在1950年代增加了一个视觉维度，强化了地球之间的联系,中国物质扩张,中国的地图,和国家的概念:--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:11, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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秦牧在1960年的文章《地球》（Tudi）中，将地球如何撮合成财富、权力、主权、政治立场的象征做了形象化的联系。 部分视觉化涉及（像刘白羽一样）鸟瞰图。 由于战争的侦察和轰炸将中国的空间概念转化为一个连续的整体，而不是一个地点网络，20世纪50年代更广泛的航空旅行为这种连续性增加了一个视觉维度，加强了地球、中国的物理扩张、中国地图和国家概念之间的联系。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 14:47, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Once I gazed out an airplane window straight down upon the Pearl River delta; the heavens were crystal clear and I looked down and couldn’t help but cheer out loud because the Pearl River delta looked so magnificent that words couldn’t even describe it. The network of rivers and lakes shimmered in the sunlight while the earth looked like a piece of dark green velvet. The roads seemed as straight as if they had been sliced with a knife while the fields looked as neat as a chessboard. Wow! A hundred thousand years ago people looked to the skies for gods and miracles, but today the real miracle is taking place on the earth below.[ Qin Mu, Hua cheng (Guangzhou: Zuojia chubanshe, 1961) 17-18.]<br />
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一次，透过飞机窗外，我凝视着珠江三角洲：天空清澈见底，我低头一看，不禁大声欢呼起来，因为珠江三角洲看起来壮观无比，简直无可言喻。河流和湖泊交织着在阳光下闪烁，而大地看起来像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路看起来笔直的像是用刀子划的一样，而田野看起来像棋盘一样整齐。哇！十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神灵和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹发生在地下。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 12:51, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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有一次，我透过飞机的窗户凝视着珠江三角洲;天上一片清澈，我低头一看，不禁欢呼起来，因为珠江三角洲是如此的壮丽，无法用语言来形容。河流和湖泊交织在阳光下闪闪发光，而大地看起来就像一块深绿色的天鹅绒。道路笔直得好似用刀划过一样，田野整齐得像棋盘一样。哇!十万年前，人们仰望天空寻找神灵和奇迹，但今天真正的奇迹就发生在这片土地下。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:45, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
Many of Qin Mu’s essays in the collection Hua cheng (City of Flowers) imaginatively recreate an (occasionally ancient) historical scene, in a specific place the essay focuses on that the author is observing today (or at least gives that impression) like Liu Baiyu’s ”right here on this spot” refrain. In his 1956 essay ”Lyric on the Altar of the God of Grain,” the earthen, square altar referred to in the title is in Zhongshan park in Beijing, and was where aristocrats were traditionally enfoeffed by the emperor.[ Qin, 21-31.] In many ways, this is a continuation of the previous essay (”Earth”), extending reflections on the material symbolism of earth and the glorious wisdom of the ancients.<br />
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在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再现了一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今仍能观察到的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，是传统上皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是对前一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:22, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在《花城》这一散文集中，秦牧的许多文章都是在特定的地方，以想象的方式再创造一个历史场景（有时是古代的），即作者如今正在观察的某个特定的地方（或者至少给人这样的印象），就像刘白羽的叠句“就在这里”一样。在他1956年的散文《谷神祭坛抒情诗》中，标题中提到的土方祭坛位于北京的中山公园，在古代是皇帝分封贵族的地方。[秦，21-31.] 在许多方面，这是上一篇文章（《大地》）的延续，扩展了对大地的物质象征和古人的光辉智慧的思考。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:42, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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This essay distinguishes itself by its relentless return to the altar itself, its self-conscious admiration of the brilliance of the ancients (with overtones of ethnic and cultural pride and reconciliation with the premodern culture of China) as well as a shrilly specific emphasis on unity as territorial sovereignty (”Once we liberate Taiwan and a few coastal islands, [our territorial] unity’s scope will be even more unprecedented.” 30)<br />
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Qin Mu is at his most characteristic, though, in writing educational essays (zhishi xiaopin). Also known as scientific xiaopin, the character of such writings would seem to be defined by their subject matter. [ Another writer of the post-Hundred Flowers period that writes a lot in this vein is Ma Nancun (Deng Tuo), whose popular Yanshan yehua column in Beijing Wanbao lasted for years and was published in four volumes in book form.] But I would like to suggest that the transmission of modern scientific knowledge in these texts is not an end in itself, but rather one answer to the question of ”what to write about?” in socialist sanwen. And it conveys (in addition to the knowledge or information), a certain scientistic, post-industrial atmosphere of enthusiasm that is a style as much as content.<br />
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这篇文章的与众不同之处在于，它不遗余力地回到祭坛本身，自觉地仰慕古人的辉煌(带有民族和文化自豪感以及与中国前现代文化结合的色彩)，且明确强调领土的主权统一。("一旦我们解放台湾和几个沿海岛屿，[我们的领土]统一的范围将更加空前绝后"。30)<br />
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秦牧最有特色的是教育随笔（知识小品），也被称为科学随笔，这种随笔的特点由其主题决定。[ 百花齐放·百家争鸣期后，另一位在这方面写作较多的作家是马南邨(邓拓)，他在北京晚报上的《燕山夜话》专栏持续多年撰写文章，并出版了四卷书。] 但我想说的是，在这些文字中传递现代科学知识本身并不是目的，而是对社会散文中 "写什么？"这个问题的一个回答。而且它传达的（除了知识或信息外）是某种科学的、后工业化的热情环境，它展示风格的同时，也表达了内容。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:29, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Qin Mu’s ”Xing xia” (Under the Stars, 1958)[ Qin, 49-60.] begins as a sweeping exploration of stars, moving from the universal experience of gazing at the skies and wondering about the questions of existence to the cultural perspectives of the beliefs and lore of the ancients and finally to the scientific perspective of the astronomical knowledge gathered in recent centuries, decades and years that confirm the author’s faith in science and industrial modernity. The scientific knowledge in fact becomes a context or background against which to look back with some disdain at the superstitious quality of premodern beliefs, not only about the structure of the cosmos, but the extensions of such speculation into areas of human destiny and supernatural beliefs.<br />
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秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式开始，从凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，到古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:33, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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秦牧的《星下集》(1958年)[ 秦，49-60.]以扫视星空的方式作为开端，然后写到凝视天空、疑惑存在问题的普遍经验，又至古人信仰和传说的文化视角，最后到近百年、数十年来收集的天文知识的科学视角，证实了作者对科学和工业现代性的信仰。科学知识实际上成为一种背景，在这种背景下，我们对前现代信仰的迷信特质有些不屑一顾，不仅是对宇宙结构的猜测，而且这种猜测延伸到人类命运和超自然信仰的领域。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Reading this essay one can see that one of the keys to Qin Mu’s popularity lay not in his conspicuously Marxist-Leninist politics, but in his sweeping, timeless, universal and seemingly all-inclusive scope of vision and contemplation. Many or most of his essays give an exhilarating sense of vastness.<br />
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But this essay does not reach its completion without being recontained, as are Yang Shuo’s landscape meditations, in a political context. Written in the early years of Soviet space exploration, it seems obvious to Qin Mu that Soviet success in this area and the US’s failure is a clear sign of the direction of history. He argues with almost excessive rhetorical force that the failure of space exploration and science in general under capitalism signifies the inability of the capitalist world view to free itself from outmoded beliefs, while socialism is easily and innocently aligned with scientific achievement and progress.<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Qin Mu’s often shrill diatribes on historical materialism and Marxism-Leninism in educational essays (zhishi xiaopin) like this one, or about the history of overseas Chinese or the cosmic theories of warring states philosophers is an incongruous, inverted reflection of Qin’s perennial status as an outsider to the PRC socialist literary orthodoxy, being victimized by literary officials like Liu Baiyu in the anti-rightist campaign and only being admitted to the Communist Party in 1962. It is in his attempts to contain an ambitious gaze that can encompass human and natural history and the furthest reaches of space in a historicized polemic about the supremacy of Marxism-Leninism in the post war years that the incongruity of Qin Mu’s lyricism manifests itself.<br />
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秦牧经常在教育论文中这样尖锐地抨击历史唯物主义和马列主义(知识小品文)，或海外华人史或战国哲学家的宇宙理论，认为这是一个不协调的，颠倒的反映。秦牧作为中国社会主义中正统的局外人，在反右运动中遭到刘白宇这样的文学官员迫害，直到1962年才被共产党接纳。他试图以一个包罗万象的视角，用抒情的方式表达对战后马克思主义主导地位的辩驳。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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秦牧在这样的教育论文（知识小品）中，经常尖锐地抨击历史唯物主义和马列主义，或是关于华侨历史或战国哲人的宇宙理论，认为这些是不协调的。秦牧作为中国社会主义文学正统派的局外人，在反右运动中受到刘白羽等文学官员的迫害，直到1962年才被共产党接纳。正是在他试图在一场关于战后马列主义至高无上的历史化论战中，包含一种能够涵盖人类历史和自然历史以及最遥远的空间的雄心勃勃的目光，秦牧抒情诗的不协调性才得以体现。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 07:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''Conclusion'''<br />
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The question of whether the ”real” world corresponds to the world these authors describe and narrate is moot; through the act of seeing or imagining the world as they do, they helped create the socialist world. These authors did not slavishly obey orders, writing from formulae they were provided by superiors and other writers; they willingly engaged in the procedures of research and composition that were part and parcel of communist education and literary practice; what they wrote followed from their training, it was the logical and organic extension of that training. They helped write the socialist world into existence.<br />
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'''结论'''<br />
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"真实"世界是否与作者们描述和叙述的世界相符，这个问题是无意义的；通过观察或者想象这个世界，他们帮助创造了社会主义世界。这些作者不盲目地服从命令，按照上级和其他的作者提供的公式写作；他们自愿从事研究和写作，这些是共产主义教育和文学实践的重要组成部分。作者们所写的是训练之后的结果，是训练的逻辑和有机的延伸。他们帮助建立了社会主义世界。<br />
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"真实"世界是否与作者们描述和叙述的世界相符，这个问题是没有意义的；通过向他们一样去观察或者想象这个世界，他们就帮助创造了社会主义世界，这些作者不盲目地服从命令，按照上级和其他的作者提供的模板进行写作；他们自愿从事研究和写作，这些是共产主义教育和文学实践的重要组成部分。他们帮助建立了社会主义世界，他们帮助把社会主义世界写成了现实。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 15:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
Slavoj Zizek’s interpretation of Pascal that belief can actually emerge from deliberately going through the motions of ritual and imitating the faithful, and Zizek’s further point that ”reality” in any society is produced by ideological fantasies peculiar to it, suggest a similar interpretation of socialist sanwen.[ Slavoj Zizek, The Sublime Object of Ideology (London: Verso, 1989) 38-43.] Going through the ritual motions of faith, the individual already believes without realizing it, he argues, and then it is only a matter of time before that belief gradually takes control of the conscious mind. But within that ideological fantasy that is the representation of social reality, there are at the fringes and in the shadows suggestions of the impossibility of the vision. What I have referred to as the ”incongruous” in Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu are those almost unconscious suggestions tainting the pristine vision.<br />
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斯拉沃伊·齐泽克对帕斯卡的解释是，信仰实际上可以从刻意通过仪式和对信徒的模仿中产生，齐泽克进一步指出，任何社会中的“现实”都是由它特有的意识形态幻想产生的，这暗示了对社会主义散文的类似解释。[斯拉瓦伊·齐泽克，《崇高的意识形态》(伦敦:Verso, 1989) 38-43]他认为，通过信仰的仪式活动，个体已经在没有意识到的情况下相信了它，而这种信仰对于意识的控制只是时间问题。但是在意识形态的幻想中，社会现实代表在边缘和阴影中暗示着这种幻想的不可能性。我所说的杨烁、刘白羽和秦木作品中的“不协调”，是指那些几乎无意识的玷污了原始视觉的暗示。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 15:35, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
Reading literature from the first seventeen years of the People’s Republic of China requires as much attention to practices within the socialist orthodoxy as to dissidents and victims. Against the prevalent view that socialist literary culture in China was a self-contained system introduced from the Soviet Union as if into a vacuum, socialist sanwen speaks to the mutability of that literary culture and the voice of individual writers in its development, however much sanwen may have been used for propaganda and indoctrination, it retained an ambiguity and reserve inherent in the genre since before the War gainst Japan. Above all, I think this speaks to the enormous importance of various forms of sanwen in modern Chinese literary culture in general, and any general apprach to the modernn Chinese essay must further explore the legacy of socialist sanwen, particularly as today’s sanwen writers for the most part read the works of Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu and Qin Mu in their middle school textbooks.<br />
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中华人民共和国成立后的十七年，阅读文学要求将足够的注意力放在社会主义正统者、持不同政见者以及深受两者折磨的人的实践之中。当时流行的观点是中国的社会主义文学是从苏联引进的一个真空的封闭系统，与此相反，社会主义散文展现了文学文化和不断发展的个体作家的声音的可变性，然而，在抗日战争之前，很多散文曾经可能被用来宣传和灌输观念，所以它含有该体裁内在的模棱两可和含蓄的特点。综上所述，我认为这体现了不同形式的散文在中国现代文学文化总体上极其重要，任何对中国现代散文的进行的总体研究必须进一步探索社会主义散文遗产，特别是现今大部分的的散文家都会在中学课本上阅读杨朔、刘白羽和秦牧的作品。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 12:59, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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中华人民共和国成立后的十七年，阅读文学要求将足够的注意力放在社会主义正统者、持不同政见者以及深受两者折磨的人的实践之中。当时流行的观点是就像至于一个真空环境之下一样，中国的社会主义文学是从苏联引进的一个自我封闭系统，与此相反，社会主义散文展现了文学文化和不断发展的个体作家的声音的可变性，然而，在抗日战争之前，很多散文曾经可能被用来宣传和灌输观念，所以它含有该体裁内在的模棱两可和含蓄的特点。综上所述，我认为这体现了不同形式的散文在中国现代文学文化总体上极其重要，任何对中国现代散文的进行的总体研究必须进一步探索社会主义散文遗产，特别是现今大部分的的散文家都会在中学课本上阅读杨朔、刘白羽和秦牧的作品。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 15:40, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''Tradition as Construct and the Search for a Modern Identity: A Reading of Traditional Gestures in Modern Chinese Essays of Place ''' [ This article is an extended version of the paper “The Self in the Landscape: Chinese Essays of Place in the Republican Era (1912-1949)” delivered at the conference The Modern Chinese Literary Essay: Defining the Self in the 20th Century, held in Achern, Germany, August 25-27, 2000.]<br />
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''Alexandra R. Wagner''<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst the Sound of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe, 1923), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (Diaotai de chunzhou, 1932), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from the Langya Mountain” (Langyashan youji, 1936) are three modern Chinese essays in which place and memory serve as the main textual and conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and search for meaning unfolds. Examining these “essays of place” with a focus on the dynamics between place, on the one hand, and personal as well as cultural memory, on the other, challenges the prevailing views of modern travel or landscape essays as either lyrical evocations of scenery, backdrops for personal experiences and thoughts, or sources for information on locations.<br />
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““作为建构的传统和对现代身份的寻求：对中国现代地方杂文中传统姿态的解读”” [本文是民国时期（1912-1949）中国地方散文《风景中的自我》的扩展版。在2000年8月25日至27日于德国阿彻恩举行的“中国现代文学论文：定义20世纪的自我”会议上发表。亚历山大·瓦格纳（Alexandra R.Wagner）<br />
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'''摘要''' 朱自清的“桨声与灯影中的秦淮河”（桨声与灯影里的的秦淮河，1923年），郁达夫的“钓台春日”（钓台的春昼，1932），以及方令儒的“琅琊山” （琅琊山游记，1936年）是三篇中国现代散文，其中，地点和记忆是主要的文本和概念元素，通过这些文本和概念，作者进行了身份认同和对意义的寻求。审视这些“地方散文”，一方面侧重于地点与个人记忆以及文化记忆之间的动态关系，另一方面，挑战现代游记或风景散文的主流观点，认为它们要么是对风景的抒情，要么是个人经验和思想的背景，要么是地点信息的来源。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:13, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
The aggregation of cultural and personal memory in these essays foregrounds the skepticism and uncertainty that characterize the mindset of Chinese writers situated in a transitional period moving from tradition to modernity. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the essays are ultimately texts on writing as a continuous and open-ended exploration. <br />
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Examining the “traditional gestures” central to the essays by Zhu, Yu, and Fang most prominently demonstrates this questioning of apparent meaning. Activities closely tied to places, such as climbing mountains, traversing lakes and rivers, and contemplating past history during visits to ruins and other sites are highly reminiscent of poetic onventions that have informed the long pre-modern literary history of travel and landscape writings.<br />
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这些文章中文化和个人记忆的聚合，凸显了处于传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家心态的怀疑和不确定性。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章归根结底是关于写作的文本，是一种持续而开放的探索。<br />
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审视朱、余、方三家文章中的 "传统姿态"，最突出地体现了这种对表层意义的质疑。与地方密切相关的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊、河流，以及在参观遗迹等过程中对过去历史的思考等，都让人高度联想到在漫长的前现代文学史上的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 05:41, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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这些文章中文化记忆和个人记忆的聚集，突出了处于从传统向现代过渡时期的中国作家的怀疑和不确定性特征。通过对表面意义和文学传统的质疑，这些文章最终成为关于写作的文本，是一种持续的、开放式的探索。<br />
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对朱先生、于先生和方先生所著文章的核心“传统手势”的研究，最突出地证明了对表面意义的质疑。与地方紧密相连的活动，如爬山、穿越湖泊和河流，以及在参观遗迹和其他遗址时思考过去的历史，都让人联想到在漫长的前现代文学史的的游记和山水文章的诗学传统。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:19, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
As manifestations of cultural memory, such activities are more than simply concrete actions; they are gestures, i.e. “acts made as a sign of attitude.” These traditional gestures suggest an affinity between pre-modern and modern texts, yet at the same time, the essays consistently question the significance and consequence of this apparent affinity. This questioning is achieved, first, by the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, by introducing elements of imperfection and incompletion throughout the essays, and, third, by the self-referential aspects of the essays.<br />
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作为文化记忆的表现形式，这些活动不仅仅是具体的行动。它们是手势，也就是“态度表征的行为”。这些传统手势表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切关系，然而，同时这些文章始终对这种明显的亲和力的意义和结果存在质疑。这种质疑的实现，首先是通过作者与居住在这片风景中的人们的相遇；其次，通过在文章中引入不完美和不完善的元素；第三，通过文章的自我参照。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 01:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为文化记忆的表现形式，这种活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动，而是一种姿态，即 "作为一种态度的标志而做出的行为"。这些传统的姿态暗示了前现代和现代文本之间的密切关系，但与此同时，这些文章一直在质疑这种明显的密切关系的意义和后果。这种质疑的实现，一是通过作者与居住在风景中的人的相遇；二是通过在文章中引入不完美和不完整的元素；三是通过文章的自述来实现。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 03:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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作为文化记忆的体现，这些活动不仅仅是简单的具体行动； 它们是姿态，即“态度表征的行为”。 这些传统姿态暗示了前现代文本与现代文本之间的亲和力，但与此同时，论文也不断质疑这种明显亲和力的重要性和后果。 首先，作者与居住在风景中的人们相遇，然后是通过在论文中引入不完美和不完整的元素，其次是通过论文的自我参照。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 12:01, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最为文化记忆的体现形式，这种活动不单单是具体的行动，它们更是一种姿态，也就是“用以表征态度的行为”。这些传统的姿态表明了前现代文本和现代文本之间的密切联系；然而，与此同时，这些文章也在不断地质疑这种表面联系的影响和结果。这种质疑，首先是通过作者与居住在当地的本地人的邂逅；其次是在全文中体现出一些不完美和不完整的因素；最后是通过文章的自我参照这三个步骤来实现的。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
Adopting traditional gestures of contemplating place and past can be seen as an attempt to place the author in a privileged and thus assured position, offering him a way to authoritatively define himself within, yet separate from, his surroundings. However, encounters with people inhabiting the places make the author “interact” with these places. Rather than being objects of perception and contemplation only, places become parts of the perceiving and contemplating subject. The idea of place as distinct from the observer, providing a setting against which he can define himself as well as measure the changing times is deceptive.<br />
采用传统的姿态来思考地方和过去，可以看作是将作者置于一种特权地位，从而保证他的地位，为其提供了一种根据周围环境给自己定义，但又与之分离的权威方式。然而，与居住在这些地方的人的相遇，使作者与这些地方产生了 "互动"。地方不只是感知和思考的对象，而是成为感知和思考主体的一部分。将地方与观察者区分开来，提供一个环境，让观察者可以据此来定义自己以及衡量时代的变化，这种想法是具有欺骗性的。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:38, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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采用传统的姿态思考地方和过去，可以看作是将作者置于特权以及确定的地位的一种尝试，为其提供一种根据其周围环境，但又脱离其环境然而，给自己定义的权威性的方式。然而，和居住在这些地方的人相遇，使得作者和这些地方有了“互动”。地方除了作为感知和思考的物体，还成为了感知和思考主体的一部分。地点和观察者分离、提供观察者给自己下定义的背景、衡量时代的变化，这些想法都具有欺骗性。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 13:40, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
In addition, elements of imperfection and incompletion disrupt the narrative in these essays and thus similarly question the reliability of traditional gestures in the search for stable definitions of selves. Self-referential aspects of the texts also draw attention to the essays’ constructedness, thus questioning the idea that the texts have a single, accurate (and thus authoritative) interpretation and significance.<br />
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In sum, an “ironic” reading of the traditional gestures in these essays of place foregrounds the concept of tradition as a vital part and construct needed to engage in a discourse on tradition and modernity from which modern texts ultimately evolve.<br />
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此外，不完美和不完整的因素扰乱了这些文章的叙述，因此同样质疑传统姿态在寻找稳定的自我定义时的可靠性。文本的自我参照方面也引起了对文章的结构性的关注，从而质疑了文本具有单一、准确（因而具有权威性）的解释和意义的观点。<br />
总而言之，对这些散文中传统姿态的“讽刺”解读，预示了传统的概念作为现代性话语的一个重要组成部分，现代性最终需要从这一部分演变而来。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 11:57, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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此外，不完美和不完整的因素扰乱了这些文章的叙述，从而同样质疑传统姿态在寻求稳定的自我定义方面的可靠性。文本的自我参照性也引起了人们对文章建构性的关注，从而对文本具有单一的、准确的（因为也是权威的）解释和意义的观点提出了质疑。<br />
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总之，对于这些地方性文章中传统姿态的“讽刺”解读，凸显了传统概念是参与传统与现代文本所需的重要部分和建构，而现代文本最终也是在这个基础上发展起来的。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 09:14, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
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Zhu Ziqing’s “The Qinhuai River Amidst Sounds of Oars and Shadows of Lamps” (''Qinhuaihe''), Yu Dafu’s “Spring Day on Diaotai” (''Diaotai''), and Fang Lingru’s “Travel Notes from Langya Mountain” (''Langyashan''), are three notable essays of place in which place and memory serve as the main conceptual elements through which the writers’ negotiation of identity and meaning unfolds. By questioning apparent meaning and literary convention, the texts become ultimately texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays. <br />
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In the essays, the authors engage in activities such as climbing mountains, traversing rivers, and contemplating history and historical figures while visiting ruins and other sites. <br />
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Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br />
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Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br />
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Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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朱自清的《浆声灯影里的秦淮河》（《秦淮河》）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台的春昼》（《钓鱼台》）和方令孺的《琅琊山游记》（ 《琅琊山》）是三篇有关地点的著名散文。在这几篇文章中，地点和回忆是主要的概念性元素，作者通过这些元素来具体展开关于身份认同以及具体含义的阐述。通过质疑明显的含义和文学习俗，这些文本最终象征着作者的不懈努力与探索，因此成为了文本的开放性文本。<br />
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在这几篇散文中，作者在参观历史遗址时都参加了诸如爬山、过河、对历史以及历史人物进行深思的活动。<br />
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Zhu Ziqing’s ''Jiangsheng dengyingli de Qinhuaihe'', written in 1923, was first published in the January 25, 1924 issue of ''Dongfang zazhi'' (Eastern Miscellany, founded in 1904). （文献无需翻译） <br />
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Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai de chunzhou'', written in August 1932, first appeared in the inaugural issue of the journal ''Lunyu'' (Analects), on September 16, 1932. <br />
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Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan youji'' was written in April 1936 in Nanjing. Reprints in contemporary essay anthologies are taken from Fang’s essay collection Xin (Letters) published in 1945.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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In this paper, the terms “writer” and “author” are used interchangeably.（文献无需翻译）--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 11:26, 8 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓鱼台上的春昼》（钓鱼台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。<br />
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在这些散文中，作者在参观遗址和其他地方时，还参与了登山、穿越河流、思考历史和历史人物等活动。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:52, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓台上的春昼》（钓台）、方灵如的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:53, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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朱自清的《桨声灯影里的秦淮河》（秦淮河）、郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》（钓台）、方令儒的《琅琊山游记》（琅琊山），这是三篇著名的关于地点的散文，其中地点和记忆是主要的概念要素，通过这些要素对作家的本体和意义的商讨逐步展开。通过对表面意义和文学惯例提出质疑，这些文本最终成为关于写作的文本，作为作者不断的努力和探索的一种象征，这些文本成为了关于散文开放性的文本。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 08:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
For example, all three essays contain elements reminiscent of the poetic convention of contemplating the past (''huaigu''), often conveying regret over gone times and places. Images exposing the transience of human life in an enduring landscape suggest the writer’s uncertainty about the present and future, implying his desire to find a more lasting place within his existing surroundings. <br />
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In their apparent affinity to poetic conventions, traditional gestures seem to promise the writer a degree of authority and certainty in observing and interpreting surroundings and thus in determining his position and role in them. An ''ironic'' understanding and reading of such gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang's essays however, exposes the concept of tradition as construct indispensable for a discourse on modernity. <br />
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Evoking and sharing the cultural memory of place writing, Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays not only contain, but also constitute traditional gestures.（文献无需翻译） <br />
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FFor a concise explication of this poetic convention, see Hans H. Frankel, ''The Flowering Plum and the Palace Lady: Interpretations of Chinese Poetry'' (New Haven and London, 1976), chapter 9 “Contemplation of the Past.”（文献无需翻译）<br />
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例如，这三篇文章都包含了凝视过去的诗学传统的元素（怀古），常常表达对逝去的时光和地方的遗憾。在一幅经久不衰的风景画中，展现人类生命的无常，暗示着作者对现在和未来的不确定性，暗示着他希望在现有的环境中找到一个更永恒的地点。<br />
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传统的姿态与诗歌的传统有明显的亲近感，它似乎给了作者一定程度的权威性和确定性来观察和解释周围的环境，从而确定自己在其中的定位和角色。然而，通过对朱自清、郁达夫和方灵如的文章中这些姿态的反讽地理解和解读，揭示了传统观念构筑现代性话语所不可或缺的。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 05:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
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Modern texts evolve from a questioning and reassessment of well-established meaning and value, rather than from a mere rejection of what are perceived to be traditional notions, customs, and ideals. Once tradition is divested of its absolute claim and subject to interpretation and reconstruction, modernity can emerge. <br />
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Generally, the term “gesture” describes an activity as “something done to convey one’s intentions or attitude.” The traveler’s activities are more than actions that have an obvious purpose, such as getting to a location or viewing a certain site. Roland Barthes’ notion of gestures in writing and writing as gesture suggests the multiplicity of meaning within essays of place and ultimately bears out the idea of essays of place as texts on writing. In ''The Responsibility of Forms'', Roland Barthes describes “gesture” in art as<br />
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“Gesture.” Def.2. ''Oxford American Dictionary''. New York: Avon Books, 1980. （文献无需翻译）<br />
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''The Oxford English Dictionary'' defines “gesture” as “a move or course of action undertaken as an expression of feeling or as a formality; especially a demonstration of friendly feeling, usually with the purpose of eliciting a favorable response from another.” Def.4.b. ''The Oxford English Dictionary''. 2nd Ed. (Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1989).（文献无需翻译）<br />
现代文本从对已确立的意义和价值的质疑和重新评估演变而来，而不仅仅是对被认为是传统观念、习俗和理想的排斥。一旦剥夺了传统的绝对权利，接受了解释和重建，现代性就会出现。<br />
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一般来说，“手势”指的是“为了传达某人的意图或态度的行动。旅行者的活动不仅仅是有明显目的的行动，比如到达某个地点或参观某个地点。罗兰·巴特关于书写中的手势和作为手势的书写的概念暗示了地点散文中意义的多样性，并最终证明了地点散文作为写作文本的观点。在《形式的责任》一书中，罗兰·巴特将艺术中的“姿态”描述为一种行为的多余。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
[s]omething like the surplus of an action. The action is transitive, it seeks only to provoke an object, a result; the gesture is the indeterminate and inexhaustible total of reasons, pulsions, indolences which surround the action with an atmosphere [. . .]. Hence, let us distinguish the message, which seeks to produce information, and the sign, which seeks to produce an intellection, from the gesture, which produces all the rest (the “surplus”) without necessarily seeking to produce anything. <br />
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Traversing mountains and lakes are activities with a concrete objective. As “gestures” or “surplus action,” those activities are signs of attitudes that in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays ultimately serve to constantly question and change meaning by providing possibility instead of demarcation of meaning and signification. <br />
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Barthes, Roland. “''[Readings: Gesture] Cy Twombly: Works on Paper.” The Responsibility of Forms''. By Barthes. Trans. Richard Howard, (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985) 160.（文献无需翻译）<br />
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According to Roland Barthes, every text is ultimately a product of gestures Discussing the work of American painter Cy Twombly (b. 1928), Roland Barthes furthermore says about the workings of gestures:（文献无需翻译） <br />
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[t]he artist [ . . . ] is by status an “operator” of gestures: he seeks to produce an effect and at the same time seeks no such thing; the effects he produces he has not obligatorily sought out; they are reversed, inadvertent effects which turn back upon him and thereupon provoke certain modifications, deviations, mitigations of the line, of the stroke. Thus in gesture is abolished the distinction between cause and effect, motivation and goal, expression and persuasion (Barthes 160).（文献无需翻译）<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
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Zhu Ziqing’s ''Qinhuaihe'' describes a pleasure excursion on the Qinhuai River he and his friend Yu Pingbo embark on one summer evening. Singsong girls and their musicians, offering their services to passengers in the roaming boats, provide popular entertainment on the river. Zhu and Yu try to enjoy the atmosphere produced by a combination of natural scenery, history, lantern lights, and sound of oars and of music. Despite mingling with other boats whose passengers happily solicit the singsong girls’ services, they remain passive observers. Zhu's narrative culminates in his and Yu’s direct encounter with the singsong girls, who approach them to solicit business. This encounter mortifies and confounds Zhu, turning the trip into a disconcerting experience. Both Zhu and Yu reject the singsong girls’ solicitations, and soon after the encounter, they head back to the pier. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'' describes his travels in the countryside after having hurriedly left Shanghai to avoid being rounded up by Nationalist forces in the spring of 1931. Watching boats taking locals to their ancestral graves, Yu decides to visit his hometown in time for the Qingming festival. After only a few days with relatives and friends however, he becomes restless and leaves for a trip to Diaotai (Fishing Terrace) on Fuchun Mountain. He stops over at Tonglu for the night and despite the late hour climbs Tongjun Mountain located across the river. The next day, Yu visits the memorial hall on Fuchun Mountain dedicated to the Eastern Han recluse Yan Ziling and then climbs the famous Diaotai.<br />
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郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》一书中，描写了1931年春天他为逃避国民党军队的抓捕，匆匆离开上海后在乡下的旅行的故事。郁达夫看见船只把过世的当地人带回祖墓埋葬，于是他决定在清明节前回到家乡。 然而，与亲戚和朋友团圆几天之后，他变得躁动不安，便前往富春山钓台旅行。 他停留在桐庐过夜，尽管天色已晚，他爬上横跨在河面的桐郡山。 第二天，郁达夫参观了富春山纪念东汉隐士严子陵的纪念馆，攀登了著名的钓台。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 11:51, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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郁达夫的《钓台的春昼》描述了他在1931年春天为避免被国民党军队围捕，匆忙离开上海后在农村的旅行。看着载着当地人去往他们祖坟的船只，郁达夫决定在清明节的时候回家乡看看。然而，在与亲戚朋友相处几天后，他变得焦躁不安，便前往富春山的钓台。他在桐庐停留了一夜，尽管时间已晚，他还是爬上了河对岸的桐君山。第二天，郁达夫参观了富春山纪念东汉隐士严子陵的纪念馆，攀登了著名的钓台。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 13:50, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
Fang Lingru and a group of friends visit various historic sites scattered in the mountains they traverse during a spring outing. The most famous site is the pavilion named by Ouyang Xiu and celebrated in his famous ''An Account of the Pavilion of the Drunken Old Man'' (Zuiweng ting ji). The group decides to stay overnight at the ''Temple of Cultivation'' (Kaihua si), located deeper in the mountains, and spends the rest of the day touring the mountains and their cultural imprints guided by a monk. In the evening, the friends enjoy the nocturnal atmosphere and quietude of temple and mountains. The next day, the day of the Qingming festival, the group tours two more mountains before returning to Nanjing in the evening.<br />
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在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜，并在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 06:36, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在一次春游中，方令孺和一群朋友参观了散落在山间的诸多历史遗迹，其中最著名的景点是欧阳修在被广为流传的《醉翁亭记》中所命名的亭子。大家决定在深山中的开化寺过夜。在休息之前，众人在僧人的带领下游览山中的文化古迹。傍晚时分，友人们都沉醉在寺庙和山林的夜色与静谧中。第二天，也就是清明节当天，大家又游览了两座山，傍晚时分才返回南京。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:48, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
All three essays contain attempts to adopt gestures of contemplating times and places while traversing varied landscapes. Yet, three elements in the essays destabilize significance and consequence of those gestures, undermining their power to confirm identities and signaling the questioning nature of the texts. These three elements are first the authors’ encounters with people inhabiting the landscape, second, elements of incompletion and ambiguity that unsettle the traditional gestures, and, third, as supplementary elements, the essays’ self-referential strategies. The following readings of Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays explain and illustrate one of each of these elements respectively.<br />
这三篇文章都试图在穿越不同的风景时采用思考时间和地点的姿态。然而，文章中的三个因素动摇了这些姿态的意义和后果，削弱了它们确认身份的力量，并暗示了文本的质疑本质。这三个要素，一是作者与居住在这片风景中的人的接触，二是对传统姿态的不完善和模糊，三是作为补充的自我参照策略。以下阅读朱、于和方的文章，分别解释和说明这些元素中的一个。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 11:47, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
'''Encounters with People in Zhu Ziqing’s Qinhuaihe'''<br />
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Encounters with people populating the landscape have two effects. First, these encounters force the author to interact with the landscape. It becomes impossible for him to demarcate his position and identity by contemplating places from an autonomous vantage point. Zhu and Yu’s encounter with the singsong girls is the central human encounter in Zhu’s ''Qinhuaihe''. Initially, the singsong girls’ presence on the river does not appear to displease or disconcert Zhu. However, he maintains this sanguine perception by keeping a distance to the singers’ boats. The distance allows him to assume the traditional gesture of traversing a river to take in and contemplate its scenery and history from an independent viewpoint.<br />
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It is important to point out that a clear distinction between traveler and landscape does not mean the travelers’ disassociation from his surroundings. Rather it points to the clear demarcation of positions and roles necessary to form a stable unified whole from two distinct units.(文献无需翻译)<br />
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'''朱自清的《秦淮河》中的相遇'''<br />
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与居住在风景中的人的相遇有两个效果。首先，这中相遇迫使作者与场景互动。这样他就不能通过从对自己有利的视角来划分自己的位置和身份。 朱自清、郁达夫二人与歌女的相遇，是朱自清《秦淮河》中最核心的人际交往。起初，歌女们在江上的出现，似乎并没有让朱自清感到不快或不安。然而，他通过与歌女们的船保持一定的距离来维持这种乐观的看法。这种距离使他能够以一种传统的姿态在江上穿行，以独立的视角来欣赏和思考江上的风景和历史。<br />
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需要指出的是，旅行者与风景的明确区分，并不意味着旅行者与周围环境的脱离。相反，它指向的是明确的位置和角色的划分，这对于从两个不同的环境中形成一个稳定的统一整体是必要的。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'“朱自清的《秦淮河》的相遇”<br />
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遇到有人居住的景观有两个影响。首先，这些遭遇迫使作者与景观互动。对于他来说，通过从自治的有利位置考虑地点来划分自己的位置和身份变得不可能。朱和俞与歌星女孩的相遇是朱的《秦淮河》中人类的主要相遇。最初，歌星女孩在河上的存在似乎并没有使朱朱感到不悦或不安。但是，他通过与歌手的船保持一定距离来保持这种乐观的感觉。距离使他能够采取传统的穿越河流的姿势，从一个独立的角度来欣赏和思考河流的风景和历史。<br />
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重要的是要指出，旅行者与风景之间的明显区别并不意味着旅行者与周围环境脱节。相反，它指出了从两个截然不同的单元形成一个稳定的统一整体所需的职位和角色的明确划分。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:05, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The encounter with the singsong girls witnessed by other passengers unsettles gesture and atmosphere. By diminishing the safe distance between writer and observed place (which so far included the singers), the encounter forces Zhu to play an active role in his surroundings. The singers step out of the landscape picture, and Zhu becomes part of the place against his will.<br />
Ironically, however, the ensuing interaction nevertheless exposes an unbridgeable gap between author and people inhabiting the landscape. Zhu’s confrontation with the singsong girls reinforces an experience of distance, misapprehension, and alienation rooted in the dilemma of modern intellectuals.<br />
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朱自清与歌星女孩的相遇是在其他路人的围观下，这使得气氛紧张起来，他的行为也变得不安。 通过减少作家和被观察者之间的安全距离（到目前为止，包括歌手在内），相遇迫使朱自清在他的世界中发挥了积极作用。 歌手们走出了画面，而朱自清成为了其中的一部分，这是违背了他的意愿的。<br />
然而，具有讽刺意味的是，随后的互动却暴露了作者与居住在画面中的人们之间不可逾越的鸿沟。朱自清与歌星女孩的对峙加强了距离感，误解和疏离感，这些都根植于现代知识分子所遇到的困境中。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 15:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在其他路人的围观下朱自清与歌星女孩相遇了，这使得气氛紧张，他也变得不安。通过减少作家和被观察者之间的安全距离（到目前为止，包括歌手在内），相遇迫使朱自清在他的世界中发挥了积极作用。 歌手们走出了画面，而朱自清成为了其中的一部分，这是违背他的意愿的。<br />
然而，讽刺的是，随后的互动却暴露了作者与居住在画面中的人们之间不可逾越的鸿沟。朱自清与歌星女孩的对峙强化了源自现代知识分子困境的距离感，误解和疏离感。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 17:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Zhu is both tempted by the offer and ashamed about even entertaining such a sentiment. Being publicly approached by women who sell their services to men and confronting his inner conflicting emotion embarrasses Zhu, who considers himself a moral and modern individual professing to condemn the exploitation of underprivileged social groups. <br />
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The text moves from the portrayal of external space and atmosphere to a detailed self-dissection of Zhu's psyche and thoughts, a strikingly modern feature. As Zhu's progressive sensibilities interfere with acting out his desire, this psychological passage further disrupts the cohesion of the text as traditional gesture.<br />
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朱自清受到诱惑的同时又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。朱自清自认为是高尚现代的人，他公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪和内心的矛盾情绪，朱自清却感到尴尬。<br />
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文本从对外部空间和氛围的描写，转向对朱自清的心理和思想细致的自我剖析，具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的进步情感干扰了他的欲望的表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:30, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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朱自清在受到诱惑的同时，又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。他自认为是高尚的现代人，会公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪，他的内心极为矛盾，感觉十分尴尬，<br />
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文本通过对外部空间和氛围的描写，以及对朱自清的内心思想的自我剖析，均具有显著的现代特征。由于朱自清的先进情感干扰了他的欲望表现，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 08:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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朱自清在受到诱惑的同时，又为自己的这种情绪感到羞愧。他自认为是高尚的现代的人，他公开谴责对于社会弱势群体的剥削，但是面对女人的当众搭讪，他的内心极为矛盾，也十分地尴尬。<br />
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文本通过对外部空间和氛围的描写，转向对朱自清的内心思想的自我剖析，具有显著的现代特征。朱自清的先进思想抑制了他的欲望，这段心路历程进一步破坏了文本作为传统姿态的凝聚力。--[[User:Liu Jinxingqi|Liu Jinxingqi]] ([[User talk:Liu Jinxingqi|talk]]) 15:09, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The encounter quickly deflates and undermines Zhu's attempt to adopt traditional gestures, causing confusion and conflict rather than reassurance of positions and identities in the river’s ultimately unpredictable space. Zhu’s experience of place is marked by a tension arising from an attempt to assert his independent position within his surroundings, the futility of the attempt, and the concurrent impossibility to become part of his surroundings.<br />
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Significantly, only when Zhu’s inner conflict has abated somewhat, he and Yu are rewarded. On their way back, they pass a boat with a solitary singer coming toward them.<br />
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==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
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The singer is sitting in the bow of the unlit boat, singing only to herself. This unexpected episode has an at least temporarily redeeming quality for Zhu. However, his feeling of contentment lasts only a fleeting instant, and soon he and Yu are back in the bustling amusement district. Importantly, Zhu and Yu do not truly encounter the solitary singer. Possibly, the singer did not even notice them. This brief moment comes closest to successfully adopting a traditional gesture. As long as they maintain a distance, fulfilling the significance of the gesture seems possible. Ultimately however, Zhu, not in control of the gesture, is unable to prolong this moment.<br />
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歌者坐在没有灯光的船头，只对自己唱歌。这个意外的插曲，对朱棣来说，至少有一种短暂的满足。然而，他的满足感只持续了一瞬间，很快他就和余先生回到了繁华的游乐区。其实朱和宇并没有真正遇到那个孤独的歌手。也有可能歌手根本没有注意到他们。但这短暂的一瞬间最接近传统的姿态。只要他们保持一定的距离，传递这个姿态的意义似乎是可能的。然而最终由于朱先生没有保持好这一姿态，他没能延长这个瞬间。--[[User:Liu Yangnuo|Liu Yangnuo]] ([[User talk:Liu Yangnuo|talk]]) 09:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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歌妓坐在没有灯光的船头，独自唱着歌。对朱自清来说，这个意外的插曲暂时弥补了之前的遗憾，然而，这种满足感只持续了一瞬间，很快他就和俞平伯回到了繁华的闹市。其实二人并没有真的遇到那个孤独的歌妓，也有可能歌妓根本没有注意到他们，但这短暂的一瞬间最接近传统的语言姿势。只要他们保持一定的距离，这个姿态的意义似乎就有可能被传达出来，然而最终由于朱自清没有维持这一姿态，所以没能延长这个瞬间。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 15:12, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
He is left in utter despondency. Threat and intimidation Zhu experiences are signified well by the way he perceives his surroundings immediately after passing the lone singer’s boat. Passing under a tall bridge, it seems to Zhu “as if the darkness was opening its huge mouth, about to swallow [their] boat.” Zhu is left in a no-man’s-land between private desire and modern awareness.<br />
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'''Incompletion and Ambiguity in Yu Dafu’s ''Diaotai'''''<br />
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Elements of incompletion and ambiguity further question the significance of traditional gestures. By unsettling the essay’s narrative, these elements suggest an ironic reading of the texts that undermines the reliability of traditional gestures when searching for stable definitions of selves and surroundings.<br />
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他陷入了彻底的绝望。朱棣棣所经历的威胁和恐吓，从他经过独唱者的船后立即感知周围环境的方式就可以看出。经过一座高高的桥下，在朱棣看来，"仿佛黑暗张开了巨口，要把他们的船吞掉"。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br />
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'''郁达夫的''钓鱼台''的不完整与模糊'''<br />
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不完整和模棱两可的元素进一步质疑传统手势的意义。这些元素使文章的叙事变得不稳定，暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，破坏了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 09:20, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他陷入了深深的怅惘。经过歌舫后，他立即感知到周围环境变化，从这里就可以看出朱自清所感受到的压迫和不安。船过大中桥时，朱自清写道，"如黑暗张着巨口，要将我们的船吞了下去"。 朱先生在私欲与现代意识之间陷入了无人区。<br />
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'''郁达夫《钓台的春昼》的不完整性与模糊性'''<br />
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不完整性和模棱性的要素对传统手势的意义提出更多的质疑。通过打乱文章的叙述方式，这些要素暗示了对文本的反讽性解读，削弱了传统手势在寻找自我和周围环境的稳定定义时的可靠性。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:55, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Obstacles in Yu Dafu’s path paired with a restlessness he experiences in places destabilize the gestures he tries to adopt. The significance of his trip remains ambiguous.<br />
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The evening before reaching Diaotai, Yu sets out to climb Tongjun Mountain to visit a Daoist temple. Upon disembarking from the ferryboat, he immediately falls over a loose rock on the dark and rugged mountain path. The image of a stumbling Yu on his solitary endeavor to climb the mountain at night is almost comical. His idea to climb the mountain at this hour appears unreasonable and undermines any effect the attempt to adopt a traditional gesture might have.<br />
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郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上与他在一些地方感到了不安，这都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br />
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在到达钓鱼台的前一天傍晚，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山，去一座道观。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他摔倒在了一块松动的石头上。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也打破了他想要的任何意义。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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出现在郁达夫道路上的障碍，再加上他在一些地方感到的不安，都打破了他之前想要的姿态。他此行的意义依然模糊不清。<br />
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在到达钓鱼台的前一天傍晚，为了参观一座道观，郁达夫出发去爬桐君山。一下了渡船，在一条崎岖漆黑的山路上，他被一块松动的石头绊倒了。跌跌撞撞的郁达夫在夜里独自爬山的形象几乎是滑稽的。他在这个时候爬山的想法显得很不合理，也破坏了采用传统姿态可能产生的任何影响。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:38, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The ferryman hands Yu a pack of matches to help him find the way. At first, Yu is “groping [his] way up the mountain,” but as he approaches the top, moonlight begins to illuminate his path. A vast sky and a broad vista into the distance and onto the town seem to increase Yu’s chances of adopting the traditional gesture of contemplating place and past. As he approaches the temple however, an apparently locked gate in the low wall surrounding it obstructs Yu’s progress. After pacing up and down for a while not knowing what to do, he finally tries the gate, and surprisingly it opens. Ironically, Yu’s trip is delayed and almost cut short not by a locked gate but by his indecision and hesitation.<br />
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渡船人递给他一包火柴帮他找路。一开始，郁正“摸索着上山”，但当他接近山顶时，月光开始照亮他的道路。辽阔的天空和小镇的广阔景色似乎增加了郁采用传统方式思考地方和过去的机会。然而，当他走近庙宇时，四周低矮的墙壁中一扇明显锁着的门阻碍了他的前进。在不知所措地踱来踱去后，他最终尝试开门，而门惊喜地被打开了。更具有讽刺意味的是郁的行程延误，不是因为一扇紧锁的大门，而是因为他的犹豫不决。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:29, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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船夫递给他一盒火柴帮助他找到路。起初，于是“摸索着上山”，但当他接近山顶时，月光开始照亮他的道路。广阔的天空和广阔的视野延伸到远处的城镇，似乎增加了俞正声采用传统的姿态，思考地点和过去的机会。然而，当他接近寺庙时，围绕寺庙的矮墙中一个明显被锁住的门阻碍了他的前进。他踱来踱去，不知如何是好，最后他试了试大门，结果门开了。具有讽刺意味的是，于的行程被推迟，甚至几乎被缩短，不是因为一扇锁着的门，而是因为他的优柔寡断和犹豫。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 11:50, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Although he finds the temple gates indeed securely shut for the night, Yu is at this point quite content to sit on the wall adjacent to the gate from where he can overlook the river and enjoy the scenery. He gazes at the stars, clouds, and moon above and the lights of the boats below gently wavering in the wind. At last, Yu’s position allows him to contemplate place and past from an elevated and independent vantage point. The unparalleled scenery of Tongjun Mountain inspires Yu to contemplate the lives of the Eastern Han (25-220 A.D.) recluse Yan Ziling and that of the two Dai brothers, Dai Bo and Dai Yong of the Easter Jin (317-420), who made this area their home.<br />
<br />
虽然他发现寺庙的门夜晚确实是紧紧关着的，但此时他还是很满足于坐在与门相邻的城墙上，从那里他可以俯瞰河流，欣赏风景。他凝视着天上的星星、云朵和月亮，以及下面在风中轻轻摇曳的船只的灯光。最后，郁达夫的位置让他能够从一个更高的、独立的有利位置思考过去。同郡山无与伦比的风景激发了郁达夫对东汉(公元25-220年)隐士严子陵和东晋(317-420年)戴波和戴勇的生活的思考，他们把这里作为自己的家。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:53, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
Yu fully appreciates and identifies with their decision to lead a hermit’s life foreshadowing his own life of seclusion soon to begin. The clapper of the night watch in town finally wakes Yu to reality. Startled, he runs back head over heels to the boat. This abrupt ending to Yu’s reverie and his sudden anxiety to get back to the boat sharply contrast with the reflective atmosphere and sentiment of the passage. The traditional gesture is abruptly terminated. Like the clapper startling Yu, this abrupt ending to the nightly scene startles the reader.<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
On the boat to Diaotai, Yu, tired from admiring the scenery, falls asleep and dreams of a gathering with some old friends in an inn along the river. The text does not make it explicitly clear that Yu is dreaming. This becomes fully clear only when the boatman wakes Yu as they approach Diaotai. <br />
<br />
在去钓鱼台的船上，赏风景赏累了，他睡着了，梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并没有明确表示郁达夫是在做梦，只有当船夫在接近钓鱼台的时候把他叫醒，这才变得完全清楚。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
In his dream, the friends chat and make merry, but after all has been said and done, the atmosphere turns cheerless and awkward. At the center of the dream is a poem Yu composed a few years ago at a similar occasion. It is a political poem written in traditional septa-syllabic regulated verse style, lamenting the chaotic state of the country and expressing the dissatisfaction of intellectuals with the government.<br />
<br />
在他的梦里，朋友们聊天，嬉戏，但这一切都结束后，气氛变得不愉快和尴尬起来。梦的中心是一首郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，哀叹国家的混乱状态，表达知识分子对政府的不满。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 02:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在去钓鱼台的船上，郁达夫疲于赏景，而后进入梦乡。他梦见和几个老朋友在河边的客栈里聚会。文中并未表明这是郁达夫在做梦，只有当船夫在临近钓鱼台叫醒他时，一切才水落石出。<br />
在他的梦境里，朋友们一起聊天、嬉戏，但当一切都结束后，气氛变得无趣且尴尬。梦的中心出现郁达夫几年前在类似场合写的一首诗。这是一首以传统的中隔音节律诗体写成的政治诗，其哀叹国家的混沌，表达知识分子对政府部门的不满。<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 09:42, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
One prominent traditional image in the poem is the loyal official who, “feigning madness,” (yang kuang) speaks the truth that goes unheeded. Here, a well-known traditional gesture is embedded in a text within a text. Before the gesture can come to full fruition, however, it is again terminated, this time by the boatman who wakes Yu.<br />
<br />
在这首诗中，一个突出的传统形象是这个忠诚的官员，他假装疯狂（佯狂）地说出了未被注意的真理。这里，一个众所众知的传统手势被嵌入到文本中的文本中。然而，在做这个手势之前，他这一次再次被叫醒于的船夫终止了。<br />
Significantly, Yu's perception of his surrounding has completely changed. Before falling asleep, he saw green mountains encasing the clear river and sandbanks with blossoming flowers; in short, tranquil and picturesque scenery. As the boat approaches Diaotai, however, “river and mountain scenery all around had suddenly changed.” (文献无需翻译)<br />
<br />
很明显，于对他周围的看法改变了。在入睡之前，他看见连绵的青山环绕清澈的河流，沙洲上百花盛开，总之就是一幅祥和的如画风景。然而，当船接近钓台时，周围的山水画已经不知不觉间改变了。<br />
<br />
Zhu Ziqing, “Jiangsheng dengyingli de qinhuaihe,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 95.(文献无需翻译)<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu, “Diaotai de chunzhou,” Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan, eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 204.<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu, 206(文献无需翻译)--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 10:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
The river has narrowed and the mountains have moved extremely close, “as if ahead was no further way.” The towering mountains create an oppressively lonely atmosphere, in which even the sound of the oars seems disheartened; the echo is audible only after a long while, amplifying the “ancient silence,” the “silence of extinction” enveloping the boat. The sun is gone, and only a soughing wind comes and goes. <br />
<br />
The surrounding has turned ominous. Yu’s anticipation turns into apprehension. Compared to his reverie on Tongjun Mountain, Yu now perceives Diaotai as desolate and gloomy, eerily echoing the chaos and tumult evoked in his poem. He describes dilapidated stone structures overgrown with weeds.<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Approaching Yan Ziling’s ancestral hall, now no more than decrepit walls and broken tiles, Yu begins to feel “a little afraid, afraid to encounter the ghost of Master Yan, old and dried-up like strips from a towel gourd.” Yu’s rapidly growing skepticism and discomfort upon approaching the setting further suggest the impossibility to find meaning and identity by adopting traditional gestures in places.<br />
<br />
On the Fishing Terrace, Yu is curiously reminded of a postcard depicting the William Tell Memorial Hall and its scenery in Switzerland. The colors of mountains and rivers he sees from Diaotai are strikingly similar to those on the “collotype postcard.”<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
However, in the scenery he views from Diaotai, “the variations are a little greater, the surrounding in all directions is just a little more jumbled and chaotic, that’s all, but this is actually a plus, enough to represent the East’s desolate beauty of national degeneration.” Ironically, Yu’s comparison between the postcard picture and his view stresses the similarities between the colors of the landscapes only. He views a place that in its very structure carries the marks of present crisis. Associating his description of the scenery with Switzerland generally associated with national stability and social order only intensifies the image of national chaos and debility. <br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
Superficially conforming to the traditional gesture of contemplating (and lamenting) place and past, the comparison here is not one between present and past, but one between two presents. Yu's view evokes scenery on a foreign postcard, which in its modern photographic quality and miniature size cannot evoke the past, challenging the idea of a traditional gesture. <br />
<br />
After having had some wine in the hall, Yu walks up to the Buddhist shrine whose derelict walls are covered with poems, most of them of poor quality. In a corner near the ceiling, he finds an inscription by the Qing loyalist and fellow villager Xia Lingfeng (Xia Zhenwu, 1854-1930), whose commitment Yu admires despite objecting to Xia’s political convictions. Yu inscribes the poem from his dream next to Xia’s.<br />
<br />
这里的对比并非介于今昔之间，而是两个现在时间的对比，从表面上看，这与传统的伤怀表达方式不谋而合。余想起了外国明信片上的风景，其现代摄影质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，因而挑战了传统的表达方式。<br />
<br />
在祠堂里喝了点酒后，俞走到佛龛前，佛龛斑驳的墙壁上满是诗词，其中大部分文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了一首由夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）题的词，夏灵凤是清朝的拥护者，也是本村的村民。尽管余反对夏灵凤的政治信念，但他仍然钦佩他的忠诚。因而余在夏灵凤的词旁边也作了一首诗。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 12:32, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
虽然表面上符合传统的伤怀表现手法，但这里并非今昔对比，而是两个现时的比较。余秋雨的观点让人联想到外国明信片上的风景，以其现代摄影的质量和微型尺寸无法唤起过去，挑战了传统的表达方式。<br />
<br />
在祠堂里喝了点酒后，余秋雨走到佛龛前，佛堂废弃的墙壁上挂满了诗词，其中大都文采平平。在天花板附近的一个角落里，他发现了清朝忠臣、同乡夏灵凤（夏振武，1854-1930）的题词，虽反对夏的政治立场，但他还是很欣赏夏的忠诚，因将梦中的诗词题在夏的旁边。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 07:05, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Initially, Yu's act of inscribing the poem suggests that he sympathizes and identifies with Xia. However, since Yu does object to the substance of Xia’s ideals and motives, the gesture of writing a poem next to Xia’s only stresses the ambiguity of such an act. With the gesture of inscribing his poem along with others of inferior quality and next to that of a Qing loyalist Yu willingly obscures his own political stance and inadvertently questions the relevance of his act. The traditional-style poem placed in an obscure corner on the wall as one among many is ineffective, and the gesture of inscribing it loses its significance. Yu’s position and role in his time and place remains ambiguous and difficult to define. Ironically, while Yu’s essay saves the poem and its context from obscurity, it also exposes the very ambiguity of his act.<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
'''Self-referential strategy in Fang Lingru’s ''Langyashan'''''<br />
<br />
By foregrounding a texts’ constructedness, self-referential strategies question the idea of a texts’ definite and authoritative meaning. Suggesting the texts’ plurality of meaning further substantiates their significance in negotiating perspectives, positions, and identities.<br />
<br />
Concluding the narration of her two-day trip, Fang Lingru writes: “There are still many more scenic spots and ancient sites on Langya Mountain; if it’s meant to be, I’ll come another time to visit again. ''There is nothing more I can add to this piece'' (my emphasis).” <br />
<br />
Fang Lingru, “Langyashan youji,” ''Zhongguo xiandai youji xuan'', eds. Ma Zhonglin, Yang Guozhang, and Wang Zhonghua (Beijing: Zhongguo lüyou chubanshe, 1982) 148.<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
Yet, she goes on to recommend a particular dish and wine the group had at a restaurant in Chuzhou before returning to Nanjing. This rather banal and anticlimactic addendum to her narrative is then followed by two more paragraphs, describing her sentiments upon returning home. <br />
<br />
When I got home, it was already ten o’clock at night, and a fine drizzle filled the air. Just before leaving, the old monk Shangkuan had tied three Spring Azalea sprigs to my rickshaw, which I planted immediately upon coming home. Now the twigs have already developed tender sprouts; by this time next year, they will blossom. XX named them “Bodhi Shangkuan.”<br />
<br />
然而，在返回南京之前，她继续推荐该伙人在滁州一家饭店享用过的特殊菜肴和美酒。然后，在她叙述的这个平淡而滑稽的附录中再加上了两段，描述了她回家后的情绪。<br />
<br />
当我回到家时，已经是晚上十点了，细雨蒙蒙。临走时，老和尚尚宽把三只杜鹃花春天的小树枝绑在了我的人力车上，我刚回家时就把它们种了下来。现在，树枝已经长出嫩芽了。到明年这个时候，它们将会开花。 XX将其命名为“菩提上宽”。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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然而，在返回南京前，她继续给这些人推荐他们此前在滁州一家饭店已经吃过的特别菜肴和美酒。她的叙述非常乏味且跟着一个虎头蛇尾的附录。之后，这段叙述之后又加了两端来描写她回家后的感受。<br />
当我回到家，已经深夜十点了，且下着淅淅沥沥的小雨。在离开前，老和尚上宽把三个春季的杜鹃花小枝绑在了我的人力车上，一回家我就立即把它们种了。现在，这些小枝已经长出嫩芽了。明年这个时候，它们就会开花了。XX给其取名为“菩提上宽”--[[User:Majuan|Majuan]] ([[User talk:Majuan|talk]]) 11:06, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
I’ve been feeling extremely tired lately, but thinking back to the trip into the mountains, I can say that it was flawless, and I have no regrets. <br />
<br />
It is a cliché to state at the end of a text that nothing can be added. Fang’s appended restaurant and food recommendation suggests her eagerness to relate every detail from the trip. However, extending her narrative by two paragraphs, she effectively contradicts her own assertion that everything worth saying has been said. This contradiction and the contrast between her matter-of-fact-style in which she ostensibly ends the essay and the intimate tone and personal content of the concluding paragraphs highlight the act of writing and constructing the text.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
The final paragraphs further question the effect of adopting traditional gestures to find stable meaning and purpose in and through one’s surroundings. For Fang the gesture of translating visits to sites and ruins into detailed description evoke the past is not sufficient. Her encounter with the monk ultimately renders her experience on Langya Mountain significant. The flowers she received from him signify the possibility of growth, nurturing, and encouragement. By contrast, the significance of the sites themselves remains ambiguous.<br />
<br />
文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了传统手势的效果，在传统手势中，文章的意义和目的仅仅通过环境体现出来。对方令孺来说，如果运用简单的翻译手势，只是详细描述到访的琅琊山遗址是远远不够的，因为与那名僧人的相遇才是她琅琊山一行最有意义的事情，她从僧人那里收到的花代表着生长的可能性、象征着养护和激励，相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义确是模糊不清的。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 08:49, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
在文中最后几段，方令孺进一步质疑了采用传统手势在环境中寻找稳定意义和目的而产生的效果。对方令孺来说，只对到访的琅琊山遗址进行详细描述是远远不够的。遇见这名僧人让她的琅琊山一行意义非凡。她从僧人那里收到的花象征着成长、呵护和鼓励。相比之下，琅琊山遗址本身的意义仍然是模糊的。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
The last two paragraphs of Fang’s essay complete the framework of personal reflection that encases the largely dispassionate narration of her trip. Personal memory is the ultimate locus of meaningful experience and the creative force underlying the essay. Exhausting facts and details in representing an experience does not bring a text to its end despite assertions to the contrary. Fang’s last sentence suggests that remembering the trip in close connection with the human encounter constitutes a source of satisfaction for her, rather than the emulation of traditional gestures that seem to promise an authoritative rendition of place and time. <br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br />
<br />
Conclusion<br />
The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br />
Her memory and text are like the plant, living and changing. The gesture of announcing the end of her text is undermined by that same texts’ continuation. The self-referential strategy in Fang’s essay ultimately affirms possibility and potentiality not completeness and finality.<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
The attempt to adopt established poetic gestures in Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s essays does not dispel the writer’s uncertainty and ambivalence in navigating, redefining, and asserting his (or her) role in a changed and changing environment. In each essay, various elements question reliability and significance of these gestures, highlighting the ambiguity of the writer’s experience and position in the places he visits.<br />
她的记忆和文章如同植物一般，充满活力且不断变化着。她宣布文本的结束，为相同文本的延续所破坏。方舟子论文中的提到的自我参照策略最终肯定了可能性和潜能，而非完整性和终结性。最终的结论就是，在朱、余、方的散文中采用的传统诗歌节奏并没有消除作者的不确定性和矛盾心理。在每篇文章中，不同的因素素质疑这些姿态的可靠性和意义，突出了作家的经验和地位在其所参观过地方的模糊性。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 08:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
Traditionally, the poet contemplating place and past was a solitary figure estranged from his times and surroundings, often questioning the present state of affairs. From the perspective of literary history, however, sharing this gesture and its variations with other poets in a long line of succession offered writers a way to secure rather than question their role and identity. Through canon formation and the writing of literary history, acts and themes such as contemplating places and past came to be understood as customary endeavors gaining and increasing their significance from their perceived continuity. Such understanding is part of the ''construction of traditions'' to legitimize poetic authority and continuity, or - as during the May Fourth movement - change and eradication. <br />
<br />
Relevant to the argument here is the idea of canon formation and the way it works. The argument does by no means suggest that all texts based on or containing certain traditional gestures and conventions are indeed similar and unchanged over the long pre-modern period. Nor does it suggest that in pre-modern travel and landscape writings the writer can indeed successfully confirm his identity and role through following the conventions of his time. （文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
传统上，这位诗人考虑的地方和过去是一个与他的时代和周围环境疏远的孤独人物，经常质疑现在的事态。但是，从文学史的角度来看，与其他诗人一路相继分享这种姿态及其变化，为作家提供了一种确保而不是质疑其角色和身份的方式。 通过教规的形成和文学史的写作，诸如冥想地点和过去之类的行为和主题被理解为习惯性的努力，这些努力和主题从其连续性中获得并增加了其重要性。种理解是使诗歌权威和连续性合法化的“传统建构”的一部分，或者像在“五四”运动中那样，改变和根除。<br />
<br />
与这里的论点相关的是佳能形成的思想及其运作方式。 该论点绝不暗示所有基于或包含某些传统手势和约定的文本在很长的前现代时期中确实是相似且不变的。 它也没有暗示在前现代的旅行和风景画中，作家确实可以通过遵循当时的惯例成功地确认其身份和作用。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 07:02, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
Instead of confirming the writer’s authority as mediator and interpreter of time and place, traditional gestures in modern essays such as Zhu, Yu, and Fang’s foreground his precarious role and position within his time and place. Attempting to adopt traditional gestures ultimately exposes the gestures as constructs that do not provide an indisputable way of understanding and representing surroundings and one’s position and role in them. <br />
<br />
By deconstructing the cultural and literary traditions, May Fourth intellectuals and writers tried to establish a practical dichotomy between conservative past and progressive present and future to confer authority upon the modern text.<br />
<br />
朱、俞、方等人的现代散文没有肯定作者作为时间、地点的中间人和译者的权威，而是强调作者在时间和地点中的不稳定角色和地位。采用传统手势最终会将手势揭示为一种构造，而这种构造并没有为再现环境及理解手势的地位和作用提供一种无可争辩的方式。<br />
<br />
通过解构文化和文学传统，五四知识分子和作家试图在保守的过去与激进的现在甚至未来之间建立一种实用的赋予现代文本权威性的二分法。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 04:53, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
朱自清、郁达夫和方令孺等人在现代散文中的传统姿态非但没有确认作家作为时间、地点的中间人和译者的权威，反而凸显了他们在时间和地点中不稳定的角色和地位。试图采用传统姿态最终揭示作家姿态的方式称之为建构，这种建构并不能为理解和再现境以及作家在其中的地位和角色提供一种无可争议的方式。<br />
<br />
五四知识分子和作家通过对文化和文学传统的解构，试图在保守的过去和进步的现在与未来之间建立一种赋予现代文本权威的实用二分法。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
As the above readings show however, modern texts inevitably comprise a ''discourse'' on what is made out to be tradition and modernity. This discourse inscribes, negotiates, and transforms tradition within the modern text albeit in an ever varying and irrepressible way. The texts’ complexity, subtexts, and plurality of meaning arises from a ''negotiation'' between familiar conventions and new and modern perspectives in search of identities, roles, and positions in a changing time and place. Ultimately, the texts are texts on writing as a continuous endeavor and exploration and thus texts on the open-ended nature of essays.<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
'''From Historical Narrative to the World of Prose: The Essayistic Mode in Contemporary Chinese Literature'''<br />
<br />
''Wang Ban''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
As a genre, the essay in contemporary China can be seen as a symptom of the decline of historical consciousness and narrative. This comes through most sharply when compared with the previously established literary paradigm: the Chinese novel in the realistic mode. For many decades the fiction of revolutionary realism served as ideological apparatus and medium for providing coherent temporal perceptions about past, present, and future.<br />
<br />
'''从历史叙事到散文世界: 当代中国文学的散文模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文作为一种体裁在当代中国被视作历史意识和叙事走向衰弱的象征。当将其与先前建立的文学典范—现实主义模式的中文小说对比时，这一点尤为明显。数十年来，革命现实主义的小说都是意识形态的工具和媒介，它为提供连贯的对于过去，现在和未来的时间观念而服务。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 11:41, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''从历史叙事到散文世界:中国当代文学的散文化模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文作为一种文学体裁，在当代中国被视为是一种历史意识和叙事意识衰落的表现。与之前确立的文学范式——现实主义模式下的中国小说相比，这一点表现得最为明显。几十年来，革命现实主义小说一直作为一种意识形态工具和媒介，提供了关于过去、现在和未来的连贯的时间感知。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 06:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''从历史性叙事到散文世界：中国当代文学的散文模式'''<br />
<br />
''王班''<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
散文是一种文学体裁，中国当代的散文可以被视为历史性意识和叙事的衰落象征。与之前已建立的文学范式对比可明显得出这个结果：现实主义模式下的中国小说。许多年来，小说中革命性的现实主义是作为对过去，现在和未来提供连贯短暂的感知力的意识形态的结构和中介而服务的。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 10:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
The realistic novel's central assumption is epic best described by Georg Lukacs, who construes the epic form as a projected ideal that is realizable through narrated social and historical actions. Little thought needs to be taken to see that a revolutionary epic is a strenuous but finally triumphant harmony of ideal and reality. The rise of the essay in the recent decades epitomizes the turn of literary writing from the epic coherence of ideal and life to the dispersed and fragmented sensory or sensual pleasures and sheer appreciation of images or anecdotes.<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
The essay retreats from historical consciousness and responds warmly and lightheartedly to the advent of consumer culture. It is designed to satisfy the modest needs of the urban consumer whose sensibility is becoming “essayistic,” prosaic, ahistorical and everyday, preoccupied with the most intimate and quotidian matters. This paper takes a look back at Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay and attempts to trace the linkage between the modern essay and the rise of urban consumer culture. Then through an analysis of Wang Anyi's novella ''The Story of Our Uncle'' (Shushu de gushi), I demonstrate how the retreat from historical consciousness to what I would call the essayistic structure of feeling is dramatized by Wang's groping, explorative essay/fiction. <br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
The main character Uncle's career illustrates the waning of historical consciousness. This paper seeks to point out that the essay's ambivalence lies in its freedom from the straitjacket of the grand narrative and in its contribution to the withering of historical consciousness in the rising consumer culture in China. <br />
<br />
'''The Essay and the Novel'''<br />
<br />
The essay as a cultural form can be grasped in its relation to the novel. In twentieth-century China the novel in the epic, realistic mode had been the dominant form of literature and a pivotal ideological apparatus--probably up to the mid-1980s. The Chinese realistic novel can be construed as epic in the way formulated by Georg Lukács.<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
Its epic characteristic lies in its historical scope and teleology, its engagement with social and political issues, its intertwining of the individual's fate with collective projects, its aesthetics of the exemplary hero, and its striving for transcendence within everyday immanence. The novel of socialist realism in the Mao era strove to achieve an imaginary unity of transcendent ideals and quotidian reality. It depicts a universe in which the world and the self “never become permanent strangers to one another” (Lukács 29) and the individual's growth is of one piece with communal destiny. In the post-Mao era, often dubbed the New Period, works of fiction appeared to be different but were still imbued with an epic impulse. <br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
It is true that the 1980s saw the emphatic upsurge of interest in the subjectivity of the autonomous individual, but far from an atomistic ego of appetitive self-interest, fictional characters were still figured as the subject of history. For all its seeming revolt against the previously dominant mode, the image of the newly awakened modern self in the fiction of the New Period went hand in hand with the socio-historical process of socialist modernization, individuals serving as agents of this process. Thus, Fredric Jameson's concept of national allegory--in which the individual's fate tells a larger story of collective destiny – was well received in Chinese criticism and made to apply with equal ease to the realistic novel of the Mao era as well as those advocating reforms. <br />
<br />
Critics have noted that in the 1980s thought emancipation movement (sixiang jiefang), the fundamental literary mode and historical consciousness were derived from the Hegelian-Marxist version of the unity of subject and object, the individual and history. So the self that was upheld was not an autonomous self cut off from the collectivity of social processes, but was assimilated and modeled by the requirements of the modernization drive. See Qi Shuyu, 103-104.（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
<br />
诚然，在20世纪80年代，人们对自主个体的主体性产生了浓厚的兴趣，但小说中的人物角色远不是出于利己主义的欲望，而是仍然被视为历史的主体。新时期小说中新觉醒的现代自我的形象与社会主义现代化的社会历史进程携手前行，个人充当了这一进程的代理人。因此,詹姆逊的国家概念的寓言——个人的命运讲述一个更大的集体命运——在中国大受好评的批评,使平等轻松地应用于毛泽东时代的现实主义小说,以及那些鼓吹改革。<br />
批评家们注意到，在20世纪80年代的思想解放运动中，主体与客体、个体与历史统一的黑格尔-马克思主义版本衍生出了基本的文学模式和历史意识。因此，所维护的自我并不是一个脱离社会过程的集体的自主的自我，而是被现代化进程的要求同化和塑造的自我。可见 Qi Shuyu, 103-104.--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 06:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
If this view of the novel sounds anachronistic to contemporary China, we may justify it by a reference to the striven-for unity of revolutionary ideals and social reality, of theory and practice, a prominent tenet in the utopian legacy of Marxism. As literary counterpart of this projected unity the Chinese realistic novel presents a mythical and epic structure in which dream and history, individual and collective become one. In Lukács the epic is contracted with the novel, because the latter is a form stripped of the former’s immediate and unproblematic unity of ideal and reality (56).<br />
<br />
如果这部小说的观点在当代中国听起来不合时宜，我们可以通过引用革命理想和社会现实、理论和实践的统一来证明其合理性，这是马克思主义乌托邦遗产中的一个突出宗旨。作为这种统一性的文学对应物，中国现实主义小说呈现出一种神话和史诗结构，在这种结构中，梦想和历史、个人和集体成为一体。 在卢卡斯看来，史诗是缩略的小说，因为后者是一种脱胎于前者的直接的、没有问题的理想与现实的统一的形式(56)。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 13:41, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果这部小说的观点在当代中国听上去不合时宜，那么我们可以参照争取革命理想与社会现实、理论与实践的统一来证明其正确性，这是马克思主义乌托邦遗产中一个突出的信条。作为这种统一性的文学对应物，中国现实主义小说呈现出一种梦想与历史、个人与集体合一的神话史诗结构。在卢卡斯看来，史诗与小说紧密相连，因为后者是一种剥离了前者直接的、毫无问题的理想与现实统一的形式（56）。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 14:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
In other words, the novel in the Western realistic tradition is troubled by the intrusion of time, which causes fractures in the epic, time-defying harmony between self and collectivity, dream and actuality. But Lukács still insists that the novel is a kind of epic, because it strives to close the fissures created by the gap of time, hence potentially able to attain the epic status on a higher level. <br />
<br />
The gap between ideal and reality is minimized in the Chinese novel, which appears to be more epic than the realistic novel in the West. The novel of revolutionary realism is closer to poetry, marked with tremendous lyricism, as Charles Laughlin notes with regard to the socialist sanwen in his essay “Incongruous Lyricism” in this volume.<br />
<br />
换句话说，西方现实主义传统小说因受到时间的侵扰而困扰，这种侵扰导致自我与集体、梦境与现实之间的史诗性、时间性和谐出现裂痕。但是卢卡斯仍然坚持小说也是一种史诗，因为小说试图对时间差造成的断裂进行修复，因此有潜在可能达到更高层次的史诗地位。<br />
<br />
在中国小说里，理想和现实的差距被最小化，中国小说看起来似乎比西方的现实小说更加具有史诗性质。革命现实主义小说更接近于诗，同时巨大的抒情性为标志，正如查尔斯·劳夫林在本卷文章“不协调的抒情诗”中提到的社会主义散文那样。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 14:48, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
It would not seem incongruous when lyrical exuberance, equated with revolutionary idealism and utopianism, is maximized in the novel as a way to transcend and close the gap between a historical time marked by imperialist invasions, sufferings, and poverty on the one hand, and the ultimate ideal of communism culminating in the epic harmony of ideal and reality, theory and practice, on the other. The novel in this mode is supposed to be more than a text you read, curled up in your couch in a snowy winter night in solitary comfort. It was ideological, educational, edifying, its grand narrative projecting material praxis. It aimed to instigate you to go out into the streets or impoverished villages and get organized with other fellow humans to make history.<br />
<br />
和革命现实主义和乌托邦主义一样，慷慨激昂的抒情小说中一方面最大化地弥合了历史上帝国主义入侵时期苦难和贫穷之间的差距，另一方面，实现共产主义最终理想，实现理想与现实、理论与实践的史诗般的和谐。这种模式的小说应该远不止我们在寒冬飘雪的夜晚舒舒服服地蜷缩在沙发上阅读的文本。而是意识形态的、教育性的、启迪式的宏大叙事题材实践。这种小说旨在促使你上街或到贫穷的村庄，和其他人们组织起来创造历史。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 15:59, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
The rise of the essay in contemporary China is a sign that the novel in the epic mode has become an endangered species. This is not merely the problem of genre, nor am I suggesting that readers are flocking to essays and abandoning novels. My point is that the novel as a medium of envisioning social life and registering experiences of temporality is giving way to the essay, or more generally to the essayistic structure of sensibility. I play with the idea of essayistic in order to refer to the essay as a canonical textual form as well as those discursive moments in other literary genres embodying an “essayistic” quality and a “prosaic” structure of feeling.<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
One crucial point to made is that this emotional structure accords with the everyday sensibility of a city-dweller and consumer. This is one reason why it is instructive to contract the essayistic with the novel. The essay deals with a prosaic and mundane world. In Hayden White’s recapturing of Hegel’s distinction of poetry and prose, “The world in which prosaic utterance developed must be supposed to have been one in which experience had become atomized and denuded of its ideality and immediately apprehended significance, and voided of its richness and vitality” (87).This prosaic world of fragmented experience is to the Chinese novel as the Lukácsian novel is to the epic: a fall from an original oneness. In contemporary China, neither the novel nor poetry seems to be a means of closing this widened gap. My purpose in the essay is to examine the position of the essayistic in relation to the novel, and the related sensibilities in relation to history.<br />
<br />
关键的一点是，这种情感结构与城市居民和消费者的日常情感相符。这就是为什么说把散文家和小说联系起来是有益的。散文处理的是一个平淡且平凡的世界。在海登怀特对黑格尔的诗歌和散文的区分的重述中，他指出，"在散文性语句发展的世界里，经验已经被原子化，它的理想性和即刻领会的重要性被剥夺，它的丰富性和生命力丧失"（87）。这个由碎片化经验构成的散文性世界对于中国小说来说就像卢卡斯小说对于史诗的意义一样：从原始的单一性中堕落。在当代中国，无论是小说还是诗歌，似乎都不是弥合这一差距的手段。本文旨在考察散文家在小说中的地位，以及与历史相关的情感。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
The Hegelian Marxist perspective I sketched earlier is helpful here for understanding the shift from the novel to the essay. For Hegel art is necessary because it strives for a seamless, organic apotheosis of transcendent spirit and mundane reality. This view, though historical, can lead to two contradictory conclusions. In Hegel art is historical because it is a stage of the Spirit's journey to its self-realization. As art evolves as historically transitory forms of the Spirit, the movement of history leads to the abolition of certain forms of art, or the demise of art altogether. On this account the novel would be a casualty of the Spirit’s historical movement and self-realization. For Hegel art becomes problematic and obsolete because the “world of prose” has attained the empirical form erstwhile aspired to by art. In the world of prose, the Spirit has realized itself both in thought and in socio-political praxis, exemplified by the Prussian state.<br />
我前面所概述的黑格尔马克思主义观点有助于理解从小说到散文的转变。对于黑格尔来说，艺术是必要的，因为它努力实现超越精神和世俗现实的无缝、系统的神化。 这一观点虽然是历史的，但可以得出两个相互矛盾的结论。 黑格尔认为艺术是历史性的，因为它是圣灵走向自我实现过程中的一个阶段。 当艺术演变为历史上短暂的精神形式时，历史运动导致某些形式的艺术被废除或者完全消亡。 因此，小说将成为圣灵历史运动和自我实现的牺牲品。对于黑格尔来说，艺术变得有疑问和过时，因为“散文世界”已经达到了过去艺术所渴望的经验形式。 在散文的世界中，圣灵在思想和社会政治实践中都实现了自己，普鲁士国家就是例证。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 11:35, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
我前面所概述的黑格尔马克思主义观点有助于理解从小说到散文的转变。对于黑格尔来说，艺术是必要的，因为它努力实现超越精神和世俗现实的无缝、系统的神化。 这一观点虽然是历史的，但可以得出两个相互矛盾的结论。 黑格尔认为艺术是历史性的，因为它是圣灵走向自我实现过程中的一个阶段。 当艺术演变为历史上短暂的精神形式时，历史运动导致某些形式的艺术被废除或者完全消亡。 因此，小说将成为圣灵历史运动和自我实现的牺牲品。对于黑格尔来说，艺术变得困难重重且过时，因为“散文世界”已经达到了过去艺术所渴望的经验形式。在散文的世界中，圣灵在思想和社会政治实践中都实现了自己，普鲁士国家就是例证。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:57, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
The polity embodied by the Prussian state is for Hegel is the epitome of theory put into practice, a real image of realized art. As Luckács remarked of Hegel, “Thus art becomes problematic precisely because reality has become non-problematic” (Lukács 17).<br />
<br />
Lukács, however, draws a contrary lesson from this historical, or more precisely the “end-of-history,” “end of art” thesis. Taking issue with Hegel's view of art as “aestheticized” body politic, Lukacs argues that the problem of the novel is a mirror image of a world gone out of joint. In modern times the novel is still alive as the impulse of art is still pressing. The novel is aesthetically and epistemologically vital and necessary not because the established reality has achieved what art can only dream. On the contrary, the novel is a desperate attempt to patch up a broken reality and inject little doses of meaning into a world emptied of spontaneous and totalisable significance.<br />
<br />
普鲁士国家所体现的政体是黑格尔是付诸实践的理论缩影，是现实艺术的真实形象。 正如拉克奇（Luckács）评论的黑格尔的那样，“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术才成为问题所在”（卢卡奇17）。<br />
然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点得到了截然不同的教训。 卢卡奇对黑格尔将艺术视为“审美化的”身体政治的观点持怀疑态度，他认为这本小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。 在现代，由于艺术的冲动仍在继续，小说仍然活着。 这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，并且不是必需的，因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:46, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对于黑格尔来说，普鲁士王国代表的政体是理论成为现实的缩影，是现实艺术的真正形象。正如卢卡奇(Luckács)评价黑格尔时所说的：“正是因为现实变得没有问题，艺术就成了问题所在。”（卢卡奇 17）<br />
然而，拉克奇从这一历史，或更确切地说是“历史终结”，“艺术终结”的论点中得到了截然不同的教训。卢卡奇不认同黑格尔“将艺术看作美学政体”的观点，他认为这部小说的问题是一个脱离世界的镜像。艺术的冲击力仍在继续，因此现代小说依然保持着其生命力。这部小说在美学和认识论上至关重要，这是必需的，并不是因为既定的现实已经实现了艺术只能梦想的东西。 相反，这部小说是拼命的尝试，以修补一个破碎的现实，并向一个空洞的，自发的和可累积的意义中注入很少的意义。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 07:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
Therein lies its modern irony, the irony of dreaming the perfection of the world while knowing acutely the impossibility of perfection. Interestingly, Lukács' insight into the ironic, self-reflexive nature of the novel provides a glimpse on the condition of the essay. In the Chinese realistic novel, to be sure, the historical totality of communist utopia emerging out of a mundane reality is the shining symbol of inspiration, bearing a superficial resemblance to the Hegelian realization of Spirit in the state. But the faith in the final triumph of communist utopia and the attainment of a fully emancipated society is presumed by the novelistic discourse as law-like and predetermined, hence realistic and inevitable. Thus the decline of the novel, the novel in the epic mode, can be read as the decline of the grand, Marxist narrative of historical teleology. In contrast, the rise of the essay harbingers a more fragmentary, disjoint, and private form of signifying practice that is springing up in the cracks and gaps of a fallen reality, a world out of joint.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
The world out of joint is a compelling image of today's China going commercialized, globalized, and fragmented in all aspects of life. The phrase “out of joint' here is meant to denote both the explosive vitality and disorienting chaos, the drama and trauma of the Chinese scene unfolding in the past decade. To grasp China as a vast market place, a rising consumer society, an emergent culture of mass media and spectacles, I refer the reader to numerous reports by journalists, economists, and a vast number of essays written by writers who have recently turned to the personal essay as a forum. Literature, as a historical vision and ideological apparatus, is hanging in the balance.<br />
<br />
脱节是当今中国在生活各个方面走向商业化、全球化和碎片化的一个引人注目的形象特点。在这里，“脱节”一词意指蓬勃发展的活力和令人困惑的混乱，以及过去十年中中国社会的戏剧性和创伤。要了解中国是一个巨大的市场，一个正在崛起的消费社会，一个新兴的大众媒体文化和奇观，我建议读者参考大量的记者、经济学家的报道，以及大量的文章，这些文章的作者最近转向个人文章作为论坛。文学作为一种历史的视野和意识形态的工具，悬而不保。<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 04:46, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
失控的世界是当今中国走向商业化、全球化和生活各方面碎片化的一个引人注目的形象。 这里的 "失控 "一词，既是指活力无限，也是指混乱不堪，以及过去十年中国社会戏剧性的创伤。 要了解中国这个庞大的市场、崛起的消费社会、新兴的大众传媒和文化奇观，我推荐读者阅读众多记者、经济学家的报告，以及近来转而以个人散文为阵地的作家所写的大量文章。 文学，作为一种历史眼光和意识形态的工具，正处于悬而未决的状态。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 04:59, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
Like many other spheres of culture, it has become commodified and entered the marketplace, being packaged into one more item in the mass media and entertainment industry. This altered social context is crucial to understanding the essay as a literary form and a cultural medium of expression in contemporary China. But this link between the culture of commodity and the essay, or the essayistic mode of writing and feeling, is not a brand new phenomenon of the last decade.<br />
<br />
For a tracing of the historical linkage we may turn to the earlier period in modern literary history. Eileen Chang's essays and her reflection on the essay form are the compelling and successful instance of the marriage between the essay and mass culture. Nicole Huang’s paper in this volume looks at some aspects of this marriage as manifest in Chang’s essay.<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
This marriage finds its new manifestations in the work of the contemporary writer Wang Anyi, who is writing in a renewed urban context in many ways similar to that of Chiang. An analysis of Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay will help us understand Wang's work. Eileen Chang's views give the essay form a clear shape as it emerged in an urban and consumer culture. Wang Anyi's essays and especially the essayistic moments in her fiction mark the return of this consumer-oriented genre under new historical circumstances.<br />
<br />
'''Eileen Chang and the Essay in the Urban Setting'''<br />
<br />
The story and essay writer Eileen Chang has been seen as one source for Wang Anyi's work. Although Eileen Chang wrote fictions of urban life set in Shanghai and Hong Kong in a mixture of traditional and modernist styles, her writing is a sharp contrast and an antidote to the grand narrative of the May Fourth Enlightenment and revolution in modern Chinese literature.<br />
<br />
This view of Hegel's on art is evoked by Lukács in his preface to ''The Theory of the Novel'', 11-23.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
Her stories relish the irrelevancies, minor manias, trivia, and anxieties and depict random episodes of the urbanite's life. The intriguing depiction of the narrow romance and personality of the petty urbanites, ''xiaoshimin'', is her forte and attraction. The prose of life in a cramped and congested urban setting is not only the hallmark of her fiction, but also constitutes the major themes of her essays. While her essays correspond to and illuminate her fiction, her thoughts on essay writing serve to highlight the aesthetic quality of the essayistic in modern Chinese literature. <br />
<br />
Eileen Chang's essay collection ''Floating Words'' (sometimes translated as ”Written on Walter”) is a compelling example of the essay as it emerged in Chinese urban culture. In the opening essay entitled “The Child Utters his Words without Constraints” (Tongyan wuji) she equates her essays to the chatty, whimsical, and willful airing of pent-up feelings whenever and wherever she can, like an unrestrained child. <br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
Writers like her, she says, have little to do with earth-quaking, epoch-making historical events and should drop the dream of immortality attainable from self-portrayal by writing a popular autobiography. The satisfaction and salvation for a writer are writing “bits and pieces about matters concerning oneself” (7). The matters of self-concern, as Chang continues, include money, dress, eating, important personages and their grotesque undersides, and family relations. Within a few pages of this first essay we have a range of sundry themes expressing interest in consumer habit, survival in the city, personal and social relations in an increasingly compartmentalized urban culture. Running down the table of contents of this essay collection, we have trouble classifying what the essays focus on, except to say that they essay opinion and play around with perceptions just about anything in city life. They touch upon whatever flickers through the mind, passes in view, appeals to the senses, any stereotypical or routine scenes or acts in the urban setting.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯的兴趣，在城市的生存，个人和社会关系在一个日益分割的城市文化。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及任何在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
她说，像她这样的作家，与惊天动地、划时代的历史事件没有什么关系，应该放弃通过写一部受欢迎的自传来实现自我刻画而获得不朽的梦想。一个作家的满足和救赎是写“与自己有关的事情的点滴”(7)。正如章所述，自我关心的事情包括金钱、衣食、重要人物及其怪诞的内在以及家庭关系。在第一篇文章的几页里，我们有一系列不同的主题来表达对消费者习惯，在城市中生存，在一个日益分割的城市文化中个人和社会的关系的兴趣。顺着这篇文集的目录往下看，我们很难对这些文章的重点进行分类，除了说它们发表的观点和对城市生活中任何事情的看法。它们触及一切在脑海中闪现、在视野中闪现、触动感官的东西，以及城市中任何刻板的、常规的场景或行为。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:17, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
There are, to give a taste of their randomness and miscellany, pieces about living in an apartment, beating up people, private and intimate words, shallow impressions about art, changing dresses, woman, rains, the umbrellas, even about a routine act of going upstairs. <br />
<br />
While it is surely impossible to box these essays into a general category and abstract a unifying principle, Eileen Chang points beyond this charmed collection of essays to the grand historical narrative and thus provides a useful reference point for what the essay refuses to do. If it is not clear what the essay is, Chang shows what it is not. She sees the essay in its withdrawal from and rejection of historical discourse and in its all-consuming absorption in the mundane and fragmented urban scenes. The nature of the essay seems to lie in its irrelevance to history as a literary principle:<br />
<br />
为了展现他们的随意和杂乱，有很多关于公寓生活，打架斗殴，私密话语的碎片，对于艺术，服饰变换，女性，雨天，雨伞，甚至上楼这种日常动作的浅谈。<br />
<br />
当然这些文章不可能被归入一个大概范畴，从而抽象为一个统一的原则，但张爱玲在这本迷人的散文集之外，指出了宏大的历史性叙事，从而为这篇文章不能做的事情提供了一个有用的参考点。如果不明白某篇文章是什么，张会说明这篇文章不是什么。她认为这篇文章是对历史话语的回避和拒绝，是对世俗和支离破碎的城市场景的全身心地投入。这篇文章的本质似乎在于它与作为文学原则的历史无关：--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 06:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
为了让人感受到它们的随意性和杂乱感，有关于公寓生活，打架斗殴，私密话语等碎片化场景，有关于艺术、换衣服、女人、雨、雨伞等浅薄印象，甚至有关于上楼的这种日常动作，都被记录下了。<br />
<br />
虽然肯定不可能把这些文章归入一个大类，抽象出一个统一的原则，但张爱玲却把这本充满魅力的文章集指向了宏大的历史叙事之外，从而为散文拒绝做的事情提供了一个有益的参考点。如果不清楚散文是什么，张爱玲就说明它不是什么。她看到了散文对历史话语的抽离和拒绝，看到了散文对平凡而零碎的城市场景的全盘吸收。散文的本质似乎在于，作为一种文学原则，它与历史无关。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 07:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
I have no desire to write history, nor am I qualified to make judgement on the historian's perceptions. But privately I hope they would say more things that are irrelevant. Reality as such is not systematic; it is like seven or eight chatter-boxes sounding simultaneously, creating confusion. But amidst this incomprehensible sound and fury there occur moments of illumination, poignant and bright, enabling us to hear the tune and understand a bit, only to be swallowed up by the thickening darkness. Painters, writers, and composers connect these chancy, fragmented discoveries and create artistic wholes. (41)<br />
<br />
As a fiction writer Chang does not believe in artistic perfection. She creates “imperfect” and flawed characters in her fiction, as she repeatedly claims. In her essays she holds it important to write about the irrelevancies, for, as she proclaims, all life' charms are to be found in the irrelevancies. (42)<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
Eileen Chang's thinking on the essay reflects certain aspects of Chinese modernity that provides a context for understanding the essay form as an increasingly prominent cultural medium. The essay for her is a writing practice opposed to the historically oriented and politically charged literature, to the teleological historical narrative, and to the monumental work of art. Formalistically the essay is random, self-contradictory, expressive, and therapeutic. Eileen Chang's essays are a radical departure from Lu Xun's miscellaneous essay (''zawen''). Despite its similarly disjoint, personal, and casual form, the ''zawen'' à la Lu Xun is polemic, militant, acid, socially and political engaged. It seizes upon the small and transitory but its gaze goes past them to the culturally and historically significant. This engaged character puts the ''zawen'' in a close lineage with the didactic tradition of May Fourth literature aimed at raising readers' consciousness or jolting them out of the half-sleep of tradition and convention.<br />
<br />
张爱玲对散文的思考反映了中国现代性的某些方面，这为理解作为日益突出的文化媒介的散文形式提供了一个语境。对她来说，这篇散文是一种与历史导向和充满政治色彩的文学、目的论的历史叙事和不朽的艺术作品相对立的写作实践。从形式上来说，这篇散文是任意性的、自相矛盾的但又富有表现力和治疗性。张爱玲的文章是对鲁迅杂文的彻底背离。尽管鲁迅笔下的“杂文”体现出类似的不连贯性、个人化和随意的形式，但它是论战性的、激进的、尖刻的、社会的和政治的。鲁迅的文章捕捉到的是渺小而短暂的事物，但其目光越过它们，投向其背后体现的文化性和历史性。这个引人入胜的特点将“杂文”与五四文学的说教传统紧密联系在一起，旨在提高读者的意识，试图将他们从传统和习俗的沉睡中唤醒。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 08:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
The rise of consumer mentality, urban culture, and the new role of the writer as a professional breadwinner brought to prominence the values of entertainment, charm, taste, performance, charisma, and glamour--values inherent to urban culture with a good appetite for entertainment, images, and spectacles. This emergent socio-historical context was overshadowed and marginalized by the dominant political ideology and historical narrative in the decades after Eileen Chang's short-lived popularity. <br />
<br />
Andrew Jones of UC-Berkeley is at work to translate Eileen Chang’s essay collection into English and he uses the phrase “Written on Water.”<br />
<br />
In his recent book ''Shanghai Modern'' Professor Leo Lee has admirably traced Eileen Chang's writing and the commercial urban culture she was immersed in. See the Chapter “Eileen Chang: Romances in a Fallen City,” 267-303.<br />
<br />
消费者心态，城市文化以及职业性养家糊口的新角色：作家的兴起，突显了娱乐，魅力，品味，表演，魅力和诱惑力的价值，这些都是城市文化所固有的价值，并且它们对于 娱乐，印象和景象有着不错的需求。 在张爱玲昙花一现之后的几十年中，这种新兴的社会历史背景被占主导地位的政治意识形态和历史叙事所掩盖和边缘化。<br />
<br />
加州大学伯克利分校的安德鲁·琼斯（Andrew Jones）正在将张爱玲的论文集翻译成英文，并使用了“在水上的书写”一词。<br />
<br />
在他最近的著作《上海现代》中，leo教授怀有钦佩地追溯了张爱玲的著作以及她所沉浸的商业城市文化。请参见《张爱玲：堕落的浪漫》 267-303章。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 14:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
In the 1990s and in Wang Anyi's work, this historical context re-emerged with sharpness and vengeance. I will argue that the fate of the essay or the aesthetic quality of the essayistic cannot be understood without considering the revival of urban and consumer culture and its increasing detachment from the historical consciousness.<br />
<br />
'''Telling a Story Where There is no Story to Tell'''<br />
<br />
Wang Anyi's work in the 1990s shows how deeply the urban mass culture has penetrated and transformed literature. The novel in the epic mode depends upon some preconceived story pattern which delivers ideological and historical convictions about temporal perceptions of past, present, and future. One symptom of the shift from the novel to the essay is the acute sense of lack of story, the sense that the archetypal stories that writers used to rely on to generate their narratives are no longer convincing.<br />
<br />
20世纪90年代，在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以尖锐和复仇的笔触重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式提供了意识形态和历史信念，关于对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型是故事的严重缺失，作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
----<br />
<br />
在20世纪90年代，以及在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以充满尖锐的笔调和复仇的情感重新出现。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆20世纪90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式传达了意识形态观念和历史观念，这些观念与对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知有关。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型表现是严重缺失故事的敏锐感觉，即作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:12, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在20世纪90年代，在王安忆的作品中，这一历史语境以充满尖锐的笔调和复仇的情感再现了。我认为，如果不考虑城市文化和消费文化的复兴及其与历史意识的日益分离，就无法理解散文的命运或散文的审美品质。<br />
“在没有故事可讲的地方讲故事”<br />
王安忆20世纪90年代的作品展现了城市大众文化对文学的渗透和改造。史诗模式下的小说依赖于一些先入为主的故事模式，这种模式传达了意识形态观念和历史观念，这些观念与对过去、现在和未来的短暂感知有关。从小说到散文的转变的一个典型表现是严重缺失故事的敏锐感觉，即作家过去赖以形成叙事的原型故事不再令人信服。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 14:53, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
For Wang Anyi this poverty of stories is directly linked to the urban setting. The title of one of her essays on literature “The City Has no Story to Tell” (Chengshi wu gushi) highlights the disappearance of sharable, communicable narratives in the city's amorphous atmosphere and the anonymous urban crowd. This essay makes quite clear the sociological transformations that have given rise to the generic shift from story to non-story, or from narrative fiction to the essayistic mode. In it Wang sets up a contrast between the village community and urban social organization. The tightly knit rural communities, such as villages and small towns, are the nurturing ground for sharable stories. As the social relations are largely those of family, kinship or clan, human contact and communication are more intimate and primarily face to face. Individuals act out their life stories in a pre-given trajectory and within a received social network of work, authority, and hierarchy.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
The stories both told and lived, recounted over and again against a backdrop of traditional orientation and self-evident norms. Traditional values and age-old customs shape the stories people tell each other and assure their intelligibility and guarantee cultural continuity. In short, the temporal and spatial perceptions are inherited and sedimented over time and can be repeated in new stories. <br />
<br />
This argument about village community brings to mind Benjamin's critique of the modern novel and re-evaluation of the communal storyteller. The village community is embedded in an inexhaustible fund of stories and exemplified by the culturally cohesive role of the storyteller. Benjamin's familiar argument takes on new significance when the contract between village and city is construed as a metaphoric tension between the self-assured story-telling in the epic mode of the Chinese novel and the disappearance of the story in the city.<br />
<br />
这些故事讲述和生活，在传统取向和不言而喻的规范的背景下一遍又一遍地叙述。传统价值观和古老的风俗习惯塑造了人们相互讲述的故事，保证了故事的可理解性和文化的连续性。简言之，时间和空间的感知是随着时间的推移而继承和沉淀的，并且可以在新的故事中重复。<br />
<br />
关于乡村社区的论点让我想到了本杰明对现代小说的批判和对公共叙事者的重新评价。 乡村社区被埋在无穷无尽的故事基金中，并以讲故事者的文化凝聚力为例。 当乡村与城市之间的契约被解释为中国小说史诗模式中的自我保证的故事讲述与城市中故事的消失之间的隐喻张力时，本杰明的熟悉论点具有新的意义。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 10:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
More importantly, the tension foregrounds the accelerated modernization process that has rendered almost obsolete, in less than a decade, the relatively habitual and time-worn socio-psychic infrastructure. It brings into sharp focus the market oriented, amorphous urban setting where the individual becomes atomic individuals, cut loose from the social moorings of kinship, community, and family, from lineage and history. Thrown into the competitive marketplace and transient impersonal relations, the individual has to rely on his or her own ingenuity and resources.. Since they come from different areas and are isolated from each other in the compartmentalized life spheres and specialized work, urban dwellers only have their own vastly different stories to tell, stories which are narrowly biographical and not readily meaningful to other people. There are more stories to tell, it is true, but the apparent multiplication of stories imply the poverty of a communicable story.<br />
<br />
更重要的是，紧张局势预示着加速的现代化进程，在不到十年的时间里，这一进程几乎淘汰了相对熟悉的社会心理基础设施，现在它已显得陈旧不堪。这种局势给以市场导向的形势和未定型的城镇环境带来了极大的关注度，在这里，独立的个体变得微不足道，疏远亲属、社区和家庭关系，疏离血缘关系和历史关系。 人们被迫投入竞争激烈的市场，投身于短暂的没有人情味的关系里，他们必须依靠自己的天赋和资源。因为来自不同的地方，他们与彼此因生活领域和特定工作而相互隔离，住在城市的人只能说说关于自己的截然不同的故事，这些故事只限于谈论自己，所以对于其他人没有可读性，也无意义。的确，是有很多的故事可以说，但是故事的激增也暗示了好传播故事的缺乏。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:45, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
This is what Wang means by saying there is lack of stories in the city. The endlessly varied confusion and lack of common interest lead to disjoint, fragmentary, anecdotal, performance-driven forms of writing often found in essays written for the consumer's relaxed state of mind, or mindlessness after a nice dinner.<br />
<br />
'''From the Historical to the Essayistic: the Fall of the Intellectual'''<br />
<br />
Wang Anyi's ''The Story of Our Uncle'' illustrates the transition from the historically and ideological oriented literature to a form that could be characterized as essayistic. The novella was written in 1990, a time of drastic change for Chinese society and culture as a whole. From a culture dominated by an ideologically oriented and centralized state China was moving quickly into a brave new world of frenzied economic development, investment, consumerism, and pop culture. Something fundamental had drastically shaken the basic fabrics of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
这就是王先生所说的城市缺少故事的意思。 无穷无尽的各种困惑和缺乏共同的兴趣，导致了不连贯的、零碎的、轶事的、以表现为目的的写作形式，这些写作形式常常出现在为消费者轻松的心境而写的散文中，或者在一顿丰盛的晚餐后的无心之作中。<br />
<br />
'''从历史主义到文章主义：知识分子的堕落'''。<br />
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王安忆的''舅舅的故事''说明了从历史性、意识形态性的文学向可称为散文性的形式过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、投资、消费主义和流行文化的勇敢新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本结构。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 12:26, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
王安忆的''叔叔的故事''表明了文学的形式由历史导向和意识形态导向往散文导向的过渡。这篇小说写于1990年，正是中国社会和整个文化发生剧烈变化的时期。 中国从一个以意识形态为导向、以中央集权为主导的文化，迅速进入一个经济疯狂发展、充盈着投资、消费主义和流行文化的崭新世界。 一些根本性的东西已经极大地动摇了中国社会的基本架构。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:53, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
''The Story of Our Uncle'' registered a very sensitive aspect of the epoch-making changes in China. Rather than interpret this novella as a literary text, I will look at it as a document tracing a shift in literary and social history. Focusing on a novelist's career, the novella delineates the qualitative shift in the value and function of literature in a time when ideology and politics were giving way to the market, economic development, and consumerism--all under the rubric of modernization. From the vicissitudes of a writer we may see how the novel as a cultural form loses its ground and how literary sensibility shifts to the essayistic. This generic shift provides a glimpse onto the fundamental social transformations in the 1990s.<br />
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《我们叔叔的故事》反映了中国划时代变化的一个非常敏感的方面。与其把这部中篇小说解读为文学文本，不如把它看作是一部追溯文学和社会历史变迁的文献。这部中篇小说以小说家的职业生涯为主线，描绘了在意识形态和政治逐渐让位于市场、经济发展和消费主义的时代，文学的价值和功能发生了质的转变，所有这些均为响应现代化的号召。从一个作家跌宕起伏的人生经历中，我们可以看到小说作为一种文化形式是如何失势的，文学情感是如何转向散文主义的。这种常见的转变让我们看到了20世纪90年代的基本社会变革。<br />
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Critics have noticed the presence of essayistic quality in Wang's writing, especially in her fiction.In ''The Story of Our Uncle'', one finds the essayistic prevailing over narrative.<br />
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评论家们已经发现了王安忆散文创作的本质，这一特点在科幻小说中表现突出。在《我们叔叔的故事》中人们发现散文的比重多余叙事。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:47, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
《叔叔的故事》记录了中国划时代变化的一个非常敏感的方面。与其将这部中篇小说解读为一个文学文本，不如将其视为一部追溯文学和社会历史变迁的文献。这部中篇小说以一个小说家的职业生涯为主线，描绘了在意识形态和政治让位于市场、经济发展和消费主义的现代化背景之下，文学的价值和功能发生了质的变化。从一个作家经历的沧桑巨变中，我们可以看到小说作为一种文化形式是如何失去地位的，文学感召力又是如何向散文主义转变的。这种普遍性的转变让我们看到20世纪90年代社会的根本性变化。<br />
评论家们注意到了王安忆在创作的作品，尤其是她的小说中存在散文性。在《叔叔的故事》中，人们发现散文的成分多于叙事的成分。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 02:43, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
The text reads more like an essay-- rambling, random, analytical, disjoint, gossipy, chatty--than a straight narration, a fact acknowledged by the author herself. In this narrative-essay a young writer on behalf of his generation attempts make a biographical assessment of an older writer they call our uncle. One would be disappointed to expect an engaging action or dramatic story. Though the text retains the outward, apparent shape of a novella it is a hybrid composed of diverse genres, with literary and art criticisms, gossip, conjecture, history, philosophizing, anecdotes, and stories all rolled into one. The narrator suggests that this novella is an essay in the double sense of textual form and playful, explorative literary exercise. He proclaims in the opening paragraph that this is a story assembled out of a hodgepodge of elements, and there is no way to distinguish truth from falsehood.<br />
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这篇文章读起来更像是一篇散文——散漫、随意、有条理、絮絮叨叨、喋喋不休——而不是直接的叙述，这一点作者也承认。在这篇叙述-散文中，一位年轻作者代表他这一代人试图对一位他们称之为叔叔的老作家进行传记性评价。如果有人以为这会是一个引人入胜的行动或者一个戏剧性的故事，那么他就要失望了。尽管文本保留了小说的外在明显特征，但是它是一个由不同体彩杂糅成的混合体，集文学、艺术批判、八卦、猜测、历史、哲学、轶事和故事于一体。叙述者认为，这篇小说是一篇具有双重意义的散文，既有文本形式，又有充满游戏趣味和探索性的文学练习。他开篇就宣称，这个故事是各种元素糅合而成的大杂烩，无法区分真假。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:48, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
“Many blanks need to be filled up with imagination and inference,” and the story is filled with “subjective coloring” (181). The subjective, arbitrary, even whimsical character of the text is further associated, as the narrator notes, with the mode of production that writers have adopted as they are geared toward an emergent literary market. Writers, the narrator says, are people who spend their time making up stories. One day “we started circulating his (Uncle's) maxims.” To the laborers like us the maxims are significant, for they are capital in commodity production and can produce surplus value, which can put back to expanded reproduction. ''The Story of Our Uncle'' is thus premised on fragmentary axioms, an arbitrary principle of composition, random fantasy, and the form of commodity.<br />
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“许多空白需要想象和推断来填补”整个故事充满主观色彩.(181)正如叙述者所写“作家为了融入日益繁盛的文学市场，作品总有着一些主观，任意甚至任性的色彩”；作者是花时间编故事的人。有一天，“我们会开始传播他(叔叔)的格言。”对于像我们这样的劳动者来说，这些格言很重要，因为他们是商品生产的资本，可以生产剩余价值，这些剩余价值可以扩大再生产。因此，《我们叔叔的故事》是以支离破碎的公理、任意的构成原则、随机的幻想和商品的形式为前提的。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 08:54, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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“许多空白需要想象和推断来填补”整个故事充满主观色彩.(181)正如叙述者所写“作家为了融入日益繁盛的文学市场，作品总有着一些主观，任意甚至任性的色彩”；作者是花时间编故事的人。有一天，“我们会开始流传他(叔叔)的格言。”对于像我们这样的劳动者来说，这些格言很重要，因为他们是商品生产的资本，可以生产剩余价值，这些剩余价值可以扩大再生产。因此，《我们叔叔的故事》是以支离破碎的公理、任意的创作原则、随机的幻想和商品的形式为前提的。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 14:53, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
In a strictly formalistic sense, Wang's text complies with the usual comments and generalizations on the essay as a literary form. In Theodore Adorno's well-known essay entitled “The Essay as Form” we find numerous descriptions well suited to an analysis of the essay in the Chinese context. Adorno pits the essay against the institutional system of philosophy, the discourse of scientific positivism, and its attendant socio-cultural condition of reification. The essay is envisaged as an ''enfant terrible'' or a serious playboy seeking the utopia space of the pleasure principle. Thus the essay turns up its nose to the notions of totality, completeness, systematicity, the universal and the eternal. It is marked by fragments, excessive fantasy and interpretation, exploration, and experiments. Its supposed form is actually formlessness. Abandoning the rigid conceptual schemata, it seeks and engages the object in its historical specificity and quotidian trivia.<br />
<br />
从严格的形式主义意义上讲，王的文本符合论文中通常的评论和概括的文学形式。 在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《作为形式的散文》中，我们发现了许多非常适合在中国语境下对论文进行分析的描述。 阿多诺将这篇论文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来的社会文化条件化相提并论。 这篇文章被认为是“恐怖的婴儿”或寻求娱乐原则的乌托邦空间的严肃的花花公子。 因此，本文对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性的概念大加赞赏。 它的特点是碎片，过多的幻想和解释，探索和实验。 它的假定形式实际上是无形式。 它摒弃了僵化的概念图式，而是以对象的历史特殊性和“琐事琐事”来寻找和参与对象。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 07:35, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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从严格的形式主义上讲，王的文本遵循了对散文作为一种文学形式的评论和概括。在西奥多·阿多诺（Theodore Adorno）著名的论文《文章的形式》中，我们发现许多描述都很适合在中国语境下对这篇文章进行分析。阿多诺将该文与哲学的制度体系，科学实证主义的话语以及随之而来物化的社会文化环境相对比。人们将这篇文章设想为“恐怖的婴儿”或是一个严肃的花花公子在追寻享乐主义的乌托邦。因此，文章对整体性，完整性，系统性，普遍性和永恒性加以批判。该文碎片化，充斥着幻想，过度解释，探索性和实验性；没有预设的形式，摒弃了僵化的概念图式；追求写作的历史特殊性和日常性。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 12:19, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
While Adorno's comments are apt and in tune with much of Eileen Chang and Wang Anyi's musings on the essay, the philosophical framework in Adorno that the essay rebels against is different: the essay is up against the high-minded conceptual tyranny of Western philosophical tradition. In the Chinese literary convention the essay is not so clearly defined against something so established. Its polemic pole, I have tried to argue throughout this essay, is to be identified as the Enlightenment and Marxist paradigm of teleological history and its literary counterpart: the novel of revolutionary realism. <br />
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The essay is a literary exploration trying to break out of the conceptual and discursive straitjacket. Adorno quotes Max Bense and says that the essay “is distinguished from a treatise:<br />
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虽然阿多诺的评论很贴切，与张爱玲、王安忆对散文的很多思索是一致的，但散文在阿多诺那里所反抗的哲学框架是不同的：散文是与西方哲学传统的高高在上的概念暴政对抗的。 在中国的文学传统中，散文所反抗的东西并不是那么明确的。 我试图通过这篇文章论证：散文应被认定为启蒙运动和马克思主义的心学史范式及其文学的对应物：革命现实主义小说。 <br />
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本文是试图突破观念和话语束缚的文学探索。 阿多诺引用马克斯-本塞的话说，散文 "区别于论著。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 02:00, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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虽然阿多诺的评论是恰当的，符合张爱玲和王安忆对散文的思考，但阿多诺的哲学框架是不同的：散文反对西方哲学传统高高在上的概念暴政。 在中国的文学传统中，散文并没有如此明确地定义反对既定的东西。我试图用本文论证，散文被认为是目的论历史的启蒙运动和马克思主义范式及其文学对应物：革命现实主义小说。<br />
本文是一次试图打破概念和话语束缚的文学探索。 阿多诺引用了马克斯·本塞的话说，“这篇文章有别于一部专著：--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 12:52, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
The person who writes essayistically is the one who composes as he experiments, who turns his object around, questions it, feels it, tests it, reflects on it, who attacks it from different sides and assembles what he sees in his mind's eye and puts into words what the object allows one to see under the condition created in the course of writing. (17)<br />
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The dropping of a grand, complete vision and opting for the incomplete, trivial, and the experimental are what makes for the essay. The German word Versuch, attempt or essay, Adorno writes, is the place where “thought's utopian vision of hitting the bullseye is united with the consciousness of its own fallibility and provisional character” (16). This “indicates . . . something about the form, something to be taken all the more seriously in that it takes place not systematically but rather as a characteristic of an intention groping its way” (16).<br />
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See Wu Liang and Wang Anyi, “A Conversation on Reality and Fiction,” in Wang Anyi, Reality and Fiction (Jishi yu xugou) 325.<br />
<br />
Adorno, 3-23.<br />
散文式写作的人是在实验中创作的人，他把客体转过来，质疑它，感受它，检验它，思考它，他从不同的角度攻击它，把他在脑海中看到的东西组合起来把客体在写作过程中创造的条件下允许人们看到的东西用文字表达出来。(17)<br />
放弃宏大的、完整的愿景，选择不完整的、琐碎的、实验性的，是这篇文章的组成部分。德语单词Versuch，尝试或文章，阿多诺写道，是“思想命中靶心的乌托邦愿景与意识到自身的错误和临时特性相结合的地方”。这“表明……一些关于形式的东西，一些需要更加认真对待的东西因为它不是系统地发生的而是作为一种意图的特征去探索它的方式。<br />
参见吴亮和王安忆《现实与小说的对话》，载于《王安忆:现实与小说》(季实余序购)325页。<br />
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阿多诺,3-23。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:23, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
An intention groping its way into the mysteries of the Uncle's life aptly describes the essayistic quality of Wang's novella. As a text assembled out of disparate materials-- hearsay, gossips, and guesswork, fantasy, and conjecture, the narrative enacts a wide array of pre-given discourses and narrative patterns to grope at the “real” life of the Uncle. These discourses and narratives are in their own turn commented on as objects of inquiry and critique on a “meta” level and treated as options in an experimental writing. As an intellectual the Uncle is typical of hundreds of thousands others persecuted in the political campaigns whose suffering and re-instatement in the post-Cultural Revolution period is now a cliche. But at the very outset the novella unpacks the myth of the suffering intellectual into forking paths of narrative.<br />
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探索叔叔生活之谜的意图恰如其分地描述了王中篇小说的散文主义特质。作为一个由传闻、闲话、猜测、幻想和猜想这样不同的材料组合而成的文本,叙事中出现了大量预先设定的话语和叙事模式，以探索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些话语和叙述在“元”层面上作为探究和评判的对象被评论，并在实验性写作中被视为可选择的事物。作为一名知识分子，叔叔是在政治运动中遭受迫害的数十万人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和恢复现在已成陈词滥调。但从一开始，这部中篇小说就把受苦知识分子的故事解构成了分岔的叙事路径。<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 04:28, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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一种试图探索叔叔生活奥秘的意图恰当地描述了王的小说的本质特征。作为一篇由不同材料-道听途说，流言，猜测，幻想和猜想-拼凑而成的文本，叙事赋予了大量预先给定的话语和叙事模式，以摸索叔叔的“真实”生活。这些论述和叙述依次被评论为“元”层面上的探究和批判对象，并在实验写作中被视为选项。作为一个知识分子，叔叔是成千上万在政治运动中受到迫害的人中的典型，他们在后文革时期的痛苦和重生现在已经是老生常谈了。但从一开始，中篇小说就将饱受苦难的知识分子的神话展开，开辟了叙事的道路。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 12:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
One can make up a narrative of the Uncle on his way to the place of exile, for instance, by recourse to a tragic-sublime scenario of political victims echoing Dostoevesky. Riding in a beat-up truck drudging through the vast, snowy Siberian landscape in the Northwest plateau, the victim/hero would ponder the significance of life and fate with an elderly wise man. One could also cast the Uncle in a lackluster, comic or even grotesque light, reduced to a mere creature of survival, trapped in a narrow village life. Like thousands of other writers, Uncle was persecuted and exiled because of his writing. But this fabled story of the tragic-heroic writer is again playfully retouched into three different versions by Uncles' own retelling after the fact. In the first telling, his persecution is a political story, indicting the tyranny of the political system. Then it is an existential story, intimating the mysterious and ironical workings of fate.Thirdly, it is a prophetic story, in the fashion of an Aesop fable, full of prescience and bodings of catastrophe.<br />
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比如，人们可以利用陀思妥耶夫斯基式的政治受害者的悲情场景来编造一个叔叔流亡的故事。主人公坐在一辆破旧的卡车上，在广阔的、被白雪覆盖的东北高原上艰难前行，和一位智叟一起思考生命的意义。同样，人们也可以把叔叔塑造成一个毫无生气、滑稽甚至怪诞的形象，一个在小村庄中艰难求生的人。像其他成千上万的作家一样，遭到迫害和流放。但是这个英雄悲剧作家的传奇故事经过叔叔的叙述后，被幽默地改编成三个不同的版本。在第一个叙述中，他受到的迫害是一个政治故事，控诉政治制度中的暴政。其次，这是一个存在主义故事，暗示着命运的神秘和讽刺。第三，这是一个预言性故事，以伊索寓言的方式，充满了预言和大灾难的预兆。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 11:15, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
比如，人们可以通过陀思妥耶夫斯基式的政治受害者的悲情场景来编造一个叔叔去流亡地的故事。主人公坐在一辆破旧的卡车上，在广阔的、白雪覆盖的东北高原上艰难前行，他会和一位睿智的老人一起思考生命和命运的意义。人们也可以把叔叔塑造成一个毫无生气、滑稽甚至怪诞的形象，沦为一个被困在狭小乡村生活中的求生之物。像其他成千上万的作家一样，遭到迫害和流放。但是这个英雄悲剧作家的传奇故事在叔父们在事后的复述后又被幽默地改编成三个不同的版本。在第一个叙述中，他受到的迫害是一个政治故事，控诉政治制度的暴政。第二，这是一个存在主义的故事，暗示着命运的神秘和讽刺。第三，这是一个预言性的故事，以伊索寓言的方式，充满了预言和大灾难的预兆。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
This intention groping its way into the Uncle's life draws upon various types of narrative patterns and aesthetic resources. This is by no means a literary embellishment for pure rhetorical variety or pleasure. The narration is saddled with the difficulties of understanding and getting the Uncle's life's straight. The difficulty is not the usual generational gap, but reflects different historical experiences and memory that separate the young from the old. This difference not only drives a wedge into the writers as a group, but also gives rise to the divergence of generic practice and the aesthetics informing it. This divergence is the key to understanding the essay and the essayistic.<br />
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进入叔叔生活的这种意图利用了各种类型的叙事模式和美学资源。 这绝不是纯粹的修辞变奏或娱乐的文学装饰。 叙述难于理解和理解叔叔的生活。 困难不是通常的代沟，而是反映了将年轻人与老年人区分开的不同的历史经验和记忆。 这种差异不仅使作为一个整体的作家成为楔子，而且引起了通用实践和为其提供信息的美学的差异。 这种差异是理解论文和论文论的关键。<br />
--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 11:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种对叔父生活的探索，借鉴了各种类型的叙事模式和审美资源。这绝不是一种纯粹的修辞变化或乐趣的文学修饰。故事的叙述充满了理解和理解叔叔生活的困难。困难不是通常的代沟，而是反映了不同的历史经验和记忆，把年轻人和老年人分开。这种差异不仅导致了作家群体的分裂，而且导致了一般实践和审美观的分歧。这种分歧是理解散文和散文家的关键。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:06, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这旨在用各种类型的叙事模式和审美资源探索叔叔的生活。这绝不是纯粹为了变换修辞或者获得乐趣而进行的文学修饰，而是叙述着理解叔叔生活的困难。困难不是普通的代沟，反映了年轻人和老年人的不同历史经历和记忆。这种差异不仅将作家群分裂开来，而且也导致了共性实践与传达共性实践的美学的分歧。这种分歧是理解散文和散文论的关键。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 11:27, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
The older generation, having experienced political persecution and historical traumas at the first hand, is deeply grounded in a historical consciousness and a teleological narrative. The Uncle is intensely committed to writing literature as praxis for social change. His meteoric rise to the leading writer in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution indicates that the position of what Gramsci called the “organic” intellectual remains strong, even thriving. The popularity of his novels shows that a work of literature can make a tremendous hit and is an effective medium for criticizing the flaws of the system and raising the social, political consciousness of readers. It revives the legacy of the New Literature of May Fourth and is rightly re-baptized as the literature of the New Period (xin shiqi wenxue). It is the voice of the farsighted and the vanguard in China's modernization drive. Despite all his traumas and sufferings, the Uncle's generation, writers in their forties and over in the narrative time, remains firm in their belief in the organic totality of socio-historical process and the people's capacity in steering the course of history. Literature is simply one vehicle that carries this historical mission.<br />
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老一辈人亲身经历过政治迫害和历史创伤，有着较强的历史意识和目的性叙述能力。叔叔致力于以文学写作推动社会变革。他在 "文革 "后一跃成为领军作家，说明葛兰西所说的 "有机 "知识分子的地位依然稳固，甚至是蒸蒸日上。他创作的小说大受欢迎，这表明一部文学作品可以引起巨大的轰动，是批判制度缺陷，提高读者社会意识、政治意识的有效媒介。他的小说重扬了 "五四 "新文学的遗风，重新受洗为新时期文学。它是有远见之人的发声，是中国现代化进程中的先锋。叔叔那一代四十多岁的作家，在这段叙述时间里，尽管经历了种种创伤和苦难，但他们仍然坚信社会历史进程的有机整体性和人民引导历史进程的能力。文学只是承载这一历史使命的载体。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:46, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
The historical consciousness embodied by the Uncle is to find its corresponding form in an epic mode of writing: the realistic novel. The Uncle's general outlook on the world is epic in the Lukácsian sense. The young narrator captures this ''Weltanschauung'' very accurately: <br />
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The political life of the past few decades has filled up his personal experience and life. This enables Uncle to keep his worldview firmly anchored to reality and politics. The state and government encompass the whole world for him and form the vast backdrop for human activity. Patterns of people's behavior and conduct are but representatives of social life. The concept of culture sounds very abstract and empty to him. For him art should also perform real and political functions. (214-215)<br />
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叔叔所体现的历史意识是为了在史诗般的写作方式中找到其对应的形式：写实小说。 在卢卡奇的意味上，叔叔对世界的总体观是史诗般的。这位年轻的叙述者非常准确地捕捉到了这个世界观：<br />
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叔叔过去几十年个人经历和生活被政治所充斥，这使他能够将自己世界观牢牢地依托于现实和政治。 国家和政府围绕着他的全世界，并构成了人类活动的广阔背景，人们的行为方式只是社会生活的代表。对他来说，文化的概念听起来很抽象，十分空洞的，甚至认为艺术还应该发挥现实和政治作用。（214-215）--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 17:39, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
The young generation, in contrast, is not so firmly grounded. Growing up in a period when the dominant ideology is in decline, they are left floating in the winds of various imported ideologies and newfangled isms. Creatures of the newly emergent market and players of nihilistic intellectual fashions, they produce literature without any commitment to a socio-historical mission. Literature is but a playful, aesthetic game unburdened with any responsibility and weighty purposes. Art has become an artful, artsy activity, floating free of socio-historical grounding. Literary activity to them means, more specifically, attending pen conferences, pursuing hot fashions, innovating fresh forms and tastes, brandishing new theories, making up sensational and marketable stories. All this also leads to the enhancement of a writer's charisma and even sexual appeal. Indeed, to the young generation it is old fashioned to see literature as having historical or social significance; literature becomes more and more sexy and commercial.<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
The story of the Uncle is an allegory of withdrawal from history and the dangers involved, exemplified in his crisis-ridden metamorphosis from a historically grounded writer to a playful artist, from novelist to essay writer. The Uncle's earlier success thrusts him to the status of literary celebrity and stardom: he becomes a prominent figure in the media. As the younger writers pursue fashions and cater to new consumers with playful, entertaining, artsy literary goods, the Uncle feels the need to catch up. His new position as a glamorous writer allows him to become a globetrotter. At the invitation of literary and academic circles and literary institutions around world eager to know a newly opened China, he journeys from country to country giving talks and socializing at literary cocktail parties. Increasingly, sightseeing and superficial impressions of exotic foreign countries become the only materials he can summon: he becomes a tourist and a writer of travelogue.<br />
叔叔的故事寓意着从历史和其中的危险中脱身，从一个历史背景鲜明的作家变身成为爱打趣的艺术家，从一个小说家变成了散文作家，他经历了重重危机。叔叔的早期成功让他成为了文学名人，常常出现在媒体上。年轻作家追求时尚，他们创作有趣的，充满娱乐性，艺术性的作品来迎合消费者，叔叔觉得自己也该随上大流。作为知名的作家，他的新职位让他有机会环球旅行。文学和学术圈以及文学机构都想要了解刚刚开放的中国，他往返与不同国家进行演讲，参加各种酒会。渐渐地，他能写得的只有观光旅行和对异国的简单印象，于是他就成为了旅行家和游记作家。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:37, 10 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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《叔叔的故事》寓意着从历史和其中的危险中脱身，从一个历史背景鲜明的作家变身成为爱打趣的艺术家，从一个小说家变成了散文作家，他经历了重重危机。《叔叔的故事》早期成功让他成为了文学名人，常常出现在媒体上。年轻作家追求时尚，他们创作有趣的，充满娱乐性，艺术性的作品来迎合消费者，《叔叔的故事》也该随上大流。作为知名的作家，他的新职位让他有机会环球旅行。文学和学术圈以及文学机构都想要了解刚刚开放的中国，他往返与不同国家进行演讲，参加各种酒会。渐渐地，他能写得的只有观光旅行和对异国的简单印象，于是他就成为了旅行家和游记作家。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 12:00, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
Going along with the role of a player in an increasingly cosmopolitan, global, and consumer oriented literary market is a new philosophy of writing, which favors a showy, playful, essayistic quality at the expense of the epic, social and historical. The Uncle is reborn, the younger narrator rightly observes, into a new life, and into an enclosed new realm of pure artistic creativity. He addresses serious social problems playfully in the style of black humor and through anachronistic narrative techniques. He becomes more and more detached from the grave political issues of the day. His new outlook is derived from a purely aesthetic principle.<br />
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在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者正确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:35, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 06:50, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在日益国际化、全球化和以消费者为导向的文学市场中，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性、社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性和随笔性。年轻的叙述者精确地观察到，文学叔叔重生了，他进入了一种新的生活，进入了一个封闭式的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和不合时宜的叙述技巧，戏谑般地处理严重的社会问题。他与越来越疏远当今严肃的政治问题。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 02:21, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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不断扩张的都市化，全球化，顾客为导向的市场，一种新的写作理念应运而生，它以牺牲史诗性，社会性和历史性为代价，追求炫耀性、趣味性、和散文性。年轻的叙述者恰好观察到，文叔再生了，他进入了一个新的生活，进入到一个封闭的纯艺术创造的新领域。他以黑色幽默的风格和 不合时宜的叙述技巧，玩笑般的对待严重的社会问题。他与当今严重的的政治问题越来越疏远。他的新观点是由纯粹的美学原则衍生而来。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 13:36, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
Emptied of historical substance and filled up with fragmentary and rambling impressions in his global trips, both life and writing of the Uncle thin out into personal, irrelevant, discontinuous fragments. His writing begins to take on the essayistic quality, and borders on sheer images or simulacra, getting closer and closer to those of the younger generation. Real human relations are “only a literary conceit.” (227), he echoes the younger generation. Within the aesthetic shelter the “Uncle can no longer become excited or moved and is immune to suffering.” Tragic suffering is now only a literary category, and “the awareness of this is the hallmark of Uncle's becoming a pure writer” (225). Parallel with this essayistic quality is the Uncle's changed life style. His is more taken with things he would have considered vulgar, low, or quotidian;<br />
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生活和写作都被历史的内涵掏空，随之被全球旅行中的零碎和漫不经心填满，让叔叔自己变成了个人的、无关紧要的、不连续的碎片。他的写作开始有了散文的气质，并接近于纯粹的影像或模拟，越来越接近年轻一代的人。真实的人与人之间的关系“只是一种文学上的臆想”。(227)，他与年轻一代遥相呼应。在审美的庇护下，“大叔再也不能变得兴奋或感动，而且对苦难免疫”。悲剧性的苦难现在只是一个文学范畴，“对这一点的认识是大叔成为一个纯粹作家的标志”（225）。与这种文章化特质并行的是大叔的生活方式的改变。他的更多的是对那些他认为庸俗、低级、庸常的东西的接受。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:11, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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在他的环球旅行中，历史的物质被清空，而充满了零碎的、漫无边际的印象，关于叔叔的生活和写作都逐渐变成个人的、无关的、不连续的片段。他的作品开始呈现出散文式的品质，接近纯粹的影像或拟像，越来越接近年轻一代的作品。真正的人际关系“只是一种文学幻想”。(227)，他回应了年轻一代。在美学的庇护下，“叔叔不再激动或感动，对痛苦免疫。”悲剧的痛苦现在只是一个文学类别，“意识到这一点是叔叔成为一个纯粹作家的标志”(225)。与这种随笔风格相对应的是叔叔生活方式的改变。他更喜欢那些他认为庸俗、低俗或司空见惯的事情;--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 14:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
he becomes more listless and yuppish. He has developed a strong interest in women and sexual intrigues and conquests; he indulges in vulgarity and trivial pursuits, exulting in money and showy, exotic collectibles. In short, he metamorphoses from an image of the epic novelist and organic intellectual to a middle class, professional writer, whose favored form is the essay and whose lifestyle takes on the “essayistic” quality of a ramble for self-pleasure.<br />
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The transformation in the Uncle reflects the retreat of literature from a historically grounded medium to a form light-hearted, playful entertainment and a theatrical performance. The problem with this change, as the novella's ending suggests, is that it is self-deceptive. Despite the Uncle's willful creation of an aesthetic cocoon, history manages to intrude in the end as return of the repressed, in the person of his murderous son. His son embodies all the painful memory and disgraceful experience of the Uncle's life, unfit for the epic treatment in his novels and repressed in his ethereal, airtight, essayistic experiments.<br />
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他变得更加无精打采而又热情洋溢。他对女性以及性爱和征服产生了浓厚的兴趣。他沉迷于庸俗和琐碎的追求，对金钱和艳丽的异国情调的收藏品狂喜不已。简而言之，他从史诗般的小说家和有机知识分子的形象变成了中产阶级专业作家，他的偏爱形式是随笔，其生活方式具有自我满足的“随笔”性质。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《叔叔》的转变反映了文学从一种历史根基的媒介退缩到一种轻松、有趣的娱乐和戏剧表演的形式。正如中篇小说的结尾所暗示的那样，这种变化的问题在于它是自欺欺人的。尽管《叔叔》蓄意创造了一个美丽的茧，但由于被压抑者的归还，他的杀手之子最终还是入侵了历史。他的儿子体现了《叔叔》创造中所有的痛苦记忆和可耻的经历，不适合他小说中的史诗般的治疗方式，而对他空灵、透气、杂文主义的实验则表现出压抑。--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 11:56, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
The son's attempted murder of his father signifies the revenge of a history that the Uncle is trying to shut off from the serene, trouble-free aesthetic realm. Our concern, however, is not with the interpretation of the story per se, but with the way the Uncle's fate indicates the shift in literary form. If the Uncle's story apparently traces the trajectory of a novelist to a writer who not only writes travelogues and essays but also is imbued with essayistic sensibility, then the essay in contemporary China is a release from the epic form of writing and historical discourse. It is a release into the literary market and consumer taste, a response to the pervasive secularization of life and rising consumerism.<br />
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儿子企图谋杀他父亲的行为象征着一段历史的复仇，而这段历史是叔叔试图将其与宁静、无烦恼的美学领域隔离开来的。然而，我们关心的不是故事本身的解释，而是叔叔的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果“叔叔”的故事明显地将小说家的轨迹追溯到一个作家，他不仅写游记和散文，而且充满了散文情感，那么当代中国的散文就是从史诗形式的写作和历史话语中解放出来的。这是对文学市场和消费品味的释放，是对生活普遍世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 11:59, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
儿子企图谋杀他的父亲这一行为象征着一段极具历史意义的复仇，叔父试图从宁静、无忧无虑的美学领域中脱离出来。然而，我们的关注点不在于对故事本身的解读，而是叔父的命运如何预示着文学形式的转变。如果说《叔叔的故事》追溯了一个小说家转变为作家的轨迹——在写游记和随笔的同时，倾注了散文式的细腻情感——那么当代中国的随笔就是史诗写作和历史话语的一种释放。这是对文学市场和消费者口味的一种释放，是对无处不在的生活世俗化和消费主义抬头的回应。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 15:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
It comes as the image of a loosening up of the previous, ideologically controlled life, which is now becoming more private, more disjoint and fragmented, more removed from the totalistic social and political process. Yet history has not become the simulacrum to play with, as envisioned by the younger narrator or the Uncle himself as he catches up with the fashions. China’s social reality does not square so nicely with the essayistic playfulness one may wish. Thus the essay as a cultural form is caught in a tension between withdrawal from the burden of history and the possible return of the repressed.<br />
<br />
它是一种对以前的被控制意识形态的生活的解放，它现在变得更私人，更脱节和碎片化，更远离极权主义的社会和政治进程。然而，历史并不是像年轻的叙述者或叔叔自己在追赶时尚时想象的那样可操控的。中国的社会现实与人们所希望的散文式的嬉闹并不那么吻合。因此，散文作为一种文化形式，处于一种从历史的负担中解脱出来与可能回归压迫状态之间的张力之中。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 17:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
'''Mulish Essays: the Genre of ''Zawen'' in Contemporary China<br />
'''<br />
<br />
''Mary Scoggin''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
Tone in an essay is an ironic figure of speech; how can you channel that which is carried in sound through the ink of print? This paper illustrates the trope of tone through the particularly ,sonorous' work of ShaoYanxiang, an official poet who in retirement is better known for the essays in which he collapses poetry into polemic, his ''zawen''. The distinct and beleaguered social and cultural space for ''zawen'' in contemporary China reveals the mechanics, ideology and significance of tone in Chinese writing. Even more than other literary genres, ''zawen'' depends upon something within the earthy noise of moody, mulish voices to carry its messages. Like most poetry, but unlike most fiction and drama, ''zawen'' is itself a first person voice, not a representation of voices.<br />
<br />
拗口的文章：当代中国“杂文”的体裁<br />
<br />
玛丽·斯高格<br />
<br />
文章中的语气是一种讽刺的修辞手法;你怎么能通过印刷的油墨来引导声音中所携带的东西呢?本文通过邵云翔的《诗文》来说明这种修辞手法。邵云翔是一位官方诗人，他退休后以将诗歌化为论战体的杂文而闻名。在当代中国，“杂文”独特而又备受围攻的社会文化空间，揭示了“调”在汉语写作中的机制、意识形态和意义。与其他文学体裁相比，“杂文”更依赖于泥土般的喧嚣、忧郁、固执的声音来传达它的信息。像大多数诗歌一样，但又不像大多数小说和戏剧，“杂文”本身是第一人称的声音，而不是声音的代表。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 08:36, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
Yet unlike poetry, which may need to be at least imagined to be read out loud, repeated and savored for full effect, ''zawen'''s ideal is to appear for a fleeting moment on the back page of a newspaper, to be received with the accompaniment of an enigmatic laugh, sigh or snort from the reader, and then thrown away quickly, before anyone can find their seat and sit in it, or take offence. While readers love and hate their morally and politically provocative ''zawen-of-the-moment'', writers string zawen across stretches of time and publishing organs to construct heavily intertextualized conversations.<br />
<br />
诗歌至少需要大声朗读，重复和品尝才能真正达到效果，而与诗歌不同的是，杂文在报纸的背面短暂地露面，读者边看边发出神秘笑声，叹息声或鼻息声，还没等读者找到座位坐下，就迅速将其扔掉。读者对道德和政治上具有挑衅性的“当下杂文”又爱又恨，而作者跨越式的书写杂文，并通过出版机构来建立大量互文性的对话。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 17:10, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
Eventually they even preserve ''zawen'', long after the dizzying minutia of allusions, jokes and digs are forgotten, often compiling a career's worth of them into small print runs of volumes that they give away to friends and admirers as discursive portraits of themselves. Lu Xun's genre of the ,dagger and spear' is thus not only a sly political weapon, but also a complex sculpture of the self, chiseled by the cantankerous tones of social dialogue.<br />
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In contemporary textbooks and manuals of Chinese essay composition, the “miscellaneous essay,” [literally, “mixed essay,” referred to as ''zawen'' hereafter] is presented as a particularly “Chinese” essay genre within a global view of universal literary categorization.<br />
<br />
杂文中的典故，笑话和挖苦的细节常令人茫然，在这些细节被人遗忘之后，“杂文这一体裁最终得以保存”， 读者经常将自身职业价值汇编成一些小册当做是自己的离散描述杂文，然后将分小册发给朋友和仰慕者。 因此，鲁迅的“匕首与长矛”流派不仅是狡猾的政治武器，而且是复杂的自我雕塑，为社交对话的残酷语调所勾勒。<br />
<br />
在当代中国散文写作的教科书和手册中，“杂文”（直译为“杂文”，以下简称杂文）在全球普遍文学分类的全球视野中被视为一种特别的“中国”散文类型。 --[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:24, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最终，作者们甚至能在那些令人眼花缭乱的细枝末节的典故、笑话和挖苦被遗忘之后，仍然保留着"杂文"。他们常常把自己职业生涯的价值编成小本子，作为自己的话语肖像送给朋友和仰慕者。因此，鲁迅的 "匕首和长矛 "流派不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的自我雕塑，被社会对话中的尖酸刻薄所雕琢。<br />
在当代中国散文的教科书和手册中，"杂文"[字面意思是 "杂文"，以下简称杂文]被作为一种极具 "中国性"的文章体裁，呈现在普遍的文学分类的全球视野中。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 06:19, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最后，在那些令人眼花缭乱的细枝末节的典故、笑话和挖苦被遗忘之后，他们甚至仍然保存着杂文，常常把他们职业生涯的价值编成小本子，作为自己的语录送给朋友和崇拜者。因此，鲁迅的“匕首和长矛”流派不仅是一种狡猾的政治武器，也是一种复杂的自我雕塑，被社会对话中的尖酸刻薄所雕琢。<br />
在当代中国作文的教科书和手册中，“混杂的文章”，【字面意思是“杂文”，以下简称杂文】被作为一种特别“中国”的文章体裁，呈现在普遍的文学分类的全球视野中。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:16, 11 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
Lu Xun, the genre's initial back-handed champion, quipped sardonically that although he searched the standard encyclopedia thoroughly, he was unable to locate the genre of “tsa-wen” in any authoritative foreign classification. Lu Xun's sarcasm includes both defiance and self-conscious uneasiness about a writing practice that Chinese circumstances, he felt, rendered peculiar and unseemly upon a world stage. Compare the comments of a recent critic of ''zawen'':<br />
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In Chinese affairs, there is a strange phenomenon that has held true until the present time, and that is; the value of any certain thing has to be established by a foreigner or by some common foreign publication.<br />
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鲁迅是这一文体的最初的反对者。他曾讽刺说，他翻遍了标准的百科全书，但在任何权威的外国分类中都找不到 "tsa-wen "这一文体。 鲁迅的讽刺既有对一种写作方式的蔑视，也包含了自觉的不安，他认为中国的环境使这种写作方式在世界舞台上变得奇特而不雅。 比较最近的一位批评家对''杂文''的评论：<br />
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在中国的事务中，有一种奇怪的现象一直持续到现在，那就是：任何一件事物的价值都必须由外国人或一些外国的普通出版物来确定。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 01:56, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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鲁迅一开始就反对这一文体。他曾讽刺道，即使翻遍了标准的百科全书，也无法在任何权威的外国分类中都找到 "tsa-wen "这一文体。 鲁迅的讽刺既含有对这一文体的蔑视，也带着一丝不安，他认为中国当时的环境让这一文体在世界舞台上变得奇特而不雅。 比较一位批评家对''杂文''最近的评论：<br />
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在中国，有一“怪象”一直持续到现在，那就是：任何一件事物的价值都必须由外国人或一些外国的普通出版物来确定。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 08:07, 12 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
As for this thing called modern Chinese ''zawen'', because its Chinese characteristics are too strong, Westerners truly have a hard time understanding them, and thus have difficulty in researching this subject... the American writer Pearl Buck said something like: 'this thing called ''zawen'' is too peculiar, you really cannot understand it.' That is why only Chinese people themselves can evaluate this phenomenon called zawen. (Yan Xiu in Zhang Hua [all translations by Scoggin unless otherwise noted])<br />
In this passage, Yan Xiu, an eminent writer and critic, articulated Lu Xun's defiance of the foreign authority to categorize essay genre in a relatively explicit way, while also maintaining a typical ''zawen''-esque playfulness of style. He continues his commentary;<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
But we do not need to worry about this long period of neglect in which foreigners do not recognize ''zawen.'' Even if a foreigner were to burst his/her mind researching Chinese zawen, I am afraid that they would not be able to research anything out of it even if they researched themselves flat broke and starving. But Chinese people all understand them easily. If they were not able to maintain the abiding appreciation and understanding of Chinese readers, this practice would have been lost. The historical reasons and significance for the creation and propagation of ''zawen'' in China are worth serious research and theorizing (ibid.).<br />
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Bravely dismissing the risk of bankruptcy, I do propose to research and theorize the culture of this funny genre of essay in all of its supposed inscrutability.<br />
但是，我们不必担心长期以来外国人不承认杂文。虽然外国人来研究研究中国的杂文会大打折扣，因为他们无法研究其中的任何内容，尽管他们也研究自己的破产和饥饿。但杂文对中国人来说都很容易理解。 如果外国人不能保持对中国读者的长期欣赏和理解，这种事情便会不复存在。在中国创造和传播杂文的历史原因和意义值得认真研究和理论化（同上）。<br />
虽然没有了破产的风险，但我真的建议去研究和论证这种有趣论文类型的文化，因为它具有所有假定的不可理解性。<br />
--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 02:26, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但我们不必担心这种外国人长期不承认杂文的情况。即使一个外国人产生了其研究杂文的心思，恐怕他们自己研究得身无分文，饿死也研究不出来什么。但中国人都很容易理解他们。如果他们不能保持中国读者对他们的欣赏和理解，这种做法就会失传。杂文在中国产生和传播的历史原因和意义，是值得认真研究和理论化的（同上）。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 11:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
One ubiquitous characterization of zawen from textbooks and manuals is built upon the metaphor of the mule. This metaphor suggests a number of qualities, including hybrid vigor and strength, stubborn bad-temper, and resilience in the face of obstacles. Mules kick, spit and bray with distinctive exuberance. ''Zawen'' are often considered an awkward combination of “part-poetry, part politics” (Lin). Cross-bred traits extend the qualities of a mule; ''zawen'' are bred to toil at the most difficult of human labor, they are strong, hard-working and rather famously unloved creatures, best known for their expressive obstinance. <br />
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So how does an essay kick, spit and bray? In Chinese theoretical discussion of ''zawen'' the metaphor moves from kinetics to sound; ''zawen'''s kick is located in its “tone,” a term taken from music, although the sound here is can be distinctly unlovely.<br />
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从教科书和手册中对杂文的一个普遍的描述是建立在骡子的隐喻之上的。这个比喻暗示了一些品质，包括混杂的活力和力量，顽固的坏脾气，以及面对障碍时的弹性。骡子的踢腿、吐口水和嘶叫有着独特的活力。“杂文”通常被认为是“部分诗歌，部分政治”的笨拙组合(林)。杂交的特性拓展了骡子的品质；杂文是被培养来从事最艰难的人类劳动的，他们强壮、勤劳，而且是出了名的不被喜爱的生物，最出名的是他们表现出的固执。<br />
<br />
那么，一篇文章是如何鞭笞、唾弃和咒骂的呢?在汉语“杂文”的理论探讨中，隐喻由动力转向声音；“杂文”的“踢腿”在它的“语气”，一个来自音乐的术语，尽管这里的声音可能明显是不可爱的。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:44, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
教科书和手册中对杂文的一个普遍的描述是建立在骡子的隐喻之上的。这个比喻表明了它的一些品质，包括混杂的活力和力量，顽固的坏脾气，以及面对障碍时的耐性。骡子的踢腿、吐口水和嘶叫有着独特的活力。“杂文”通常被认为是“部分诗歌，部分政治”的笨拙组合(林)。杂交的特性拓展了骡子的品质；杂文是被培养来从事最艰难的人类劳动的，他们强壮、勤劳，而且是出了名的不被喜爱的生物，最出名的是他们表现出的固执。<br />
<br />
那么，一篇文章是如何鞭笞、唾弃和咒骂的呢?在汉语“杂文”的理论探讨中，隐喻由动力转向声音；“杂文”的“踢腿”在它的“语气”，一个来自音乐的术语，尽管这里的声音可能明显是不可爱的。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:49, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
Elsewhere I have examined the function of “tone” through the lens of the published record of debate over tone between literary editors (see Scoggin 2001). I have posited the idea that approaches to writing ''zawen'' fall into two interdependent strategies, one overt and one covert, both blending the tactics of politics and poetics in perfect measure. Overt ''zawen'' are relatively bold and obvious in their churlish tone, reflecting confidence in a tolerant audience. Covert ''zawen'' are sometimes difficult to identify, disguised or hidden within other genre of writing, but still drawing upon the distinctive tones of ''zawen'' through intertextuality and other tricks. <br />
<br />
Below, I examine the mechanics of ''zawen'' tone through contrasting these two style of ''zawen'' issuing from a single pen, that of poet and noted ''zawen'' writer Shao Yanxiang.<br />
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在其他地方，我通过已发表的文学编辑之间关于语气的争论记录（见Scoggin 2001）来考察“语气”的功能。我认为，杂文的写作方法可以分为两种相互依存的策略，一种是显性的，另一种是隐性的，两者都是政治策略和诗学策略的完美结合。公开的杂文相对大胆和明显的粗鲁语气，反映出对一个宽容的观众的信心。隐性扎文有时很难识别，伪装或隐藏在其他文体中，但仍然通过互文性和其他技巧利用扎文的独特音调。<br />
下面，我通过对比诗人、著名杂文作家邵燕祥这两种杂文的风格，来探讨杂文声调的形成机制。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 08:34, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
The two essays discussed below form opposites sides of a spectrum of variable transparency, and vastly differing publishing circumstances, although they were composed only months apart by the same individual, one before and one after a specific political event in China. I argue here that unifying the two ''zawen'' is a particular subset of modal tropes, qualified as the verbal equivalent to a mule's kick, bite or bray. The expression of this unclearly delineated but distinctive subset of modal tropes is the single central mission of ''zawen'' as a genre in Chinese literature and society. Chinese theoretical debates over “tone” specifically address the function of this kind of modal trope. While sometimes as bald and direct, as in the overt ''zawen'' “Pei pei pei! ”?discussed below, many zawen conceal their weapons, depending upon contextual circumstances of publishing to pack their punch, as does the essay “East Station,” also discussed below.<br />
<br />
下面讨论的这两篇文章形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章是由同一个人撰写的，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸”?中，许多杂文隐藏他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如文章《东站》，也将在下面讨论。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 07:09, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
下面讨论的这两篇文章从相反的角度形成了一系列不同的透明度和迥然不同的出版情况，尽管这两篇文章由同一个人撰写，前后仅相隔几个月，分别是在中国某一特定政治事件之前和之后。在这里我认为，统一两个“杂文”是模态修辞的一个特定子集，在言语上相当于“骡子的踢”、“咬”或“叫”。表达这种没有明确划定但独特的模态修辞子集，是“杂文”作为中国文学和社会的一个流派的唯一中心任务。中国关于“调”的理论争论主要针对这类模态修辞的功能。然而有时又很直接，就像在下面讨论的公开的“杂文”“呸呸呸！”?中，许多杂文隐藏起他们的武器，根据发表的语境环境进行重击，正如将在下面讨论的文章《东站》。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 11:34, 9 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
Both types of ''zawen'' should be read “ethnographically,” in concrete social and historical circumstances. After covering some of the primary textual elements of ''zawen'', I will demonstrate the significance of more subtle contextual gestures of ''zawen'', which must be read out of the process of submitting and publishing ''zawen''. Through the contrast of these two essays, I will explicate and generalize about the formation and mechanics and of tone in modern Chinese literary history, and offer a thesis upon the reception of Chinese literature in Western scholarship as well.<br />
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杂文的两种类型都应该置于具体的社会和历史环境下，以“民族志”的方式解读。在介绍杂文一些基本的文章要素后，我会揭示杂文更细微的语境姿态的意义，而这个只能从提交和出版杂文的过程中解读出来。通过对比这两篇文章，我会我将对中国现代文学史上基调的形成、机制和基调进行阐述和概括，并就西方学术界接纳中国文学这件事发表一篇论文。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 07:05, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
An Demonstrative Sample – “'Pei Pei Pei!'?”<br />
''<br />
A friend from outside literary circles asked me to find him some “pei pei pei!” essays to read, and I had to stare at him blankly with nothing to say. He then explained that he had read in a newspaper that a certain provincial leader had announced at a banquet that there should be no more “pei pei pei – ing” all over the place, and so clearly there must be pei pei pei-ing all over the place. (Shao 1993, 181)<br />
So begins an essay entitled “呸呸呸!”? composed in February of 1989. I will return to the circumstances of publication shortly, but first I will demonstrate the trope of tone through this representative sample ''zawen.<br />
''<br />
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<br />
一个“呸呸呸！”的示例<br />
一个文学圈外的朋友让我给他找来一些呸呸呸的文章来读一读，我只好面无表情地看着他，无话可说。他就解释说，他在报纸上看到某省领导在一次宴会上宣布，各地不应再说“呸！呸！呸！”了，所以很明显到处都在说呸！呸！呸！。(邵1993，181) 1989年2月创作的一篇题为《呸呸呸！》的文章是由此开始的。关于发表时的情形，我将在不久后再谈，但首先我会通过这篇有代表性的杂文样本来解释语气的特例。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 02:26, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
A word like “Pei!” contains what we can call a modal trope, a figure of speech that captures mood and emotion, expressing not only subjunctive or declamatory mood, as adverbial modal tropes such as “could” and “should” may do in English, but also more subtly embedded mood in the semantics of lexical items (the meanings in words) expressing outrage, joy, command, sarcasm, threat, pathos, irony (Friedrich, 30-32). Usually modal tropes work together with other functions of language but in the case of “pei!” the modal trope is more nearly pure, it stands primarily for the emotional tone it communicates. A parallel sample in English might be something like “tut, tut, tut!” although “tut” fails to pack the censorious reproach of the Chinese “pei!”<br />
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像“呸！”一词包含一种我们可以称之为情态比喻的修辞手法，反应了说话人的心情和情绪，不仅表达了虚拟语气或宣告语气，和英语中的“可以”和“应该”这样的副词情态作用一样，而且更巧妙地将语气嵌入表达愤怒、喜悦的词汇项（单词中的含义）的语义中，用以表达命令，讽刺，威胁，悲伤，讽刺的情感（弗里德里希，30-32）。情态比喻通常与语言的其他功能共同作用，但在“呸！”这一例子中，情态比喻更接近其本身的作用，主要代表它所传达的情感基调。一个类似的英语例子可能是“tut, tut, tut!”（“啧啧，啧啧，啧啧！），但是“tut, tut”未能涵盖中文里“呸”的挑剔责备之意。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 06:07, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
像“呸！”一词包含一种我们可以称之为情态比喻的修辞手法，反应了说话人的语气和情感，不仅表达了虚拟语气或感叹语气，和英语中的“可以”和“应该”这样的副词情态作用一样，而且更巧妙地将语气嵌入表达愤怒、喜悦、命令、讽刺、威胁、伤感、反讽的词汇项（单词中的含义）的语义中（弗里德里希，30-32）。情态比喻通常与语言的其他功能共同作用，但在“呸！”这一例子中，情态比喻更接近其本身的作用，主要代表它所传达的情感基调。英语中一个类似的例子可能是“tut, tut, tut!”（“啧啧，啧啧，啧啧！），但是“tut, tut”未能涵盖中文里“呸”的挑剔责备之意。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:39, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
In the case of this title, modal functions are reinforced by several formal tropes. Note the repetition (three pei's!) and the complex punctuation consisting of an exclamation point and a question mark, separated by quotation marks. In the case of “Pei pei pei!”?, the ''zawen'''s own voice is not the primary expression of the tone of disgust. The quotation marks invoke disgust only to distance it, while the question mark further challenges it. The title alone demonstrates modal function with very little distraction; one character, two repetitions and three punctuation marks move this title in several modally intense directions at once with almost no referential content at all.<br />
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就此标题而言，几个正式比喻加强了情态功能。注意引号将”呸！呸！呸！“以及由一个感叹号和一个问句组成的复杂标点分离开来。在”呸呸呸“的例子中，厌恶的语气并不主要是由”杂文“本身表达出来的，引号引起的厌恶只是为了疏远它，然而问号进一步挑战了它。标题本身只是用小小的娱乐意味展示了情态功能；一个汉字，两个重复和三个标点符号同时动摇了此标题的情态强度方向。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:32, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
就此标题而言，几个正式比喻加强了情态功能。注意重复“呸！呸！呸！”以及由一个感叹号和一个问句组成的复杂标点分离开来。在“呸呸呸”这一例子中，厌恶的语气并不主要由“杂文”本身表达，引号引起的厌恶只是为了疏远它，然而问号进一步挑战了它。标题本身只是用小小的娱乐意味展示了情态功能；一个汉字，两个重复和三个标点符号同时动摇了此标题的情态强度方向。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:20, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
“Pei pei pei!”? performs a transparent metadiscursive comment upon ''zawen'', in this case defending the extracurricular genre favored by declasse intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang, himself, a “retired” poet who had resigned with bitterness from his career at the central Chinese poetry journal ''Shikan'', and devoted his post official career to writing zawen. Upon learning of this unnamed “provincial leader's” complaint about “pei pei pei”-ing, and sensing that he himself bore some responsibility for this reportedly lamentable state of affairs, Shao writes that he discovered that the provincial leader had indeed characterized a kind of caustic, sarcastic disparaging discourse about the party, the nationality and the people, as “pei pei pei-ing all over the place” and that he had further warned that this kind of talk was spreading a mood of despair and hopelessness. <br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
In the remainder of this essay Shao ridicules said provincial leader's complaint as circular, admitting no culpability on the part of his own fellow ''zawen''-writing social critics. <br />
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The tone of “Pei pei pei!”? is that of pointed irony, expressed recursively upon three levels. The first level is located in the words themselves, including the use of “pei” I have described above. This “first order” irony, as I have described it (Scoggin 1997), is an elementary type of sarcasm, a part of the conventional rhetoric of any language, written or spoken, and not usually misunderstood by a competent interpreter.<br />
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在文章的剩余部分绍讥讽道省领导的申诉是一个闭环，不承认他的同伴所写的社会批判性杂文有任何的罪恶。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸”的语气是尖锐的讽刺，递进的传达着三个层次的含义。第一层含义是基于词语本身，包括我在前面所提到的“呸”的使用。正如我所描述的那样（Scoggin 1997），这种“一阶”讽刺是讽刺的一种基本类型，是任何语言的传统修辞学的一部分，无论书面或口语，通常都不会被有能力的口译员误解。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 09:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在文章的剩余部分绍讥讽道省领导的申诉是一个闭环，不承认他的同伴所写的社会批判性杂文有任何的罪恶。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸”的语气是尖锐的讽刺，以递进的方式传达着三个层次的含义。第一层含义是基于词语本身，包括我在前面所提到的“呸”的使用。正如我所描述的那样（Scoggin 1997），这种“一阶”讽刺是讽刺的一种基本类型，是任何语言的传统修辞学的一部分，无论书面或口语，通常都不会被有能力的口译员所误解。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:46, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
Other examples of this level of tone in “Pei pei pei!”? would include the attitude of “stupidity” Shao Yanxiang assumes when he claims that he looks for pei pei pei ing “all over the place” but cannot find any at all, and the repeated use of expressions he lifted from the pointedly unnamed “provincial leader's” talk, including the primary charge of “mockery, sarcasm and scornful dismissal” Shao is refuting, and also the leader's assertion of “discipline and rectification,” which Shao has skillfully turned into a counter charge. <br />
<br />
A second level of irony requires contextual knowledge on the part of the reader. This includes assumptions that would be obvious to most readers.<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸!”？中这种程度的语气的例子包括，邵彦祥在“到处”寻找呸呸呸，却一无所获时所采取的“愚蠢”的态度，以及他从完全不知名的“省级领导”的谈话中反复使用的表达方式，包括主要的“嘲笑、讽刺和轻蔑的解雇”，邵逸祥反驳道，还有领导对“纪律严明”的断言，邵巧妙地把这句话变成了反击。<br />
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第二层次的反讽需要读者的语境知识。这包括对大多数读者来说显而易见的假设。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 05:03, 11 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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“呸呸呸！”中这种音调水平的其他示例吗？其中包括”愚蠢”的态度，邵燕翔宣称当他在“到处”寻找呸呸呸的时候，却在哪儿也找不见它了，以及从完全不知名的“省领导的”的讲话中，他指出了那些重复的使用，包括邵伟反驳的主要指控“嘲弄，嘲讽和轻蔑”，以及领导人对“纪律和整顿”的主张，邵伟已巧妙地将其反驳。<br />
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第二层次的反讽需要需要该部分读者的语境知识。这包括了对于大多数读者来说都显而易见的假设。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 13:06, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
For example, Shao Yanxiang claims that he has never heard of the idea that “literary publications should be of assistance in stabilizing the people's minds, increasing faith, and not demoralizing the people's will.” But just such a position has clearly been long-standing socialist policy for many kinds of public writing, including media news and literature. References to historical events in terms like the cultural revolution tones of “newspaper [published] by all the people” and Han Shaogong's controversial Post-Mao short story “Ba Ba Ba” fall somewhere in between the first and second levels of ironic tone. <br />
<br />
A third level, which I have labeled “indexical irony,” makes use of immediately contextual information such as the actual publishing outlet of the essay (in this case, the mainstream ''Literature Journal'' essay column “Literature and the People's Lives,” which Shao mentions at the end of the article) and Shao's own writing persona.<br />
<br />
例如，邵彦祥声称他从未听说过“文学出版物应在稳定人民思想，增进信仰，不使人民意志消沉方面有所帮助”这一思想。 但是，这种立场显然已经成为包括媒体新闻和文学在内的许多公共写作的长期社会主义政策。 对历史事件的引用，例如“全民[报纸]的文化大革命”和韩少功备受争议的毛泽东短篇小说“八八八”，都介于第一和第二讽刺语调之间。<br />
<br />
第三个层次，我称之为 "索引性反讽"，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏 "文学与百姓生活"）和邵自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:13, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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比如，邵燕祥声称，他从来没有听说过 "文艺刊物要对稳定民心、增加信仰、不挫伤民心意志有帮助 "的观点。 但就这样的立场，显然是包括媒体新闻和文学在内的多种公开写作的长期社会主义政策。 像 "全民办报（出版）"的文革调子和韩少功的争议性后毛短篇小说《巴巴》等词语对历史事件的提及，都属于第一和第二层次的反讽调子。 <br />
<br />
第三层次，我称之为 "索引性反讽"，利用文章的实际出版渠道（在这里，邵逸夫在文章结尾提到的主流''文学报''散文专栏《文学与人民生活》）和邵逸夫自己的写作人设等即时语境信息。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:17, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
''Zawen'' often make extensive use of this third, intimately contextualized level. In this case Shao claims that he can find no “pei pei pei” articles, but many readers would recognize that he himself is well known for writing ''zawen'' that would certainly qualify.<br />
<br />
In “Pei pei pei!”? Shao Yanxiang has deliberately sought out an accusation that he then counters with withering acerbity. Complaint, combat and disgust are just the beginning of the range of contentious moods that ''zawen'' represent. ''Zawen'' accuse, retaliate, needle, and snarl; but as I will demonstrate shortly, they can also moan and sigh with considerable subtly. Either way they clothe all this, quite often, in word games of subterfuge and indirectness, which -- beyond the intellectual puzzle of circumlocution also common in other genres of verbal art -- carries the weight of ''zawen'''s mission in the singular feature of tone.<br />
<br />
<br />
“杂文”常常广泛运用第三层次，即与语境化紧密联系的层次。在这种情况下，邵燕祥声称他找不到“呸呸呸”的文章，但许多读者都知道，他本人以写“杂文”而闻名，这肯定是符合条件的。<br />
<br />
“呸呸呸!”? 邵燕祥故意找人指责他，然后用尖酸刻薄之语加以反驳。抱怨、战斗和厌恶只是“杂文”所代表的一系列有争议情绪的开始。“杂文”是指责、报复、针锋相对、咆哮的；但正如我稍后将演示的那样，它们也可以相当巧妙地呻吟和叹息。不管怎样，他们常常把这一切穿插在诡辩和间接的文字游戏中，这一点——除了在其他语言艺术流派中常见的迂回曲折的智力谜团之外——承载着“杂文”的使命，即声调的独特特征。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 03:01, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
As a ''zawen'' writer, the “provincial leader's” complaint is exactly the sort of accusation intellectuals like Shao Yanxiang are accustomed to facing. His defense links the ''zawen'' mission to many others we could find in diverse settings; he is also answering, for example, Spiro Agnew's famous condemnation of “nattering nabobs of negativism” in American public discourse, and displaying the cross-cultural breadth of a “Jeremiad,” evident in the travel-worthy allusion of the very term, rooted in biblical texts. In this and other ''zawen'', Shao defends the contemporary Chinese genre of zawen as genre of protest and complaint. He borrows the insult of a critic to distinguish thoughtless emotional battering from the carefully aimed spar, which is both his own ideal and the standard mission of the genre of ''zawen.''<br />
作为一个“杂文”作家，对于来自“省领导”的批评，像邵彦翔这样的知识分子已经习惯面对。他对领导做出的解释让人们把写杂文和我们可以在不同环境中找到的其他任务联系起来;例如，他还解释了斯皮罗·阿格纽(Spiro Agnew)为什么要谴责美国公共演讲中著名的”喋喋不休的消极主义者，并说明了这种悲哀在跨文化上，在这个源自圣经的术语的典当中的广泛性。在这篇杂文和他其他的作品中，邵表示当代中国的杂文是用来表达抗议和不满的文体。他借用了批评家的侮辱言论来区分无意识的情感伤害和有意的争吵，这既是他自己的理想，也是“杂文”应该表现的。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 15:08, 11 December 2020 (UTC)”<br />
<br />
作为一名“杂文”作家，“省领导”的抱怨正是像邵燕祥这样的知识分子习惯面对的那种指责。他对领导做出的解释让人们把写杂文和我们在不同环境中可以找到的许多其他任务联系起来；例如，他还回答了斯皮罗·阿格纽（Spiro Agnew）在美国公共话语中对“消极主义的喋喋不休”出名的谴责，并展示了"耶利米德"的跨文化广度，这一术语在源于圣经文本的关于旅行的字词中显而易见。 在《杂文》和其他杂文中，邵燕祥为当代中国的杂文流派做辩护，认为杂文是抗议和抱怨的流派。他借用批评家的侮辱来区分思想上的情感打击和精心策划的争吵，这既是他自己的理想， 也是 “杂文” 流派的标准使命。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 09:05, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
'''A Restrained Sample – “East Station”'''<br />
<br />
I have outlined how one essay demonstrates the function of ''zawen'' in a particularly transparent way, but some of the best and most effective zawen are covert operations. On the opposite side of spectrum of transparency, we can place a relatively understated and “essay-like” ''zawen'', also by Shao Yanxiang. “East Station” was submitted for a national ''zawen'' competition in a southern evening newspaper in 1994. It was judged too “sensitive” to publish by the zawen editor, but nevertheless it was privately noted by the editors as the unofficial winner of the competition. At first glance there is very little to mark it as a ''zawen'' at all, not to mention a seditious ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
受约束的样本–“东站”'''<br />
<br />
我已经概述了一篇文章如何以一种特别透明的方式展示“ 杂文”的功能，但是一些最好，最有效的杂文是秘密行动。 在透明度范围的另一面，我们可以放一个相对低调的，也像邵燕香一样的“散文式”“ 杂文”。 1994年，“东方站”在南方晚报上提交给全国“ 杂文”竞赛。它被杂文编辑认为过于“敏感”而无法出版，但编辑私下指出它是非官方的比赛获胜者。乍一看，几乎没有什么可以将其标记为“ 杂文”的，更不用说煽动性的“ 杂文”了。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 05:47, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
It is a rather lyrical survey of historical images centering upon refugees, migrants, political and literary figures on their passages to and from Beijing. It does, however, contain a few of the indications of first level irony that traditionally mark a ''zawen'', such as a “quotation” placed for its jarring effect, as in the opening passage below.<br />
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Thirty years ago in Beijing, if you mentioned “East Station,” everybody would know that referred the Beijing East Station that lies to the outer East Side of Front Gate. Today this unremarkable construction, built in a half-westernized architectural style and sandwiched between the tall buildings of this noisy and busy city, supports a little sign that reads “Railway Workers Club.” It is already an “ancient artifact,” long gone are the prosperous and glorious days of old.<br />
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此文是以流民，移民，政治和文学人物往返北京为中心的历史形象的抒情研究。然而，它确实包含了一些传统上标记“杂文”的第一层讽刺的暗示，例如为了其刺耳效果而放置的“引语”，如下面的开头段落所示。<br />
三十年前的北京，如果提到“东站”，大家都会知道是指位于正门外东侧的北京东站。如今，这座半西化建筑风格的不起眼的建筑，夹在喧嚣闹市的高楼大厦之间，支撑着一块“铁路工人俱乐部”的小牌子，已是“古文物”，昔日的繁华辉煌早已一去不复返了。<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
The somber opening paragraph is in part marked as a zawen by the appearance of snapshot “quote,” in which what might have been a significant icon of Beijing history is reduced to a cheesy “Railway workers club” sign hanging on a architecturally half-breed building not even worthy of preservation. Other ironic comments of this sort include Shao's sarcastic reference to Guo Moruo;<br />
<br />
And in March of 1949, when Guo Moruo and his democrats gathered together and arrived in Beijing, they were received with grand ceremonious welcome; the tears they wept were of joy. At the time, he composed a poem “How much of the people's blood was spilled for this honor.<br />
<br />
沉闷的开场白部分是由快照“引文”的出现而标记为杂文的，其中可能是北京历史上的一个重要标志，被简化为一个俗气的“铁路工人俱乐部”标志，悬挂在一座半成品建筑上，甚至不值得保存。 其他类似的讽刺评论包括邵逸夫讽刺郭沫若；<br />
1949年3月，当郭沫若和他的民主党人齐聚北京时，他们受到了隆重的欢迎，他们流下的泪水是喜悦的。当时，他写了一首诗“为了这个荣誉，人民的洒了多少鲜血。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:02, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
Thinking of it, the tears fall, and happy laughter is unable to articulate in sound.” -- I do not know why, but this poem was not collected in any of his later collections.<br />
<br />
In a similar but more deeply contextualized vein would be Shao Yanxiang's allusion to Tu Fu's escape during the An Lu Shan rebellion during the Tang Dynasty contained in the quoted term “fortuitous rescue.” Shao's general structure in this piece is a recurring cyclical allegory that parallels the Japanese, the Nationalists and the Communists in bitter condemnation of the last, as only one more invasive army disturbing the lives of ordinary Chinese people. The People's Traffic Police also take their place in this cycle, a silly reminder that we are still in the realm of ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
Obviously this kind of first and second-level rhetorical sarcasm and historical irony alone is not enough to define an essay as a ''zawen'', but the difficulty of assigning an essay its genre is also no obstacle; ambiguous “mixedness” is part of ''zawen'''s identity. This covert zawen depends most fundamentally upon indexical irony, to an extent that surpasses “Pei Pei Pei!”?, above. One crucial feature that makes “East Station” a ''zawen'' is the entirely untextual fact that Shao Yanxiang submitted it in a competition specifically designated for ''zawen'' in a provincial evening newspaper. The editors did not reject the piece as “non-''zawen'',” on the contrary, they complained that it contained too much of the requisite ''zawen'' pique. In order to understand this, we must again go beyond the actual words of the piece.<br />
<br />
仅从一级和二级讽喻修辞及历史讽刺角度分析显然不足以将一篇文章定义为“杂文”，但将一篇文章分类的难题也不是什么障碍；含糊“混杂”是“杂文”的特点之一。杂文的隐蔽性更多地依赖于索引性讽刺，在某种程度上来说，它超越了“呸呸呸！”。把《东站》这篇文章归为“杂文”的一个关键因素是由于其完全无文本性这一事实，邵燕祥在地方晚报“杂文”特辑上发表这篇文章。编者也不否认这篇文章不是一篇“杂文”；相反地，他们抱怨这篇文章涵盖太多“杂文”必不可少的气息。为了解这一点，我们必须再次透过文字本身来看这篇文章。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 14:49, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
In a late night conversation in which the managing editor and two guests including myself drank beer and discussed the ''zawen'' competition to which “East Station” was submitted, the editor mused about the publication that wasn't. She said;<br />
<br />
Actually Shao Yanxiang submitted two manuscripts, but I had to return one. (Reaching around to a drawer) Well, I wanted to return it to him, but then I couldn't bear to. The original is still here, I wonder if you will understand? It requires some background...At the time it was the head editor that rejected the manuscript. He also felt badly, but there was no question but that it could not be printed, because it would certainly cause trouble...This happens with your friends, but I really felt uncomfortable about this one.<br />
<br />
在那个深夜，总编辑与包括我在内的两位客人喝了啤酒，我们还讨论了杂文竞赛，有本参赛的书叫“东站”。想到那本未出版的书。 编辑陷入了深思，她说：<br />
<br />
实际上邵炎祥上交了两份手稿，但我必须退回一份。 （她接着走到抽屉边）是的，我想把这份还给他，但我还是不忍心。 原稿还在这里，我想知道你们是否会明白？ 这需要对当时的背景有一些了解...当时是首席编辑拒绝了手稿。 他也感到难受，但无疑这本书不能被印刷出来，因为到时候肯定会引起麻烦……他是你们的朋友，但是我真的对此感到不舒服。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:44, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
Because this essay was just written so well. He just wrote about the East Station, but he used Beijing East Station to talk about his view on everything. (Scoggin Fieldnotes) <br />
<br />
She continued to discuss the essays that were just too “that way” (''neige le'') as they came in for the competition. “One day the police came and looked through that box all afternoon!” she added. The managing editor's two guests that evening jumped on her comment, “They what!?” But she retained the appearance of serenely refusing to interpret this police visit as a sinister gesture.<br />
It was just manuscripts, why should they look at those? They said they were just reading, there were two of them, I really don't know, I guess they enjoyed reading them too.(ibid)<br />
<br />
因为这篇作文实在是写得太好了。他只是写了东站，但是他用北京东站来谈他对一切的看法。(史可法场记)<br />
<br />
她继续谈论参赛的散文，认为文章太"那样"了。她继续说道：“有一天，警察来了，整个下午都在翻阅那个盒子！”当晚，主编的两位客人突然评论道：“他们干什么！”但她平静地拒绝将这次警察访问解释为一种险恶姿态的外貌。<br />
这只是手稿， 他们为什么要看那些？他们说他们只是在读书， 有两个， 我真的不清楚， 我想他们也喜欢读吧。（同上）--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 10:17, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因为这篇文章写得太好了。他只是写了东站，但他用北京东站谈他对一切的看法。(史可法场记)<br />
她继续谈论参赛的散文，认为文章太"那样"（奈格乐）了。她继续说道：“有一天，警察来了，整个下午都在翻阅那个盒子！”当晚，总编辑的两位客人突然说道，“他们在干什么！？”但她仍然保持着平静的样子，拒绝把这次警方的访问解释为一种邪恶的姿态。<br />
这只是手稿，他们为什么要看那些？他们说他们只是在看书，有两个，我真的不知道，我想他们也喜欢看吧。（同上）--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:14, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
When she finally found the manuscript (tucked away where snooping police would not have found it) she decided to give it to me. She said she had called Shao Yanxiang to tell him that they could not print it, and even though he had said he understood, she still hated to bring the matter to his attention again by sending the essay back to him, and now it seemed too late. Since I was also acquainted with him, and clearly admired him, giving the manuscript to me as research material seemed to her to be a fitting conclusion to the whole matter. <br />
<br />
In the original manuscript of “East Station” is signed, as is the custom, with the date it was composed at the bottom, “September 13, 1989.” Although it was submitted to the newspaper in 1994, in a private note scrawled to the editors, Shao added; “Please don't cut or change this date.<br />
<br />
当她终于找到手稿时（藏在窥探警察找不到的地方），她决定把它给我。她说，她曾打电话给邵燕祥，告诉他，他们不能打印。即使他说，他理解，她仍然不愿意再次提请他注意的问题，把文章给他，现在似乎为时已晚。由于我也认识他，显然很敬佩他，把手稿给我作为研究材料，在她看来是整个事情最合适的结果。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在原稿上签着“东站”，按照习俗，与日期“1989年9月13日”一起在底部。虽然1994年它提交给了该报，但用一份私人便条向编辑们草草写了字，但邵补充说：“请不要剪掉或更改此日期。”--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 08:34, 12 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
终于她找到了手稿，并且决定把它给我。她说，她曾打电话给邵燕祥，告诉他，这本书不能印刷出版。邵燕祥说他理解，但她还是不愿意把手稿还给他，以免让他再次想起这件事，但现在似乎为时已晚。由于我也和他熟识，并且显然很敬佩他，把手稿给我当做研究材料，在她看来是最好的选择。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 07:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
The new railway station began operation in 1959, and this fits in parallel with 'more that thirty years ago' at the beginning of the essay.” The emphasis upon these dates forces a new consideration of the essay as a whole. Suddenly the parallel between Nationalist, Japanese and Communist cycles of refuge and expulsion he mentions are rendered a sinister reference to a modern “rebellion” in the spring and summer of 1989. The date heightens the threat of Shao's concluding two sentences; “Today will also become history. And every inch of Beijing earth will provide proof of its history.” The scrawled note links 30 years, 1989, “today,” and the defiant “inches of proof” that mark East Station as a zawen, even beyond the micro structure of submission channels. For all its elusively distant tone, East Station suddenly became a pointed, angry, and, even in 1994, unpublishable ''zawen''.<br />
<br />
新火车站于1959年开始运营，这与文章开头的'三十多年前'相吻合"。对这些日期的强调，迫使我们对文章的整体进行新的考虑。突然间，他提到的国民党、日本和共产党的避难和驱逐周期之间的平衡，被恶意渲染成1989年春夏的现代 "叛乱 "。这个日期强调了邵的最后两句话：“今天也将成为历史。而北京大地的每一寸土地都将为其历史提供证明。" 这张潦草的纸条将30年、1989年、"今天 "和不顾一切的 "寸土寸金 "联系在一起，这标志着东站作为一个杂文，甚至超越了提交渠道的微观结构。尽管东站的语气难以捉摸，但它突然变成了一个尖锐的、愤怒的、甚至在1994年还无法出版的杂文。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:15, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
新火车站于1959年开始运营，与本文开头的“三十多年前”相适应。” 对这些日期的强调迫使我们对论文作为一个整体进行新的考虑。 他提到，国民党，日本人和共产党人的避难和驱逐循环之间的相似之处突然变成了对1989年春夏的现代“叛乱”的阴险参考。这一日期加剧了邵的结论的威胁。 今天也将成为历史。 北京的每一寸土地都将提供其历史的证明。” 散乱的笔记将1989年的30年（今天）与挑衅的“几分证据”联系起来，这标志着东站成为杂文，甚至超出了提交渠道的微观结构。 尽管遥不可及，但东站突然变得尖锐，愤怒，甚至在1994年，也无法发表“杂文”。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 09:18, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
'''A Larger Trend: Revealing Ugly Truth through Troubled Tones'''<br />
<br />
It is almost a matter of definition, then, that discordant, troubling tones are the characteristic, even of the most beautiful ''zawen''. I have not illustrated “ugly” ''zawen'' here, but they do exist, and in profusion. Many ''zawen'' are suffused in a preachy, pedantic tone that is sometimes quite off-putting to Chinese and non-Chinese readers alike. And yet, like the larger category of essays in Chinese literature, ''zawen'' remain a popular staple in the literary supplements of Chinese newspapers, and many prominent writers turn later in their career to writing ''zawen''. In contemporary history the “mule” genre of ''zawen'' has also played a significant political role far beyond its humble posture (see Scoggin 1997).<br />
<br />
一个更大的趋势。通过烦恼的语气来揭示丑陋的真相。<br />
那么，这几乎是一个定义的问题，不和谐的、令人不安的音调是特征，即使是最美丽的杂文也是如此。我在这里没有说明 "丑陋 "的杂文，但它们确实存在，而且数量很多。很多文都充斥着一种说教的、迂腐的语气，有时让中国和非中国的读者都很不喜欢。然而，就像中国文学中更大的散文类别一样，杂文仍然是中国报刊文学副刊中的热门主打，许多著名作家在其职业生涯的后期都会转向写杂文。在当代历史上，"骡子 "文体也发挥了重要的政治作用，远远超出了它的卑微姿态（见Scoggin 1997）。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 08:57, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''一个更大的趋势：用混乱的声音揭示丑陋的真相'''<br />
这几乎是一个定义的问题，那么，不和谐的、麻烦的音调是特点，即使是最美丽的杂文也如此。我在这里没有说明“丑陋的”杂文，但它们确确实实存在，而且数量繁多。许多杂文充斥着一种说教、迂腐的语气，这对中国和外国读者来说有时是相当令人讨厌的。然而，与中国文学中较大的一类散文一样，杂文仍然是中国报纸文学副刊的主要内容，许多著名作家在后来的职业生涯中都转向写杂文。在当代历史上，“骡子”类型的杂文也发挥了重要的政治作用，远远超出了其谦卑的姿态（see Scoggin 1997）。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:13, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
What is it about this genre that draws prominent writers, and commands significant attention of the Chinese readership? The answer lies, I think, in assumptions about the mechanics of tone rooted in Chinese literary history. To examine this problem we need to leave particular zawen behind and examine a larger picture that views Chinese literature via the globalized perspective that contemporary Chinese critics take.<br />
<br />
''Zawen'' as a category causes problems for Chinese as well as non Chinese classification, but there is a revealing divide between Western and Chinese treatment of zawen. With few exceptions, ''zawen'' has been neglected as a subject of the study of Chinese literature from outside of China until recently (the Achern conference on the Modern Chinese Literary Essay being a rare exception, with several papers devoted to zawen.)<br />
<br />
这种类型吸引了杰出的作家，并引起了中国读者的极大关注？我认为答案在于中国文学史的机械性假设。要审视这一问题，我们需要抛开特定的杂文，从当代中国批评家的全球化视角审视中国文学。<br />
“杂文”作为一个范畴，给汉语和非汉语的分类都带来了问题，但中西方对“杂文”的处理有着明显的分歧。“杂文”是近年来国外华文文学研究中一个被忽视的课题，但也有少数例外（阿奇恩中国现代文学随笔会议是一个罕见的例外，有几篇论文专门讨论了扎文）。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 13:48, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
While the problem of the status of zawen is not important in itself, I propose difficulties with this particular genre can reflect larger issues of significance to the study of Chinese literature and culture more generally. ''Zawen'' can highlight some special features of Chinese writing that are latent in other, more respectable forms of Chinese literature and culture. My research on ''zawen'' showed many instances of zawen being held up as a unique outgrowth of Chinese particularities, such as a fondness for brevity in verbal art, a tendency to take intellectuals more seriously than they are taken in contemporary societies elsewhere, as well as a few “perversions” that are supposedly unique to China, such as political tyranny that is strikingly detail-oriented, or collective aversion to verbal performance that is too straightforward (Scoggin 1997).<br />
尽管杂文现状问题本身不是很重要，但是在更大层面上，即站在研究中国文学与文化的角度上看，克服掉研究这种特别类型的困难还是有很大意义的。“杂文”可以突显中国写作的一些独特特征，这些特征潜在于中国文学与文化中的其他更为体面的类型里面。在我对于“杂文”的研究里，展现了很多可证实杂文作为中国人性格发展结果的例子，比如说，喜爱口头表达的简洁，较比现代社会，以前的文人墨客被看得更重，以及一些中国独有的“反常”现象，比如明显关注细节的政治暴政或者对于过于直白的口头表现的集体厌恶。--[[User:Zhou Shiqing|Zhou Shiqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shiqing|talk]]) 08:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing<br />
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==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
Some of these claims for Chinese exceptionalism may be overblown; but I think that the genre, driven by what I argue is its central mission of tone, makes observable certain strains and practices that have acted as stumbling blocks to international research on other aspects of Chinese culture. <br />
<br />
Chief among those obstacles to the study of Chinese literature is what I call the “bad literature” complaint.[ For recent affirmations of this complaint, see Huters 1990, McDougall 1997, Link, 2000. Earlier views in American sinology tie "bad literature" directly to the effects of political tyranny. ] Summarizing several quite different lines of argument, the suggestion is that with all the promise of Chinese literature holds as a naturally poetic language, with rich, revered and well-preserved traditions, with the particular visual and grammatical advantages of the Chinese character and linguistic structure, and further with dedicated literary “troops” to use the modern Chinese metaphor for institutions of organized and supported writers, modern Chinese literature has failed to produce truly great literature.<br />
<br />
这些对中国例外论的主张也许有些夸大其词。但我认为，在我所说的语调中心使命的推动下，这一体裁产生了一些明显的张力和做法，它们成为了国际上对中国文化其他方面研究的绊脚石。<br />
在中国文学研究的这些障碍中，最主要的是我所说的“糟糕文学”抱怨。[最近对这一投诉的肯定，见胡志德1990，麦独,1997，林克，2000，美国汉学早期的观点将“糟糕文学”与政治暴政直接联系在一起。]总结几条截然不同的论据，我们的建议是，尽管中国文学的所有希望都是一种自然诗意的语言，有着丰富、受人尊敬和保存完好的传统，具有汉字和语言结构的独特视觉和语法优势，而且还具有专门的文学作品“军队”，用现代汉语比喻制度中有组织、有支持的作家，中国现代文学未能产生真正伟大的文学作品。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 11:01, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
Obviously this generalization is subject to objection at many, if not all of its points. I would argue, however, that the consistency with which similar arguments emerge, defensible or not, points to themes of some significance. Complaints frequently accrue over the following literary practices;<br />
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1)Indulging in churlish tones, including hectoring, scolding and otherwise “yelling” in print<br />
<br />
2)Adhering to one or another “politically correct line” <br />
<br />
3)Participating in personal squabbles and vendettas, sometimes involving extraliterary persecution of both writers and targets <br />
<br />
4)Exhibiting an “obsession” with China, and an oversized sense of responsibility for its fate<br />
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显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都遭到反对。然而，我要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br />
1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br />
2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br />
3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br />
4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 04:00, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
显然，这一概括在许多方面(如果不是全部观点的话)都会遭到反对。然而，我（在此）要说的是，类似的论点出现的一致性，无论站得住脚与否，都指向了一些有意义的主题。对以下文学行为的抱怨不断增加;<br />
1)肆无忌惮地使用粗鲁的语气，包括威吓、责骂以及在出版物中“大喊大叫”<br />
2)坚持自己的“政治正确路线”<br />
3)参与个人争吵和仇杀，有时还会对作者和被迫害的对象进行文学之外的迫害<br />
4)表现出对中国的“痴迷”，以及对中国命运的过度责任感--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 04:03, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
Interestingly, these complaints of “bad literature” are usually not strongly refuted by Chinese literary critics. Fair, true or not, this sort of summary criticism of the Jeremiah complex in Chinese literature in general is relevant to my discussion because these very faults that warrant the most notice are deliberately magnified in the genre of ''zawen'', and may be, I believe, essentially outgrowths of an almost unconscious commitment to the type of tone that defines the ''zawen'' genre most purely. I argue that what has happened here is that readers and analysts have failed to recognize a literary strategy that reflects deeper ideas about how tone is supposed to operate in verbal practice.<br />
<br />
有趣的是，中国文学评论家通常不会强烈反驳这些对“烂文学”的抱怨。不管是否公平与真实,在中国文学中，这种耶利米情结的总结批评大体上和我的研究是相关的,因为这些最值得注意的错误在" 杂文"中被故意放大了。我认为,这本质上也许是纯粹对定义“杂文”体裁语气类型的无意识承诺的发展。我认为，这里的问题在于，读者和分析人士未能认识到一种文学策略，这种策略反映了语气在口头练习中应该如何发挥作用的更深层次的观点。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 08:08, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
These “off” tones are not just flaws and mistakes resulting from tyranny or exaggeration, nor are they mere signs of amateur literary expression, the struggles of a culture trying to modernize. Instead they are held to be nearly involuntary markers, not of beauty, but what we will have to call for lack of a better word, “truth,” revealed by critical examination of shortcomings and problems that appear to stem from, again for lack of a better word, “culture.” Culture, in the high modern ideology adopted more or less wholesale in contemporary Chinese theoretical systems is opposed to the neutral modernity of newspaper editorials and literary short stories and the other canonical genres of modern writing practices. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
Culture is not general, it is particular and peculiar, and Chinese culture exerts a powerfully perverse influence upon most genres of literature practiced in China.<br />
<br />
Examining tone in the broader context of Chinese culture reveals some of particular ways that social exchange, reference and the other mundane duties that plain (neutral, modern) words are supposed to carry out, must be crosscut with characteristically Chinese tone in order to communicate with the authority of truth, in explicit defiance of social requirements for polite and face-saving locutions held to be necessary in a uniquely Chinese way. Thus, complaint about “bad literature,” from a Chinese perspective may not be a mere reflection of failure but, rather, an expression of protest, a modal trope, mule's kick that works with stubborn tenacity to reveal unpleasant truths.<br />
<br />
文化不是普遍的，而是特殊又独特的，中国文化对中国过去大多数流派的实用文学产生了强大的反常影响。<br />
<br />
在更广泛的中国文化语境中考察语气揭示了一些特定的社会交换的方式，必须以具有中国特色的格调横切，参照语和普通词语（中性，现代）词语应该承担的角色必须与具有特色的汉语语调相交汇以便与真理的权威沟通。显然，这无视以独特的中国方式所必需的礼貌和爱面子的社会要求。因此，从中国人的角度来看:对“不良文学”的抱怨可能不仅仅是失败的反映，而是一种抗议的表达，一种情感化的的比喻，一种用顽强的韧性来揭示令人不快事实的骡踢。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 02:51, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
''Zawen'' provide frequent commentary on precisely this issue. Lan Ling, a major opponent of “New Tone” zawen theory provides a characteristically provocative commentary on writing “the ugly truth” through zawen. In an essay that asks why such a fuss is made when a “upright and esteemed elderly writer” pronounces that he intends now to speak/write “the truth,” (he refers to Ba Jin, see ''Suiganlu'') Lan Ling demonstrates the difficulty of establishing truth through his own experience:<br />
<br />
It was several decades ago that they “struggled” me saying I was “reactionary.” I responded, “I am fundamentally not reactionary (''fandong''), in fact, I am actionary (''zhengdong'').” They said, “There you go with sophistry, you are lying, who has ever heard of such a thing as 'actionary'?” … But if what I said was false, that of course meant that what they said was true, and thus my political label was accomplished: “reactionary.” After several decades this conclusion was overturned and rectified, so now what I had said became the truth. (Lan, 85). <br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
The irony and false fatalism of this ''zawen'' is characteristic of its style. In this essay he claims to give up distinguishing the truth of his own speech; “No matter how difficult it is, this miserable person [I] still want to speak, and as for whether it is true or not, let someone else go analyze it.” (Lan, 85) Lan Ling reveals that he has created, in the heat of struggle, a misnomer; there is no such word as “actionary.” But, in the end, in its awkward and involuntary way, his retort rings true, what way is there to be, if not reactionary? Displaying all four characteristics of the “bad literature” complaint I have listed above, this piece is still an admired ''zawen''. It is the moody, but honest, kick of the mule.<br />
<br />
这种“杂文”中的反讽和错误的宿命论是其风格的特点。在这篇文章中他宣称放弃了甄别言论中的真伪；“不管有多困难，这个可怜的人[我]仍然想说，至于说的真假，就让别人去分析去吧。”（兰，85）兰陵表示，在激烈的斗争中，他出现过用词不当的情况；就比如没有像“actionary”这样的词。”但是最后他的反驳以笨拙和不自觉的方式听起来像是真的，即使不是反动派的话，还能是哪种呢？这篇文章展示了我以上所列举的“不良文学”的全部的四个特点，它仍然是一篇受人敬佩的“杂文”。它令人悲伤，但是真诚又执拗。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 14:25, 9 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这类杂文的风格特点是讽刺和虚假的宿命论。在这篇文章中，他声称要放弃辨别自身言论的真假，"无论多么困难，这个可怜的人（我）还是要说，至于说的是不是真的，就让别人去分析吧"。(兰，85)兰陵透露，他在斗争的热潮中，创造了一个误区，没有 ’行动力‘这个词。”但是，最后，他以笨拙和不由自主的方式作出的反驳，听起来又像真的，如果不是反动性，还能有什么方式呢？这篇文章表现出我上面所批判列举的 "劣质文学 "的四个特征，但它仍然是一篇令人钦佩的杂文。它是有情调的，却诚实有执拗。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 09:09, 10 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
''Tone in Historical Context''<br />
<br />
As evidence that it is the modal trope that inspired the genre of zawen from its inception, I conclude this essay with a brief look at historical manifestations of tone. It is key, and often part of the Chinese subtext, that the notion of tone (discussed alternately ''diao, yin, yun'') ultimately originates beyond words, in music. Even as a metaphor that must obliterate the acoustic qualities of sound when applied to written Chinese, tone maintains ties to the power of something that is in, or is like, sound, emphasizing physical, oral, informal and emotional qualities that are not part the rational process of exposition, this is the “poetry” of ''zawen''. Tone plays a role in a tremendous range of social events that surround and comprise writing. It occurs in the figure of music as a central metaphor in the most influential theories of literature and poetry.<br />
<br />
历史背景下的音调<br />
<br />
为了证明这是情态修辞启发了扎文这一体裁的产生，我在这篇文章的结尾简要介绍了音调在历史中的表现。音调的概念（也是人们讨论的“调”，“音”，“韵”）最终源于音乐中的文字，这很关键，而且这也经常是中文潜台词的一部分。即使它作为一个隐喻，在应用于中文书写时，它必须消除声音的声学品质，但语气仍与声音中或类似声音的事物保持联系，强调客观，口头，非正式和情感方面的品质，而这并不是声音的一部分。理性的阐释过程，这就是杂文的“诗”。音调在围绕和组成写作的众多社交活动中发挥着作用。它出现在音乐人物中，成为最有影响力的文学和诗歌理论中的中心隐喻。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 10:32, 13 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
For example, spoiled music can signal a larger or more abstract disturbance; in the classic novel Dream of the Red Chamber a heroine breaks a string on a instrument and sees her impending death; in a well known folk story a high ranking official Yu Boya hits a sour note and knows that a potential assassin is lurking in the woods, listening. Music figures centrally in the Confucian Great Preface to the Book of Odes:<br />
<br />
The affections emerge in sounds; when those sounds have patterning they are called “tones” [音] The tones of a well-managed aged are at rest and happy; its government is balanced. The tones of an age of turmoil are bitter and full of anger; its government is perverse. The tones of a ruined state are filled with lament and brooding; its people are in difficulty (Translated in Owen).<br />
<br />
例如，被破坏的音乐能预示更大或更抽象的不安。在经典小说《红楼梦》中，女主人公弄断了乐器上的一根弦，看到了自己即将到来的死亡。在一个广为人知的民间故事中，高官俞伯牙拨弄出了一个尖锐的音符，便知道有一个刺客正潜伏在树林里。音乐在儒家的《诗经大序》中占有核心地位。<br />
<br />
情感显现在声音里，当这些声音有了图式，就叫 "音"。在太平盛世里，音调是安然而欢快的，政通人和。在动荡年代里，音调是苦涩而充满愤怒的，政府是不作为的。破国的音调充满了哀叹和忧郁，人民处于水深火热之中（欧文译）。</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=111786History of Translation Studies 102020-12-13T17:11:35Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 5.Conclusion */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Hao Jingfang's science fiction "Folding Beijing" won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu's rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida's functional equivalence to "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". The theory of Nida's functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu's application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers' understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
<br />
===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work "Toward a Science of Translating". Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader's response to the translation.<br />
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===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
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====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida and Taber (2004：12) stated that “translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning.” Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
“Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead.” (Ken Liu 2015:1)<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word “the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls” for readers to understand. “Sour and spicy powder” is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses “hot and sour rice noodles” to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:2）<br />
“Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy.” (Ken Liu 2015:3)<br />
The translator uses “a toothpick dangling between his lips” to describe the action of picking teeth，it’s more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into “lazy and slovenly” to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into “the appearance of being perpetually grumpy”, in this way, the translation better expresses the author’s intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:7）<br />
“The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan.” (Ken Liu 2015:9)<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into “ the little flashing lights ”, but “Tiny flashing LEDs”. This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses “lapi”, which is to show the original meaning.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
<br />
Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: <br />
Example 1:<br />
“ ‘现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。’他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。’他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’” （Jingfang Hao 2016:12）<br />
“ ‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,’ he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don’t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I’ll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who’s incompetent will be fired.’ Since Lao Gao still didn’t seem to show much reaction, he added, ‘I’ll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.’ ” (Ken Liu 2015: 15)<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into “I’ll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion”, The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:25）<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015: 34) <br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing “In the dim lamplight” between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like “…childhood that…”.<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉自己像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:27）<br />
“Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away.” (Ken Liu 2015: 34)<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like “as though”, “from where” and “that”, this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:17)<br />
“And so”—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao’s plate—“can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself.” <br />
Lao Dao didn’t pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
“Then I’d be lying, too,” Lao Dao said.<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. “Please accept this token of my appreciation.” (Ken Liu 2015: 23)<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into “spooned a serving of the new hot dish”, the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into “She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao”, this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
<br />
====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
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Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.<br />
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=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
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First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
Lao Dao’s stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble. (Ken Liu 2015: 3)<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的一段距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一段孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:7)<br />
The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea. (Ken Liu 2015: 9)<br />
In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "Xishan" and "gu" in the original text are not translated, only translated into “an island in the sea”, this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:8)<br />
The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky. (Ken Liu 2015: 9)<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, “skyscrapers” have “heads, feet, necks and arms”, and “like the humblest servants”, the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:9)<br />
Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster. (Ken Liu 2015: 11)<br />
In this sentence, although “怪胎” translate into “monster”, the “生”express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
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=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
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Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.<br />
For example, “伙计” in English “waiter” ,“铺盖卷” in English “bedrolls” ,“闺女”is translated as “real daughter” ,“她们认死理儿” is translated as “they don’t know how to be flexible”,“只是这么多年过来，人就木了.” (Jingfang Hao 2016: 25) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb.” (Ken Liu 2015: 37) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
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====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.<br />
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=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
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The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.<br />
Example 1:<br />
…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun… (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
“炒面”is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into “chow mein”, rather than “Chinese stir-fried noodles. In the dictionary, “chow mein” means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
Example 2:<br />
老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
…over a half bottle of baijiu… (Ken Liu 2015: 35)<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, “白酒” is translated into “baijiu” , the translator doesn’t use the word like “spirits”, it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
Example 3:<br />
“哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？” (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
“…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?” (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in the translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of “回锅”, and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.<br />
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=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
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Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.<br />
Example 1:<br />
…几个人分吃两个菜… (Jingfang Hao 2016:1)<br />
…and they shared two dishes family-style. (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
“分吃” is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he use the word “shared” and he add the word “family-style” to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
Example 2:<br />
“咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。” (Jingfang Hao 2016:20)<br />
“We’re practically from the same hometown! So, you don’t need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won’t give you up.” (Ken Liu 2015: 29)<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term “老乡” from a geographical perspective. “管事儿”means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“一点心意，你收下。” (Jingfang Hao 2016:17)<br />
“Please accept this token of my appreciation.” (Ken Liu 2015: 24)<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. “心意” means money, which is a euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered a euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word “appreciation”.<br />
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=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
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Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as “饿虎扑食”, the translator translated it into “ate heartily”, although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers. And “（盘子）一片狼藉”translated into “The dishes were a mess”, it is a brief description of the mess. And “成人之美” translated into “and in that case I’ll have done a good deed by keeping silent”, the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this chapter, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyzed from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Beijing fold" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western culture, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words. In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Hao Jingfang. Folding Beijing [J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy, 2015.<br />
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[2] Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004<br />
<br />
[4] 郝景芳.孤独深处[M].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社，2016：1-40<br />
<br />
[5] 谭载喜.新编奈达论翻译[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1999<br />
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[6] 许钧，穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京：译林出版社，2009<br />
<br />
[7] 赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J].文学教育，2011<br />
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[8] 周兴阳.从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[J].新疆大学，2018<br />
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[9] 王桂圆.系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[J].海外英语，2018<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
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Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
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“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
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American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
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The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
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===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
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====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
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As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
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====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts.<br />
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In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006). Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
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=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
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He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
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===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”(Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference.<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms. Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. He translated the pun in English into the pun in Chinese. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English. It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience of the drama will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. <br />
<br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. When the audience heard of “梁勉仁”, they would realize that Algernon was a double-faced person at once. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced, so the function of the original and the target language are the same. We guess that if Wilde writes this play in Chinese, he may use the same expression as Yu Guangzhong. Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality. <br />
<br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning of the source language.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
Allusions refer to the stories or words and sentences in ancient books quoted in poems; idioms refer to the fixed and customary expressions in a language, including proverbs, slang, catchphrase, lexical phrase, habitual collocation, restricted collocation, and etc. “There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
<br />
======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
<br />
(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just in order to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” in this dialogue actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.It is hard to translate alliteration in the target language. In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. In this example, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”<br />
.<br />
(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The form of the sentence has changed, while the meaning remained. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence”<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ manners and thoughts and the bourgeois society of his time, Victorian era.In the above example, Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while Lady. Bracknell says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox. After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text.<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul. <br />
<br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married. In order to persuade him, she compared the two reasons of not getting married. "The former is understandable, while the latter is incomprehensible"(Wen Tong, 2012). In example 6, Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works. <br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why The Importance of Being Earnest becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original. <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs. For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers.<br />
In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies. One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
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Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
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Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
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Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
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Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
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Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
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Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
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Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
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Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
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Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
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Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
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Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
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<br />
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<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui,2009)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language<br />
shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si, 2019)<br />
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==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lederer, 1969)<br />
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==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
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Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
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==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
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On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
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==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Liu Yue,Lan Jie, 2020)<br />
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==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.(Bevir,Mark,2002)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer, 2001)<br />
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===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
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*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-161+166.<br />
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*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
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*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
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*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
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*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-180+211.<br />
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*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
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='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
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==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
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===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
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In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
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==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
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=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
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====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
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“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
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==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
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(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
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(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
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==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
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=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
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=== References ===<br />
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Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.<br />
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Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University <br />
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Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70. <br />
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Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press<br />
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==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 ==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
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===I.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
<br />
In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014). Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72). Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
<br />
===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
<br />
''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displays their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefines translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explains that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (Lefevere 2003, xi). According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looks back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concludes that the previous discussion of translation is exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposes that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
<br />
I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translators' inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understandings, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “a author and a translator” to “a master and a slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or "translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered." Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating a poem in such a way is like “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator need not care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposes that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in chapter two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translators' inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. ( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, a number of texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003， xiii).<br />
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===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
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In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005. 2). In the FAQ passage, the author explains why he writes this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Then, it follows the titles of each chapter: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu's Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form"; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein's View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of "Language Game"; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: part one: to appeal for the reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; part two: to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; part three: to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
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The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179). The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of the translation functionalism.<br />
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Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i). This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in Pinimujing, the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987). In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005 46). As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51). The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104). The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52).Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15). Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104).<br />
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Some scholars expressed their views on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006). Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study.(Lu Wei, 2010).<br />
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===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
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4.1 From the aspect of the content<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
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Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracted other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
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4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper made a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
<br />
Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World], Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies'', Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
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Ancient Translation Period<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
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Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
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A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
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Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
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Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
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Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
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After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
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The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
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==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
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Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
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Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
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Innovation of ontology<br />
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Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
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==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
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Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
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The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
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Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
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The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
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As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
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==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
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Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
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First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
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Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
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First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
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Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
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Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
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Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
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==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
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Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
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Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
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Return to culture development<br />
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The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
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Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
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Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
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[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
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[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
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[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
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[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
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[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
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[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
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[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
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[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
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[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
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==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
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===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
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On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
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For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
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Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）.<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
<br />
===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
<br />
1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
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With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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Example 7<br />
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番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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Example 10<br />
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Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
<br />
Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 11<br />
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我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 12<br />
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“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 13<br />
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耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 14<br />
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“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 15<br />
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我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
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===''' References '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
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For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
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This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
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==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
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'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
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In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
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Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
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J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
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Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
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In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
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Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
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Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
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Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
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'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
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In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
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In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
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In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
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In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
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At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
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Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
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Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
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Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
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In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
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Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
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From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
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==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
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In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
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'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
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"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
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In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
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'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
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Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
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'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
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Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
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'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
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Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
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'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
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Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
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==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
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Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析学习翻译学科目前存在的问题，并提出相关的建议。 <br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''=== <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Study<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
<br />
As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc. At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.<br />
<br />
2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate. Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.<br />
<br />
2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction. In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training. There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
<br />
==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
<br />
3.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better. However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market. (Zhong Weihe 2019)Due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.<br />
<br />
3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
<br />
The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.<br />
<br />
3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
<br />
Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2020) For example, this kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
<br />
3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
<br />
The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare. besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011) However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.<br />
<br />
3.2. Students<br />
<br />
The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
<br />
3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
<br />
Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
<br />
3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
<br />
Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information. With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. (Xie Zhentian, 2015) Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.<br />
<br />
3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
<br />
At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
<br />
==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.<br />
<br />
4.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
<br />
The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. (Ou Yonghua 2019) This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.<br />
<br />
4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
<br />
Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
<br />
Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which is a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. Carry out the provision of roadmap (Lan Hongjun, 2018); the second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
<br />
4.2. Students <br />
<br />
The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
<br />
4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills. A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
<br />
Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020) The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
<br />
Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
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Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
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Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
<br />
Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
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Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
<br />
Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
<br />
Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
<br />
Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
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Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
<br />
Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
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Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
<br />
[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
<br />
[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
<br />
[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
<br />
[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
<br />
[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
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[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .<br />
<br />
== An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=111784History of Translation Studies 102020-12-13T17:10:18Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* References */</p>
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
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===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
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Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
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To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
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===Formal equivalence===<br />
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Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
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Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
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===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
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For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
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Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
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Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
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Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
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===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
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Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
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====Lexical equivalence====<br />
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Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
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Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
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It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
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====Syntax equivalence====<br />
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Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
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We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
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====Texual equivalence====<br />
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Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
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Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
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In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
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The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
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====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
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Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
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In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
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In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
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Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
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===References===<br />
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Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
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Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
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Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
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Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
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Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
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Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
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Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
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Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
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Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
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Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
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尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
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Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
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UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
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== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
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== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Hao Jingfang's science fiction "Folding Beijing" won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu's rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida's functional equivalence to "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". The theory of Nida's functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu's application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
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===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers' understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
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===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
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Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work "Toward a Science of Translating". Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader's response to the translation.<br />
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===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
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====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
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Nida and Taber (2004：12) stated that “translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning.” Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
“Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead.” (Ken Liu 2015:1)<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word “the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls” for readers to understand. “Sour and spicy powder” is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses “hot and sour rice noodles” to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:2）<br />
“Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy.” (Ken Liu 2015:3)<br />
The translator uses “a toothpick dangling between his lips” to describe the action of picking teeth，it’s more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into “lazy and slovenly” to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into “the appearance of being perpetually grumpy”, in this way, the translation better expresses the author’s intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:7）<br />
“The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan.” (Ken Liu 2015:9)<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into “ the little flashing lights ”, but “Tiny flashing LEDs”. This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses “lapi”, which is to show the original meaning.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
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Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: <br />
Example 1:<br />
“ ‘现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。’他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。’他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’” （Jingfang Hao 2016:12）<br />
“ ‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,’ he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don’t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I’ll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who’s incompetent will be fired.’ Since Lao Gao still didn’t seem to show much reaction, he added, ‘I’ll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.’ ” (Ken Liu 2015: 15)<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into “I’ll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion”, The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:25）<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015: 34) <br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing “In the dim lamplight” between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like “…childhood that…”.<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉自己像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:27）<br />
“Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away.” (Ken Liu 2015: 34)<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like “as though”, “from where” and “that”, this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:17)<br />
“And so”—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao’s plate—“can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself.” <br />
Lao Dao didn’t pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
“Then I’d be lying, too,” Lao Dao said.<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. “Please accept this token of my appreciation.” (Ken Liu 2015: 23)<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into “spooned a serving of the new hot dish”, the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into “She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao”, this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
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====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
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Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.<br />
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=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
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First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
Lao Dao’s stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble. (Ken Liu 2015: 3)<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的一段距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一段孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:7)<br />
The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea. (Ken Liu 2015: 9)<br />
In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "Xishan" and "gu" in the original text are not translated, only translated into “an island in the sea”, this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:8)<br />
The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky. (Ken Liu 2015: 9)<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, “skyscrapers” have “heads, feet, necks and arms”, and “like the humblest servants”, the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:9)<br />
Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster. (Ken Liu 2015: 11)<br />
In this sentence, although “怪胎” translate into “monster”, the “生”express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
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<br />
=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
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Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.<br />
For example, “伙计” in English “waiter” ,“铺盖卷” in English “bedrolls” ,“闺女”is translated as “real daughter” ,“她们认死理儿” is translated as “they don’t know how to be flexible”,“只是这么多年过来，人就木了.” (Jingfang Hao 2016: 25) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb.” (Ken Liu 2015: 37) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
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====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.<br />
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=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
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The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.<br />
Example 1:<br />
…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun… (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
“炒面”is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into “chow mein”, rather than “Chinese stir-fried noodles. In the dictionary, “chow mein” means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
Example 2:<br />
老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
…over a half bottle of baijiu… (Ken Liu 2015: 35)<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, “白酒” is translated into “baijiu” , the translator doesn’t use the word like “spirits”, it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
Example 3:<br />
“哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？” (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
“…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?” (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in the translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of “回锅”, and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.<br />
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<br />
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
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Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.<br />
Example 1:<br />
…几个人分吃两个菜… (Jingfang Hao 2016:1)<br />
…and they shared two dishes family-style. (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
“分吃” is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he use the word “shared” and he add the word “family-style” to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
Example 2:<br />
“咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。” (Jingfang Hao 2016:20)<br />
“We’re practically from the same hometown! So, you don’t need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won’t give you up.” (Ken Liu 2015: 29)<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term “老乡” from a geographical perspective. “管事儿”means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“一点心意，你收下。” (Jingfang Hao 2016:17)<br />
“Please accept this token of my appreciation.” (Ken Liu 2015: 24)<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. “心意” means money, which is a euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered a euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word “appreciation”.<br />
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=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
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Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as “饿虎扑食”, the translator translated it into “ate heartily”, although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers. And “（盘子）一片狼藉”translated into “The dishes were a mess”, it is a brief description of the mess. And “成人之美” translated into “and in that case I’ll have done a good deed by keeping silent”, the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this chapter, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.<br />
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<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyzed from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Beijing fold" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western culture, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words. In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Hao Jingfang. Folding Beijing [J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy, 2015.<br />
<br />
[2] Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004<br />
<br />
[4] 郝景芳.孤独深处[M].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社，2016：1-40<br />
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[5] 谭载喜.新编奈达论翻译[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1999<br />
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[6] 许钧，穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京：译林出版社，2009<br />
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[7] 赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J].文学教育，2011<br />
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[8] 周兴阳.从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[J].新疆大学，2018<br />
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[9] 王桂圆.系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[J].海外英语，2018<br />
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==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
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Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
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“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
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American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
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The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
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===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
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====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
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===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
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As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
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====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts.<br />
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In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006). Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
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=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
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He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
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===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
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“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”(Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference.<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration. <br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms. Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. He translated the pun in English into the pun in Chinese. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English. It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience of the drama will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. <br />
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In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
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Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. When the audience heard of “梁勉仁”, they would realize that Algernon was a double-faced person at once. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced, so the function of the original and the target language are the same. We guess that if Wilde writes this play in Chinese, he may use the same expression as Yu Guangzhong. Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality. <br />
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In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning of the source language.<br />
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=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
Allusions refer to the stories or words and sentences in ancient books quoted in poems; idioms refer to the fixed and customary expressions in a language, including proverbs, slang, catchphrase, lexical phrase, habitual collocation, restricted collocation, and etc. “There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
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======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
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(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just in order to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” in this dialogue actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.It is hard to translate alliteration in the target language. In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. In this example, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”<br />
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(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The form of the sentence has changed, while the meaning remained. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence”<br />
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======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ manners and thoughts and the bourgeois society of his time, Victorian era.In the above example, Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while Lady. Bracknell says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox. After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
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(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text.<br />
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======Antithesis======<br />
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(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul. <br />
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(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married. In order to persuade him, she compared the two reasons of not getting married. "The former is understandable, while the latter is incomprehensible"(Wen Tong, 2012). In example 6, Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
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====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works. <br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why The Importance of Being Earnest becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original. <br />
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The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs. For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers.<br />
In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies. One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
<br />
Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
<br />
Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
<br />
Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
<br />
Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
<br />
Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
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Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
<br />
Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
<br />
Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
<br />
Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui,2009)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language<br />
shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si, 2019)<br />
<br />
==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lederer, 1969)<br />
<br />
==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
<br />
Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
<br />
==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
<br />
On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
<br />
==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Liu Yue,Lan Jie, 2020)<br />
<br />
==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.(Bevir,Mark,2002)<br />
<br />
The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer, 2001)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
<br />
*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
<br />
*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-161+166.<br />
<br />
*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
<br />
*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
<br />
*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-180+211.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
<br />
In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
<br />
=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
<br />
==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
<br />
=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
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“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
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==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
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(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
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(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
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=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
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=== References ===<br />
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223<br />
<br />
Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308<br />
<br />
Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.<br />
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Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University <br />
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Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.<br />
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Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.<br />
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Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70. <br />
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Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press<br />
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Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.<br />
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WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
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He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
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Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
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Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
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==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 ==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
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===I.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014). Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72). Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
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===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
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''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displays their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefines translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explains that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (Lefevere 2003, xi). According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looks back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concludes that the previous discussion of translation is exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposes that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translators' inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understandings, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “a author and a translator” to “a master and a slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or "translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered." Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating a poem in such a way is like “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator need not care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposes that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in chapter two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translators' inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. ( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, a number of texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003， xiii).<br />
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===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005. 2). In the FAQ passage, the author explains why he writes this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Then, it follows the titles of each chapter: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu's Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form"; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein's View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of "Language Game"; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: part one: to appeal for the reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; part two: to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; part three: to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
<br />
The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179). The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of the translation functionalism.<br />
<br />
Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i). This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in Pinimujing, the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987). In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005 46). As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51). The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104). The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52).Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15). Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104).<br />
<br />
Some scholars expressed their views on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006). Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study.(Lu Wei, 2010).<br />
<br />
===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
4.1 From the aspect of the content<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracted other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
<br />
4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper made a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
<br />
Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World], Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies'', Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
<br />
==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
<br />
==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
<br />
[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
<br />
Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）.<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
<br />
===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
<br />
1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
<br />
The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
<br />
2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
<br />
Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
<br />
Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
<br />
3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
<br />
Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 11<br />
<br />
我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 12<br />
<br />
“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 13<br />
<br />
耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 14<br />
<br />
“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 15<br />
<br />
我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
<br />
===''' References '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
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'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
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Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
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'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
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Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
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'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
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Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
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'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
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Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
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==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
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Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
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Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
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Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
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Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
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Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
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Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
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Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
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==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
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==='''题目'''===<br />
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对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析学习翻译学科目前存在的问题，并提出相关的建议。 <br />
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==='''关键词'''=== <br />
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翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
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==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
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1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
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Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
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Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
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1.2. The Significance of Translation Study<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
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As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.<br />
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==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
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Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
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2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
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In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.<br />
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However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc. At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.<br />
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2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies<br />
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At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate. Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.<br />
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2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
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In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction. In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training. There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
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==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
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The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
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3.1. Translation Education<br />
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With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better. However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
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3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
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At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market. (Zhong Weihe 2019)Due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.<br />
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3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
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The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.<br />
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3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
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Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2020) For example, this kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
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3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
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The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare. besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011) However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.<br />
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3.2. Students<br />
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The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
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Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
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3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
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Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information. With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. (Xie Zhentian, 2015) Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.<br />
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3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
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At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
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==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
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In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.<br />
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4.1. Translation Education<br />
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4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
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The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. (Ou Yonghua 2019) This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.<br />
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4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
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Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
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4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
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Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which is a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. Carry out the provision of roadmap (Lan Hongjun, 2018); the second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
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4.2. Students <br />
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The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
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4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
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Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills. A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
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4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
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Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
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This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
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President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. (Zhong Weihe 2020) The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
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Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
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Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
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Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
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Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
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Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
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Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
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Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
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Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
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Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
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Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
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Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
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Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
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Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
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==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
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==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
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===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
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===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
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Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
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In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
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===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
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Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
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In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
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According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
<br />
[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
<br />
[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
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[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
<br />
[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
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[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
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[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
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[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
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[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .<br />
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== An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=111780History of Translation Studies 102020-12-13T17:08:18Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 3. The Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China */</p>
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
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==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
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As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
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===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
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Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
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In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
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Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
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Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
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Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Hao Jingfang's science fiction "Folding Beijing" won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu's rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida's functional equivalence to "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". The theory of Nida's functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu's application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers' understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
<br />
===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work "Toward a Science of Translating". Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader's response to the translation.<br />
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===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
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====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida and Taber (2004：12) stated that “translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning.” Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
“Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead.” (Ken Liu 2015:1)<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word “the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls” for readers to understand. “Sour and spicy powder” is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses “hot and sour rice noodles” to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:2）<br />
“Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy.” (Ken Liu 2015:3)<br />
The translator uses “a toothpick dangling between his lips” to describe the action of picking teeth，it’s more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into “lazy and slovenly” to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into “the appearance of being perpetually grumpy”, in this way, the translation better expresses the author’s intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:7）<br />
“The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan.” (Ken Liu 2015:9)<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into “ the little flashing lights ”, but “Tiny flashing LEDs”. This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses “lapi”, which is to show the original meaning.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
<br />
Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: <br />
Example 1:<br />
“ ‘现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。’他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。’他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’” （Jingfang Hao 2016:12）<br />
“ ‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,’ he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don’t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I’ll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who’s incompetent will be fired.’ Since Lao Gao still didn’t seem to show much reaction, he added, ‘I’ll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.’ ” (Ken Liu 2015: 15)<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into “I’ll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion”, The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:25）<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015: 34) <br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing “In the dim lamplight” between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like “…childhood that…”.<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉自己像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:27）<br />
“Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away.” (Ken Liu 2015: 34)<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like “as though”, “from where” and “that”, this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:17)<br />
“And so”—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao’s plate—“can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself.” <br />
Lao Dao didn’t pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
“Then I’d be lying, too,” Lao Dao said.<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. “Please accept this token of my appreciation.” (Ken Liu 2015: 23)<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into “spooned a serving of the new hot dish”, the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into “She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao”, this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
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====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
<br />
Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
<br />
First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
Lao Dao’s stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble. (Ken Liu 2015: 3)<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的一段距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一段孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:7)<br />
The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea. (Ken Liu 2015: 9)<br />
In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "Xishan" and "gu" in the original text are not translated, only translated into “an island in the sea”, this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:8)<br />
The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky. (Ken Liu 2015: 9)<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, “skyscrapers” have “heads, feet, necks and arms”, and “like the humblest servants”, the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:9)<br />
Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster. (Ken Liu 2015: 11)<br />
In this sentence, although “怪胎” translate into “monster”, the “生”express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
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<br />
=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
<br />
Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.<br />
For example, “伙计” in English “waiter” ,“铺盖卷” in English “bedrolls” ,“闺女”is translated as “real daughter” ,“她们认死理儿” is translated as “they don’t know how to be flexible”,“只是这么多年过来，人就木了.” (Jingfang Hao 2016: 25) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb.” (Ken Liu 2015: 37) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
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<br />
====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
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The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.<br />
Example 1:<br />
…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun… (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
“炒面”is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into “chow mein”, rather than “Chinese stir-fried noodles. In the dictionary, “chow mein” means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
Example 2:<br />
老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
…over a half bottle of baijiu… (Ken Liu 2015: 35)<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, “白酒” is translated into “baijiu” , the translator doesn’t use the word like “spirits”, it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
Example 3:<br />
“哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？” (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
“…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?” (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in the translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of “回锅”, and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.<br />
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<br />
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
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Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.<br />
Example 1:<br />
…几个人分吃两个菜… (Jingfang Hao 2016:1)<br />
…and they shared two dishes family-style. (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
“分吃” is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he use the word “shared” and he add the word “family-style” to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
Example 2:<br />
“咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。” (Jingfang Hao 2016:20)<br />
“We’re practically from the same hometown! So, you don’t need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won’t give you up.” (Ken Liu 2015: 29)<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term “老乡” from a geographical perspective. “管事儿”means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“一点心意，你收下。” (Jingfang Hao 2016:17)<br />
“Please accept this token of my appreciation.” (Ken Liu 2015: 24)<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. “心意” means money, which is a euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered a euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word “appreciation”.<br />
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<br />
=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
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Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as “饿虎扑食”, the translator translated it into “ate heartily”, although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers. And “（盘子）一片狼藉”translated into “The dishes were a mess”, it is a brief description of the mess. And “成人之美” translated into “and in that case I’ll have done a good deed by keeping silent”, the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this chapter, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.<br />
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<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyzed from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Beijing fold" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western culture, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words. In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Hao Jingfang. Folding Beijing [J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy, 2015.<br />
<br />
[2] Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004<br />
<br />
[4] 郝景芳.孤独深处[M].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社，2016：1-40<br />
<br />
[5] 谭载喜.新编奈达论翻译[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1999<br />
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[6] 许钧，穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京：译林出版社，2009<br />
<br />
[7] 赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J].文学教育，2011<br />
<br />
[8] 周兴阳.从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[J].新疆大学，2018<br />
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[9] 王桂圆.系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[J].海外英语，2018<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
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Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
<br />
“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts.<br />
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In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006). Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
<br />
He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”(Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms. Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. He translated the pun in English into the pun in Chinese. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English. It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience of the drama will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. <br />
<br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. When the audience heard of “梁勉仁”, they would realize that Algernon was a double-faced person at once. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced, so the function of the original and the target language are the same. We guess that if Wilde writes this play in Chinese, he may use the same expression as Yu Guangzhong. Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality. <br />
<br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning of the source language.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
Allusions refer to the stories or words and sentences in ancient books quoted in poems; idioms refer to the fixed and customary expressions in a language, including proverbs, slang, catchphrase, lexical phrase, habitual collocation, restricted collocation, and etc. “There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
<br />
======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
<br />
(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just in order to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” in this dialogue actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.It is hard to translate alliteration in the target language. In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. In this example, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”<br />
.<br />
(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The form of the sentence has changed, while the meaning remained. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence”<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ manners and thoughts and the bourgeois society of his time, Victorian era.In the above example, Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while Lady. Bracknell says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox. After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text.<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul. <br />
<br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married. In order to persuade him, she compared the two reasons of not getting married. "The former is understandable, while the latter is incomprehensible"(Wen Tong, 2012). In example 6, Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works. <br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why The Importance of Being Earnest becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original. <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs. For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers.<br />
In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies. One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
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Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
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Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
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Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
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Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
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Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
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Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
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Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
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Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
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<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui,2009)<br />
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Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language<br />
shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
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The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si, 2019)<br />
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==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lederer, 1969)<br />
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==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
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Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
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==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
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On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
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==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Liu Yue,Lan Jie, 2020)<br />
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==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.(Bevir,Mark,2002)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer, 2001)<br />
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===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
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*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-161+166.<br />
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*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
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*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
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*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
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*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-180+211.<br />
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*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
<br />
In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
<br />
=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
<br />
==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
<br />
==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
<br />
=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
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“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
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==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
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(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
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(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
<br />
=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
<br />
By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
<br />
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WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
<br />
He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
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Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
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Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 ==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
<br />
In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014). Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
<br />
In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72). Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
<br />
In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
<br />
All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
<br />
===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
<br />
''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displays their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefines translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explains that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (Lefevere 2003, xi). According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
<br />
In the preface of the book, Lefevere looks back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concludes that the previous discussion of translation is exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposes that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
<br />
I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translators' inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understandings, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
<br />
In this part, I will analyze John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “a author and a translator” to “a master and a slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or "translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered." Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating a poem in such a way is like “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator need not care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposes that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
<br />
However, in chapter two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translators' inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. ( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
<br />
About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, a number of texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003， xiii).<br />
<br />
===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005. 2). In the FAQ passage, the author explains why he writes this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Then, it follows the titles of each chapter: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu's Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form"; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein's View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of "Language Game"; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: part one: to appeal for the reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; part two: to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; part three: to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
<br />
The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179). The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of the translation functionalism.<br />
<br />
Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i). This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in Pinimujing, the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987). In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005 46). As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51). The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104). The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52).Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15). Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104).<br />
<br />
Some scholars expressed their views on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006). Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study.(Lu Wei, 2010).<br />
<br />
===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
4.1 From the aspect of the content<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracted other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
<br />
4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper made a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
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Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
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Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
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Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World], Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
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Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies'', Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
<br />
==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
<br />
==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
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[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
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[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
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[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
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[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
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[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
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[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
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[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
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[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
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归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
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===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
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On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
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For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
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==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
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Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
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Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）.<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
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1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
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Example 1:<br />
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路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 2<br />
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云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 3<br />
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花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 4 <br />
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Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
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With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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Example 7<br />
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番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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Example 10<br />
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Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
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Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 11<br />
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我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 12<br />
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“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 13<br />
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耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 14<br />
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“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 15<br />
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我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
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===''' References '''===<br />
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* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
<br />
Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
<br />
Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
<br />
'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
<br />
Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
<br />
As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
<br />
These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
<br />
4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
<br />
In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
<br />
Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
<br />
Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
<br />
Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
<br />
For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
<br />
As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
<br />
Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
<br />
4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
<br />
In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
<br />
4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
<br />
Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
<br />
4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
<br />
Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
<br />
Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
<br />
Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析学习翻译学科目前存在的问题，并提出相关的建议。 <br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''=== <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Study<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
<br />
As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc. At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.<br />
<br />
2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate. Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.<br />
<br />
2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction. In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training. There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
<br />
==='''3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
<br />
3.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better. However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market. (Zhong Weihe 2019)Due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.<br />
<br />
3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
<br />
The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.<br />
<br />
3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
<br />
Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2020) For example, this kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
<br />
3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
<br />
The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare. besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011) However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.<br />
<br />
3.2. Students<br />
<br />
The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
<br />
3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
<br />
Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
<br />
3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
<br />
Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information. With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. (Xie Zhentian, 2015) Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.<br />
<br />
3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
<br />
At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
<br />
==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.<br />
<br />
4.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
<br />
The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. (Ou Yonghua 2019) This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.<br />
<br />
4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
<br />
Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
<br />
Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which is a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. Carry out the provision of roadmap (Lan Hongjun, 2018); the second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
<br />
4.2. Students <br />
<br />
The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
<br />
4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills. A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
<br />
Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. (Zhong Weihe 2020) The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
<br />
[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
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[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
<br />
[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
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[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
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[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
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[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .<br />
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== An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=111779History of Translation Studies 102020-12-13T17:07:16Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658 */</p>
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='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Hao Jingfang's science fiction "Folding Beijing" won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu's rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida's functional equivalence to "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". The theory of Nida's functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu's application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers' understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
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===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
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Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work "Toward a Science of Translating". Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader's response to the translation.<br />
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===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
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====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
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Nida and Taber (2004：12) stated that “translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning.” Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
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In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
“Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead.” (Ken Liu 2015:1)<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word “the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls” for readers to understand. “Sour and spicy powder” is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses “hot and sour rice noodles” to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:2）<br />
“Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy.” (Ken Liu 2015:3)<br />
The translator uses “a toothpick dangling between his lips” to describe the action of picking teeth，it’s more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into “lazy and slovenly” to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into “the appearance of being perpetually grumpy”, in this way, the translation better expresses the author’s intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:7）<br />
“The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan.” (Ken Liu 2015:9)<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into “ the little flashing lights ”, but “Tiny flashing LEDs”. This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses “lapi”, which is to show the original meaning.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
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Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: <br />
Example 1:<br />
“ ‘现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。’他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。’他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’” （Jingfang Hao 2016:12）<br />
“ ‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,’ he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don’t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I’ll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who’s incompetent will be fired.’ Since Lao Gao still didn’t seem to show much reaction, he added, ‘I’ll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.’ ” (Ken Liu 2015: 15)<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into “I’ll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion”, The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:25）<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015: 34) <br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing “In the dim lamplight” between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like “…childhood that…”.<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉自己像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:27）<br />
“Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away.” (Ken Liu 2015: 34)<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like “as though”, “from where” and “that”, this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
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Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:17)<br />
“And so”—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao’s plate—“can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself.” <br />
Lao Dao didn’t pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
“Then I’d be lying, too,” Lao Dao said.<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. “Please accept this token of my appreciation.” (Ken Liu 2015: 23)<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into “spooned a serving of the new hot dish”, the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into “She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao”, this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
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====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
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Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.<br />
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=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
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First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
Lao Dao’s stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble. (Ken Liu 2015: 3)<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的一段距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一段孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:7)<br />
The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea. (Ken Liu 2015: 9)<br />
In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "Xishan" and "gu" in the original text are not translated, only translated into “an island in the sea”, this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:8)<br />
The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky. (Ken Liu 2015: 9)<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, “skyscrapers” have “heads, feet, necks and arms”, and “like the humblest servants”, the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:9)<br />
Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster. (Ken Liu 2015: 11)<br />
In this sentence, although “怪胎” translate into “monster”, the “生”express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
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=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
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Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.<br />
For example, “伙计” in English “waiter” ,“铺盖卷” in English “bedrolls” ,“闺女”is translated as “real daughter” ,“她们认死理儿” is translated as “they don’t know how to be flexible”,“只是这么多年过来，人就木了.” (Jingfang Hao 2016: 25) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb.” (Ken Liu 2015: 37) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
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====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.<br />
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=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
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The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.<br />
Example 1:<br />
…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun… (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
“炒面”is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into “chow mein”, rather than “Chinese stir-fried noodles. In the dictionary, “chow mein” means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
Example 2:<br />
老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
…over a half bottle of baijiu… (Ken Liu 2015: 35)<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, “白酒” is translated into “baijiu” , the translator doesn’t use the word like “spirits”, it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
Example 3:<br />
“哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？” (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
“…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?” (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in the translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of “回锅”, and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.<br />
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=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
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Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.<br />
Example 1:<br />
…几个人分吃两个菜… (Jingfang Hao 2016:1)<br />
…and they shared two dishes family-style. (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
“分吃” is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he use the word “shared” and he add the word “family-style” to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
Example 2:<br />
“咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。” (Jingfang Hao 2016:20)<br />
“We’re practically from the same hometown! So, you don’t need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won’t give you up.” (Ken Liu 2015: 29)<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term “老乡” from a geographical perspective. “管事儿”means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“一点心意，你收下。” (Jingfang Hao 2016:17)<br />
“Please accept this token of my appreciation.” (Ken Liu 2015: 24)<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. “心意” means money, which is a euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered a euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word “appreciation”.<br />
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=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
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Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as “饿虎扑食”, the translator translated it into “ate heartily”, although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers. And “（盘子）一片狼藉”translated into “The dishes were a mess”, it is a brief description of the mess. And “成人之美” translated into “and in that case I’ll have done a good deed by keeping silent”, the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this chapter, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyzed from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Beijing fold" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western culture, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words. In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[9] 王桂圆.系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[J].海外英语，2018<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
<br />
“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts.<br />
<br />
In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006). Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
<br />
He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”(Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms. Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. He translated the pun in English into the pun in Chinese. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English. It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience of the drama will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. <br />
<br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. When the audience heard of “梁勉仁”, they would realize that Algernon was a double-faced person at once. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced, so the function of the original and the target language are the same. We guess that if Wilde writes this play in Chinese, he may use the same expression as Yu Guangzhong. Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality. <br />
<br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning of the source language.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
Allusions refer to the stories or words and sentences in ancient books quoted in poems; idioms refer to the fixed and customary expressions in a language, including proverbs, slang, catchphrase, lexical phrase, habitual collocation, restricted collocation, and etc. “There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
<br />
======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
<br />
(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just in order to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” in this dialogue actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.It is hard to translate alliteration in the target language. In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. In this example, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”<br />
.<br />
(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The form of the sentence has changed, while the meaning remained. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence”<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ manners and thoughts and the bourgeois society of his time, Victorian era.In the above example, Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while Lady. Bracknell says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox. After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text.<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul. <br />
<br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married. In order to persuade him, she compared the two reasons of not getting married. "The former is understandable, while the latter is incomprehensible"(Wen Tong, 2012). In example 6, Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works. <br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why The Importance of Being Earnest becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original. <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs. For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers.<br />
In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies. One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
<br />
Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
<br />
Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
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Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
<br />
Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
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Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
<br />
Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
<br />
Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
<br />
Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui,2009)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language<br />
shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si, 2019)<br />
<br />
==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lederer, 1969)<br />
<br />
==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
<br />
Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
<br />
==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
<br />
On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
<br />
==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Liu Yue,Lan Jie, 2020)<br />
<br />
==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.(Bevir,Mark,2002)<br />
<br />
The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer, 2001)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
<br />
*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
<br />
*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-161+166.<br />
<br />
*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
<br />
*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
<br />
*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-180+211.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
<br />
During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
<br />
In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
<br />
=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
<br />
==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
<br />
==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
<br />
==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
<br />
=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
<br />
“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
<br />
The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
<br />
==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
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(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
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(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
<br />
=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
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=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
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=== References ===<br />
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223<br />
<br />
Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308<br />
<br />
Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.<br />
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Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University <br />
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Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.<br />
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Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.<br />
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Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70. <br />
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Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press<br />
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Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.<br />
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WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
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He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
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Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
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Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
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==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 ==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
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===I.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014). Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72). Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
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===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
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''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displays their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefines translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explains that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (Lefevere 2003, xi). According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looks back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concludes that the previous discussion of translation is exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposes that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translators' inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understandings, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “a author and a translator” to “a master and a slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or "translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered." Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating a poem in such a way is like “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator need not care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposes that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in chapter two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translators' inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. ( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, a number of texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003， xiii).<br />
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===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005. 2). In the FAQ passage, the author explains why he writes this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Then, it follows the titles of each chapter: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu's Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form"; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein's View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of "Language Game"; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: part one: to appeal for the reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; part two: to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; part three: to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
<br />
The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179). The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of the translation functionalism.<br />
<br />
Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i). This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in Pinimujing, the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987). In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005 46). As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51). The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104). The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52).Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15). Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104).<br />
<br />
Some scholars expressed their views on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006). Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study.(Lu Wei, 2010).<br />
<br />
===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
4.1 From the aspect of the content<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracted other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
<br />
4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper made a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
<br />
Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World], Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies'', Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
<br />
==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
<br />
==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
<br />
[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
<br />
Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）.<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
<br />
===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
<br />
1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
<br />
The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
<br />
2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
<br />
Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
<br />
Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
<br />
3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
<br />
Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 11<br />
<br />
我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 12<br />
<br />
“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 13<br />
<br />
耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 14<br />
<br />
“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 15<br />
<br />
我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
<br />
===''' References '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
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'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
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Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
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'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
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Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
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'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
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Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
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'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
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Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
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==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
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Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
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Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
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Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
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Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
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Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
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Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
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Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
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==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
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==='''题目'''===<br />
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对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析学习翻译学科目前存在的问题，并提出相关的建议。 <br />
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==='''关键词'''=== <br />
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翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
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==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
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1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
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Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
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Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
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1.2. The Significance of Translation Study<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
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As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.<br />
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==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
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Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
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2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
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In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.<br />
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However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc. At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.<br />
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2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies<br />
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At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate. Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.<br />
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2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
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In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction. In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training. There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
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==='''3. The Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
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The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
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3.1. Translation Education<br />
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With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better. However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
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3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
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At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market. (Zhong Weihe 2019)Due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.<br />
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3.1.2. Faculty Resources<br />
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The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.<br />
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3.1.3. Teaching method<br />
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Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2020) For example, this kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
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3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
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The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare. besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011) However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.<br />
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3.2. Students<br />
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The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
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Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
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3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge <br />
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Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information. With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. (Xie Zhentian, 2015) Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.<br />
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3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
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At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
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==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
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In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.<br />
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4.1. Translation Education<br />
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4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
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The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. (Ou Yonghua 2019) This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.<br />
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4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
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Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
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4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
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Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which is a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. Carry out the provision of roadmap (Lan Hongjun, 2018); the second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
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4.2. Students <br />
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The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
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4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
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Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills. A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
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4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
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Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
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This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
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President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. (Zhong Weihe 2020) The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
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==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
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==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
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===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
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===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
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Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
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In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
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Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
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In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
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According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
<br />
[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
<br />
[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
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[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
<br />
[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
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[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
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[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
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[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
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[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
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[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .<br />
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== An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=111778History of Translation Studies 102020-12-13T17:05:54Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* 4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies */</p>
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
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==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
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As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
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===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
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Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
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In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
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Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
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Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
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Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Hao Jingfang's science fiction "Folding Beijing" won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu's rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida's functional equivalence to "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". The theory of Nida's functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu's application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers' understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
<br />
===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work "Toward a Science of Translating". Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader's response to the translation.<br />
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===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
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====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida and Taber (2004：12) stated that “translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning.” Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
“Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead.” (Ken Liu 2015:1)<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word “the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls” for readers to understand. “Sour and spicy powder” is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses “hot and sour rice noodles” to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:2）<br />
“Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy.” (Ken Liu 2015:3)<br />
The translator uses “a toothpick dangling between his lips” to describe the action of picking teeth，it’s more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into “lazy and slovenly” to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into “the appearance of being perpetually grumpy”, in this way, the translation better expresses the author’s intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:7）<br />
“The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan.” (Ken Liu 2015:9)<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into “ the little flashing lights ”, but “Tiny flashing LEDs”. This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses “lapi”, which is to show the original meaning.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
<br />
Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: <br />
Example 1:<br />
“ ‘现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。’他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。’他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’” （Jingfang Hao 2016:12）<br />
“ ‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,’ he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don’t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I’ll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who’s incompetent will be fired.’ Since Lao Gao still didn’t seem to show much reaction, he added, ‘I’ll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.’ ” (Ken Liu 2015: 15)<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into “I’ll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion”, The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:25）<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015: 34) <br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing “In the dim lamplight” between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like “…childhood that…”.<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉自己像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:27）<br />
“Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away.” (Ken Liu 2015: 34)<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like “as though”, “from where” and “that”, this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:17)<br />
“And so”—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao’s plate—“can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself.” <br />
Lao Dao didn’t pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
“Then I’d be lying, too,” Lao Dao said.<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. “Please accept this token of my appreciation.” (Ken Liu 2015: 23)<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into “spooned a serving of the new hot dish”, the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into “She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao”, this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
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====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
<br />
Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
<br />
First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
Lao Dao’s stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble. (Ken Liu 2015: 3)<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的一段距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一段孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:7)<br />
The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea. (Ken Liu 2015: 9)<br />
In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "Xishan" and "gu" in the original text are not translated, only translated into “an island in the sea”, this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:8)<br />
The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky. (Ken Liu 2015: 9)<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, “skyscrapers” have “heads, feet, necks and arms”, and “like the humblest servants”, the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:9)<br />
Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster. (Ken Liu 2015: 11)<br />
In this sentence, although “怪胎” translate into “monster”, the “生”express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
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<br />
=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
<br />
Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.<br />
For example, “伙计” in English “waiter” ,“铺盖卷” in English “bedrolls” ,“闺女”is translated as “real daughter” ,“她们认死理儿” is translated as “they don’t know how to be flexible”,“只是这么多年过来，人就木了.” (Jingfang Hao 2016: 25) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb.” (Ken Liu 2015: 37) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
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<br />
====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
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The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.<br />
Example 1:<br />
…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun… (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
“炒面”is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into “chow mein”, rather than “Chinese stir-fried noodles. In the dictionary, “chow mein” means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
Example 2:<br />
老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
…over a half bottle of baijiu… (Ken Liu 2015: 35)<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, “白酒” is translated into “baijiu” , the translator doesn’t use the word like “spirits”, it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
Example 3:<br />
“哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？” (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
“…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?” (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in the translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of “回锅”, and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.<br />
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<br />
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
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Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.<br />
Example 1:<br />
…几个人分吃两个菜… (Jingfang Hao 2016:1)<br />
…and they shared two dishes family-style. (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
“分吃” is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he use the word “shared” and he add the word “family-style” to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
Example 2:<br />
“咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。” (Jingfang Hao 2016:20)<br />
“We’re practically from the same hometown! So, you don’t need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won’t give you up.” (Ken Liu 2015: 29)<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term “老乡” from a geographical perspective. “管事儿”means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“一点心意，你收下。” (Jingfang Hao 2016:17)<br />
“Please accept this token of my appreciation.” (Ken Liu 2015: 24)<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. “心意” means money, which is a euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered a euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word “appreciation”.<br />
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<br />
=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
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Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as “饿虎扑食”, the translator translated it into “ate heartily”, although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers. And “（盘子）一片狼藉”translated into “The dishes were a mess”, it is a brief description of the mess. And “成人之美” translated into “and in that case I’ll have done a good deed by keeping silent”, the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this chapter, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.<br />
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<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyzed from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Beijing fold" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western culture, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words. In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Hao Jingfang. Folding Beijing [J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy, 2015.<br />
<br />
[2] Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004<br />
<br />
[4] 郝景芳.孤独深处[M].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社，2016：1-40<br />
<br />
[5] 谭载喜.新编奈达论翻译[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1999<br />
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[6] 许钧，穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京：译林出版社，2009<br />
<br />
[7] 赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J].文学教育，2011<br />
<br />
[8] 周兴阳.从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[J].新疆大学，2018<br />
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[9] 王桂圆.系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[J].海外英语，2018<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
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Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
<br />
“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts.<br />
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In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006). Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
<br />
He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”(Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms. Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. He translated the pun in English into the pun in Chinese. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English. It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience of the drama will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. <br />
<br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. When the audience heard of “梁勉仁”, they would realize that Algernon was a double-faced person at once. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced, so the function of the original and the target language are the same. We guess that if Wilde writes this play in Chinese, he may use the same expression as Yu Guangzhong. Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality. <br />
<br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning of the source language.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
Allusions refer to the stories or words and sentences in ancient books quoted in poems; idioms refer to the fixed and customary expressions in a language, including proverbs, slang, catchphrase, lexical phrase, habitual collocation, restricted collocation, and etc. “There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
<br />
======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
<br />
(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just in order to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” in this dialogue actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.It is hard to translate alliteration in the target language. In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. In this example, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”<br />
.<br />
(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The form of the sentence has changed, while the meaning remained. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence”<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ manners and thoughts and the bourgeois society of his time, Victorian era.In the above example, Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while Lady. Bracknell says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox. After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text.<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul. <br />
<br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married. In order to persuade him, she compared the two reasons of not getting married. "The former is understandable, while the latter is incomprehensible"(Wen Tong, 2012). In example 6, Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works. <br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why The Importance of Being Earnest becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original. <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs. For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers.<br />
In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies. One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
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Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
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Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
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Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
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Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
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Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
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Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
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Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
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Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
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<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui,2009)<br />
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Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language<br />
shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
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The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si, 2019)<br />
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==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lederer, 1969)<br />
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==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
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Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
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==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
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On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
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==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Liu Yue,Lan Jie, 2020)<br />
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==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.(Bevir,Mark,2002)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer, 2001)<br />
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===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
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*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-161+166.<br />
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*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
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*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
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*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
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*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-180+211.<br />
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*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
<br />
In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
<br />
=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
<br />
==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
<br />
==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
<br />
=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
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“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
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==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
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(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
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(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
<br />
=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
<br />
By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
<br />
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WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
<br />
He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
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Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
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Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 ==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
<br />
In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014). Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
<br />
In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72). Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
<br />
In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
<br />
All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
<br />
===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
<br />
''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displays their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefines translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explains that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (Lefevere 2003, xi). According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
<br />
In the preface of the book, Lefevere looks back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concludes that the previous discussion of translation is exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposes that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
<br />
I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translators' inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understandings, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
<br />
In this part, I will analyze John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “a author and a translator” to “a master and a slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or "translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered." Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating a poem in such a way is like “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator need not care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposes that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
<br />
However, in chapter two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translators' inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. ( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
<br />
About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, a number of texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003， xiii).<br />
<br />
===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005. 2). In the FAQ passage, the author explains why he writes this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Then, it follows the titles of each chapter: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu's Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form"; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein's View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of "Language Game"; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: part one: to appeal for the reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; part two: to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; part three: to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
<br />
The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179). The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of the translation functionalism.<br />
<br />
Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i). This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in Pinimujing, the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987). In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005 46). As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51). The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104). The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52).Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15). Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104).<br />
<br />
Some scholars expressed their views on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006). Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study.(Lu Wei, 2010).<br />
<br />
===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
4.1 From the aspect of the content<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracted other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
<br />
4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper made a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
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Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
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Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
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Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World], Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
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Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies'', Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
<br />
==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
<br />
==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
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[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
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[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
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[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
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[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
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[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
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[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
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[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
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[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
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归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
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===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
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On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
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For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
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==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
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Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
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Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）.<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
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1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
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Example 1:<br />
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路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 2<br />
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云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 3<br />
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花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 4 <br />
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Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
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With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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Example 7<br />
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番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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Example 10<br />
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Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
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Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 11<br />
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我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 12<br />
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“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 13<br />
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耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 14<br />
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“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 15<br />
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我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
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===''' References '''===<br />
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* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
<br />
Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
<br />
Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
<br />
'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
<br />
Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
<br />
As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
<br />
These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
<br />
4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
<br />
In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
<br />
Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
<br />
Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
<br />
Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
<br />
For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
<br />
As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
<br />
Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
<br />
4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
<br />
In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
<br />
4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
<br />
Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
<br />
4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
<br />
Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
<br />
Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
<br />
Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
<br />
Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
<br />
Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
==='''题目'''===<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析学习翻译学科目前存在的问题，并提出相关的建议。 <br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''=== <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Study<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
<br />
As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc. At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.<br />
<br />
2.2 The Development Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate. Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.<br />
<br />
2.3 The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction. In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training. There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
<br />
==='''3. The Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
<br />
3.1 Translation Education<br />
<br />
With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better. However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market. (Zhong Weihe 2019)Due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Faculty Resources<br />
<br />
The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.<br />
<br />
3.1.3 Teaching method<br />
<br />
Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2020) For example, this kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
<br />
3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
<br />
The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare. besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011) However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.<br />
<br />
3.2 Students<br />
<br />
The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
<br />
Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Insufficient background knowledge <br />
<br />
Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information. With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. (Xie Zhentian, 2015) Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
<br />
At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
<br />
==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.<br />
<br />
4.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
<br />
The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. (Ou Yonghua 2019) This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.<br />
<br />
4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
<br />
Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
<br />
Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which is a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. Carry out the provision of roadmap (Lan Hongjun, 2018); the second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
<br />
4.2. Students <br />
<br />
The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
<br />
4.2.1. Expanding knowledge<br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills. A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
<br />
Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. (Zhong Weihe 2020) The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
<br />
[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
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[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
<br />
[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
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[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
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[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
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[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .<br />
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== An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=111776History of Translation Studies 102020-12-13T17:03:49Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658 */</p>
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='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Hao Jingfang's science fiction "Folding Beijing" won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu's rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida's functional equivalence to "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". The theory of Nida's functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu's application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers' understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
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===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
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Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work "Toward a Science of Translating". Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader's response to the translation.<br />
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===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
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====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
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Nida and Taber (2004：12) stated that “translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning.” Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
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In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
“Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead.” (Ken Liu 2015:1)<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word “the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls” for readers to understand. “Sour and spicy powder” is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses “hot and sour rice noodles” to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:2）<br />
“Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy.” (Ken Liu 2015:3)<br />
The translator uses “a toothpick dangling between his lips” to describe the action of picking teeth，it’s more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into “lazy and slovenly” to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into “the appearance of being perpetually grumpy”, in this way, the translation better expresses the author’s intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:7）<br />
“The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan.” (Ken Liu 2015:9)<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into “ the little flashing lights ”, but “Tiny flashing LEDs”. This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses “lapi”, which is to show the original meaning.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
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Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: <br />
Example 1:<br />
“ ‘现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。’他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。’他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’” （Jingfang Hao 2016:12）<br />
“ ‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,’ he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don’t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I’ll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who’s incompetent will be fired.’ Since Lao Gao still didn’t seem to show much reaction, he added, ‘I’ll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.’ ” (Ken Liu 2015: 15)<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into “I’ll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion”, The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:25）<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015: 34) <br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing “In the dim lamplight” between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like “…childhood that…”.<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉自己像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:27）<br />
“Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away.” (Ken Liu 2015: 34)<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like “as though”, “from where” and “that”, this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
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Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:17)<br />
“And so”—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao’s plate—“can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself.” <br />
Lao Dao didn’t pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
“Then I’d be lying, too,” Lao Dao said.<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. “Please accept this token of my appreciation.” (Ken Liu 2015: 23)<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into “spooned a serving of the new hot dish”, the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into “She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao”, this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
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====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
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Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.<br />
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=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
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First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
Lao Dao’s stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble. (Ken Liu 2015: 3)<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的一段距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一段孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:7)<br />
The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea. (Ken Liu 2015: 9)<br />
In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "Xishan" and "gu" in the original text are not translated, only translated into “an island in the sea”, this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:8)<br />
The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky. (Ken Liu 2015: 9)<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, “skyscrapers” have “heads, feet, necks and arms”, and “like the humblest servants”, the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:9)<br />
Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster. (Ken Liu 2015: 11)<br />
In this sentence, although “怪胎” translate into “monster”, the “生”express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
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=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
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Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.<br />
For example, “伙计” in English “waiter” ,“铺盖卷” in English “bedrolls” ,“闺女”is translated as “real daughter” ,“她们认死理儿” is translated as “they don’t know how to be flexible”,“只是这么多年过来，人就木了.” (Jingfang Hao 2016: 25) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb.” (Ken Liu 2015: 37) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
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====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.<br />
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=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
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The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.<br />
Example 1:<br />
…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun… (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
“炒面”is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into “chow mein”, rather than “Chinese stir-fried noodles. In the dictionary, “chow mein” means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
Example 2:<br />
老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
…over a half bottle of baijiu… (Ken Liu 2015: 35)<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, “白酒” is translated into “baijiu” , the translator doesn’t use the word like “spirits”, it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
Example 3:<br />
“哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？” (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
“…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?” (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in the translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of “回锅”, and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.<br />
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=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
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Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.<br />
Example 1:<br />
…几个人分吃两个菜… (Jingfang Hao 2016:1)<br />
…and they shared two dishes family-style. (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
“分吃” is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he use the word “shared” and he add the word “family-style” to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
Example 2:<br />
“咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。” (Jingfang Hao 2016:20)<br />
“We’re practically from the same hometown! So, you don’t need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won’t give you up.” (Ken Liu 2015: 29)<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term “老乡” from a geographical perspective. “管事儿”means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“一点心意，你收下。” (Jingfang Hao 2016:17)<br />
“Please accept this token of my appreciation.” (Ken Liu 2015: 24)<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. “心意” means money, which is a euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered a euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word “appreciation”.<br />
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=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
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Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as “饿虎扑食”, the translator translated it into “ate heartily”, although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers. And “（盘子）一片狼藉”translated into “The dishes were a mess”, it is a brief description of the mess. And “成人之美” translated into “and in that case I’ll have done a good deed by keeping silent”, the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this chapter, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyzed from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Beijing fold" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western culture, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words. In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[9] 王桂圆.系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[J].海外英语，2018<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
<br />
“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts.<br />
<br />
In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006). Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
<br />
He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”(Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms. Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. He translated the pun in English into the pun in Chinese. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English. It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience of the drama will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. <br />
<br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. When the audience heard of “梁勉仁”, they would realize that Algernon was a double-faced person at once. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced, so the function of the original and the target language are the same. We guess that if Wilde writes this play in Chinese, he may use the same expression as Yu Guangzhong. Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality. <br />
<br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning of the source language.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
Allusions refer to the stories or words and sentences in ancient books quoted in poems; idioms refer to the fixed and customary expressions in a language, including proverbs, slang, catchphrase, lexical phrase, habitual collocation, restricted collocation, and etc. “There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
<br />
======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
<br />
(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just in order to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” in this dialogue actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.It is hard to translate alliteration in the target language. In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. In this example, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”<br />
.<br />
(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The form of the sentence has changed, while the meaning remained. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence”<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ manners and thoughts and the bourgeois society of his time, Victorian era.In the above example, Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while Lady. Bracknell says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox. After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text.<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul. <br />
<br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married. In order to persuade him, she compared the two reasons of not getting married. "The former is understandable, while the latter is incomprehensible"(Wen Tong, 2012). In example 6, Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works. <br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why The Importance of Being Earnest becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original. <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs. For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers.<br />
In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies. One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
<br />
Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
<br />
Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
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Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
<br />
Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
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Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
<br />
Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
<br />
Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
<br />
Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui,2009)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language<br />
shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si, 2019)<br />
<br />
==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lederer, 1969)<br />
<br />
==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
<br />
Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
<br />
==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
<br />
On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
<br />
==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Liu Yue,Lan Jie, 2020)<br />
<br />
==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.(Bevir,Mark,2002)<br />
<br />
The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer, 2001)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
<br />
*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
<br />
*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-161+166.<br />
<br />
*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
<br />
*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
<br />
*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-180+211.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
<br />
During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
<br />
In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
<br />
=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
<br />
==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
<br />
==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
<br />
==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
<br />
=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
<br />
“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
<br />
The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
<br />
==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
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(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
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(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
<br />
=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
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=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
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=== References ===<br />
Nattier, Jan. (1992).The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies (2) 153-223<br />
<br />
Meng Yue孟悦. (2017). 中国佛经翻译发展史综述[A Summary of the History of Chinese Sutra Translation].外语教育与翻译发展创新研究 Innovative Research on Foreign Language Education and Translation Development 305-308<br />
<br />
Sun Shanshan孙珊珊. (2014).从翻译批评的多重视角看佛经翻译的文质观[On the Wenzhi of Sutra Translation from the Multiple Perspectives of Translation Criticism].青年作家Young Writers (16)173-174.<br />
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Fang Yang方阳. (2013). 东汉至唐代的佛经翻译研究[A Study of the Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures from Eastern Han Dynasty to Tang Dynasty]. 河北大学 Hebei University <br />
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Yang Chaobiao杨超标. (2012). 论安世高的译学思想和翻译方法[Exploration on Ashigao’s Translation Thought and Translation Ways].温州大学学报Journal of Wenzhou University (05) 78-83.<br />
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Zhang Yuwei张雨薇. (2019). 汉唐时期佛经汉译及其特点[The Chinese Translation of Buddhist Sutras and their Featuresduring Han to Tang Dynasties].中州学刊 Academic Journal of Zhongzhou (02)114-118.<br />
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Xiong Hui熊辉. (2013). 古代中西方宗教典籍翻译策略的相似性分析[On the Similarity of Translation Strategies to Ancient Chinese and Western Religious Scripture].西华大学学报Journal of Xihua University (01) 67-70. <br />
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Ma Zhuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史[A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China].中国对外翻译出版公司 China Foreign Translation Press<br />
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Wang Dongping, Fang Ruifen. 汪东萍,方瑞芬. (2012). 释道安“五失本、三不易”翻译思想评析[Comment on Shi Daoan's Translation Thought of "Five Losses of Source Texts and Three Difficulties in Translation"].安徽师范大学学报Journal of Anhui Normal University(03) 385-390.<br />
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WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
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He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
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Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
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Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
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==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 ==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
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===I.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014). Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72). Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
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===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
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''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displays their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefines translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explains that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (Lefevere 2003, xi). According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looks back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concludes that the previous discussion of translation is exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposes that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translators' inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understandings, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “a author and a translator” to “a master and a slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or "translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered." Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating a poem in such a way is like “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator need not care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposes that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in chapter two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translators' inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. ( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, a number of texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003， xiii).<br />
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===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005. 2). In the FAQ passage, the author explains why he writes this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Then, it follows the titles of each chapter: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu's Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form"; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein's View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of "Language Game"; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: part one: to appeal for the reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; part two: to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; part three: to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
<br />
The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179). The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of the translation functionalism.<br />
<br />
Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i). This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in Pinimujing, the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987). In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005 46). As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51). The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104). The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52).Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15). Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104).<br />
<br />
Some scholars expressed their views on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006). Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study.(Lu Wei, 2010).<br />
<br />
===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
4.1 From the aspect of the content<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracted other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
<br />
4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper made a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
<br />
Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World], Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies'', Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
<br />
==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
<br />
==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
<br />
[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
<br />
Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）.<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
<br />
===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
<br />
1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
<br />
The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
<br />
2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
<br />
Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
<br />
Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
<br />
3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
<br />
Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 11<br />
<br />
我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 12<br />
<br />
“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 13<br />
<br />
耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 14<br />
<br />
“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 15<br />
<br />
我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
<br />
===''' References '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
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'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
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Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
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'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
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Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
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'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
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Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
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'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
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Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
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==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
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Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
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Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
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Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
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Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
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Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
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Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
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Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
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==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
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With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
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==='''题目'''===<br />
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对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析学习翻译学科目前存在的问题，并提出相关的建议。 <br />
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==='''关键词'''=== <br />
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翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
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==='''1. Introduction'''===<br />
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1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
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Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
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Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
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1.2. The Significance of Translation Study<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
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As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.<br />
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==='''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
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Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
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2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
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In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.<br />
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However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc. At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.<br />
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2.2 The Development Period of Translation Studies<br />
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At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate. Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.<br />
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2.3 The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
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In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction. In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training. There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
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==='''3. The Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''===<br />
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The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
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3.1 Translation Education<br />
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With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better. However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
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3.1.1 Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
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At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market. (Zhong Weihe 2019)Due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.<br />
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3.1.2 Faculty Resources<br />
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The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.<br />
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3.1.3 Teaching method<br />
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Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2020) For example, this kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
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3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
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The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare. besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011) However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.<br />
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3.2 Students<br />
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The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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3.2.1 Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
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Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
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3.2.2 Insufficient background knowledge <br />
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Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information. With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. (Xie Zhentian, 2015) Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.<br />
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3.2.3 Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
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At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
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==='''4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies'''===<br />
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In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.<br />
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4.1. Translation Education<br />
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4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
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The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. (Ou Yonghua 2019) This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.<br />
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4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
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Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
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4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
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Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which is a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. Carry out the provision of roadmap (Lan Hongjun, 2018); the second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
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4.2 Students <br />
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The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
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4.2.1 Expanding knowledge<br />
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Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills. A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
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4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
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Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
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This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
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President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. (Zhong Weihe 2020) The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
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==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
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==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
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===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
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===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
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Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
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In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
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===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
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Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
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In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
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According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
<br />
[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
<br />
[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
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[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
<br />
[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
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[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
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[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
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[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
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[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .<br />
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== An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=111771History of Translation Studies 102020-12-13T16:58:57Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658 */</p>
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<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
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*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
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Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
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In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
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Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
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Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
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Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Hao Jingfang's science fiction "Folding Beijing" won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu's rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida's functional equivalence to "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". The theory of Nida's functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu's application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers' understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
<br />
===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
<br />
Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work "Toward a Science of Translating". Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader's response to the translation.<br />
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===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
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====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
<br />
Nida and Taber (2004：12) stated that “translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning.” Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
<br />
In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
“Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead.” (Ken Liu 2015:1)<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word “the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls” for readers to understand. “Sour and spicy powder” is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses “hot and sour rice noodles” to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:2）<br />
“Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy.” (Ken Liu 2015:3)<br />
The translator uses “a toothpick dangling between his lips” to describe the action of picking teeth，it’s more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into “lazy and slovenly” to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into “the appearance of being perpetually grumpy”, in this way, the translation better expresses the author’s intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:7）<br />
“The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan.” (Ken Liu 2015:9)<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into “ the little flashing lights ”, but “Tiny flashing LEDs”. This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses “lapi”, which is to show the original meaning.<br />
<br />
=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
<br />
Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: <br />
Example 1:<br />
“ ‘现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。’他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。’他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’” （Jingfang Hao 2016:12）<br />
“ ‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,’ he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don’t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I’ll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who’s incompetent will be fired.’ Since Lao Gao still didn’t seem to show much reaction, he added, ‘I’ll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.’ ” (Ken Liu 2015: 15)<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into “I’ll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion”, The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:25）<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015: 34) <br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing “In the dim lamplight” between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like “…childhood that…”.<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉自己像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:27）<br />
“Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away.” (Ken Liu 2015: 34)<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like “as though”, “from where” and “that”, this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
<br />
<br />
=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
<br />
Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:17)<br />
“And so”—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao’s plate—“can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself.” <br />
Lao Dao didn’t pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
“Then I’d be lying, too,” Lao Dao said.<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. “Please accept this token of my appreciation.” (Ken Liu 2015: 23)<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into “spooned a serving of the new hot dish”, the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into “She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao”, this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
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====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
<br />
Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.<br />
<br />
=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
<br />
First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
Lao Dao’s stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble. (Ken Liu 2015: 3)<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的一段距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一段孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:7)<br />
The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea. (Ken Liu 2015: 9)<br />
In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "Xishan" and "gu" in the original text are not translated, only translated into “an island in the sea”, this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:8)<br />
The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky. (Ken Liu 2015: 9)<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, “skyscrapers” have “heads, feet, necks and arms”, and “like the humblest servants”, the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:9)<br />
Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster. (Ken Liu 2015: 11)<br />
In this sentence, although “怪胎” translate into “monster”, the “生”express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
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<br />
=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
<br />
Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.<br />
For example, “伙计” in English “waiter” ,“铺盖卷” in English “bedrolls” ,“闺女”is translated as “real daughter” ,“她们认死理儿” is translated as “they don’t know how to be flexible”,“只是这么多年过来，人就木了.” (Jingfang Hao 2016: 25) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb.” (Ken Liu 2015: 37) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
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<br />
====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.<br />
<br />
=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
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The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.<br />
Example 1:<br />
…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun… (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
“炒面”is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into “chow mein”, rather than “Chinese stir-fried noodles. In the dictionary, “chow mein” means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
Example 2:<br />
老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
…over a half bottle of baijiu… (Ken Liu 2015: 35)<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, “白酒” is translated into “baijiu” , the translator doesn’t use the word like “spirits”, it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
Example 3:<br />
“哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？” (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
“…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?” (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in the translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of “回锅”, and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.<br />
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<br />
=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
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Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.<br />
Example 1:<br />
…几个人分吃两个菜… (Jingfang Hao 2016:1)<br />
…and they shared two dishes family-style. (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
“分吃” is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he use the word “shared” and he add the word “family-style” to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
Example 2:<br />
“咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。” (Jingfang Hao 2016:20)<br />
“We’re practically from the same hometown! So, you don’t need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won’t give you up.” (Ken Liu 2015: 29)<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term “老乡” from a geographical perspective. “管事儿”means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“一点心意，你收下。” (Jingfang Hao 2016:17)<br />
“Please accept this token of my appreciation.” (Ken Liu 2015: 24)<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. “心意” means money, which is a euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered a euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word “appreciation”.<br />
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<br />
=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
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Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as “饿虎扑食”, the translator translated it into “ate heartily”, although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers. And “（盘子）一片狼藉”translated into “The dishes were a mess”, it is a brief description of the mess. And “成人之美” translated into “and in that case I’ll have done a good deed by keeping silent”, the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this chapter, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.<br />
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<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyzed from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Beijing fold" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western culture, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words. In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
[1] Hao Jingfang. Folding Beijing [J]. Ken Liu (trans.). A Magazine of Science Fiction and Fantasy, 2015.<br />
<br />
[2] Nida, Eugene A. Language and Culture: Context in Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001<br />
<br />
[3] Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, Charles R. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004<br />
<br />
[4] 郝景芳.孤独深处[M].南京：江苏凤凰文艺出版社，2016：1-40<br />
<br />
[5] 谭载喜.新编奈达论翻译[M].北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，1999<br />
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[6] 许钧，穆雷.翻译学概论[M].南京：译林出版社，2009<br />
<br />
[7] 赵丹丹.浅论奈达的功能对等理论[J].文学教育，2011<br />
<br />
[8] 周兴阳.从功能对等理论视角看《北京折叠》英译本研究[J].新疆大学，2018<br />
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[9] 王桂圆.系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[J].海外英语，2018<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
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Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
<br />
“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
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Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
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Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
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The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts.<br />
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In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006). Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
<br />
He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”(Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms. Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. He translated the pun in English into the pun in Chinese. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English. It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience of the drama will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. <br />
<br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. When the audience heard of “梁勉仁”, they would realize that Algernon was a double-faced person at once. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced, so the function of the original and the target language are the same. We guess that if Wilde writes this play in Chinese, he may use the same expression as Yu Guangzhong. Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality. <br />
<br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning of the source language.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
Allusions refer to the stories or words and sentences in ancient books quoted in poems; idioms refer to the fixed and customary expressions in a language, including proverbs, slang, catchphrase, lexical phrase, habitual collocation, restricted collocation, and etc. “There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
<br />
======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
<br />
(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just in order to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” in this dialogue actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.It is hard to translate alliteration in the target language. In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. In this example, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”<br />
.<br />
(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The form of the sentence has changed, while the meaning remained. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence”<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ manners and thoughts and the bourgeois society of his time, Victorian era.In the above example, Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while Lady. Bracknell says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox. After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text.<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul. <br />
<br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married. In order to persuade him, she compared the two reasons of not getting married. "The former is understandable, while the latter is incomprehensible"(Wen Tong, 2012). In example 6, Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works. <br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why The Importance of Being Earnest becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original. <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs. For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers.<br />
In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies. One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
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Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
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Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
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Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
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Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
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Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
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Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
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Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
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Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
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Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
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<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui,2009)<br />
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Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language<br />
shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
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The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si, 2019)<br />
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==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lederer, 1969)<br />
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==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
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Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
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==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
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On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
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==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Liu Yue,Lan Jie, 2020)<br />
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==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.(Bevir,Mark,2002)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer, 2001)<br />
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===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
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*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-161+166.<br />
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*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
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*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
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*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
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*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-180+211.<br />
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*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
<br />
In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
<br />
=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
<br />
==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
<br />
==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
<br />
=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
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“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
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==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
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(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
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(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
<br />
=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
<br />
By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
<br />
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WangYan.王焱. (2012). 中国古代佛经翻译的政治化[The Politicalization of the Ancient Chinese Sutra Translation].学术交流 Academic Exchange (05)156-159.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1982). 佛经翻译家鸠摩罗什[Buddhist Translator Kumarajiva].中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal (03) 24-25.<br />
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Ma Zhuyi.马祖毅. (1980).伟大的佛经翻译家玄奘[The Great Buddhist Translator Xuan Zang].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal (02) 18-19.<br />
<br />
He Zizhang.何子章. (2008). 玄奘“五不翻”原则的现实意义[On Practicability of “The Transliteration in the Five Cases” Suggested by Xuan Zang].襄樊学院学报Journal of Xiangfan University(10) 65-69.<br />
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Xiu Wenqiao修文乔. (2008). 论权力对翻译的影响—从意识形态角度解读唐朝佛经翻译[Analysis of the Impact of Power on Translation—Interpreting Sutra Translation in Tang Dynasty from the Ideological Point of View].广东外语外贸大学学报Journal of Guangdong University of Foreign Studies(01) 30-34+43.<br />
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Hou Lixiang.侯丽香. (2016) 从文化传播的视角看佛经翻译对中国语言文化的影响[The Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese Language and Culture from the Perspective of Cultural Transmission].英语广场English Square (03)13-15.<br />
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Du Aixian.杜爱贤. (2000). 谈谈佛经翻译对汉语的影响[On the Influence of Sutra Translation on Chinese].世界宗教文化The World Religious Cultures (02) 48-49.<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 ==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
<br />
In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014). Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
<br />
In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72). Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
<br />
In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
<br />
All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
<br />
===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
<br />
''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displays their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefines translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explains that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (Lefevere 2003, xi). According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
<br />
In the preface of the book, Lefevere looks back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concludes that the previous discussion of translation is exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposes that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
<br />
I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translators' inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understandings, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
<br />
In this part, I will analyze John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “a author and a translator” to “a master and a slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or "translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered." Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating a poem in such a way is like “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator need not care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposes that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
<br />
However, in chapter two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translators' inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. ( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
<br />
About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, a number of texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003， xiii).<br />
<br />
===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005. 2). In the FAQ passage, the author explains why he writes this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Then, it follows the titles of each chapter: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu's Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form"; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein's View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of "Language Game"; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: part one: to appeal for the reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; part two: to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; part three: to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
<br />
The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179). The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of the translation functionalism.<br />
<br />
Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i). This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in Pinimujing, the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987). In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005 46). As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51). The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104). The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52).Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15). Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104).<br />
<br />
Some scholars expressed their views on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006). Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study.(Lu Wei, 2010).<br />
<br />
===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
4.1 From the aspect of the content<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracted other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
<br />
4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper made a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
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Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
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Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
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Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World], Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
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Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies'', Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
<br />
==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
<br />
==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
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[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
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[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
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[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
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[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
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[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
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[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
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[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
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[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
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归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
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===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
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On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
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For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
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==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
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Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
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Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）.<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
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===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
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1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
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Example 1:<br />
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路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 2<br />
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云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
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Example 3<br />
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花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 4 <br />
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Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
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With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
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Example 7<br />
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番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
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Example 10<br />
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Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
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3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
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Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 11<br />
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我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 12<br />
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“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 13<br />
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耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 14<br />
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“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
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Example 15<br />
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我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
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===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
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===''' References '''===<br />
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* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
<br />
Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
<br />
Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
<br />
'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
<br />
Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
<br />
As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
<br />
These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
<br />
4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
<br />
In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
<br />
Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
<br />
Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
<br />
Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
<br />
For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
<br />
As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
<br />
Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
<br />
4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
<br />
In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
<br />
4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
<br />
Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
<br />
4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
<br />
Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
<br />
Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
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Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
<br />
Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
<br />
Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
<br />
Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
'''题目'''<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析学习翻译学科目前存在的问题，并提出相关的建议。 <br />
<br />
'''关键词''' <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Study<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
<br />
As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
'''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''<br />
<br />
Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc. At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.<br />
<br />
2.2 The Development Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate. Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.<br />
<br />
2.3 The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction. In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training. There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
<br />
'''3. The Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
<br />
3.1 Translation Education<br />
<br />
With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better. However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market. (Zhong Weihe 2019)Due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Faculty Resources<br />
<br />
The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.<br />
<br />
3.1.3 Teaching method<br />
<br />
Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2020) For example, this kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
<br />
3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
<br />
The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare. besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011) However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.<br />
<br />
3.2 Students<br />
<br />
The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
<br />
3.2.1 Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
<br />
Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
<br />
3.2.2 Insufficient background knowledge <br />
<br />
Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information. With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. (Xie Zhentian, 2015) Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.<br />
<br />
3.2.3 Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
<br />
At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
<br />
4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.<br />
<br />
4.1. Translation Education<br />
<br />
4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
<br />
The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. (Ou Yonghua 2019) This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.<br />
<br />
4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
<br />
Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)<br />
<br />
4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
<br />
Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which is a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. Carry out the provision of roadmap (Lan Hongjun, 2018); the second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
<br />
4.2 Students <br />
<br />
The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
<br />
4.2.1 Expanding knowledge<br />
<br />
Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills. A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
<br />
Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.<br />
<br />
'''5.Conclusion'''<br />
<br />
This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
<br />
President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. (Zhong Weihe 2020) The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
Holmes, James S. (1972). The Name and Nature of Translation Studies. ''Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies''. 67–80.<br />
Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqin.薄振杰,李和庆.(2011).关于当前中国翻译教学研究的思考.[ Reflection on the Current Research of Translation Teaching in China].外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 76-83.<br />
Dong Qiusi.董秋斯.(1950).翻译批评的标准和重点.[ Criteria and focus of translation criticism].翻译通报[''Translation Bulletin''].<br />
Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao.黄忠廉，张潇.（2020）.翻译学科百年:演进、反思与趋势.[ A Century of Translation Studies: Evolution, Reflection and Trend]. 上海翻译[''Shanghai Journal of Translators''] 1-6.<br />
Jiang Feifei.姜菲菲.(2019).中国文化走出去背景下对翻译学科的综述. [A Summary of Translation Studies from the Background of Outputting Chinese Culture].校园英语[''English Campus'']7-8. <br />
Lan Hongjun.蓝红军.(2018)从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究(1987-2017). [Theoretically Oriented Translation Studies in China: 1987 - 2017].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal'']7-16<br />
Mu Lei, Li Xixi.穆雷, 李希希.(2019).中国翻译教育研究:现状与未来.[ Research on Translation Education in China: Status Quo and Future] .外语界[''Foreign Language World''] 24-32.<br />
Ou Yonghua.(2019).新时期中国翻译教学研究思考概述. [An Overview of Researches on Chinese Translation Teaching in the New Era].课程教育研究[''Course Education Research''] 13.<br />
Xi Jinping.习近平.(2016).在哲学社会科学工作座谈会上的讲话.[ Speech at the Symposium on Philosophy and Social Sciences].新华网[xinhuanet].<br />
Xie Zhentian.谢天振.(2015).翻译巨变与翻译的重新定位与定义——从2015年国际翻译日主题谈起.[ Great Changes in Translation and Repositioning and Definition of Translation——Starting from the theme of the International Translation Day in 2015].东方翻译[''East Journal of Translation''] 4-8. <br />
Wang Baigula.王白古拉.(2018).中国翻译教学现状与复合型翻译人才培养. [The Status Quo of Translation Teaching in China and the cultivation of Interdisciplinary Translators].文存阅刊[''Wen Cun Journal''] 87.<br />
Wang Na.王娜. (2020).MTI在校生搜索能力不足成因分析. [An Analysis of the Causes of Insufficient Searching Ability of MTI Students].海外英语[''Overseas English''] 194-195.<br />
Zhong Weihe.仲伟合.(2019).改革开放40年我国翻译专业教育:成就、挑战与发展. [China Translation Education in the Past 40 Years of Reform and Opening Up: Achievements, Challenges and Development].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 68-75.<br />
Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan.仲伟合,赵田园.(2020).中国翻译学科与翻译专业发展研究（1949-2019).[ Research on the Development of Chinese Translation Discipline and Translation Major (1949-2019)].中国翻译[''Chinese Translators Journal''] 79-86.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
<br />
[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
<br />
[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
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[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
<br />
[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
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[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
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[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
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[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
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[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
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[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .<br />
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== An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=111761History of Translation Studies 102020-12-13T15:52:32Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing */</p>
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='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
<br />
Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
<br />
Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
<center>肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654</center><br />
===Abstract===<br />
Hao Jingfang's science fiction "Folding Beijing" won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu's rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida's functional equivalence to "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". The theory of Nida's functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu's application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例<br />
===摘要===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers' understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
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===1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence===<br />
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Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work "Toward a Science of Translating". Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book "The Theory and Practice of Translation", Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader's response to the translation.<br />
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===2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing===<br />
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====2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning====<br />
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Nida and Taber (2004：12) stated that “translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning.” Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.<br />
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=====2.1.1 Lexical level=====<br />
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In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:<br />
Example 1:<br />
“食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）<br />
“Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead.” (Ken Liu 2015:1)<br />
Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word “the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls” for readers to understand. “Sour and spicy powder” is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses “hot and sour rice noodles” to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:2）<br />
“Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy.” (Ken Liu 2015:3)<br />
The translator uses “a toothpick dangling between his lips” to describe the action of picking teeth，it’s more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into “lazy and slovenly” to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into “the appearance of being perpetually grumpy”, in this way, the translation better expresses the author’s intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. <br />
Example 3:<br />
“霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:7）<br />
“The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan.” (Ken Liu 2015:9)<br />
The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into “ the little flashing lights ”, but “Tiny flashing LEDs”. This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses “lapi”, which is to show the original meaning.<br />
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=====2.1.2 Syntactic Level=====<br />
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Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.<br />
In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: <br />
Example 1:<br />
“ ‘现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。’他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。’他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’” （Jingfang Hao 2016:12）<br />
“ ‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,’ he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don’t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I’ll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who’s incompetent will be fired.’ Since Lao Gao still didn’t seem to show much reaction, he added, ‘I’ll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.’ ” (Ken Liu 2015: 15)<br />
We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into “I’ll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion”, The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:25）<br />
“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015: 34) <br />
In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing “In the dim lamplight” between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like “…childhood that…”.<br />
Example 3:<br />
“再回到第三空间，他感觉自己像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:27）<br />
“Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away.” (Ken Liu 2015: 34)<br />
In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like “as though”, “from where” and “that”, this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.<br />
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=====2.1.3 Discourse level=====<br />
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Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.<br />
“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”<br />
老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。<br />
“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”<br />
依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:17)<br />
“And so”—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao’s plate—“can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself.” <br />
Lao Dao didn’t pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.<br />
“Then I’d be lying, too,” Lao Dao said.<br />
Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. “Please accept this token of my appreciation.” (Ken Liu 2015: 23)<br />
The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into “spooned a serving of the new hot dish”, the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into “She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao”, this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.<br />
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====2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style====<br />
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Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.<br />
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=====2.2.1 Rhetoric=====<br />
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First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.<br />
Example 1:<br />
老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
Lao Dao’s stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble. (Ken Liu 2015: 3)<br />
In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.<br />
Example 2:<br />
不远不近的一段距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一段孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:7)<br />
The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea. (Ken Liu 2015: 9)<br />
In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "Xishan" and "gu" in the original text are not translated, only translated into “an island in the sea”, this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.<br />
Example 3:<br />
高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:8)<br />
The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky. (Ken Liu 2015: 9)<br />
It has a personification in this paragraph, “skyscrapers” have “heads, feet, necks and arms”, and “like the humblest servants”, the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.<br />
Example 4:<br />
直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:9)<br />
Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster. (Ken Liu 2015: 11)<br />
In this sentence, although “怪胎” translate into “monster”, the “生”express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.<br />
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=====2.2.2 Dialects=====<br />
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Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.<br />
For example, “伙计” in English “waiter” ,“铺盖卷” in English “bedrolls” ,“闺女”is translated as “real daughter” ,“她们认死理儿” is translated as “they don’t know how to be flexible”,“只是这么多年过来，人就木了.” (Jingfang Hao 2016: 25) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb.” (Ken Liu 2015: 37) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.<br />
In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.<br />
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====2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture====<br />
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In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.<br />
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=====2.3.1 Food Culture=====<br />
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The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.<br />
Example 1:<br />
…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun… (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
“炒面”is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into “chow mein”, rather than “Chinese stir-fried noodles. In the dictionary, “chow mein” means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.<br />
Example 2:<br />
老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)<br />
…over a half bottle of baijiu… (Ken Liu 2015: 35)<br />
The foreignizing translation is adopted here, “白酒” is translated into “baijiu” , the translator doesn’t use the word like “spirits”, it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.<br />
Example 3:<br />
“哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？” (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)<br />
“…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?” (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in the translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of “回锅”, and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.<br />
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=====2.3.2 Folk Culture=====<br />
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Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.<br />
Example 1:<br />
…几个人分吃两个菜… (Jingfang Hao 2016:1)<br />
…and they shared two dishes family-style. (Ken Liu 2015: 2)<br />
“分吃” is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he use the word “shared” and he add the word “family-style” to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. <br />
Example 2:<br />
“咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。” (Jingfang Hao 2016:20)<br />
“We’re practically from the same hometown! So, you don’t need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won’t give you up.” (Ken Liu 2015: 29)<br />
The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term “老乡” from a geographical perspective. “管事儿”means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.<br />
Example 2:<br />
“一点心意，你收下。” (Jingfang Hao 2016:17)<br />
“Please accept this token of my appreciation.” (Ken Liu 2015: 24)<br />
In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. “心意” means money, which is a euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered a euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word “appreciation”.<br />
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=====2.3.3 Culture of Idioms=====<br />
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Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.<br />
The author used many idioms in the article, such as “饿虎扑食”, the translator translated it into “ate heartily”, although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers. And “（盘子）一片狼藉”translated into “The dishes were a mess”, it is a brief description of the mess. And “成人之美” translated into “and in that case I’ll have done a good deed by keeping silent”, the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.<br />
From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this chapter, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyzed from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Beijing fold" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western culture, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words. In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.<br />
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===References===<br />
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[9] 王桂圆.系统功能语言学视角下《北京折叠》英译研究[J].海外英语，2018<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
<br />
“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts.<br />
<br />
In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006). Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
<br />
He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
<br />
“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”(Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration. <br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms. Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. He translated the pun in English into the pun in Chinese. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English. It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience of the drama will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. <br />
<br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. When the audience heard of “梁勉仁”, they would realize that Algernon was a double-faced person at once. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced, so the function of the original and the target language are the same. We guess that if Wilde writes this play in Chinese, he may use the same expression as Yu Guangzhong. Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality. <br />
<br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning of the source language.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
Allusions refer to the stories or words and sentences in ancient books quoted in poems; idioms refer to the fixed and customary expressions in a language, including proverbs, slang, catchphrase, lexical phrase, habitual collocation, restricted collocation, and etc. “There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
<br />
======Alliteration======<br />
"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
<br />
(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just in order to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” in this dialogue actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.It is hard to translate alliteration in the target language. In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. In this example, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”<br />
.<br />
(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The form of the sentence has changed, while the meaning remained. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence”<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ manners and thoughts and the bourgeois society of his time, Victorian era.In the above example, Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while Lady. Bracknell says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox. After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text.<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul. <br />
<br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married. In order to persuade him, she compared the two reasons of not getting married. "The former is understandable, while the latter is incomprehensible"(Wen Tong, 2012). In example 6, Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works. <br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why The Importance of Being Earnest becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original. <br />
<br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs. For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers.<br />
In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies. One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
Chen Feifei陈菲菲. (2011). 目的论与余光中《不可儿戏》的翻译策略[Skopos Theory and Yu Kwang-chung’s Translation Strategy on The Importance of Being Earnest J].''宁波广播电视大学学报'' Journal of Ningbo Radio and Television University (04) 43-46.<br />
<br />
Chen Yaoyao陈瑶瑶. (2019). ''余光中戏剧翻译研究''[A study of Yu Guangzhong's drama translation]. Taiyuan: Shanxi University山西大学.<br />
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Eugene A. Nida &Charles R. Taber. (1969). ''The Theory and Practice of Translation''. Leiden: Brill.<br />
<br />
Guo Jianzhong郭建中. (2000). ''文化与翻译'' [Culture and Translation]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Liang Wei梁薇. (2009). 从翻译目的论视角出发研究The Importance of Being Earnest两个译本[Two versions of The importance of Being Earnest From the perspective of Skopos theory]. Anhui: Language and words''语言文字'' (09) 258.<br />
<br />
Li Xin李欣. (2010). 余光中戏剧翻译实践研究——以《不可儿戏》为例[Yu Kuang-chung's Drama Translation Practice: A Case Study of The Importance of Being Earnest]. ''淮海工学院学报'' Journal of Huaihai Institute of Technology (04) 96-98.<br />
<br />
Richard, F. (1956). ''Wilde as Parodist: A Second Look at the Importance of Being Earnest. College English'' (1) 18-23.<br />
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Shen Zhengrong谌峥嵘. (2007). 《不可儿戏》两中译本比较[A Comparative Study of The Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Shi Qiulei施秋蕾. (2012). 文化转向视角下的翻译策略研究——以王尔德The Importance of Being Earnest两中译本为例[Translation Strategies from the Perspective of Cultural Turn: A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest].''常熟理工学院学报'' (03) 96-100.<br />
<br />
Tong Fangli童芳莉. (2006). 从归化与异化的角度评余光中译《不可儿戏》[Evaluation on Yu Guangzhong's Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest from Domestication and Foreignization].''台州学院报'' Journal of Taizhou College (02) 43-46.<br />
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Wang Chao汪超. (2016). 余光中翻译思想与实践研究[A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Translation Thought and Practice]. Changsha: Hunan Normal University湖南师范大学.<br />
<br />
Wen Tong 温彤. (2012). 美学视阈下的戏剧翻译审美主体研究——以王尔德的喜剧中译为例[On the Aesthetic Subject of Drama Translation from the Perspective of Aesthetics——Take Oscar Wilde's Chinese Translation of Comedies as an Example].''时代文学''Period literature (03) 220-221.<br />
<br />
Wilde, O. (2009). The Importance of Being Earnest. Claremont: Broadview Press.<br />
<br />
Wu Jie吴洁. (2014). “语言游戏说”视角下的王尔德作品研究[A Research on Oscar Wilde’s Major Works from the Perspective of "Language Games”]. Shanghai: Shanghai International Studies University 上海外国语大学.<br />
<br />
Wu Shanshan吴姗珊. (2012). 从目的论视角比较研究The Importance of Being Earnest的三个中译本[A Comparative Study of The Three Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Skopos Theory]. Chengdu: Sichuan Normal University四川师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yang Wenqian杨文茜. (2014). 以舞台呈现为目的:王尔德戏剧The Importance of Being Earnest两个中译本的比较[Translating Drama for Theatrical Performance: A Comparative Study of Two Chinese Translations of Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest ]. Wuhan: Huazhong Normal University华中师范大学.<br />
<br />
Yin LIjing殷莉菁. (2012). 王尔德戏剧《不可儿戏》中双关语汉译研究[A Study of Pun Translation of The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WIlde]. Hangzhou : Zhejiang Gongshang University浙江工商大学.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (1986).''不可儿戏'' [The Importance of Being Earnest]. Beijing: China Friendship Publishing Company中国友谊出版公司.<br />
<br />
Yu Guangzhong余光中. (2004). ''余光中谈翻译''[On Translation by Yu Guangzhong]. Beijing: China National Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui,2009)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language<br />
shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si, 2019)<br />
<br />
==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lederer, 1969)<br />
<br />
==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
<br />
Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
<br />
==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
<br />
On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
<br />
==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Liu Yue,Lan Jie, 2020)<br />
<br />
==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.(Bevir,Mark,2002)<br />
<br />
The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer, 2001)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
<br />
*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
<br />
*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-161+166.<br />
<br />
*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
<br />
*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
<br />
*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-180+211.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
<br />
During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
<br />
In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
<br />
=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
<br />
==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
<br />
==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
<br />
==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
<br />
=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
<br />
“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
<br />
The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
<br />
==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
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(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
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(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
<br />
=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
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=== The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures ===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.<br />
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“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.<br />
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In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.<br />
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=== Conclusion ===<br />
The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.<br />
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By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice.<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation<br />
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=== References ===<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 ==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
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===I.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014). Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72). Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
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===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
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''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displays their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefines translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explains that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (Lefevere 2003, xi). According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looks back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concludes that the previous discussion of translation is exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposes that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translators' inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understandings, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “a author and a translator” to “a master and a slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or "translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered." Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating a poem in such a way is like “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator need not care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposes that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in chapter two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translators' inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. ( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, a number of texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003， xiii).<br />
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===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
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In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005. 2). In the FAQ passage, the author explains why he writes this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Then, it follows the titles of each chapter: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu's Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form"; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein's View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of "Language Game"; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: part one: to appeal for the reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; part two: to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; part three: to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
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The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179). The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of the translation functionalism.<br />
<br />
Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i). This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in Pinimujing, the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987). In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005 46). As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51). The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104). The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52).Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15). Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104).<br />
<br />
Some scholars expressed their views on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006). Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study.(Lu Wei, 2010).<br />
<br />
===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
4.1 From the aspect of the content<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracted other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
<br />
4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper made a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
<br />
Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World], Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies'', Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
<br />
==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
<br />
==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku）<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
<br />
Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）.<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）<br />
<br />
===''' Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
<br />
1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
<br />
The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）<br />
<br />
Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
<br />
Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）<br />
<br />
3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
<br />
Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 11<br />
<br />
我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 12<br />
<br />
“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 13<br />
<br />
耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020）<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 14<br />
<br />
“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）<br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）<br />
<br />
Example 15<br />
<br />
我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）<br />
<br />
===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
<br />
===''' References '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.<br />
* Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.<br />
* Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
<br />
Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
<br />
Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
<br />
'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
<br />
Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
<br />
As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
<br />
These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
<br />
4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
<br />
In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
<br />
Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
<br />
Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
<br />
Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
<br />
For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
<br />
As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
<br />
Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
<br />
4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
<br />
In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
<br />
4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
<br />
Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
<br />
4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
<br />
Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
<br />
Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
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Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
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Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658==<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents<br />
<br />
'''题目'''<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析学习翻译学科目前存在的问题，并提出相关的建议。 <br />
<br />
'''关键词''' <br />
<br />
翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才<br />
<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Study<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
<br />
As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
'''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''<br />
<br />
Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc. At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.<br />
<br />
2.2 The Development Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate. Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.<br />
<br />
2.3 The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction. In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training. There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
<br />
'''3. The Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
<br />
3.1 Translation Education<br />
<br />
With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better. However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market. (Zhong Weihe 2019)Due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.<br />
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3.1.2 Faculty Resources<br />
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The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.<br />
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3.1.3 Teaching method<br />
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Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2020) For example, this kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
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3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
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The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare. besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011) However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.<br />
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3.2 Students<br />
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The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.<br />
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3.2.1 Low level of commitment to translation learning<br />
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Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough. Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.<br />
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3.2.2 Insufficient background knowledge <br />
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Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information. With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. (Xie Zhentian, 2015) Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.<br />
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3.2.3 Neglect of theoretical knowledge<br />
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At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）<br />
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4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies<br />
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In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.<br />
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4.1. Translation Education<br />
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4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode<br />
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The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. (Ou Yonghua 2019) This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.<br />
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4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force<br />
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Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents. Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019） Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2020)<br />
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4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation<br />
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Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which is a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. Carry out the provision of roadmap (Lan Hongjun, 2018); the second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)<br />
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4.2 Students <br />
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The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.<br />
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4.2.1 Expanding knowledge<br />
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Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills. A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)<br />
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4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more<br />
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Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times. Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.<br />
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'''5.Conclusion'''<br />
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This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research. From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.<br />
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President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. (Zhong Weihe 2020) The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.<br />
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References<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
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==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
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===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
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Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
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In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
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===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
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Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
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In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
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According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
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He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
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According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
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Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
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According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
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Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
<br />
[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
<br />
[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
<br />
[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
<br />
[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
<br />
[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
<br />
[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .<br />
<br />
== An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=110744History of Translation Studies 102020-12-12T18:42:21Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
<br />
学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
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Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
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Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
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Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
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Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
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Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
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Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
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Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Hao Jingfang’s science fiction ''Folding Beijing'' won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu’s rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida’s functional equivalence to “quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors”. The theory of Nida’s functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu’s application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing ; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers’ understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
<br />
'''1.Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers’ response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers’ response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader’s response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader’s response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader’s response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader’s responses. If the target language reader’s understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. <br />
In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006). Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.<br />
This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”(Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference.<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration. <br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms. Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. He translated the pun in English into the pun in Chinese. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English. It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience of the drama will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. <br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. When the audience heard of “梁勉仁”, they would realize that Algernon was a double-faced person at once. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced, so the function of the original and the target language are the same. We guess that if Wilde writes this play in Chinese, he may use the same expression as Yu Guangzhong. Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality. <br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning of the source language.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays. Allusions refer to the stories or words and sentences in ancient books quoted in poems; idioms refer to the fixed and customary expressions in a language, including proverbs, slang, catchphrase, lexical phrase, habitual collocation, restricted collocation, and etc. “There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
======Alliteration======<br />
The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just in order to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” in this dialogue actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
It is hard to translate alliteration in the target language. In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. In this example, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.<br />
Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The form of the sentence has changed, while the meaning remained. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence”<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ manners and thoughts and the bourgeois society of his time, Victorian era.<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In the above example, Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while Lady. Bracknell says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.<br />
Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox. After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication. This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.<br />
In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text.<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure. Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.<br />
Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul. <br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married. In order to persuade him, she compared the two reasons of not getting married. The former is understandable, while the latter is incomprehensible. <br />
In example 6, Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works. <br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why The Importance of Being Earnest becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original. <br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs. For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers.<br />
In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.<br />
In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies. One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.<br />
Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui,2009)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language<br />
shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si, 2019)<br />
<br />
==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lederer, 1969)<br />
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==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
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Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
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==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
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On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
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==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Liu Yue,Lan Jie, 2020)<br />
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==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.(Bevir,Mark,2002)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer, 2001)<br />
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===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
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*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-161+166.<br />
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*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
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*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
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*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
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*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-180+211.<br />
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*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
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='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
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==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
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===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
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In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
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==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
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=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
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“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
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==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
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(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
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(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
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=== References ===<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 ==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014). Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72). Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
<br />
===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
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''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displays their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefines translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explains that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (Lefevere 2003, xi). According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looks back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concludes that the previous discussion of translation is exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposes that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translators' inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understandings, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “a author and a translator” to “a master and a slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or "translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered." Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating a poem in such a way is like “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator need not care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposes that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in chapter two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translators' inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. ( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, a number of texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003， xiii).<br />
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===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005. 2). In the FAQ passage, the author explains why he writes this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Then, it follows the titles of each chapter: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu's Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form"; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein's View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of "Language Game"; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: part one: to appeal for the reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; part two: to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; part three: to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
<br />
The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179). The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of the translation functionalism.<br />
<br />
Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i). This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in Pinimujing, the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987). In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005 46). As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51). The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104). The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52).Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15). Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104).<br />
<br />
Some scholars expressed their views on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006). Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study.(Lu Wei, 2010).<br />
<br />
===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
4.1 From the aspect of the content<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracted other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
<br />
4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper made a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
<br />
Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World], Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies'', Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
<br />
==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
<br />
==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. <br />
<br />
Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. <br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
<br />
Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.<br />
<br />
What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea”(Zhang le) ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“，<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended. <br />
<br />
===''' Practice of Foreignization and Domestication from Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
<br />
1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
<br />
The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, we should use the method of combination of domestication and foreignization, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.<br />
<br />
2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.<br />
Based on the food culture above,special methods of naming have formed.<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.<br />
<br />
Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. <br />
<br />
If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.<br />
Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen)<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
<br />
Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed Bun<br />
There are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization<br />
<br />
3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
<br />
Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.<br />
<br />
Example 11<br />
<br />
我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.<br />
<br />
Example 12<br />
<br />
“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（2020-2-21&3-18）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.<br />
<br />
Example 13<br />
<br />
耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.<br />
<br />
Example 14<br />
<br />
“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 <br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. <br />
<br />
Example 15<br />
<br />
我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.<br />
<br />
In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.<br />
<br />
===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, which leads to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
<br />
===''' reference '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020) .十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* 外交部新闻发言稿（2020）Foreign Ministry Press Statement (2020)<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
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Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
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'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
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Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
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==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
<br />
Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
<br />
Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
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Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
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Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liaison Interpreting from the Perspectives of Receptional Aesthetics and Translator's Subjectivity 李璐伊 Li Luyi==<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing==<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
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'''Key words'''<br />
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Translation, Translation Studies, translation education<br />
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'''题目'''<br />
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对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
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'''摘要'''<br />
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'''关键词''' <br />
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<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
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1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
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Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
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Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
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1.2. The Significance of Translation Study<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
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As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.<br />
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'''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''<br />
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Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
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2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
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In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.<br />
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However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc. At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.<br />
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2.2 The Development Period of Translation Studies<br />
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At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate. Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.<br />
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2.3 The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
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In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction. In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training. There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
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'''3. The Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''<br />
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The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
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3.1 Translation Education<br />
<br />
With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better. However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market. (Zhong Weihe 2019)Due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Faculty Resources<br />
<br />
The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.<br />
<br />
3.1.3 Teaching method<br />
<br />
Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2020) For example, this kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
<br />
3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
<br />
The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare. besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011) However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
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[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
<br />
[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
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[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
<br />
[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
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[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
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[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
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[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
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[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
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[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .<br />
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== An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=110743History of Translation Studies 102020-12-12T18:40:39Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing */</p>
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<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
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<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
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Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
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===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
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Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
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To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
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===Formal equivalence===<br />
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Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
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Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
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===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
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For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
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Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
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Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
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Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
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===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
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Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
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====Lexical equivalence====<br />
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Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
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Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
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It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
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====Syntax equivalence====<br />
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Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
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We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
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====Texual equivalence====<br />
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Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
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Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
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In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
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The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
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====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
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Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
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In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
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In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
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Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
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===References===<br />
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Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
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Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
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Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
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Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
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Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
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Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
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Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
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Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
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Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
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Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
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尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
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Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
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UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
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== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
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== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Hao Jingfang’s science fiction ''Folding Beijing'' won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu’s rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida’s functional equivalence to “quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors”. The theory of Nida’s functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu’s application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing ; meaning; style; culture<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers’ understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
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'''1.Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence'''<br />
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Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers’ response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers’ response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader’s response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader’s response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader’s response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader’s responses. If the target language reader’s understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. <br />
In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006). Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.<br />
This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”(Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference.<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration. <br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms. Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. He translated the pun in English into the pun in Chinese. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English. It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience of the drama will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. <br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. When the audience heard of “梁勉仁”, they would realize that Algernon was a double-faced person at once. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced, so the function of the original and the target language are the same. We guess that if Wilde writes this play in Chinese, he may use the same expression as Yu Guangzhong. Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality. <br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning of the source language.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays. Allusions refer to the stories or words and sentences in ancient books quoted in poems; idioms refer to the fixed and customary expressions in a language, including proverbs, slang, catchphrase, lexical phrase, habitual collocation, restricted collocation, and etc. “There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
======Alliteration======<br />
The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just in order to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” in this dialogue actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
It is hard to translate alliteration in the target language. In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. In this example, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.<br />
Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The form of the sentence has changed, while the meaning remained. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence”<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ manners and thoughts and the bourgeois society of his time, Victorian era.<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In the above example, Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while Lady. Bracknell says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.<br />
Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox. After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication. This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.<br />
In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text.<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure. Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.<br />
Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul. <br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married. In order to persuade him, she compared the two reasons of not getting married. The former is understandable, while the latter is incomprehensible. <br />
In example 6, Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works. <br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why The Importance of Being Earnest becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original. <br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs. For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers.<br />
In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.<br />
In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies. One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.<br />
Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui,2009)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language<br />
shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si, 2019)<br />
<br />
==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lederer, 1969)<br />
<br />
==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
<br />
Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
<br />
==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
<br />
On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
<br />
==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Liu Yue,Lan Jie, 2020)<br />
<br />
==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.(Bevir,Mark,2002)<br />
<br />
The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer, 2001)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
<br />
*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
<br />
*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-161+166.<br />
<br />
*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
<br />
*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
<br />
*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-180+211.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
<br />
During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
<br />
In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
<br />
=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
<br />
==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
<br />
==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
<br />
==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
<br />
(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
<br />
(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
<br />
=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
<br />
“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
<br />
The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
<br />
==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
<br />
(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
<br />
(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
<br />
(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
<br />
=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
<br />
In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
<br />
(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.<br />
<br />
(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
<br />
(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
<br />
(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
<br />
=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 ==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
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===I.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014). Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72). Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
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===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
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''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displays their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefines translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explains that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (Lefevere 2003, xi). According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looks back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concludes that the previous discussion of translation is exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposes that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translators' inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understandings, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “a author and a translator” to “a master and a slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or "translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered." Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating a poem in such a way is like “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator need not care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposes that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in chapter two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translators' inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. ( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, a number of texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003， xiii).<br />
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===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
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In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005. 2). In the FAQ passage, the author explains why he writes this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Then, it follows the titles of each chapter: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu's Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form"; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein's View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of "Language Game"; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: part one: to appeal for the reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; part two: to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; part three: to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
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The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179). The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of the translation functionalism.<br />
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Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i). This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in Pinimujing, the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987). In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005 46). As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51). The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104). The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52).Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15). Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104).<br />
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Some scholars expressed their views on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006). Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study.(Lu Wei, 2010).<br />
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===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
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4.1 From the aspect of the content<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
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Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracted other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
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4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper made a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
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===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
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Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
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Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
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Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World], Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
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Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies'', Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
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==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
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Ancient Translation Period<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
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Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
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A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
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Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
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Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
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Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
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After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
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The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
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==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
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Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
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Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
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Innovation of ontology<br />
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Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
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==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
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Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
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The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
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Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
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The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
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As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
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==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
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Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
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First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
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Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
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First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
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Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
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Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
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Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
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==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
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Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
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Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
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Return to culture development<br />
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The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
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Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
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Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
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[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
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[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
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[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
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[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
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[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
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[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
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[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
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==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
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===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. <br />
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Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. <br />
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On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.<br />
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For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
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Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.<br />
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What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea”(Zhang le) ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“，<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended. <br />
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===''' Practice of Foreignization and Domestication from Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
<br />
1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, we should use the method of combination of domestication and foreignization, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.<br />
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Example 2<br />
<br />
云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.<br />
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Example 3<br />
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花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.<br />
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Example 4 <br />
<br />
Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .<br />
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Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
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With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.<br />
Based on the food culture above,special methods of naming have formed.<br />
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Example 7<br />
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番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .<br />
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Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. <br />
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If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.<br />
Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen)<br />
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Example 10<br />
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Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed Bun<br />
There are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization<br />
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3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
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Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.<br />
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Example 11<br />
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我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.<br />
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Example 12<br />
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“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（2020-2-21&3-18）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.<br />
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Example 13<br />
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耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.<br />
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Example 14<br />
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“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 <br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. <br />
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Example 15<br />
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我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.<br />
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In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.<br />
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===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, which leads to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
<br />
===''' reference '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020) .十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* 外交部新闻发言稿（2020）Foreign Ministry Press Statement (2020)<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
<br />
'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
<br />
Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
<br />
Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
<br />
'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
<br />
Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
<br />
For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
<br />
As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
<br />
These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
<br />
4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
<br />
In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
<br />
Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
<br />
Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
<br />
Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
<br />
4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
<br />
For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
<br />
4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
<br />
As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
<br />
Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
<br />
4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
<br />
In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
<br />
4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
<br />
Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
<br />
4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
<br />
Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
<br />
4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
<br />
Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
<br />
==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liaison Interpreting from the Perspectives of Receptional Aesthetics and Translator's Subjectivity 李璐伊 Li Luyi==<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing==<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Translation, Translation Studies, translation education<br />
<br />
'''题目'''<br />
<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
<br />
'''关键词''' <br />
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<br />
<br />
'''1. Introduction'''<br />
<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
<br />
Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Study<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
<br />
As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
'''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''<br />
<br />
Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
<br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.<br />
<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc. At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.<br />
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2.2 The Development Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate. Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.<br />
<br />
2.3 The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
<br />
In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction. In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training. There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
<br />
'''3. The Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''<br />
<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
<br />
3.1 Translation Education<br />
<br />
With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better. However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
<br />
3.1.1 Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market. (Zhong Weihe 2019)Due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.<br />
<br />
3.1.2 Faculty Resources<br />
<br />
The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.<br />
<br />
3.1.3 Teaching method<br />
<br />
Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2020) For example, this kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
<br />
3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
<br />
The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare. besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011) However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
<br />
[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
<br />
[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
<br />
[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
<br />
[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
<br />
[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
<br />
[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .<br />
<br />
== An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=110742History of Translation Studies 102020-12-12T18:38:19Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing */</p>
<hr />
<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
<br />
*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
<br />
As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
<br />
Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
<br />
To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
<br />
===Formal equivalence===<br />
<br />
Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
<br />
Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
<br />
===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
<br />
For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
<br />
Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
<br />
===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
<br />
Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
<br />
====Lexical equivalence====<br />
<br />
Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
<br />
Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
<br />
It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
<br />
====Syntax equivalence====<br />
<br />
Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
<br />
We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
<br />
====Texual equivalence====<br />
<br />
Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
<br />
Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
<br />
In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
<br />
The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
<br />
====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
<br />
Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
<br />
In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
<br />
In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
<br />
Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
<br />
Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
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Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
<br />
Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
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Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
<br />
Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
<br />
Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
<br />
Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
<br />
Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
<br />
Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
<br />
UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
<br />
== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
<br />
== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Hao Jingfang’s science fiction ''Folding Beijing'' won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu’s rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida’s functional equivalence to “quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors”. The theory of Nida’s functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu’s application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing ; meaning; style; culture<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers’ understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
<br />
'''1.Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers’ response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers’ response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader’s response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader’s response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader’s response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader’s responses. If the target language reader’s understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. <br />
In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006). Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.<br />
This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”(Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference.<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration. <br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms. Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. He translated the pun in English into the pun in Chinese. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English. It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience of the drama will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. <br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. When the audience heard of “梁勉仁”, they would realize that Algernon was a double-faced person at once. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced, so the function of the original and the target language are the same. We guess that if Wilde writes this play in Chinese, he may use the same expression as Yu Guangzhong. Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality. <br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning of the source language.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays. Allusions refer to the stories or words and sentences in ancient books quoted in poems; idioms refer to the fixed and customary expressions in a language, including proverbs, slang, catchphrase, lexical phrase, habitual collocation, restricted collocation, and etc. “There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
======Alliteration======<br />
The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just in order to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” in this dialogue actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
It is hard to translate alliteration in the target language. In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. In this example, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.<br />
Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The form of the sentence has changed, while the meaning remained. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence”<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ manners and thoughts and the bourgeois society of his time, Victorian era.<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In the above example, Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while Lady. Bracknell says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.<br />
Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox. After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication. This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.<br />
In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text.<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure. Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.<br />
Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul. <br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married. In order to persuade him, she compared the two reasons of not getting married. The former is understandable, while the latter is incomprehensible. <br />
In example 6, Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works. <br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why The Importance of Being Earnest becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original. <br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs. For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers.<br />
In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.<br />
In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies. One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.<br />
Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui,2009)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language<br />
shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si, 2019)<br />
<br />
==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lederer, 1969)<br />
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==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
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Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
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==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
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On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
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==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Liu Yue,Lan Jie, 2020)<br />
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==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.(Bevir,Mark,2002)<br />
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The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer, 2001)<br />
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===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
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*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
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*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-161+166.<br />
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*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
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*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
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*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
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*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-180+211.<br />
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*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
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='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
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==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
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===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
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===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
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===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
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During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
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In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
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==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
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==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
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==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
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(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
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=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
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“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
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The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
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==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
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Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
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(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
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(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
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(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
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=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
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In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
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==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
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(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.<br />
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(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
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=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
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=== References ===<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 ==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
<br />
===I.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014). Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72). Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
<br />
===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
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''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displays their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefines translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explains that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (Lefevere 2003, xi). According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looks back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concludes that the previous discussion of translation is exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposes that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translators' inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understandings, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “a author and a translator” to “a master and a slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or "translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered." Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating a poem in such a way is like “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator need not care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposes that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in chapter two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translators' inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. ( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, a number of texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003， xiii).<br />
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===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
<br />
In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005. 2). In the FAQ passage, the author explains why he writes this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Then, it follows the titles of each chapter: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu's Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form"; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein's View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of "Language Game"; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: part one: to appeal for the reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; part two: to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; part three: to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
<br />
The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179). The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of the translation functionalism.<br />
<br />
Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i). This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in Pinimujing, the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987). In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005 46). As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51). The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104). The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52).Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15). Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104).<br />
<br />
Some scholars expressed their views on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006). Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study.(Lu Wei, 2010).<br />
<br />
===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
<br />
4.1 From the aspect of the content<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
<br />
Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracted other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
<br />
4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper made a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
<br />
Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
<br />
Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
<br />
Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
<br />
Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
<br />
Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
<br />
Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World], Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
<br />
Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies'', Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
<br />
==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
<br />
==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Ancient Translation Period<br />
<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
<br />
Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
<br />
A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
<br />
Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
<br />
Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
<br />
Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
<br />
After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
<br />
The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
<br />
==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
<br />
Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
<br />
Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
<br />
Innovation of ontology<br />
<br />
Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
<br />
==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
<br />
Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
<br />
The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
<br />
Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
<br />
The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
<br />
As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
<br />
Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
<br />
Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
<br />
First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
<br />
Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
<br />
Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
<br />
Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
<br />
==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
<br />
Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
<br />
Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
<br />
Return to culture development<br />
<br />
The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
<br />
Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
<br />
Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
<br />
==='''References'''===<br />
<br />
[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
<br />
[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
<br />
[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
<br />
[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
<br />
[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
<br />
[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
<br />
[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
<br />
[9] 田雨. 走向跨学科的翻译学［J］.中国翻译，2004（2）：31-35.<br />
<br />
[10] 王东风. 中国翻译研究的过去、现在与未来［J］.上海外国语大学学报, 2014（4）:7-8.<br />
<br />
[11] 郑振铎.译学书三个问题[ J] .小说月报, 1921, 12 (3):1-25.<br />
<br />
==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
<br />
Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
<br />
归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
<br />
归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
<br />
<br />
===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. <br />
<br />
Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. <br />
<br />
On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.<br />
<br />
For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）<br />
<br />
==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
<br />
Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
<br />
Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.<br />
<br />
What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea”(Zhang le) ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“，<br />
<br />
On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended. <br />
<br />
===''' Practice of Foreignization and Domestication from Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
<br />
1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
<br />
The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, we should use the method of combination of domestication and foreignization, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.<br />
<br />
Example 1:<br />
<br />
路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.<br />
<br />
Example 2<br />
<br />
云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.<br />
<br />
Example 3<br />
<br />
花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.<br />
<br />
Example 4 <br />
<br />
Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.<br />
<br />
Example 5<br />
<br />
她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .<br />
<br />
Example 6<br />
<br />
四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.<br />
<br />
2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
<br />
With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.<br />
Based on the food culture above,special methods of naming have formed.<br />
<br />
Example 7<br />
<br />
番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .<br />
<br />
Example 8<br />
<br />
蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.<br />
<br />
Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
<br />
Example 9<br />
<br />
“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. <br />
<br />
If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.<br />
Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen)<br />
<br />
Example 10<br />
<br />
Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed Bun<br />
There are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization<br />
<br />
3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
<br />
Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.<br />
<br />
Example 11<br />
<br />
我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.<br />
<br />
Example 12<br />
<br />
“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（2020-2-21&3-18）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.<br />
<br />
Example 13<br />
<br />
耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.<br />
<br />
Example 14<br />
<br />
“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 <br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. <br />
<br />
Example 15<br />
<br />
我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.<br />
<br />
In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.<br />
<br />
===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
<br />
Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, which leads to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
<br />
===''' reference '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020) .十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* 外交部新闻发言稿（2020）Foreign Ministry Press Statement (2020)<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
<br />
==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
<br />
For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
<br />
This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
<br />
==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
<br />
'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
<br />
In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
<br />
Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
<br />
J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
<br />
Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
<br />
Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
<br />
Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
<br />
Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
<br />
In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
<br />
In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
<br />
In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
<br />
In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
<br />
In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
<br />
At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
<br />
Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
<br />
Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
<br />
In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
<br />
From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
<br />
==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
<br />
In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
<br />
"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
<br />
In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
<br />
'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
<br />
Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
<br />
'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
<br />
Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
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'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
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Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
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'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
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Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
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==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
Catford, J.A.(1965). ''Linguistic Theory of Translation'' . Oxford University Press.<br />
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Holmes, James S.(1975). The Name and Nature of Transition Studies . ''Holland Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press''.<br />
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Jixing LONG. (2019). Translation Studies From Multiple Perspectives. ''Studies in Literature and Language.''<br />
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Baker Mona.（2006). Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account . London and New York: Routledge.<br />
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Ding Xinshan. 丁信善. (1998). 语料库语言学的发展及研究现状. [The Development and Research Status of Corpus Linguistics]. ''当代语言学''[Modern Linguistic] 3-5.<br />
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Fang Xiangtao,Lu Bixiao. (2019). 范祥涛,陆碧霄.认知翻译研究的观念和方法. [Concepts and Methods of Cognitive Translation Studies]. ''外语教学''[Foreign Language Education] 8-12.<br />
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Huang Guowen. 黄国文. (2006). 关于翻译研究语言学探索的几个问题. [Questions about the Linguistic Exploration of Translation Studies]. ''外语艺术教育研究''[Educational Research on Foreign Languages & Arts] 35-41.<br />
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Kong Xiangli. 孔祥立. (2009). 中国翻译学学科建设论. [On the subject construction of Chinese Translation Studies]. 上海外国语大学[Shanghai International Studies University].<br />
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Li Yan, Feng Huali. 李艳,冯华丽.(2020) 国内基于语料库的翻译研究二十年综述(1999—2018). [A review of 20 Years of Corpus-based Translation Studies in China(1999—2018)]. ''成都理工大学学报(社会科学版)'' [Journal of Chengdu University of Technology(Social Science) ]105-110.<br />
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Liu Miqing. 刘宓庆. (1989). 西方翻译理论概评. [An Overview of Western Translation Theory]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 2-6.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
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Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
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Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
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Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
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Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
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Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
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==Analysis of Liaison Interpreting from the Perspectives of Receptional Aesthetics and Translator's Subjectivity 李璐伊 Li Luyi==<br />
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==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing==<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
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'''Key words'''<br />
Translation, Translation Studies, translation education<br />
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'''题目'''<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
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'''摘要'''<br />
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'''关键词''' <br />
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'''1. Introduction'''<br />
1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies<br />
Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies''", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972) Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.<br />
Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior. <br />
Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.<br />
1.2. The Significance of Translation Study<br />
With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable. <br />
As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system. Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.<br />
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'''2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China'''<br />
Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.<br />
2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies <br />
In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention. The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.<br />
However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc. At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.<br />
2.2 The Development Period of Translation Studies<br />
At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences. At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "''China Translator''" in 2004 come to congratulate. Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020) Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.<br />
2.3 The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies<br />
In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction. In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training. There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.<br />
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'''3. The Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China'''<br />
The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.<br />
3.1 Translation Education<br />
With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better. However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.<br />
3.1.1 Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents<br />
At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market. (Zhong Weihe 2019)Due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.<br />
3.1.2 Faculty Resources<br />
The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability. The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "''National standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education'' ". (Zhong Weihe 2019) In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.<br />
3.1.3 Teaching method<br />
Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2020) For example, this kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.<br />
3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research<br />
The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare. besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011) However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
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[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
<br />
[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
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[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
<br />
[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
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[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
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[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
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[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
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[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
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[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .<br />
<br />
== An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=110741History of Translation Studies 102020-12-12T17:52:19Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing */</p>
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<div>这里是《翻译学史》的书稿第十部分(Part 10)。麻烦各位同学看一下已经存在的章回（样品），自己再加进去新的一个章回（就是你们的学期论文）。请也帮助同学们把他们的论文改正。这样多次修改，大家的论文会越来越好。<br />
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学期论文（结合学期所学，撰写一篇5000以上单词的英文论文，按照专业杂志的格式，题目、摘要、关键词和参考文摘需要英中，文章英）。学期论文成绩占70%，平时成绩（含课堂表现、展示及作业）占30%。<br />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
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<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
<br />
==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
<br />
==='''Introduction'''===<br />
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As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
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Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
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===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
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Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
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To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
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===Formal equivalence===<br />
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Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
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Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
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===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
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For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
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Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
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Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
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Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
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===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
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Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
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====Lexical equivalence====<br />
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Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
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Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
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It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
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====Syntax equivalence====<br />
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Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
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We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
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====Texual equivalence====<br />
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Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
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Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
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In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
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The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
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====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
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Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
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In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
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In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
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Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
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===References===<br />
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Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
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Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
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Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
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Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
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Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
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Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
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Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
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Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
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Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
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Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
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尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
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Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
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UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
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== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
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== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Hao Jingfang’s science fiction ''Folding Beijing'' won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu’s rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida’s functional equivalence to “quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors”. The theory of Nida’s functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu’s application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing ; meaning; style; culture<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers’ understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
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'''1.Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers’ response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers’ response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader’s response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader’s response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader’s response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader’s responses. If the target language reader’s understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.<br />
<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
<br />
==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
<br />
==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. <br />
In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006). Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.<br />
This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”(Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference.<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration. <br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms. Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. He translated the pun in English into the pun in Chinese. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English. It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience of the drama will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. <br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. When the audience heard of “梁勉仁”, they would realize that Algernon was a double-faced person at once. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced, so the function of the original and the target language are the same. We guess that if Wilde writes this play in Chinese, he may use the same expression as Yu Guangzhong. Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality. <br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning of the source language.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays. Allusions refer to the stories or words and sentences in ancient books quoted in poems; idioms refer to the fixed and customary expressions in a language, including proverbs, slang, catchphrase, lexical phrase, habitual collocation, restricted collocation, and etc. “There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
======Alliteration======<br />
The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just in order to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” in this dialogue actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
It is hard to translate alliteration in the target language. In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. In this example, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.<br />
Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The form of the sentence has changed, while the meaning remained. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence”<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ manners and thoughts and the bourgeois society of his time, Victorian era.<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In the above example, Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while Lady. Bracknell says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.<br />
Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox. After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication. This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.<br />
In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text.<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure. Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.<br />
Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul. <br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married. In order to persuade him, she compared the two reasons of not getting married. The former is understandable, while the latter is incomprehensible. <br />
In example 6, Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works. <br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why The Importance of Being Earnest becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original. <br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs. For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers.<br />
In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.<br />
In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies. One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.<br />
Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui,2009)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language<br />
shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si, 2019)<br />
<br />
==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lederer, 1969)<br />
<br />
==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
<br />
Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
<br />
==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
<br />
On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
<br />
==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Liu Yue,Lan Jie, 2020)<br />
<br />
==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.(Bevir,Mark,2002)<br />
<br />
The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer, 2001)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
<br />
*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
<br />
*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-161+166.<br />
<br />
*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
<br />
*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
<br />
*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-180+211.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
<br />
During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
<br />
In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
<br />
=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
<br />
==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
<br />
==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
<br />
==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
<br />
(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
<br />
=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
<br />
“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
<br />
The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
<br />
==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
<br />
(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
<br />
(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
<br />
(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
<br />
=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
<br />
In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
<br />
(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.<br />
<br />
(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
<br />
=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 ==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
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===I.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014). Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72). Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
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===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
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''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displays their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefines translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explains that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (Lefevere 2003, xi). According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looks back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concludes that the previous discussion of translation is exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposes that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translators' inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understandings, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “a author and a translator” to “a master and a slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or "translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered." Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating a poem in such a way is like “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator need not care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposes that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in chapter two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translators' inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. ( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, a number of texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003， xiii).<br />
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===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
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In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005. 2). In the FAQ passage, the author explains why he writes this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Then, it follows the titles of each chapter: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu's Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form"; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein's View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of "Language Game"; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: part one: to appeal for the reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; part two: to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; part three: to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
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The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179). The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of the translation functionalism.<br />
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Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i). This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in Pinimujing, the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987). In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005 46). As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51). The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104). The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52).Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15). Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104).<br />
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Some scholars expressed their views on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006). Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study.(Lu Wei, 2010).<br />
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===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
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4.1 From the aspect of the content<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
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Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracted other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
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4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper made a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
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===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
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Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
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Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
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Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
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Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
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Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World], Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
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Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies'', Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
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==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
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Ancient Translation Period<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
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Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
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A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
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Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
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Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
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Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
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After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
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The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
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==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
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Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
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Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
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Innovation of ontology<br />
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Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
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==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
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Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
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The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
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Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
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The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
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As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
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==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
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Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
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First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
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Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
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First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
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Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
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Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
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Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
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==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
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Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
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Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
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Return to culture development<br />
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The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
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Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
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Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
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[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
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[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
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[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
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[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
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[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
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[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
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==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
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===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. <br />
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Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. <br />
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On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.<br />
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For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）<br />
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==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
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Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
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Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.<br />
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What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea”(Zhang le) ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“，<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended. <br />
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===''' Practice of Foreignization and Domestication from Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
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1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, we should use the method of combination of domestication and foreignization, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.<br />
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Example 1:<br />
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路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.<br />
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Example 2<br />
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云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.<br />
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Example 3<br />
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花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.<br />
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Example 4 <br />
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Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .<br />
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Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
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With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.<br />
Based on the food culture above,special methods of naming have formed.<br />
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Example 7<br />
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番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .<br />
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Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. <br />
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If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.<br />
Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen)<br />
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Example 10<br />
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Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed Bun<br />
There are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization<br />
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3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
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Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.<br />
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Example 11<br />
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我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.<br />
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Example 12<br />
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“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（2020-2-21&3-18）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.<br />
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Example 13<br />
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耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.<br />
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Example 14<br />
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“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 <br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. <br />
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Example 15<br />
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我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.<br />
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In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.<br />
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===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, which leads to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
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===''' reference '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020) .十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* 外交部新闻发言稿（2020）Foreign Ministry Press Statement (2020)<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
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<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
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For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
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This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
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==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
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'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
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In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
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Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
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J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
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Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
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In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
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Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
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Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
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Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
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'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
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In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
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In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
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In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
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In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
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At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
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Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
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Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
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Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
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In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
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Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
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From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
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==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
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In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
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'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
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"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
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In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
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'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
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Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
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'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
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Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
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'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
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Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
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'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
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Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
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==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
<br />
Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
<br />
O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
<br />
Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
<br />
Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
<br />
Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
<br />
Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
<br />
Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
<br />
Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
<br />
Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
<br />
Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
<br />
Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liaison Interpreting from the Perspectives of Receptional Aesthetics and Translator's Subjectivity 李璐伊 Li Luyi==<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing==<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
Translation, Translation Studies, translation education<br />
<br />
'''题目'''<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
'''关键词''' <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
<br />
==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
<br />
[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
<br />
[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
<br />
[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
<br />
[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
<br />
[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
<br />
[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
<br />
[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
<br />
[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
<br />
[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .<br />
<br />
== An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10&diff=110740History of Translation Studies 102020-12-12T17:51:44Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing */</p>
<hr />
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*Link back to course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies Course Homepage Intro. to TS]<br />
*Link back to the final exam paper section of the course homepage: [https://bou.de/u/wiki/Introduction_to_Translation_Studies#Final_Exam_Papers Final Exam Papers]<br />
*Link to other parts of the final exam papers' website: [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_1 Part 1], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_2 Part 2], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_3 Part 3], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_4 Part 4]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_5 Part 5], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_6 Part 6], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_7 Part 7], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_8 Part 8]; [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_9 Part 9], [https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Studies_10 Part 10].<br />
='''Functional Equivalence'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.<br />
<br />
==='''key words'''===<br />
<br />
functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation<br />
<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。<br />
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==='''关键字'''===<br />
功能对等，形式对等，翻译<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
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As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory. <br />
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Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.<br />
<br />
===Functional Equivalence===<br />
In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)<br />
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Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of understanding and appreciating the original text by the readers of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text( the minimum functional equivalence), the readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text( the maximum functional equivalence). <br />
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To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. <br />
Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.<br />
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===Formal equivalence===<br />
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Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focusing mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167） <br />
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Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.<br />
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===Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence===<br />
In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.<br />
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For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.<br />
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Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.<br />
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Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.<br />
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Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.<br />
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===Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation===<br />
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Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.<br />
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====Lexical equivalence====<br />
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Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.<br />
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Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women. <br />
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It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. <br />
“When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.”<br />
In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.<br />
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====Syntax equivalence====<br />
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Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: <br />
“Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.”<br />
Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。<br />
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We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth.<br />
When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. <br />
There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue:<br />
“You’re not a student,are you?”<br />
“Yes, I am.” <br />
Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.<br />
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====Texual equivalence====<br />
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Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context. <br />
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Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” <br />
“有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。<br />
“这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！”<br />
Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!”<br />
“What trouble?” He was startled.<br />
“This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?”<br />
According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.<br />
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In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. <br />
Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. <br />
Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.<br />
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The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations.<br />
Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left.<br />
We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.<br />
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====Stylistic equivalence====<br />
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Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations.<br />
Example: 清明<br />
杜牧<br />
清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。<br />
借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。<br />
Translation by Wu Juntao:<br />
The Pure Brightness Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day,<br />
I travel with my heart lost in dismay.<br />
“Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?”<br />
He points at Apricot Village faraway.<br />
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In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation..<br />
Translation by Xu Yuanchong:<br />
The Mourning Day<br />
By Du Mu<br />
A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day;<br />
The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way.<br />
Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours?<br />
A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers. <br />
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In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
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Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation. <br />
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Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)<br />
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===References===<br />
<br />
Xia Jun夏珺.(2016).再看奈达翻译对等——形式与功能之博弈与互补[Nida's equivalence theory-combat and complement between formal equivalnce and formal equivalence].黔南民族师范学院学报,Journal of Qiannan Normal University for nationalities,36(06):27-32.<br />
<br />
Huang Wei黄蔚.(2020).功能对等理论与目的论的对比分析[Comparative analysis on functional equivalence and skopos theory].英语广场,English space(10):38-40.<br />
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Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(1999)．新编奈达论翻译［A new version of Nida's theory on translation］．北京:中国对外翻译出版公司，Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation,1999:XXIII．<br />
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Zhang Yunjiao, Zhang Jun张赟娇,张军.(2018).浅谈尤金·奈达功能对等理论的价值与局限[The value and limitations of Nida's functional equivalence].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(09):114-115.<br />
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Zhong Yuchen钟宇宸.(2019).尤金·奈达及其功能对等理论综述[Summary of UGENEA．NIDA．and his functional equivalence].当代旅游,Contemporary travelling,(08):262.<br />
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Zhang Yimei张忆美.(2020).对比“信达雅”与功能对等[Comparison between "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance" and functional equivalence].青年文学家,Youth Literator,(23):180-181.<br />
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Zhang Xuefang张雪芳.(2008).从动态对等到功能对等——奈达对等翻译观简述[From dynamic equivalence to functional equivalence-Brief introduction of Nida's equivalence theory].安徽文学(下半月),Anhui Literature,(11):392-393.<br />
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Yu Minjun余敏军.(2009).论英汉翻译中形式对等和功能对等[Functional equivalence and formal equivalence in Englsh-Chinese translation].黑龙江科技信息,Heilongjiang Science and Technology Information,(30):193.<br />
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Yan Yuehe闫月贺.(2019).浅析奈达功能对等理论[Nida's functional equivalence].北方文学,North Literature,(21):251-252.<br />
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Qi Xin齐鑫.(2017).浅谈英汉翻译中奈达“功能对等”与“形式对等”理论的应用[The appliction of Nida's theory of "functional equivalence and formal equivalence in translation].校园英语,Campus English,(27):202-203.<br />
<br />
尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［Language culture and transation］．严久生，译．呼和浩特:内蒙古大学出版社，Hohhot:Inner Mongolia University Press,1998．<br />
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Junye Li,Pinglan Zhang.(2019). Application of Functional Equivalence Theory in Civil Engineering Text Translation[J]. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics,9(4).<br />
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UGENEA．NIDA．Towards Science of Translating［M］．上 海:上海外语教育出版社，Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2005:167,165，159．<br />
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== My understanding of Translation Equivalence Nguyen,Thuy Hien Nguyen, Thuy Hien ==<br />
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== Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu 肖茜 Xiao Xi==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Hao Jingfang’s science fiction ''Folding Beijing'' won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu’s rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida’s functional equivalence to “quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors”. The theory of Nida’s functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu’s application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing ; meaning; style; culture<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化<br />
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==='''Introduction'''===<br />
In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.<br />
This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers’ understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information. Nida’s functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.<br />
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'''1.Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence'''<br />
<br />
Eugene A. nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work ''Toward a Science of Translating''. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers’ response, not just the equivalence of content and form. In his book ''The Theory and Practice of Translation'', Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers’ response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. <br />
Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit(1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader’s response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader’s response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader’s response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader’s responses. If the target language reader’s understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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==='''Bibliography'''===<br />
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==A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of ''The Importance of Being Earnest'' from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni==<br />
===Abtract===<br />
''The Importance of Being Earnest'' is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. <br />
===Key Words===<br />
Functional Equivalence; ''The Importance of Being Earnest''; Yu Guangzhong<br />
===题目 ===<br />
功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析<br />
===摘要===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。<br />
===关键词===<br />
功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中<br />
===Introduction===<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy. In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. This chapter generally introduces the background and significance of the research, including the layout of the thesis.<br />
Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.<br />
“The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921, which came out by the May 4th Movement and the New Culture Movement in order to promote new literature and the reform of drama in China” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Although it was the earliest version, it did not gain much attention. In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong and Qian Zhide translated the play respectively. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.<br />
American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.<br />
The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.<br />
<br />
===An Introduction of Functional equivalence===<br />
====The Definition of Functional Equivalence====<br />
In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence. The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language.<br />
<br />
====Three Steps of Translation====<br />
Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.<br />
Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow? In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”.<br />
Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.<br />
<br />
===''The Importance of Being Earnest'' and Its Chinese Versions===<br />
====An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works====<br />
Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. “He was the main force of the aesthetic movement in the 1880s and the pioneer of the decadent movement in the 1990s” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014). <br />
The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes. Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.<br />
As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.<br />
====Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest====<br />
=====An Overview of Its Chinese Versions =====<br />
The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010). He translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. Qian Zhide just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. <br />
In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006). Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into “认真为上”. From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time. In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》). So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers.<br />
=====Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version=====<br />
Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016). His translation thought derives from his literary creation.<br />
He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.<br />
Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004). With this principle in translator’s mind, this work can be vividly translated.<br />
This part mainly introduced the Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Among all the versions, Yu Guangzhong’s becomes the most popular one for his profound translation skills. Next, we will analyze his translation strategies.<br />
<br />
===The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version===<br />
====Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version==== <br />
=====Translation of the Drama Title=====<br />
So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).<br />
“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language”(Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play. Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference.<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Names=====<br />
“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration. <br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms. Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. He translated the pun in English into the pun in Chinese. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English. It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience of the drama will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. <br />
In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.<br />
Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text. In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. When the audience heard of “梁勉仁”, they would realize that Algernon was a double-faced person at once. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced, so the function of the original and the target language are the same. We guess that if Wilde writes this play in Chinese, he may use the same expression as Yu Guangzhong. Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality. <br />
In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning of the source language.<br />
<br />
=====Translation of Characters’ Dialogues=====<br />
Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays. Allusions refer to the stories or words and sentences in ancient books quoted in poems; idioms refer to the fixed and customary expressions in a language, including proverbs, slang, catchphrase, lexical phrase, habitual collocation, restricted collocation, and etc. “There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.<br />
======Alliteration======<br />
The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.<br />
(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)<br />
In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just in order to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” in this dialogue actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.<br />
It is hard to translate alliteration in the target language. In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. In this example, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.<br />
(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.<br />
Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices. Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The form of the sentence has changed, while the meaning remained. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers. An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence”<br />
<br />
======Paradox======<br />
Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ manners and thoughts and the bourgeois society of his time, Victorian era.<br />
(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor <br />
husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In the above example, Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while Lady. Bracknell says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.<br />
Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox. After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.<br />
(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?<br />
CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for <br />
publication. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗?<br />
西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986)<br />
In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication. This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.<br />
In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons. Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text.<br />
<br />
======Antithesis======<br />
Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure. Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.<br />
(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)<br />
亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)<br />
Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.<br />
Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure. As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul. <br />
(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)<br />
劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)<br />
This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married. In order to persuade him, she compared the two reasons of not getting married. The former is understandable, while the latter is incomprehensible. <br />
In example 6, Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.<br />
<br />
====Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version====<br />
Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works. <br />
The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why The Importance of Being Earnest becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original. <br />
The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs. For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers.<br />
In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.<br />
In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies. One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.<br />
Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<br />
=Applicaton of Translation Theories=<br />
=='''Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen'''== <br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
With economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and it plays an extremely important role in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize. <br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies<br />
<br />
===题目===<br />
释意理论指导下的口译<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
释意理论；口译；翻译策略<br />
<br />
==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.<br />
==='''1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui,2009)<br />
<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can<br />
understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language<br />
shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.<br />
<br />
The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence. The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.<br />
General translation theories believe that there have three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and tect translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insight in this regard.The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.<br />
Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself. Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.<br />
The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:<br />
The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic, 1979: 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.<br />
The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.<br />
The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.<br />
In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si, 2019)<br />
<br />
==='''1.2 Introduction of Interpretation'''===<br />
Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate.<br />
Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.<br />
There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lederer, 1969)<br />
<br />
==='''2. Literary Review'''===<br />
No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.<br />
==='''2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.<br />
The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized. At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry. <br />
<br />
Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.<br />
It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.<br />
<br />
==='''2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work. <br />
With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.<br />
First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.<br />
<br />
On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research.<br />
The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.<br />
<br />
==='''3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory'''===<br />
Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.<br />
Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Liu Yue,Lan Jie, 2020)<br />
<br />
==='''3.1 Free Translation'''===<br />
The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.<br />
例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。<br />
Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development.<br />
"而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand.<br />
例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。<br />
Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa.<br />
"金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.<br />
==='''3.2 Addition of Message'''===<br />
Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.<br />
例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。<br />
Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world.<br />
In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand.<br />
例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。<br />
Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation.<br />
From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.<br />
==='''3.3 Positive and Negative Translation'''===<br />
As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers. The following are some typical examples:<br />
例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。<br />
Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19.<br />
The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand.<br />
例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。<br />
Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us.<br />
The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.<br />
==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.<br />
The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics. Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.<br />
The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.<br />
The third stage of interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter. One of the carriers of meaning.(Bevir,Mark,2002)<br />
<br />
The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation. Weakened the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.<br />
In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer, 2001)<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
*Bevir, Mark, Rod AW Rhodes. (2002). Theory and methods in political science 1[J]. "Interpretive theory.": 1. <br />
<br />
*Dougherty, Ray C. (1969). "An interpretive theory of pronominal reference." Foundations of Language: 488-519.<br />
<br />
*Gong Longsheng. 龚龙生. (2008). 释意理论对我国口译研究的影响. [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country]. ''宁夏大学学报(人文社会科学版)'' [The Influence of Interpretation Theory on Interpretation Research in my country](04):155-161+166.<br />
<br />
*Jackendoff, Ray S. (1969). "An interpretive theory of negation." Foundations of language: 218-241.<br />
<br />
*Kong Shaohui. 孔韶辉. (2009). 综述释意学派翻译理论研究的主要内容. [A summary of the main content of the translation theory research of the paraphrase school]. ''青年文学家'' [Young Literary](02):127.<br />
<br />
*Lederer Marianne. 勒代雷. (2001). 释意学派口笔译理论. 刘和平译. [Interpretation Theory of Interpretation and Translation. Translated by Liu Heping]. 北京：中国对外翻译出版公司[Beijing: China International Translation and Publishing Corporation]:45-50.<br />
<br />
*Liu Yue, Lan Jie. 刘玥、兰杰. (2020). 释意理论视域下习近平进博会开幕式讲话的口译策略研究. [ Research on Interpretation Strategies of Xi Jinping's Opening Ceremony Speech from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory]. ''海外英语'' [Overseas English](15):179-180+211.<br />
<br />
*Zhang Si. 张思. (2019). 释意理论在口译中的应用. [The Application of Interpretation Theory in Interpretation]. ''北方文学'' [Northern Literature](30):275-277.<br />
<br />
='''Theory and Practise'''=<br />
<br />
<br />
==The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin==<br />
<br />
===Abstract===<br />
The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.<br />
<br />
===Keywords ===<br />
Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
佛经，翻译，直译，意译<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.<br />
<br />
During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).<br />
<br />
In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.<br />
<br />
=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.<br />
<br />
==== An Shigao ====<br />
An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).<br />
<br />
==== Zhi Chen ====<br />
Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear. <br />
<br />
==== Zhi Qian ====<br />
Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days. <br />
<br />
(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.<br />
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(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.<br />
<br />
=== the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation ===<br />
The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.<br />
<br />
====Shi Daoan ====<br />
Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. <br />
<br />
“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.<br />
<br />
The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.<br />
<br />
==== Kumarajiva ====<br />
Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25). <br />
<br />
Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).<br />
<br />
(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.<br />
<br />
(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.<br />
<br />
(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).<br />
<br />
=== Tang Dynasty ===<br />
The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.<br />
<br />
==== Xuang Zang ====<br />
Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).<br />
<br />
In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).<br />
<br />
==== The Characteristics of This Period ====<br />
(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.<br />
<br />
(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.<br />
<br />
(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.<br />
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(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.<br />
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(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.<br />
<br />
=== The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation ===<br />
<br />
=== References ===<br />
<br />
==An Analysis of the Books of ''Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts'' 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 ==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
André Lefevere’s ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and Liu Miqing’s ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'',then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.<br />
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===Key words===<br />
André Lefevere, ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Liu Miqing, ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles<br />
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===题目===<br />
《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析<br />
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===摘要===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。<br />
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===关键词===<br />
安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则<br />
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===I.Introduction===<br />
This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.<br />
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In part one, after a brief introduction of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014). Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.<br />
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In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'' in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72). Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.<br />
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In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.<br />
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All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.<br />
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===II.Analysis of ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''===<br />
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''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. “Lefevere’s later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the ‘cultural turn’.”(Munday 2016,199). As such, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' serves as good proof of the “cultural turn” of translation proposed by Translation Studies. In general editor’s preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displays their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefines translation as “a rewriting of an original text”. Here, they explains that “rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.” (Lefevere 2003, xi). According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force. <br />
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In the preface of the book, Lefevere looks back to the tradition of translation in western Europe, and concludes that the previous discussion of translation is exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposes that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the “cultural turn”. “Cultural turn” was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, history and culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of “cultural turn” of translation studies. If the book ''Translation, History and Culture'' is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett’s thoughts of “cultural turn”, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts. The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. <br />
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I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear in fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. I read translators' inferiority in Dryden’s words and admire Cicero’s courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that “I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek”. (Lefevere 2003, 47) Through reading the scholar’s letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understandings, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.<br />
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In this part, I will analyze John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of “a author and a translator” to “a master and a slave” through the excerpts collected in ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''. The translator, as the subject in translation, ought to give the fullest play to his subjective initiatives to produce a good translated work. However, translators are limited by the ideology, the trend of translation theory, cultural background and their position in their time. Therefore, the discussion of Dryden’s views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook''.<br />
Lefevere extracts two statements by Dryden and relatively places them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden’s translation of Ovid’s Epistles published in 1680. In the preface, Dryden proposes three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or "translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered." Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102). Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden’s vivid simile, translating a poem in such a way is like “dancing on ropes with fettered legs”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). The dancer needs to be cautious of falling down, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. “and when we have said the best of it, ‘tis but a foolish task; for no sober man would put himself into a danger for the applause of escaping without breaking his neck”. Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation “to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age, and in our country”.(Lefevere 2003, 103). As such, the translator need not care about the author’s elaborate use of words, or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author’s style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author’s work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator’s talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. “tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance”.(Lefevere 2003, 104). It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposes that “he may stretch his chain to such a latitude”.(Lefevere 2003, 105). In conclusion, a translator can be allowed a liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation. Dryden’s three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translations, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)<br />
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However, in chapter two, in “Dedication” to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argues that “We are bound to our author’s sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned”.(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudge to express his views on the role of translators. “But slaves we are, and labor in another man’s plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner’s; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty.” (Lefevere 2003, 24). Dryden’s words reflect translators' inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. ( Niu Yunping, 2014). A scholar concluded that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the “classical writers” of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author’s overriding authority was beyond questions.(Niu Yunping, 2014).Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73).<br />
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About the value of this book, ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, a number of texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003， xiii).<br />
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===III. Analysis of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles''===<br />
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In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005. 2). In the FAQ passage, the author explains why he writes this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Then, it follows the titles of each chapter: Chapter One: To Remove the Misunderstandings about Yan Fu's Principles---A Brief Discussion of Studies of Translation Thoughts; Chapter two: On the Tradition of Chinese Translation; Chapter Three: The Issue of Characteristics of Chinese Translation Theory; Chapter Four: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Translatology and Mohist; Chapter Five: Translatology Calling for New Views on Tradition: Reflection, Transcendence and Reconstruction; Chapter Six: Translatology Calling for New Views on Translation: " To Enliven Form"; Chapter Seven: Three Origins of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories; Chapter Eight: A Brief Summary of the Contemporary Western Translation Principles and Schools; Chapter Night: On the Limitations of the Contemporary Western Translation Theories. Chapter Ten: Wittgenstein's View on Meaning and Translation Studies; Chapter Eleven: Translation, A Kind of "Language Game"; Chapter Twelve, An analysis of Benjamin's View on Translation; Chapter Thirteen: On the Originality of Translation. Chapter Fourteen, Translation is the Transcendence of the Original Text. The fourteen chapters can be divided into three parts: part one: to appeal for the reconstruction of the tradition of Chinese translation studies; part two: to alert to the blind worship to Western translation studies; part three: to deepen the translation view of functionalist under Wittgenstein's philosophy.<br />
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The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30). The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005. 33). He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005.179). The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work (Liu Miqing 2005. 288). Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game" is the basic idea of the translation functionalism.<br />
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Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i). This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in Pinimujing, the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987). In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005 46). As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51). The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101). Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104). The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52).Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15). Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104).<br />
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Some scholars expressed their views on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006). Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study.(Lu Wei, 2010).<br />
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===IV.Comparison between the books of ''Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook'' and ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts''===<br />
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4.1 From the aspect of the content<br />
Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles. <br />
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Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracted other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)<br />
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4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement<br />
Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently. Due to the ample scope of ''A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles'', including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.<br />
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===Conclusion===<br />
In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper made a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.<br />
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===References===<br />
André Lefevere. (2003). ''Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook'', Taylor & Francis e-library.<br />
<br />
Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].''北方文学'' Northern Literature (24):254-255.<br />
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Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].''社会科学战线'' Social Science Front (02):113-122.<br />
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Jeremy Munday. (2016). ''Introducing Translation Studies'', Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.<br />
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Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). ''中西翻译思想对比研究''. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.<br />
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Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. ''中国科技翻译'' Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.<br />
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Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].''河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)'' Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.<br />
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Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. ''中国翻译'' Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.<br />
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Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). ''人间词话''[Notes on Ci Poems in the World], Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.<br />
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Suan Bassnett. (2004). ''Translation studies'', Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.<br />
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==The Implications of Luther's Translation Principles amid Renaissance for Modern Literature Translation 方洁玲 Fang Jieling==<br />
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==The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui==<br />
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==='''Abstract'''===<br />
This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.<br />
==='''Key Words'''===<br />
Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend<br />
==='''摘要'''===<br />
本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。<br />
==='''关键词'''===<br />
中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势<br />
==='''Introuction'''===<br />
Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period. Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.<br />
==='''The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
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Ancient Translation Period<br />
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The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation. Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.<br />
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Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China<br />
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A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history. Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century. Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today. His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country. <br />
In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.<br />
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Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects: (1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.<br />
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Translation Theory in the Republic of China<br />
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Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation. Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.<br />
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After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China<br />
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The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics. Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.<br />
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==='''Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory'''===<br />
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Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory <br />
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Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation. Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. “Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018). In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.<br />
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Innovation of ontology<br />
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Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages. Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.<br />
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==='''The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification'''===<br />
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Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation. The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.<br />
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The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory<br />
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Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text. Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present. These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation. Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism. Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough. The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.<br />
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The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry<br />
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As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application. Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.<br />
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==='''Analysis of Theoretical Research Status'''===<br />
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Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
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First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.<br />
Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant.<br />
Third, researchers and institutions. The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.<br />
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Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research<br />
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First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.<br />
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Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.<br />
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Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.<br />
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Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism. Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes. This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.<br />
Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place. The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen. The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.<br />
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==='''Trends in Translation Theory Research'''===<br />
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Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration<br />
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Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”. In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.<br />
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Return to culture development<br />
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The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.<br />
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Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation<br />
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Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.<br />
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==='''Conclusion'''===<br />
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From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.<br />
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==='''References'''===<br />
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[1] Bassnett. S Translation Studies[ M] .London and New York: Methuen , 1980<br />
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[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.<br />
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[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.<br />
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[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.<br />
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[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.<br />
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[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.<br />
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[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.<br />
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[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.<br />
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==A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia==<br />
<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
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Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.<br />
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==='''摘要'''===<br />
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归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。<br />
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==='''关键词'''===<br />
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归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流<br />
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===''' Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. <br />
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Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. <br />
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On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original.<br />
Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.<br />
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For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)<br />
Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）<br />
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==='''Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation'''===<br />
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Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words. <br />
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Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？So differen society can give birth to different cultures.<br />
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What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea”(Zhang le) ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“，<br />
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On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits. And different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended. <br />
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===''' Practice of Foreignization and Domestication from Different Perspectives of Culture '''===<br />
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1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture<br />
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The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, we should use the method of combination of domestication and foreignization, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.<br />
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Example 1:<br />
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路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字<br />
To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02))<br />
Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.<br />
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Example 2<br />
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云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。<br />
Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value.<br />
Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.<br />
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Example 3<br />
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花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor)<br />
孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) <br />
湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。<br />
Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake”<br />
Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.<br />
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Example 4 <br />
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Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.<br />
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Example 5<br />
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她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。<br />
It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples.<br />
The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .<br />
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Example 6<br />
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四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。<br />
Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. <br />
By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.<br />
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2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture<br />
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With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on. For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.<br />
Based on the food culture above,special methods of naming have formed.<br />
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Example 7<br />
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番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket)<br />
This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient.<br />
砂锅面(casserole noodles)<br />
This translation consists of utensils and ingredients.<br />
淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork)<br />
This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable.<br />
炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake)<br />
This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients.<br />
Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .<br />
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Example 8<br />
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蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork)<br />
This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner.<br />
霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken)<br />
This translation is named after historical allusions.<br />
驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake)<br />
This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. <br />
佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)).<br />
This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.<br />
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Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.<br />
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Example 9<br />
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“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”. <br />
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If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.<br />
Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen)<br />
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Example 10<br />
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Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics.<br />
For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed Bun<br />
There are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization<br />
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3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy<br />
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Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.<br />
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Example 11<br />
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我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。<br />
What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response.<br />
In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.<br />
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Example 12<br />
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“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（2020-2-21&3-18）<br />
To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness.<br />
This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.<br />
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Example 13<br />
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耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。<br />
"Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong.<br />
This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.<br />
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Example 14<br />
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“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 <br />
"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security.<br />
This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. <br />
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Example 15<br />
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我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。<br />
If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.<br />
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In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to稻草、吸管，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.<br />
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===''' Conclusion '''===<br />
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Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, which leads to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.<br />
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===''' reference '''===<br />
<br />
* Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.<br />
* Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.<br />
* Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.<br />
* Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.<br />
* Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020) .十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.<br />
* 外交部新闻发言稿（2020）Foreign Ministry Press Statement (2020)<br />
<br />
='''Contemporary Translation Studies'''=<br />
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<br />
==A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui==<br />
==='''Abstract'''===<br />
Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .<br />
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==='''Key words'''===<br />
Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction<br />
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===摘要===<br />
翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。<br />
<br />
===关键词===<br />
翻译学；语言学；学科构建<br />
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==='''1.Introduction'''===<br />
Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）<br />
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For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）<br />
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This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.<br />
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==='''2.Literature review '''===<br />
This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology. <br />
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'''2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard'''<br />
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In the book ''On Linguistic Aspects of Translation'' published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation.<br />
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Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book ''Toward the Science of Translating'', which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.<br />
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J.C. Catford in his book ''A Linguistic Theory of Translation'' (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.<br />
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Holmes published ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.<br />
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In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published ''the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods'', clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.<br />
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Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book ''Exploration of Translation'' (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.<br />
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Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is ''Discourse and the Translator'' (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.<br />
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Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.<br />
Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published ''Translation and Conflict'': A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.<br />
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'''2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home'''<br />
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In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress.<br />
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In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article ''On the Construction of Translation Theory''. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.<br />
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In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published ''On Approaches to Translation Studies''. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.<br />
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In the thesis ''An Overview of Western Translation Theory'' (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.<br />
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In 1995, Liu Zhongde published ''Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies'', in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is ''Chinese Translation Studies'', including ''The History of Translation in China''. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.<br />
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At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
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Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). Subsequently, Lu published ''Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies'' (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.<br />
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Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis ''On The Construction of Translation Studies'' in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.<br />
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Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In ''A Study on Linguistic Translation'' (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.<br />
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In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in ''Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics'' proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition. Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation. Wen Jing (2012) proposed the theory of cognitive linguistics to provide a new perspective for translation studies. Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.<br />
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Liao Qiyi proposed in ''Corpus and Translation Studies'' (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics.<br />
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From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.<br />
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==='''3.The Construction of Translatology '''===<br />
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In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.<br />
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'''3.1Translation and Translatology'''<br />
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"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)<br />
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In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）<br />
Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.<br />
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'''3.2 Three Stages of Translatology'''<br />
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Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies.<br />
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'''3.2.1 Early translation practice'''<br />
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Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)<br />
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'''3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline'''<br />
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Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.<br />
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Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）<br />
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'''3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies'''<br />
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Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)<br />
Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）<br />
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==='''4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology'''===<br />
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For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.<br />
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4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation<br />
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As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences.<br />
Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）<br />
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These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough.<br />
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4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory<br />
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In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.<br />
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4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics<br />
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Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)<br />
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Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)<br />
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Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)<br />
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4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics<br />
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For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.<br />
The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）<br />
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4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics<br />
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As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）<br />
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Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)<br />
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4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics<br />
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In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.<br />
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4.4.1 Discipline development<br />
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Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.<br />
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4.4.2 Discipline structure<br />
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Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.<br />
From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.（Yi Jing，2009）<br />
Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.<br />
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4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline<br />
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Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together.<br />
In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）<br />
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==='''5.Conclusion'''===<br />
Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." (Liu Miqing, 1989) Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.<br />
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Liu Zhongde. 刘重德. (1998). 关于建立翻译学的一些看法. [Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies]. ''外国语(上海外国语大学学报)'' [Foreign Languages (Journal of Shanghai International Studies University)] 27-31+60.<br />
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Lv Jun. 吕俊. (2004). 建构翻译学的语言学基础. [The Linguistic Basis of Translation studies]. ''外语学刊''[Foreign Language Research] 96-101.<br />
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Liao Qiyi. 廖七一. (2000). 语料库与翻译研究[Corpus and Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 380-384.<br />
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O Aiping. 欧爱萍.(2012). 浅谈语言学对翻译学科的影响. [A Brief Discussion on the influence of Linguistics on translation]. ''中外企业家''[Chinese and Foreign Entrepreneurs] 179-180.<br />
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Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜,Eugene A.Nida. (1987). 论翻译学的途径. [Approaches to Translation Studies]. ''外语教学与研究''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ] 24-30+79.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2005). 认知语言学的翻译观. [Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 15-20.<br />
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Wang Yin. 王寅. (2017). 基于认知语言学的翻译过程新观. [Translation Process View Based on Cognitive Linguistics]. ''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-10+17+129.<br />
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Wang Qinghua,Zhang Chunbai. 汪庆华,张春柏. (2017). 翻译学的先驱:董秋斯翻译学思想探析. [A Pioneer of translation Studies: An Analysis of Dong Qiusi's Translation Studies]. ''上海翻译''[Shanghai Journal of Translators]67-72+95.<br />
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Yi Jing, Xie Chu. 易经,谢楚. (2012). 翻译学从属于语言学吗?——析语言学派的翻译学定位. [Does Translation Belong to Linguistics? -- An Analysis of the Translation Orientation of Linguistic Schools]. ''湖南人文科技学院学报''[Journal of Hunan Institute of Humanities，Science and Technology] 74-77.<br />
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Yi Jing. 易经. (2009). 试论翻译学体系的构建. [On The Construction of Translation Studies ].湖南师范大学[Hunan Normal University ].<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1987). 谈谈语言科学的发展. [A Discussion of the Development of Language Science].''山东外语教学''[Shandong Foreign Language Teaching] 10-15.<br />
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Yang Zijian. 杨自俭. (1993). 我国近十年来的翻译理论研究. [Research on Translation Theories in Recent Ten Years in China].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 11-15.<br />
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Zhang Bairan. 张柏然. (2008). 试析翻译的语言学研究 [A Study on Linguistic Translation]. ''外语与外语教学''[Foreign Language Teaching and Research ]58-60.<br />
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Zhang Meifang, Huang Guowen. 张美芳,黄国文. (2002). 语篇语言学与翻译研究. [Discourse linguistics and Translation studies].''中国翻译''[Chinese Translators Journal] 5-9.<br />
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Zou Bin, Mu Lei. 邹兵,穆雷. (2020). 语言学对翻译学的方法论贡献——特征、问题与前景. [The Methodological Contribution of Linguistics to Translation Studies: Features, Problems and Prospects]. ''中国外语''[Foreign Languages in China] 77-84.<br />
<br />
==Analysis of Liaison Interpreting from the Perspectives of Receptional Aesthetics and Translator's Subjectivity 李璐伊 Li Luyi==<br />
<br />
==Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China 许晶 Xu Jing==<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
Translation, Translation Studies, translation education<br />
'''题目'''<br />
对中国翻译学学习的反思<br />
'''摘要'''<br />
<br />
'''关键词''' <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
1. Introduction<br />
<br />
==The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan==<br />
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==Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin==<br />
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===Abstract===<br />
The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's ''Descriptive Translation'' and Hermanns's ''Translation in Systems'' as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.<br />
<br />
===Key words===<br />
Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies<br />
<br />
===摘要===<br />
描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍<br />
<br />
===关键字===<br />
描述翻译学；翻译研究<br />
<br />
===Introduction===<br />
Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.<br />
<br />
Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.<br />
<br />
In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.<br />
<br />
===Tuli and ''Descriptive translation''===<br />
The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.<br />
<br />
Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.<br />
<br />
In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.<br />
<br />
He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research.<br />
Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.<br />
<br />
Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112<br />
<br />
According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.<br />
<br />
Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.<br />
<br />
In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.<br />
<br />
=== Hermanns and ''Translation in Systems''===<br />
The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.<br />
<br />
Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.<br />
<br />
The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.<br />
<br />
Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.<br />
<br />
===Conclusion===<br />
Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
[1]李红满.论当代西方翻译研究范式的转变[J].外语与翻译, 2002 (2) .<br />
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[2]张美芳.翻译学的目标与结构——霍姆斯的译学构想介评[J].中国翻译, 2000 (2) .<br />
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[3]Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.<br />
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[4]林克难.翻译研究:从规范走向描写[J].中国翻译, 2001 (6) .<br />
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[5]Vermeer, Hans J.A Skopos Theory of Translation[M].Heidellburg:TEXT-con, 1996.<br />
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[6]Venuti.Lawrence.The Translator’s Invisibility[M].A History of Transla-tion.London&New York:Routledge, 1995.<br />
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[7]Snell-Homby, Mary.Translation Studies.AnIntegrated Approach[M].Re-vised ed.Amsterdam:John Benjamins, 1995.<br />
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[8]Hemans, Theo, ed.The manipulation of Literature[M].London&Sydney:Croom Helm, 1985.<br />
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[9]韩子满, 刘芳.描述翻译研究的成就与不足[J].外语学刊, 2005 (3) .<br />
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[10]谢天振.翻译研究新视野[M].青岛:青岛出版社, 2003.<br />
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[11]张南峰.从梦想到现实——对翻译学科的东张西望[J].外国语, 1998 (3) .<br />
<br />
== An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining==</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201207_trans&diff=10728220201207 trans2020-12-04T13:57:43Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Xu Jing 许晶 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
The story plays with the analogy of zhang and mu. By infusing them into an imaginary “curtain,” the framed narrative engenders dialogic interplay between the narrator and the bridegroom, between the bride and the spectator, and between the public and private spaces. Zhang and mu mean different things, though they converge in the compound zhangmu. Traditionally, the word zhang denoted a canopy hung around a bed and was used to isolate an inner space in bedroom, so it can hardly be identical with the meaning of curtain. However, indirectly, it reached to the sense of “curtain” through a translation of Jerrold D. William’s (1803-57) Mrs. Caudle’s Curtain Lectures, a fiction of early nineteenth-century England. In 1915 Liu Bannong translated the title into “Zhangzhong shuofa” and published it in Zhonghua xiaoshuo jie.[ Liu Bannong, “Zhangzhong shuofa,” Zhonghua xiaoshuo jie, vol. 2, no.3 (March, 1915). Zhou should (June, 1922).] <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
The “curtain lectures” refer to Mrs. Caudle’s poignant complaints and derision at her husband, mixed with familial trivialities and comic effects. <br />
<br />
However, the overlap of zhang and mu was crucially related to a widely circulated myth about the Chinese origins of cinema, which was perhaps invented by Zhou himself. When Western-style movie theaters began to appear in late-1900s Shanghai, he was one of the earliest moviegoers. Like other Chinese at his time he also regarded film as a kind of “shadow play” (yingxi), meaning the performance on a screen. According to Zhou, the origins of “shadow play” can be found in the famous story in the Han Dynasty (206-24, B.C.), which tells of the Emperor Wu watching lady Li, dancing and singing, through a semi-transparent curtain.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
As the anecdote goes, to console his loss of the favorite lady, a sorcerer made a curtained room and asked the emperor to stay at a distance. In the night, called by the sorcerer, the spirit appears behind the curtain, amidst the candle-light, to perform as if she is alive.[ Zhou Shoujuan, “Tan yingxi” (On shadow play), in Ziluilan ji (Collections of violet) (Shanghai: Dadong shuju, 1922) 13-14. Its earlier version “Yingxi hua” appeared in the Free Talk (Ziyou tan), the literary page in Shenbao (June 20, 1919): 15.] Notwithstanding the historical merit of Zhou’s interpretation, what is significant here is that he reads history with a cinematic imagination, by which the terminology in everyday life changes - as occurred here the meaning of zhang (curtain) is substituted by that of mu (screen). <br />
<br />
In the mid-1910s Saturday and The Pastime (Youxi zazhi) magazines often appeared Zhou’s “film fiction” (yinxi xiaoshuo) - his accounts of what he had seen in the movie theaters. <br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
By the time he wrote this love confession, Zhou published a novella The Intimate Beauty (Hongyan zhiji), in which the hero recalls his lover on the “screen memory”: after he closes his eyes, he sees her beautiful image on a “snow-white screen” (xuebai de bumu) and hears her delicate voice; when he opens his eyes, they vanish and yet leaves a three-inch photograph in his heart.[ Zhou Shoujuan. Hongyan zhiji (Zhonghua tushuguan, 1917) 64.] However, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” has no description of watching film, yet the narrative itself is framed by the curtain; what was shown on the “screen” was verbalized and the text was visualized. With both meanings of zhang and mu, the “curtain” can be changed into a “screen,” onto which is projected the inner space of a wedding chamber in which the author makes his confession.<br />
在他写这篇爱情告白的时候，周出版了中篇小说《亲密之美》(《红颜之记》)，在这部小说中，主人公在“屏幕记忆”中回忆起了他的爱人:他闭上眼睛，在“雪白的屏幕”上看到了她美丽的形象，听到了她柔美的声音;当他睁开眼睛时，它们消失了，却在他的心里留下了一张三英寸的照片。(周秀娟《红颜智记》(中华图舒观1917)。然而，《九花帘幕》并没有对看电影的描述，叙事本身却被帘幕框住了;“屏幕”上显示的是语言，文字是可视化的。“窗帘”可以变成“屏风”，在“屏风”上投射出婚房的内部空间，作者在这里坦白。<br />
<br />
写下这篇爱情告白时，周寿娟已出版了一篇小说《亲密的美人》(《鸿雁集》)，男主人公以 "屏风记忆 "的方式回忆爱人：闭上眼睛后，在 "雪白的屏风"上看到了她的美丽形象，听到了她的娇声；睁开眼睛时，这些形象消失了，却在心里留下了一张三寸照片。 [ 周寿娟.鸿雁志集（中华图画馆，1917）64.]然而，《九花帘里》没有看电影的描写，但叙事本身却被帘子框住了，"屏风 "上显示的东西被口头化了，文字也被视觉化了。有了 "张 "和 "亩 "两个意思，"幕 "就可以变成 "屏"，在 "屏 "上投射出作者告白的婚房内部空间。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:37, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was visually imagined and represented in terms of the spaces divided into the inside and the outside, with the beholder within the curtain and the imagined beholders without. When Zhou fulfills his promise to his friends that he will show them his “love talk” in the Pictorial Story magazine, he makes a written tableau in Diderot’s sense, in which the beholder is absent and yet always implied.[ Jay Caplan. Framed Narratives: Diderot’s Genealogy of the Beholder (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985) 16. ] Here, we refer to the notion of “beholder” not only because of the visual nature of Zhou’s fiction, but also because it helps my imposition of the complex “subjectivity” in this paper.<br />
《九朵花的窗帘》以外部空间和内部空间的划分给人们视觉上的想象与呈现，旁观者在窗帘内，而想象中的旁观者则在窗帘外。周在兑现对其朋友承诺说他将会在《画报故事》杂志中给他们展示“爱情谈话”时，就按照狄德罗的感觉画了一幅画，在这幅画里没有旁观者，但却总是暗含其中。[杰伊·卡普兰。边框叙事：狄德罗的《旁观者的家谱》（明尼阿波利斯：明尼苏达大学出版社，1985年）16。]我们在这里提到周的小说中“旁观者”的概念，不仅仅是因为其视觉特点，也是因为它加深了我对这篇文章复杂的“主观性”的理解。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 01:09, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
At this juncture, if we look beyond this story merely as a signal of style change in Zhou’s love story from the tragic to comical, we might be curious at the positivity of the male voice as well as the brightness of the private space. In view of the erotic-sentimental tradition of the male gaze in private space, what does this love talk mean historically? Not only does it relate to the transformation of gender roles as well as the legitimacy of the private space in Chinese literature.<br />
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This transformation occurred when this male gaze is empowered ideologically and technologically. Ideologically, it is imbued with the Republican ideal of nationhood and selfhood; technologically, it is, in this case, facilitated by the structural optical perception linked to the modern inventions such as photography and cinema. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
While depicting a tableau by freezing a moment in the past, Diderot disturbs his narrative by arranging the beholder as a part of the tableau. As Jay Caplan interpreted, the beholder is presented for the “psychological reason”: he functions as compensation to the loss which the family suffers as portrayed in the tableau.[ Ibid., 20-37.] In Zhou’s case, the beholder is called for the moral reason as his presence is neutralized to legitimize his love discourse in the private space. Especially the term qinghua “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” can be traced back to his short story published in 1913. It describes a young couple meeting and then whispering at a public place, unaware of someone who takes a snapshot of their intimate scene.[ Zhou Shoujuan. “Qinghua” (Love talk), Youxi zazhi 5 (1913).] <br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
It reads like a joke, yet this reportage intriguingly justifies the privacy in the public space that is a controversy of the time. The beholder plays roles of witness, voyeurist, and more importantly, sympathizer. In portraying the photographic evidence with the story of the beholder, Zhou also becomes a sympathetic beholder. <br />
<br />
The dialogic characteristic of this love discourse lies not only in the consumerism of literary pleasure as the core of the Butterfly periodical culture, but also in the collective ethos of Butterfly community. In explicating how a bourgeois “love community” is born from the literature of intimate sphere in eighteenth-century England, Habermas says: “Subjectivity, as the innermost core of the private, was always already oriented to an audience.”[ Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. Trans. Thomas Burger with the Assistance of Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge and Mass.: The MIT Press, 1991) 49. ] <br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
Zhou’s pillow talk is more than a playful response to his friends’ voyeurist curiosity, it is fulfilled as a promise of love discourse. It might embody that “the ideas of freedom, love, and cultivation of the person that grew out of the experiences of the conjugal family’s private sphere were surely more than just ideology.”[ Ibid., 48. ]<br />
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As the pillow talk unfolds, a complex subjectivity emerges. Against its ideological and technological backdrop, it is rhetorically and aesthetically embodied by a double voice, the poetics of persuasion and linguistic theatricality. The latter part of the story talks more about his family history. “When I was six years old, I became an orphan.” With this pathological tone, Zhou narrates how his father dies at that time and how his widowed mother single-handedly rears up four children by her hard work as a seamstress.<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃的枕边私语不只是对他朋友们窥阴欲的一笑置之，还是他说给爱人的甜言蜜语。这表明男女私生活中反映出的自由观、爱情观和育人观不只是意识形态。[Ibid.,48]<br />
<br />
随着枕边私语慢慢展开，一种复杂的主观性油然而生。考虑到其意识形态和技术背景，这些枕边话通过修辞和美学手段呈现出来，如二重唱、诗歌的劝说功能以及语言学理论。故事的后半部分谈到了周瘦鹃的家族史。他说“我六岁就成了孤儿。”周瘦鹃用一种凄凉的口吻讲述自己六岁丧父，母亲辛苦做针黹活，将四个孩子拉扯大。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 02:31, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃的枕边私语不只是对他朋友们窥阴欲的一笑置之，还是他给爱人的甜言蜜语。这表明,男女私生活中反映出的自由观、爱情观和育人观不只是意识形态。[Ibid.,48]<br />
<br />
随着枕边私语慢慢展开，一种复杂的主观性油然而生。考虑到其意识形态和技术背景，这些枕边话通过修辞和美学手段呈现出来，如二重唱、诗歌的劝说功能以及语言学理论。故事的后半部分谈到了周瘦鹃的家族史。他说“我六岁就成了孤儿。”周瘦鹃用一种凄凉的口吻讲述自己六岁丧父，母亲辛苦做针黹活，将四个孩子拉扯大的往事。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:24, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
This family story is particularly heart-rending, yet it is more than that. He goes on, “When my father died, it happened in the year of 1900. The capital Beijing was totally in chaos, and thus, unexpectedly, the familial disaster and national humiliation fell on a boy of six years old.” A sense of tragic sublimation is effectively rendered as the boy is depicted as both victim and victor in these historical disasters, owing much to the rhetoric that makes the familial and national disasters “happen” to meet, and “thus” they “both” fall on the boy. The sentences sound as if it happened simultaneously when his father died and Beijing fell, and this narration enormously affects the reader. <br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
However, strictly speaking, there is some slippage between fact and fiction: according to Zhou’s chronicle, his father died 22 days after the fall of Beijing.[ Wang Zhiyi, ed., Zhou Shoujaun yanjiu zhiliao (Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 1993) 20.] The dramatic simultaneity not merely refers the narrative strategy mixed with sentimentalism and patriotism, it reflects his own trauma as projected onto the screen memory of his childhood. Compared with other versions about his father’s death, this expression is most theatrical. <br />
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Zhou’s childhood memory stores the collective traumatic experiences. The 1900 national catastrophe - the Boxers Uprising and the European Allies’ invasion in Beijing - becomes the emblem of national shame that had deeply imprinted on the Chinese minds. By such theatrical representation of his screen memory, Zhou’s love talk not merely appeals to his bride, the wedding chamber itself is transformed into a public space.<br />
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然而，严格来说，在事实和小说之间会存在一些误差：据周瘦鹃的生平记载，北京沦陷22天后，其父便亡，[王智毅，《研究资料研究资料》 (天津人民出版社，1993)20]。 戏剧性的巧合不仅指向与情感主义和爱国主义相融合的叙述策略，也将周瘦鹃的精神创伤投射到其童年的屏幕记忆之上。这种表达极具戏剧色彩，使得其余种种对其父亲之死的叙事版本黯然失色。<br />
周瘦鹃的童年伤痕累累。1990年国难当头，义和团起义，欧洲列强入侵北京，国家屈辱深深植根在中国人心中。周瘦鹃戏剧性展现其屏幕记忆，表明其甜言蜜语不仅仅说给他的新娘子听，婚房也成为了公共场所。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:12, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
Now the narrator is more aware of the presence of the public beholders. Aiming more at arousing collective pathos there inserts the scenario of his father’s death, which is also an intense moment for the author to test his rhetoric of theatricality. “When my father was dying, he was like a madman. Suddenly he jumped down from the bed and rushed out, raising his head toward heaven and shouting at the top of his lung, ‘My three sons, be heroes, join the army and fight!’ After these words, he returned to the bed and soon stopped breathing.” <br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
Permeated in the narrative of his family history are the characteristics of theatrical rhetoric: The period of his childhood is frozen, and his voice pretends to be childish; heavily emotionally charged words such as “tears,” “sorrow,” “bitter” are frequently appear between lines. Ordinary episodes are intensely represented with emphasis on the theatrical manners, gestures to deliver emotions at the highest pitch. The sentiments attached to the episodes tend to be collectively identified, such as his father’s death linked to the national calamity. There is excessive use of the adverbs to accumulate the force of persuasion and theatrical effect. No less noticeable is the role played by the narrator himself, who seems never hesitant to use the rhetoric of excess.<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Perhaps no modern readers would feel comfortable at the author’s praise of his mother for her traditional virtue; she twice cuts off a piece of flesh from her arm and cooks it as a medicine for her ill mother and husband. “From now on, we should remember what she did and do our best to be filial to her. We should erect, in our hearts, a stele for her filial piety, and a monument for her widowhood; by this means we can make her late life a happy one.” When he repeats this to his bride as a family legend and spiritual heritage, the use of rituals to enhance his language performativity nonetheless turn the persuasion into the grotesque. But we need to be cautious at the accusation of Zhou’s promotion of the “feudal rites” (fengjian lijiao), for the rituals are only used as symbolic value serving the new social structure and ideology in the early Republican era.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
According to the author’s love gospel, love must be mutual; this idea is embodied here through the narrative process itself: the act of telling the bride about his past as a token of trust aims to ask her to understand and trust him. While informing her of his intellectual paths in order to invite her to embrace his spiritual world, the pillow talk reveals its cultural meaning. Among other things, the story reveals himself as a human being who is promising yet ordinary, enduring yet fragile, and at the same time his family economy as unstable as unpredictable, indicating that they live in a hard time. It means that while sharing his bitter past and hopeful future, she must take up her duty and responsibility for him and his family.<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
Zhou’s rhetoric of persuasion also implies that the bride is also at the center of a nuclear family, who must be subject to the new ethics. As the narrator further describes how he becomes a nationally famous novelist, due to his talent, diligence and proliferation in the “time of fiction in its full swing.” His jubilant voice echoes that of the beginning of the story while talking about how his family economy is drastically improved and afterwards the Zhous moves from the shabby old city area to the decent French concession. The narrator continues: “Ah, my phoenix lady, I have fully told you about my past. Having heard of this, you can understand what I have achieved so far is due to my bloody struggles with the hardships and difficulties, not to mention my mother who experienced as harder as thousands times than mine.” <br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
The sentimental imploration conveys the bourgeois ethics no less than a “modern apocalypse”: this is a hard time yet it is promising and fair: everyone can get what he deserves by God’s gift as well as hard work. <br />
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Inscribed with such allegorized trauma, the pillow talk implies a fatal bond between the individual, family and country, and thence elicits the “community of love.” Under the persuasion she is more than a wife and a lover - she is treated at the same time as a citizen. By the device of double curtain stated above, the narrative space is imbued with the authorial anxiety before the private and public beholders, indicating that the private realm by no means becomes autonomous without being identified with peoplehood and nationhood.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A Republican subjectivity is embodied in this domestic space by a speech act of persuasion, and it is the sentimentalism that naturalizes all social relations, blurring the private and public boundaries, and it ultimately functions in identifying them with the nationhood. In a sense, this peculiar love talk using the first person genre amalgamates diary, love-letter, autobiography and confession and displays a particular revelation of the community of love.<br />
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Although the latter half of this monologue is basically dominated by historical references, Zhou’s strategy of using stylistic conventions such as verbal ornaments or rhythmic parallelism shifts to an appeal to cultural convention, such as ritual and tradition. Tradition is used as both value and form. Like the scars left on the mother’s arms, ritual is infused into the narrative to such an extent that the procedure of writing is culturally encoded. <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
Compared to the characteristic of pursuing modern fashion in the first half of the story, here Zhou reveals more of his cultural conservatism. Rooted in the traditional “Teaching of Affection,” his love discourse aims at solving complex problems in a modern society; what separates Zhou from his contemporaries is that he does not intend to make his philosophy of love a perfect, unified one. In the “community of love” lies a paradox. Habermas says: “The jeopardy into which the idea of the community of love was thereby put, up to our own day, occupied the literature as the conflict between marriage for love and marriage for reason, that is, for economic and social considerations.”[ Habermas, 47.] <br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
As shown by Zhou’s own love story, he never forgot his first lover named “Violet,” and thus we come to realize that behind this pillow talk is the rueful truth: for him this is a “marriage for reason,” not a “marriage for love.” As he says to his bride, since he failed in the first love, he never had intention of making a family, and he married her in order to make his mother happy. Probably this loving experiment with baihua is a compromise for better communicating with the bride who is almost illiterate.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Eileen Chang and the Modern Essay'''<br />
<br />
Nicole Huang<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
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In her preface to Honglou mengyan (Nightmare in the Red Chamber), Eileen Chang (1920-1995) recalls that the meanings of Liuyan, the title of her essay collection published in 1944 in the Japanese occupied city of Shanghai, derives from an English saying “written on water.” She further elaborates the implications of the metaphor: she does not expect her writing to endure-it should be like words written on water, or 'flowing words,' as 'liuyan' would mean literally, lingering momentarily and eventually elapsing; but she also hopes that her writing will be endowed with the spirit of 'rumors' or 'gossip'-a second literal meaning of the word 'liuyan'-flowing freely and swiftly, reaching a wide audience.<br />
<br />
张爱玲及现代小说<br />
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黄群兰<br />
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摘要<br />
<br />
在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，1994年出版的《流言》的书名含义来自于英文谚语“written on water”。此后她还叙述了流言的深层含义：她并不希望自己的作品只是昙花一现，她想要自己的作品能够承载着“流言”的内涵，获得广泛受众。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:22, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲及现代小说<br />
<br />
黄群兰<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，1994年在日本侵占的上海出版的散文集《流言》的书名含义来自于英文谚语“written on water”。此后她还叙述了流言的深层隐喻：她并不希望自己的作品只是昙花一现，或者说流言的字面意义“飘走的话语”，她想要自己的作品能够承载着“流言”或“绯闻”的内涵——流言的第二个字面意义——自由自在地四处漂流，获得广泛受众。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:50, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
Chang's use of a language of self-reflexivity provides a window through which the curious reader/critic can look into the rather intimate process of a creative work in the making, so much so that the creative mentality of the woman author becomes a text which is first to be deciphered. The invention of the title is characteristic of Chang's long-term effort to negotiate the boundaries between different genres of writing, and in this case, it is the distinction between critical/academic writing and the personal essay that is being questioned. Here, the mechanism behind the naming of her writing is more than just a clever pun. The title not only suggests a new style of essay writing, it also indicates a corresponding way to highlight the generic identities of this reinvented literary form. <br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
While words are described as flowing like water, and the essay genre is compared to a fluid construction of 'gossip' or leisurely talks, Chang's naming of her own writing here offers more than just commentaries on the practice of literary writing. More importantly, the renaming of the essay genre should be understood as the woman writer's commentary on the state of cultural production during a particular time in modern Chinese history that is characterized by enormous turmoil and disruption which resulted from the war and the occupation. <br />
<br />
I argue that Chang's experience of the time, the space, and the particular historical milieu of occupied Shanghai is channeled into her attempts to redefine the generic identities of the modern essay. The choice of the essay form is central to Chang's aesthetic vision.<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
The writer's self-positioning in the realm of urban culture of 1940s Shanghai is exemplified in her appropriation of the genre. The essay is made into an important discursive site where the woman writer overtly challenges the literary conventions, searches for alternatives in both literary writing and practices of everyday life, and promotes herself as an important cultural figure. <br />
<br />
The modern essay also serves to contribute concrete forms to a life that appears void of any structure; in other words, Eileen Chang uses the form of the modern essay to construct an intelligible universe where one's imagination and fantasy can anchor. Detailed descriptions of everyday experience, that is, representations of cultural meanings of the material world, manifests not only a dynamic inner life but also a new social identity in formation. <br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
My paper highlights two aspects of life that are conceptualized in Chang's essay writing, one is the space of a modern apartment as a liminal site in urban landscape, and the other is the discourse of fashion as a vital form of material consciousness. I argue that the essay genre not only becomes an open-ended and ongoing process for the woman writer in her entry into the existing order of the literary world, it also becomes the testing ground where the boundaries between the literary world and the larger social realm become unstable and ever-shifting. Not only life styles can be read as texts, a woman writer as an individual can become a concrete historical subject within the space allowed by the modern essay. Life is woven together with work, the boundaries between the private and the public are further blurred, and biographical contingencies become important textual devices in constructing a legend of a new era.<br />
<br />
本文着重论述了张爱玲散文创作中概念化的两个方面的生活：一是现代公寓空间作为城市景观的边缘场所；二是时尚作为一种重要的物质意识形式的话语。笔者认为，散文体裁不仅成为女性作家进入文学世界现有秩序的一个无止境的、持续的过程，而且成为文学世界与更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定和不断变化的试验场。不仅生活方式可以作为文本来解读，女性作家作为个体也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为一个具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公众之间的界限进一步模糊，传记的偶然性成为构建新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In her perface to Honglou mengyan (Nightmare in the Red Chamber), Eileen Chang (1920-1995) recalls that the meaning of Liuyan, the title of her essay collection published in 1944 in the Japanese occupied city of Shanghai, derives from an English saying “written on water.” She further elaborates the implications of the metaphor: she does not expect her writing to endure – it should be like words written on water, or ‘flowing words,’ as ‘liuyan’ would mean literally, lingering momentarily and eventually elapsing; but she also hopes that her writing will be endowed with the spirit of ‘rumors’ or ‘gossip’ – a second literal meaning of the word ‘liuyan’ – flowing freely and swiftly, reaching a wide audience.[ See Chang, Nightmare in the Red Chamber (Taipei: Huangguan, 1977). The book, containing Chang’s essays on authorship, themes, structure, character portrayal, and linguistic construction of the most renowned vernacular narrative of pre-modern China Dream in the Red Chamber (Honglou meng), is representative of her literary and artistic pursuits during her American years (1955-1995).]<br />
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张爱玲（1920-1995）在对《红楼梦》的演说中回想起流言，这是她1944年在日本占领的上海发表的散文集的标题，源于英语谚语“写在水上。”她进一步阐述了这种隐喻的含义：她不希望自己的写作能忍受–就像在水面上写的单词或“流淌的单词”一样，“流言”的字面意思是暂时徘徊并最终流失。但她也希望她的写作能被赋予“谣言”或“八卦”的精神（流言的第二个字面意思），并能自由，迅速地传播，并引起广泛的听众。[参见Chang，Nightmare in the红楼（台北：皇馆，1977）。这本书包含了张的文章，涉及到《红楼梦》中前现代中国梦中最著名的白话叙事的作者身份，主题，结构，人物写照和语言结构，代表了她在文学和艺术上的追求。美国年（1955-1995）。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 06:52, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张爱玲（1920-1995）在《红楼梦魇》一书的前言中谈到，“流言”意思源于英文谚语“写在水上，这也是她一部散文集的名字，出版于1944年在日本占领的上海后。她进一步阐述了这种隐喻的含义：她不指望自己的作品渊远流长–就像“在水面上写的文字”或“流淌的文字”一样，一如“流言”的字面意思，暂时徘徊并最终流逝，但她也希望她的写作能带有“谣言”或“八卦”的意味（流言的第二个字面意思），并能自由，迅速地传播，获得广泛的关注。[参见张爱爱玲，《红楼梦魇》（台北：皇冠出版社，1977）。这本书是张爱玲在美时期（1955-1995）对前现代中国梦中最著名的白话叙事小说《红楼梦》的研究成果，包含多篇文章，涉及《红楼梦》的作者身份，主题，结构，人物写照和语言结构，代表了她的文学和艺术追求。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:26, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Chang’s use of a language of self-reflexivity provides a window through which the curious reader/critic can look into the rather intimate process of a creative work in the making, so much so that the creative mentality of the woman author becomes a text which is first to be deciphered. The invention of the title is characteristic of Chang’s long-term effort to negotiate the boundaries between different genres of writing, and in this case, it is the distinction between critical/academic writing and the personal essay that is being questioned. Here, the mechanism behind the naming of her writing is more than just a clever pun. The title not only suggests a new style of essay writing, it also indicates a corresponding way to highlight the generic identities of this reinvented literary form.<br />
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张爱玲对自我反省语言的运用为好奇的读者/批评家提供了一个窗口，让他们得以深入了解正在创作中的作品的内在过程，因此，女作家的创作心理成为首先被解读的文本。书名反映了，张爱玲通过长期努力在不同写作类型之间寻求界限，在这种情况下，批评/学术写作和个人论文之间的区别受到了质疑。在这里，她作品命名背后的机制不仅仅是一个巧妙的双关语。标题不仅代表了一种新的散文写作风格，也代表了一种突出这种再造文学形式一般身份的相应方式。<br />
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张爱玲对自我反省性语言的运用为好奇的读者/评论家提供了一个窗口，通过这个窗口，他们可以观察到创作过程中相当详细的过程，因此女作家的创作心态成为首先被解读的文本。书名反映了张爱玲长期以来努力探讨不同文体之间界限，在这种情况下，批评/学术写作和个人散文之间的区别受到质疑。在这里，她的作品命名方法不仅仅是一个巧妙的双关语。这个标题不仅表明了一种新的散文写作风格，而且也代表了一种相应的方式来突出这种革新的文学形式的共性特征。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 10:09, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
During the writing process, the essay writer creates a structure of both containment (language captures the sentiments of a particular moment) and opening (language is unlimited because it lacks definite meaning or substance); and during the reading process, the immediacy and the transitoriness of the messages conveyed in these linguistic structures are first to be comprehended.<br />
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While words are described as flowing like water, and the essay genre is compared to a fluid construction of ‘gossip’ or leisurely talks, Chang’s naming of her own writing here offers more than just commentaries on the practice of literary writing. More importantly, the renaming of the essay genre should be understood as the woman writer’s commentary on the state of cultural production during a particular time in modern Chinese history that is characterized by enormous turmoil and disruption which resulted from the war and the occupation.[ For a standard historical account of cultural activities in occupied Shanghai, see Ke Ling, Zhuzi shengya (My Writing Career) (Taiyuan: Shanxi renmin chubanshe, 1986); also see Poshek Fu, Passivity, Resistance, and Collaboration: Intellectual Choices in Occupied Shanghai, 1937-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).]<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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Eileen Chang launched her writing career during the early 1940s, and her most important works, including the essays collected in Written on Water and the short stories collected in Chuanqi (Romances), were completed between 1943 and 45. Chang’s fictional writing has been subjected to abundant critical scrutiny since the late 1960s and early 1970s when scholars such as C.T. Hsia and Shui Jing started to reclaim the significance of Eileen Chang and promote her as one of the finest and the most original writers in the scene of twentieth century Chinese literature.[ See Shui Jing’s Paozhuan ji (Casting a Brick to Attract Jade) (Taipei: Sanmin shuju, 1969) and Zhang Ailing de xiaoshuo yishu (The Fictional Art of Eileen Chang ) (Taipei: Dadi chubanshe, 1973), as well as C. T. Hsia’s Aiqing, Shehui, Xiaoshuo (Love, Society, and Fiction) (Taipei: Chunwenxue chubanshe 1970), both published in Taipei. The three books were published in the midst of a renewed infatuation with the woman author shared by readers in Chinese-speaking communities outside of mainland China after 1949.] But the study of Chang’s essay writing is a different story.<br />
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张爱玲的创作生涯始于20世纪40年代初，她的重要作品包括散文集《流言》和短篇小说集《传奇》，均创作于1943年至45年间。虽然自20世纪60年代末70年代初以来，张爱玲的小说创作一直受大众批评，但是当时夏志清和水晶等学者已经开始重新认识张爱玲的意义，并称她为“二十世纪中国文学界最优秀、最具原创性的作家之一“【详见水晶的《抛砖记》（台北：三民书局，1969）和《张爱玲的小说艺术》（台北：大地出版社，1973）以及夏至清的《爱·社会·小说》（台北：纯文学出版社，1970），均在台北出版。这三本书的出版之时，正值1949年后中国大陆以外的华语读者对这位女作家重新产生迷恋之时。】但对张爱玲的散文写作的研究则是另一番景象。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:02, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Since the most popular essays by Chang were written during the same period as her fictional writing, namely, between 1942 and 45, and some of her essays conveniently provided the concrete historical and biographical background against which the plot in her fictional writing was possibly designed, Chang’s essay writing has so far been read as the best commentaries to her fictional writing, particularly to the short stories collected in the acclaimed Romances.[ Wu Fuhui, among many others, argues that Eileen Chang’s essays are only interesting when read together with her short stories. He uses the essay entitled ”Jingyu lu” (Stories from the Ashes) as an example, arguing that the essay should be read as providing the necessary historical context to our understanding of Chang’s highly acclaimed novella Qingcheng zhi lian (Romance Among the Ruins). I disagree with Wu because the emphasis of the essay clearly lies elsewhere: it presents a social gallery of figures – a group of female college students, all from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds, whose brilliance of personality is brought out by the war. The novella, however, focuses more on the falling apart and the reconstructing of the beauty legend. Here the generic distinctions between fiction and essay are instrumental in piecing together the meanings of these two literary texts. See Wu’s preface toZhang Ailing sanwen quanbian (A Complete Collection of Eileen Chang’s Essays) (Hangzhou: Zhejiang wenyi chubanshe, 1995).] While such an approach to Chang’s essays can provide a coherent discussion of Chang’s literary writing as an entirety, it may overlook the specificities of the essay genre in the Chinese context and may also downplay the cultural significance of such formalistic experiments.<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Chang’s experiments with the modern essay serve to position her at a critical moment of literary transformation in modern China. While women writers had actively participated in both fictional and poetic writing since the early decades of this century, the essay genre had been monopolized by male writers. Three major essay traditions had already been canonized when Eileen Chang took up the essay as a vital means of representation. The ‘minor essay’ (xiaopin wen) tradition, represented by Zhou Zuoren and Lin Yutang, is characterized by a light and relaxing tone, a simple and elegant diction, political disengagement, wit, and a leisurely mood. <br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
The ‘miscellaneous essay’ (zawen) tradition, represented by Lu Xun and several generations of followers, including a group of leftist writers residing in Gudao (Isolated Island) Shanghai (1937-41), highlights intellectual sharpness and rhetoric eloquence, advocates active engagement with reality, and maintains the belief that literary writing should be employed as a powerful tool for social criticism and political intervention. And finally, the ‘refined essay’ (meiwen) tradition, represented by Zhu Ziqing and many writers from both the Literary Studies Circle (Wenxue yanjiu hui) and the Creation Society (Chuangzao she) since the 1920s, advocates linguistic experiments, whose goal is to create a language of refinement and elegance, and imageries that embody highly aesthetic and sensual qualities.[ Most standard literary histories published in China do not attempt to distinguish between different styles of modern essay writing. The zawen (the miscellaneous essay) tradition is often highlighted as the mainstream style for its definition of literature as social and political critique. These standard literary histories do acknowledge the lyrical qualities of xiaopin wen and meiwen but fail to situate the practice of these alternative essay writing styles in their cultural and intellectual contexts. See Wang Yao, Zhongguo xinwenxue shigao (History of the ”New Literature” in China), Tang Tao and Yan Jiayan, Zhongguo xiandai wenxueshi (Modern Chinese History), and Qian Liqun et al., Zhongguo xiandai wenxue sanshinian (Thirty Years of Modern Chinese Literature).]<br />
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杂文派的代表人物有鲁迅及其几代追随者，包括一群上海孤岛时期（1937-41）的左翼作家。他们强调知识分子的敏锐和修辞口才，倡导积极接触现实，并坚持认为文学写作应用作社会批评和政治干预的有力工具。最后是美文派，诞生于20世纪20年代，代表人物是朱自清以及来自文学研究会和创造社的许多作家。他们倡导语言实验，旨在创造一种精致优雅的语言，以及体现高度审美和感官品质的意象。[中国出版的大多数标准文学史并不试图区分不同风格的现代散文作品。杂文经常被视作主流文体，因为它把文学定义为社会和政治批判。这些标准的文学史确实承认了小品文和美文的抒情品质，但未能将这些另类散文的写作风格实践置于他们的文化和知识背景中。参考王耀，《中国新文学史稿》，汤涛、严家炎，《中国现代文学史》，钱理群等，《中国现代文学三十年》。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:04, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
Most of the women writers in 1940s Shanghai experimented with essay writing. In fact, women produced a larger quantity of essays than any other literary genre. In addition to Eileen Chang, many women writers of the period, including Su Qing (1917-1982), Guan Lu (1908-1982), Pan Liudai (1922-?), and Shi Jimei (1920-1968), also discovered the generic fluidity embedded in the essay form. Compared to their experiments with other literary genres, such as fiction, drama, and poetry, it is in women’s essay writing of the period that the discourses of female gender and sexuality, issues of the domestic sphere, and the structures of social institutions such as marriage are most vigorously challenged and thoroughly reformulated. The essay genre is the most powerful literary form adopted by women writers such as Eileen Chang in their efforts to constantly redefine the boundaries between life and work, and to meticulously weave the space of private life together with the space provided by literary writing.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
In the following sections, I will argue that the woman writer’s experience of the time, the space, and the particular historical milieu of occupied Shanghai is not only mirrored in her representation of individual experiences of the war, the occupation, and the everyday, but also in her attempts to redefine the generic identities of the modern essay and to reinvent a kind of prose language that most vividly captures the transitional as well as eccentric nature of the essay genre. I will also argue that the choice of the essay form is central to Chang’s aesthetic vision.<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The female writer’s self-positioning in the realm of urban culture of 1940s Shanghai is exemplified in her appropriation of the genre. I will analyze Chang’s essay writing of the period to demonstrate how the genre was made into an important discursive site where the woman writer overtly challenged the literary conventions, searched for alternatives in both literary writing and practices of everyday life, and promoted herself as an important cultural figure. The uniqueness of this body of literary texts lies in the fact that it presents a version of women’s literature set within the context of the wartime occupation while interacting with urban commercial and print culture in 1940s Shanghai.<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''Essay and the aesthetics of liminality'''<br />
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How, then, does Eileen Chang write the experience of war and turbulence into the transformed form of the modern essay? While the sense of impending massive destruction is omnipresent in her essay writing of the 1940s, the representation of the specific historical situation is not delivered through any direct social and political reference to the immediate present; instead, the presence of history is often concealed under the masquerade of an aesthetic vision put together by a meditative inward gaze, an orchestra of city sounds, and an imagined border of the urban civilization endangered:<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Alone I sit next to a candle, thinking about the past and the present. What I have been busy doing for the last two years will probably be shattered soon. …… I should have a sense of it.<br />
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I was alone on the dusky balcony after Su Qing left. Suddenly I saw a tall building far away, on whose edges hung a great swatch of rouge-like redness. At first I thought it was the reflection of the setting sun on the windows, but on second glance, I realized that it was a full moon, rising crimson above the city. I thought to myself, “so this is what they mean by turbulent times.” In the evening mist, the borders of Shanghai were gently rising and falling in the distance, resembling layered mountain peaks, although there are no mountains surrounding our city.<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
I pondered the fate of many people, including myself. I began to have a melancholy sense of what we call destiny. Such intimations normally connote self-involvement and self-pity, but I now think that they might suggest something altogether more broad. When the peace and security of the future finally do arrive, they will no longer belong to us; at the present moment each of us can only strive to comfort ourselves……[ See ”Wo kan Su Qing” (The Way I Look at Su Qing), in Tiandi yuekan (Heaven and Earth Monthly) 19 (April, 1945).]<br />
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This impressionistic silhouette of the city is none other than the dramatic presence of modern history itself. Here, history is visualized, flattened, and inevitably spatialized. The image of the city and the force of history intermingle into one performative moment, instantaneously captured by the ‘I,’ the woman writer, who sits on the balcony of her private home, looking out into the distance, watching the border of the city rise and fall, observing the currents of history come and go, as if the entire setting was a mere act in a long and winding chuanqi (romance) play. <br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
History in Eileen Chang’s representation becomes a narrative which rejects any deep structure or profound meaning. Characterized by chaos and reversal, history appears to be no more than a shadowy presence in our consciousness:<br />
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In this era, the old things are falling apart, while the new ones are still in formation. Before the high tide of the era arrives, all certainty is but an illusion. We feel that everything in our everyday life is out of order to a terrifying degree. An individual belongs to a certain historical era, but our present era is sinking like a shadow; therefore we feel we have been deserted. In order to prove our own existence, we want to grasp onto something that is real, something fundamental. We then seek help from our ancient memory, the memory of human beings who have lived through various times in history.<br />
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张爱玲笔下的历史成为一种拒绝任何深层结构或深层意义的叙事。历史以混乱和反转为特征，在我们的意识中似乎只不过是一个影子：<br />
在这个时代，旧事物正在分崩离析，而新事物还未形成。在时代的高潮到来之前，所有确定的东西都只是一种幻觉。我们觉得我们日常生活中的每件事混乱不堪，令人害怕。每个人都属于某个历史时代，但我们现在的时代正在像影子一样消失，我们觉得自己被遗弃了。为了证明我们自己的存在，我们想要抓住一些真实的东西，一些基本的东西。然后，我们从我们古老的记忆中寻求帮助，即曾经经历过不同时期的人的记忆。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 09:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
Looking back helps us regain more clarity and closeness than we might gazing far into the future. We then have a strange feeling about the reality that surrounds us. We begin to suspect that this is an absurd and antiquated world, gloomy and bright at the same time. Between memory and reality, there often arise unbearable discrepancies, resulting in a perplexing but subtle agitation, an intensified but indefinable struggle.[ See ”Ziji de wenzhang” (Writing of One’s Own), in Written on Water, 1944. This translation is based on an earlier version by David Wang. See Wang, ”Fin-de-siècle Grandeur: Contemporary Women Writers’ Vision of Taiwan,” Modern Chinese Literature 5.4 (1992) 45-65.]<br />
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回首过去而不是遥望未来有助于我们重新获得更清晰、更亲近的感觉。然后我们对周围的现实有一种奇怪的感觉。我们开始怀疑这是一个荒诞而古老，阴暗而光明的世界。在记忆与现实之间，常常会产生难以忍受的差异，从而产生一种令人费解却又微妙的骚动，一种剧烈但难以言喻的斗争。[《写在水上》，1944年。此翻译是基于王大卫的早期版本。见王，“台湾当代女性作家的视野”，中国现代文学5.4（1992）45-65。]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:15, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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回顾过去可以帮助我们重新获得比凝视遥远的未来更清晰和亲近的感觉。我们对周围的现实有一种奇怪的感觉。我们开始怀疑，这是一个荒谬而陈旧的世界，黑暗与光明同时并存。在记忆和现实之间，常常会出现难以忍受的差异，导致一种令人困惑但微妙的激动，一种加剧但难以定义的挣扎。参见《自己的写作》，载于《水上记》，1944年。这个译本是根据王大卫的早期版本翻译的。参见王，“世纪末的宏伟:台湾当代女作家的视野”，中国现代文学5.4(1992)45-65。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:02, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
Here, history is no longer presented as a linearly progressing course; instead, it is broken into numerous fragments which can be reorganized and attributed with fresh meanings. The passage quoted above demonstrates Eileen Chang’s fascination with various liminal sites, in time or in space. Throughout her writing career, Chang has created many liminal sites, such as the illusory realm between memory and reality, the brief moment between past and present, and the intersection between life and work, fiction and poetry, stage movements and everyday events. The best of Chang’s writing often captures these transitional moments or sites, and the subjectivity in question is often taken over by a deep sense of uncertainty:<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
An individual can afford to wait, but an era is transient (''cangcu''). Things are being torn apart, and an even larger destruction is on its way. Someday our civilization, no matter how glorious, will become the past. I often use the word “desolation” (''huangliang'' 荒涼) because there is a premonition of impending danger underlying my thought. <br />
At such a ‘transient’ moment in history which will probably ‘sink’ like a ‘shadow’ in an instant, how, then, should an individual, in this case, a woman writer, position herself?<br />
Make yourself famous as early as possible! If success comes too late, it will not be as enjoyable. …… Hurry! Hurry! Otherwise it will be too late! Too late!<br />
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一个人可以等待，一个时代却是仓促的。一切都在四分五裂，更大的毁灭即将到来。终有一天我们的文明，不论多么辉煌，都将成为过去。我经常使用“荒凉（desolation）”一词，因为我的思想中隐含着即将降临之危险的预感。在这样一个“仓促”的历史时刻——它可能会像一个“影子”般瞬间“沉没”，那么，在这种情况下，一个女性作家应该如何定位自己呢？让自己尽早出名！如果成功来得太迟，就不那么令人愉快了......快点！再快点！否则就太迟了！太迟了！--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:32, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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一个人或许等得起，但一个时代却是仓促的。一切都在四分五裂，更大的毁灭即将到来。终有一天，我们的文明不论曾经多么辉煌，都终将成为过去。我常使用“荒凉”一词，因为我的思想中隐含着危险的预感。在这样一个“仓促”的历史时刻——它可能会像一个“影子”般瞬间“沉没”，那么，在这种情况下，一个女性作家应该如何定位自己呢？让自己尽早出名！如果成功来得太迟，就不那么令人愉快了......快点！再快点！否则就太迟了！太迟了！--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
These short, choppy sentences deliver a sense of urgency. To choose to define oneself through writing is then related to the woman writer’s understanding of the particular historical situation in 1940s Shanghai. It is a sense that the era is only a transitional moment in human history – the end is imminent and a new historical landscape will take shape. The imperative to make oneself famous then has to do with an urgent need to “occupy” a space in a swiftly dimishing landscape and to hold on to a moment that is constantly slipping away. Eileen Chang’s writing then highlights a very personal moment at a time when any individual voice is likely to be shattered by the grips of the modern warfare and eventually engulfed by the ruins of history. <br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Here the woman writer is going against her time by seeking an appropriate literary form and an adequate literary language to capture the essence of this fleeting moment in modern Chinese history. The new form and new language should be adequate to represent the dream-like world, the fragmented time, and the vanishing horizons of urban civilizations.<br />
<br />
Chang’s choice of the essay genre is then consistent with her unique vision of history and her fascination with what I would call ''the aesthetics of liminality''. One cannot find a more appropriate literary genre than the modern essay to capture the liminal qualities of that specific historical milieu. The essay is a genre that is positioned between the careful structuring of fiction and the free flow of poetry. The essence of essay writing lies exactly in its lack of essence or its eccentricity. The modern essay is a genre that is itself transitional.<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
The liminal qualities of the modern essay are further enhanced in various textual strategies Chang uses to challenge generic identities in literary conventions. For instance, Chang’s essay entitled “Shuangsheng” (Duet) represents one of the most intrepid literary experiments undertaken during the period. The influence of the roundtable talk, a prominent genre in popular culture, had penetrated the realm of literary writing. In “Duet,” literary writing takes the form of a mini roundtable talk. At the beginning of the essay, like most of the roundtable talks recorded in popular journals of the time, the surroundings and the atmosphere are provided in a painstakingly descriptive language. The conversation takes place in a coffee shop, where Eileen Chang, the narrator, and Mo Meng (named Yan Ying elsewhere), Chang’s female companion, indulge themselves in coffee and pastry while starting their rambling chat about anything and everything:<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Having seated ourselves, we started chatting about a variety of things in great detail. When our topics became more weighty, she [Mo Meng] said: “You know what, this seems a lot like a roundtable discussion.”<br />
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Within the space provided by the essay, the two women then continue to talk about a variety of topics: the language of love in both China and the West, the construction of romance in different cultural contexts, gender relationships inside and outside wedlock, fashions for women of different age groups, and the distinctiveness of the Japanese mentality. The fragmentary and all-inclusive qualities (''san'') of modern prose style (''sanwen'') had already been fully elaborated by Eileen Chang; the format of a roundtable talk coincides with the need to push the limit of modern prose style to its most eccentric, unrestrained, and far-ranging extreme.<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
For a discussion of the roundtable talk as an important cultural genre in 1940s Shanghai, see Nicole Huang, ''Written in the Ruins: War and Domesticity in Shanghai Literature of the 1940s''. The roundtable talk became an instrumental cultural genre in 1940s Shanghai. It was a new form of showcasing women writers by placing words (voices) and images (descriptions of their presence, and photographs) all on display. Major newspapers and journals of the period all used this strategy to advertise their publication, promote their circles of new writers, and take part in the construction of an expanded community put together by publishers, editors, writers, artists, and readers.<br />
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The structure of this essay also bears resemblance to that of a one-act play. The beginning passages can be viewed as stage descriptions. The action takes place in one quiet afternoon when two protagonists are engaged in a highly performative dialogue, and theatrical effect is enhanced when dramatic moments arise from time to time throughout the recorded conversation. <br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
“Wo kan Su Qing” (The Way I Look at Su Qing) presents Chang’s further effort to test the generic boundaries of the modern essay. The author effortlessly switches back and forth between her characterization of Su Qing and a close-up of the narrative self gazing inward. At one point in the essay, the author/narrative self pauses and admits that, in this essay devoted to Su Qing, she has actually devoted much more space to self-portrayal. Most of the time, the essay reads like an internal monologue: the narrative self is immersed in a constantly flowing display of numerous intimate moments. The free flowing of a sequence of random thoughts and the switch back and forth between different personas are fictional and theatrical devices used to further widen the representative capacities of the modern essay.<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
While “The Way I See Su Qing” imports fictional devices into the form ‘minor essay,’ an earlier essay entitled “Siyu” (Whispers) demonstrates an even more radical experiment, that is, to turn the genre into a new form of autobiographical writing. The title of the essay takes on double meanings: while ‘''siyu''’could mean ‘private talks,’ it could also mimic the lowered and fragmented voice used in talking about the most intimate moments in one’s private life. The narrative voice in the essay whispers, murmurs, and gossips. Nothing substantial is presented; instead, segments of life, tinted with the haziness of childhood memory, are organized in the re-invented prose form, like a stream of thoughts or a random layout of scenes. The technique used here closely resembles montage: segments of the past are presented like flashbacks, and moments of free-association further remind the reader of the constantly blurred boundaries between memory and reality, past and present. <br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The essay entitled “Tongyan wuji” (A Childish Discourse) presents another example of writing autobiography within the space of the modern essay. Sometimes the way that moments of childhood memory are narrated resembles the use of close-ups in film-making. The following episode even makes a direct reference to cinema:<br />
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I stood in front of the mirror and watched my trembling face, with tears falling down in streams. My face looked like a close-up in a movie. I told myself, grinding my teeth: “I want revenge. One day I will take my revenge.”<br />
<br />
Each sub-section in this essay – ‘Money,’ ‘Fashion,’ ‘Food,’ ‘Gentleman,’ and ‘Brother’ – can be viewed as one filmic long take, and there is no direct connection between them. The entire essay is put together by a series of long takes. Within the space of the modern essay, there appear to be many of these extended fictional or cinematic moments. Sometimes, description of details of clothing, or simply the pattern on a piece of fabric, can contribute to the shaping of a dramatic moment, the formation of a narrative structure. The following passage from the same essay is a good example:<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Japanese printed fabrics. Each bolt is a work of art. Each time I bring one home, before handing it over to a tailor, I repeatedly unroll it and bask in the image. A small Burmese temple is half shielded by the leaves of a palm tree; rain is falling incessantly through the reddish brown haze of the tropics. A pond in early summer, the water coated with a layer of green scum, above which float duckweed and fallen lilac petals, purple and white. Seemingly a fitting scene for a song lyric set to the tune “Laments of the South of the Yang-tze” (Ai Jiangnan)……<br />
<br />
Reading some of these highly aesthetic moments in Chang’s essay writing, we might argue that it is within the space provided by the modern essay and by means of cinematic devices that the fragmentation of conventional fictional language becomes inevitable.<br />
<br />
日本的印花面料。每一根螺栓都是一件艺术品。每次带回家，在交给裁缝之前，我都会反复展开，沐浴在画面中。一座缅甸小庙被棕榈树叶半遮半掩，雨水透过热带的红褐色雾气，不停地落下。初夏的池塘，水面涂上一层绿色的水垢，上面漂浮着鸭舌草和落下的丁香花瓣，紫白相间。配上一首《哀江南赋》似乎很应景......<br />
<br />
解读张爱玲散文写作中的一些极具审美性的瞬间，我们可以说，正是在现代散文所提供的空间里，并且借助电影手段，传统小说语言的碎片化才成为必然。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:56, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本织锦。每一匹日本织锦都是一件艺术品。每当我将一匹日本织锦带回家，我会反复展开织锦，醉心于上面的图案，然后才会交给裁缝。一座缅甸小佛寺在棕榈树叶的遮蔽下若隐若现；热带地区红褐色的雾霭之中，细雨绵绵。初夏的一方池塘里覆盖着一层绿色水垢，上面漂浮着被风吹落的丁香花瓣，白的紫的都有。配上一首《哀江南赋》似乎很应景……<br />
<br />
阅读张爱玲的散文作品，尤其是其中一些极具审美性的瞬间，我们可以说，正是在现代散文提供的空间里，并借助电影手段，传统小说语言的断层化已成必然。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:10, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
'''Essay and the making of a new prose language'''<br />
<br />
Few writers in twentieth-century China are as persistent as Eileen Chang was in constantly experimenting with new literary language. In her essay entitled “Ziji de wenzhang” (Writing of One’s Own), Chang retrospectively remarks on her use of a new fictional language in the novella ''Lianhuantao'' (Linked Rings):<br />
<br />
I adopted the language from traditional fiction on many occasions when writing the novella ''Chain of Rings''. In the story, Cantonese people and foreigners who lived fifty years ago speak like figures walking out of [the world of] ''Plum in a Golden Vase'' (Jing Ping Mei), …… My original intention was: I already created a considerable distance in space by writing about a romanticized Hong Kong from the point of view of a Shanghainese; I also created a distance in time by writing about the Hong Kong of fifty years ago. Therefore I intentionally adopted an antiquated diction to represent such a doubled displacement (''shuangchong juli''). ……<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
To situate the story in both a remote time and a distancing space endows the writer with abundant freedom in her choice of language. By returning to traditional literature to search for imaginative inspiration and expressive resources, Eileen Chang has redefined, on the discursive level, the cultural as well as political connotations of the modern vernacular language. For a modern reader who has considerable knowledge of the May Fourth literature, Chang’s fictional language presents the reader with a remote system of referentiality by using diction and narrative tone characteristic of those used in classical Chinese novels such as ''Plum in a Golden Vase'' and ''Dream of the Red Chamber''. <br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
What, then, are the characteristics of Chang’s linguistic experiments in her essay writing of the period? The titles of both the essay collection ''Written on Water'' and the essay “Whispers” can be viewed as the author’s own commentaries on the language she has chosen for the transformed essay genre. While literary language is compared to voices whispering, murmuring, or gossiping, and while words can eventually flow away just like water, the practice of writing then is a process of both embracing and breaking away from words, and the meanings that are presented no longer contribute to a system of enclosure. Chang’s naming highlights the indeterminacy of literary language and directs the reader’s attention to the uncertainty embodied in both the structure of the essay and the language that it employs.<br />
<br />
In the opening passage of the essay “Tan nüren” (Talking about Women), collected in ''Written on Water'', in a whimsical and relaxed tone, Eileen Chang cites a characterization of ‘women’ presented in a small pamphlet written by an English author:<br />
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那么，张爱玲这一时期的散文创作在语言实验上有什么特点呢？ 散文集''写在水面上''和散文《私语》的标题都可以看作是作者自己对转型后的散文体裁所选择的语言的评论。 文学语言被比喻为声音的窃窃私语、喃喃自语或闲聊，虽然文字最终可以像水一样流走，但那时的写作实践是一个既拥抱文字又挣脱文字的过程，所呈现的意义不再有助于形成一个围合的体系。 张先生的命名突出了文学语言的不确定性，并引导读者注意到文章的结构和所采用的语言所体现的不确定性。<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《写在水面上》收录的《谈女人》一文的开篇，以一种异想天开的轻松语气，引用了一位英国作家写的小册子中对 "女人 "的描述。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:36, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
那么，张爱玲这一时期的散文创作在语言研究方面的特点是什么？ 散文集《写在水面上》和散文《私语》的标题都可以看作是作者自己对转型后的散文体裁所选择的语言评论。 文学语言被比喻为窃窃私语、喃喃自语或闲聊，虽然文字最终可以像水一样流走，但那时的写作实践是一个既拥抱文字又挣脱文字的过程，所呈现的意义不再有助于形成一个围合的体系。 张爱玲的命名突出了文学语言的不确定性，并引导读者去注意文章的结构和所采用语言所体现的不确定性。<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《写在水面上》收录的《谈女人》一文的开篇，以一种异想天开的轻松语气，引用了一位英国作家写的小册子中对 "女人 "的描述。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:06, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Westerners refer to sinister and cruel (''yinxian kebo'') women as ‘cats.’ I ran across a pamphlet recently, written in English, entitled ''Cats'', which does nothing else except condemn women. It is not that what is said in it has never been expressed by other people. Interesting remarks (''juanyu'') concerning women are scattered everywhere and it is just not easy to collect them all together. But here this pamphlet is really a compilation (''ji qi dacheng'') [of what has been said about women]. <br />
<br />
Chang then invites her readers to accompany as she glances through a group of quotes she has selected and translated from that pamphlet, much of which is a condemnation of women’s erotic potential. Not a single word of explicit judgment is offered throughout the essay by Chang, nor are the assumptions contained in this pamphlet about the gendered character of each individual expressly challenged. After reading Chang’s essay, a reader might wonder to what extent has the ‘real’ author behind the masquerade of the narrative internalized such an ‘othered’ male view?<br />
西方人把阴险刻薄的女人称为 "猫"。我最近看到一本小册子，是用英语写的，册子标题是《猫》。这本册子里面除了谴责女人，没有其他的内容。册子里所提的内容，也有别人提起过。有关女性的有趣言论到处都是，但是要把它们收集在一起实在不容易。不过，这本小册子确实是[关于女性的]言论的汇编(集大成)。<br />
然后，张爱玲邀请读者陪着她一起读一读自己从那本小册子中选取和翻译的一组评价，其中大部分是对女性潜在情欲的谴责。在整篇文章中，张爱玲没有作出一句明确评判，也没有对这本小册子中提出的关于每个人的性别特征的假设提出明确反驳。读完了张爱玲的文章后，读者可能会问，戴了面具的叙事手法，其背后的 "真实 "作者又在多大程度上内化了这种 "他者 "的男性观？--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:54, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
And to what extent is Chang’s translation ‘faithful’ to the original text? The original author’s name remains unmentioned in Chang’s essay, making it difficult to assess the extent to which the original ‘male’ narrative voice has been twisted or distorted by Chang’s rendition. The narrative voice appears to be a composite in those quotes and is even more so in the rest of her essay. One approach to reading Chang’s essay is then to regard the quotation as an integral part of the whole essay, to view it as Eileen Chang’s own linguistic construction, a construction which already contains her critique. Within these quotes, the message is complicated, and presented in several levels. Some of the quotes are reminiscent of an archetypal ‘male’ voice:<br />
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<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
This kind of fictional and temporal distance is also characteristic of Chang’s short stories written during the period. David Wang argues that the fictional world presented in the short stories in ''Romances'' points to a remote system of referentiality for modern readers by interweaving many ”unreal” elements such as the fantastic, the grotesque, the decadent, and the dark romanticist. See Wang, ”Nü zuojia de xiandai guihua: cong Zhang Ailing dao Su Weizhen” (Modern Ghost Narratives by Women Writers: from Eileen Chang to Su Weizhen), in ''Zhongsheng xuan-hua: sanshi yu bashi niandai de Zhongguo xiaoshuo'' (Heteroglossia: Chinese Fiction of 1930s and 1980s).<br />
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这种虚构性和时代性的距离，也是他在这一时期创作的短篇故事的特点。王大卫认为，《浪漫》这一短篇故事中所呈现的虚构世界，通过交织许多“虚幻”的元素，如奇幻、怪诞、颓废、黑暗的浪漫主义，为现代读者指明了一个遥远的指称体系。参见王的《女作家的现代鬼故事:从张爱玲到苏伟真》，载于《仲生宣化:三诗于巴诗念代德中》(杂注:中国三十、八十年代小说)。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:11, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
“The physical construction of women is so exquisite; therefore, their spiritual construction is incomplete. This is predictable. We just cannot be over-critical of them [women].” <br />
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“If you do not seduce a woman, she would say that you are not a man; if you do, she would say that you are not a man of the upper-class.” <br />
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“The only difference between a woman and a dog is: a dog is not as spoiled as a woman is; a dog does not wear jewelry; and – thank God! – a dog does not speak!”<br />
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The expected readers of the pamphlet ''Cats'' are married middle-class men. According to Eileen Chang, the original author admits that, “a man, after having just fought with his wife, would feel comforted if he reads this pamphlet before he goes to bed.” Functioning as a psychological therapy, the expected reading process should yield pleasure which soothes grievances and unhappiness in one’s ‘actual’ life.<br />
<br />
“女人的身体构造如此精巧，所以她们的精神构造是不完整的。这是可以预见的。我们不能对她们（女性）过分挑剔。”<br />
“如果你不勾引女人，她会说你不是男人；如果你这样做，她会说你不是上流社会的男人。”<br />
“女人和狗的唯一区别是：狗不像女人那样娇惯；狗不戴首饰；还有——感谢上帝！–狗不会说话！”<br />
短篇小说《猫》的预期读者是已婚中产阶级男子。据张爱玲所言，钱钟书认为，“一个男人刚和妻子吵架后，如果在睡觉前读这篇小说，他会获得慰藉。”预期阅读过程作为一种心理治疗，应该会产生愉悦，从而缓和一个人“实际”生活中的不快。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
Within this reading process, through the mediation of a narrative language, the imagined male reader takes upon the implicit point of view built in the assumed male author’s account, manipulates and appropriates the construction of the female image, and displaces his sense of anger, repression, and alienation, or his frustrated desire for control and domination, onto such a constructed image. For a married man, the unsuccessful threats toward his wife in real life can then be successfully prosecuted on a textual level.<br />
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Such a female erotic image depicted in a seemingly unambiguous male text could generate a variety of culturally coded specific meanings and gendered differences. However, the tone of Chang’s language seems to invalidate the possibilities of applying an ideologically charged critique of these messages. Her narrative tone is relaxed, whimsical, playful, humorous, and somewhat ironic. The message transmitted in these quotes is impure, it has been reworked, and already contains a ‘look.’ This ‘look’ is interwoven with a sense of irony. This is even more explicit in some of her other quotes:<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
“A man can flirt with a bar waitress in the squalid bar without losing his reputation; yet an upper-class woman is not even allowed to blow a kiss at a postman from afar. We can then draw an inference that men are different from women – no matter how low they [men] bend their backs, it is never difficult for them to stand up straight again.” <br />
“Generally speaking, women do not need the variety of stimulants in their lives that men do. Therefore, we should tolerate a man if he transgresses boundaries during his leisure time, in order to enliven his weary body, [to expel] his worries, [and to accomplish] his unrealized aspirations.” <br />
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==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
These quotes should be understood as mainly Eileen Chang’s own rendition. Through the ironic tone, the message becomes twisted, distorted, highly dramatized, and thereby transformed into parody and ridicule. If Eileen Chang does seek to tease out this assumed male voice, such an attempt proceeds through the creation of a narrative distance, a sense of innuendo, a skillful rewording of the male voice, and not through any explicit charges or critiques. The reader is left to herself to read between the lines, to speculate about the hints, and to screen out the mixed messages.<br />
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==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Despite the absence of an explicit criticism toward this unambiguous male voice, Eileen Chang’s presentation has revealed the fact that the male denunciation of the public effects of a female eroticism is itself manifested in an eroticized form. Such an eroticized form has been dramatized to the extreme by Chang in her skillful rewording. A reader would ponder whether this male denunciation addresses the danger of the placing women in public display or is itself a public display of women as eroticized subjects? Eileen Chang’s appropriation of the male denunciation of female eroticism becomes a doubled affirmation of the much textualized eroticizing potential of female images, which makes it difficult to pin down the ‘femaleness’ of her use of literary language. <br />
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==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
Perhaps, then, to examine the ‘femaleness’ of Chang’s language is not an appropriate approach. Nor can we confidently situate Eileen Chang into the female literary tradition of modern China, a tradition which is usually characterized by the May Fourth style of writing. Chang’s cultural marginality, her interest in irrelevant details and domesticity, and her teasing of patriarchs and of gender relations all tempt critics to label her work with various feminine qualities. But Eileen Chang’s voice cannot be simply categorized in a dichotomy of conventional and patriarchal speech on the one hand, and experimental and anti-patriarchal speech on the other. It is obviously impure; it is a kind of language that occupies the space of the liminal; it is a mixed voice, both ‘male’ as well as ‘female.’ In many instances, her language appears to be the so-called “protective language,” a “neutralizing middle tongue,” a language of concealment rather than revelation. The mixed voices prevent us from going on to ‘genderize’ the grammar, the expression, and the diction in her writing. Eileen Chang’s language is one of resisting the process of ‘genderizing,’ and of eliminating the possibilities of polarizing different identities. <br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
In her recent study of Eileen Chang’s fictional writing, Rey Chow defines Eileen Chang’s ‘femininity’ as predominantly associated with ”irrelevant” details. In the picture painted by Chow, ‘detail’ carries a distinctively ‘feminine’ label and is defined as ”the sensuous, trivial, and superfluous textual presence that exists in an ambiguous relation with some larger ‘vision’ such as reform and revolution.” Chow argues that Eileen Chang constructs a different vision of modernity and history through ”a release of sensual details whose emotional backdrop is often that of entrapment, destruction, and desolation.” Eileen Chang’s understanding of culture, therefore, carries a ”powerfully negative affect.” See Rey Chow, Chapter III ”Modernity and Narration: in Feminine Detail” in her ''Woman and Chinese Modernity: The Politics of Reading Between West and East'' (Minnesota and Oxford: University of Minnesota Press, 1991) 85.<br />
<br />
Rey Chow’s emphasis on the intricately related history of details and the feminine in the Chinese case is certainly illuminating in the sense that she suggests a new perspective to define the significance of Eileen Chang’s writing and thus a new way of critiquing the construction of a history of modern Chinese literature as a whole. <br />
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==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
However, in Rey Chow’s categorization of Eileen Chang, a new type of femininity is classified, whose characteristics are intimate, domestic, sensuous, pre-rational, trivial, obsessed with its sexual being, yet embodying subversive strength and transgressive potentials. This seemingly fresh and autonomous femininity does take one thing for granted, that is the unproblematized association between the female, the domestic, and trivial details. Rey Chow’s emphasis on feminine detail may have endowed Eileen Chang’s writing with a critical power deriving from the marginal position that she is inscribed in; but to domesticate Chang, to enclose her within woman’s traditional domain of the home, could also lead to the draining of the heaviness and the other intellectual potentialities in Chang’s writing.<br />
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==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The terms ”protective language” and a ”neutralizing middle tongue” are lifted out of Catharine Stimpson in her discussion of Gertrude Stein’s writing. According to Stimpson, ”Stein’s coding of sexual activities becomes a privileged and a distinguished ‘anti-language’,” that is, a language of ”anti-societies.” Stimpson argues against some other critics’ attempts to ”adjectify” Stein’s work as ”female.” She suggests that Stein’s language is ultimately ”impure,” it is ”linear as well as pluridimensional,” it is ”male” as well as ”female.” Stimpson argues that Stein’s literary language is neither ”female,” nor ”an unmediated return to signifiers freely wheeling in maternal space.” See Stimpson, ”The Somagrams of Gertrude Stein,” in ''The Female Body in Western Culture: Contemporary Perspectives'', edited by Susan Rubin Suleiman.<br />
<br />
在讨论格特鲁格·斯坦因的著作时，“保护性语言”和“中立的中性语言”一词被从凯瑟琳·斯廷普森删除。斯廷普森认为，“斯坦因对性行为的编码成为一种特权和一种独特的'反语言'，即'反社会'的语言。斯廷普森反对其他一些批评家试图将斯坦因的作品“形容”为“女性”的说法。她认为斯坦的语言最终是“不纯正的”，既是“线性的又是多维度的”，既是“男性的”又是“女性的”。斯廷普森认为，斯坦因的文学语言既不是“女性的”，也不是指“无意中回归到指代者而自由地进入母体空间”。请参见苏珊·鲁滨·苏蕾曼编辑的《当代视角下西方文化中的女性身体形象》中格特鲁德·斯坦的躯体语言。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 11:10, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
在讨论格特鲁德·斯坦因的作品时，凯瑟琳·斯廷普森讨论了“保护性语言”和“中和性的中间语言”。根据斯廷普森的说法，“斯坦因对性行为的编码变成了一种特权和独特的‘反语言’”，也就是说，是一种“反社会”的语言。斯廷普森反对其他一些批评家试图将斯坦因的作品“形容为女性”。她认为斯坦因的语言最终是“有杂质的，“它是“线性也是多元维度的”，它是“男性”也是“女性”。斯廷普森认为，斯坦因的文学语言既不是“女性”，也不是“在母体空间中自由转动的能指的无中介回归”。参见斯廷普森德《当代视角下西方文化中的女性身体形象》中的格特鲁德·斯坦因的躯体语法，苏珊·鲁宾·苏莱曼主编。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:02, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
Julia Kristeva suggests that ”the very dichotomy man/woman as an opposition between two rival entities may be understood as belonging to metaphysics”; it must be dismantled through ”the demassification of the problem of difference, which would imply, in a first phase, an apparent de-dramatization of the ‘flight to the death’ between rival groups and thus between the sexes.” Kristeva refers to this as ”a strategy of disintegration.” This strategy is a ”true radicalism” in such attempts ”to undo given identities, to go beyond the policy of creating counter-identifications.” See ”Women’s Time” (translated by Alice Jardine and Harry Blake) in ''Signs'' (Autumn, 1981).<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
Perhaps, then, to examine the ‘femaleness’ of Chang’s language is not an appropriate approach. Nor can we confidently situate Eileen Chang into the female literary tradition of modern China, a tradition which is usually characterized by the May Fourth style of writing. Chang’s cultural marginality, her interest in irrelevant details and domesticity, and her teasing of patriarchs and of gender relations all tempt critics to label her work with various feminine qualities. But Eileen Chang’s voice cannot be simply categorized in a dichotomy of conventional and patriarchal speech on the one hand, and experimental and anti-patriarchal speech on the other. It is obviously impure; it is a kind of language that occupies the space of the liminal; it is a mixed voice, both ‘male’ as well as ‘female.’ In many instances, her language appears to be the so-called “protective language,” a “neutralizing middle tongue,” a language of concealment rather than revelation. The mixed voices prevent us from going on to ‘genderize’ the grammar, the expression, and the diction in her writing. Eileen Chang’s language is one of resisting the process of ‘genderizing,’ and of eliminating the possibilities of polarizing different identities.<br />
<br />
那么，分析张爱玲语言中的女性特征也许不是一种恰当的方法。我们无法十分肯定地说她的作品体现了近代中国文学中的女性传统，这一传统以五四文体为特征。张爱玲作品中的文化边缘性、对细枝末节的关注、蕴含的家庭特征以及对男性家长和性别关系的调侃无一不促使评论家将其打上女性特质的标签。但是我们不能将张爱玲的语言简单地划分为两个对立面：一方面是传统的父权话语，另一方面则是实验性的反父权话语，她的文学语言无疑是模糊的，是一种位于两种状态分界处之上的语言，是一种糅合了“男性”与“女性”与一身的语言。在很多情况下，她的语言都表现出一种所谓的“保护性”、“中性的口吻”，或者说是一种隐没而非彰显的语言。张爱玲的作品语言的复杂性让我们无法将其中的语法、表达以及用词性别化，这种语言正是一种抵制“性别化”过程的语言，消除了分化不同身份的可能性。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 03:40, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
In Eileen Chang’s essay writing, it is finally the narration itself that becomes a site where conflicting cultural discourses meet and interact. The narrative voice does not embody or point to any authoritative discourses: it is neither the passive receiver of a system of accomplished social customs and values containing stereotypes of passive femininity, nor a spokeswoman for a ‘progressive’ nationalist ideological agenda. While history is viewed as transitory and fragmented, the language used to account for this history is no longer something which is ideologically or rhetorically charged. It is not a language to account for truth and beliefs, it is a language of ‘paradox’ and ‘enigma’; it is a ‘counter-language.’ Chang’s use of language serves to recuperate a remote tradition that is incompatible to the present historical situation, and to restore a different set of voices which are inconsonant with the chorus of her time.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Chang’s essay writing indicates that the coherence of a so-called women’s literary writing tradition in modern China is a mere fabrication. The linguistic constructions in Chang’s essay writing playfully appropriate male fantasies, turning them into props in the creation of a new literary space. By turning structures of male fantasies into narrative devices, and by transforming male voices to enhance the theatrical effect of essay writing, Eileen Chang has demonstrated a much more confident gesture in offering a critique of gendered constructions in both the larger social context and the sphere of literary writing.<br />
<br />
'''Essay and the Invention of Life in Wartime'''<br />
<br />
In the preface to her 1988 collection entitled '''Xuji''' (The Sequel), Eileen Chang confesses that she has been a “loyal believer” in Greta Garbo’s philosophy of life:<br />
张爱玲的散文著作揭示了这样一个事实，现代中国所谓的女性文学写作传统不过是对男性文学写作传统的伪造。她的散文著作中，语言结构巧妙地借用了男性的幻想思维，将其转换为创造新文学空间的支柱。张将男性幻想结构转换为叙述手法，并且转换男性的叙述口吻，以此提高散文写作所带来的戏剧影响，在广大的社会背景条件下和文学创作方面，提出了性别结构批评，对此，她信心满满。在其1988年出版的名为《战争时代的散文与发现》一书的前言中，张爱玲坦白说，她是葛嘉丽·宝格生活哲学的忠诚信仰者。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 11:48, 3 December 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
张爱玲的散文作品表明现代中国所谓的女性文学创作传统的一致性仅仅是捏造而已。她在散文作品的语言结构中巧妙地运用了男性的幻想，并将其转化为创造新文学空间的支柱。通过将男性幻想结构转变为叙事手法，并通过转换男性的叙述口吻来增强散文写作的戏剧效果，张爱玲在更大的社会背景和文学创作领域中以更加自信的姿态提出了性别结构批评。<br />
<br />
'''散文和战时的生活发现'''<br />
<br />
在她1988年出版的名为《续集》(The Sequel)一书的序言中，张爱玲坦诚地说她一直是葛丽泰·嘉宝人生哲学的“忠实信仰者”：--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 07:37, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
For several decades, relying on make-up and acting skills, she [Garbo] lived the life of a recluse, seldom seen through by other people. Her life-time belief was that “I want to live by myself.” …… Why is it that writers also have a hard time preserving the privacy of their lives? <br />
<br />
These sentiments could not have been expressed back in the 1940s. The solitude of the latter half of Chang’s life, that is, the four decades since she came to America in the fall of 1955, forms a sharp contrast to the glorious moments during the first half of the 1940s, particularly the years of 1944 and 1945, when she and Su Qing emerged in the cultural scene of Shanghai simultaneously and became brighter stars than the most acclaimed movie actresses and popular singers. <br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
As argued earlier, the most important players in this society-wide promotion of women intellectuals were none other than women writers themselves. And among all literary genres, it was the modern essay that became the most powerful form of expression in women writers’ self-promotion and myth-making. Essay served to contribute concrete forms to a life that was void of any structure; in other words, women writers such as Eileen Chang and Su Qing used the form of the modern essay to construct an intelligible universe where one’s imagination and fantasy could anchor. Detailed descriptions of everyday experience, that is, representations of cultural meanings of the material world, manifests not only a dynamic inner life but also a new social identity in formation. In this section I will highlight two aspects of life that are conceptualized in Chang’s essay writing, one is the space of a modern apartment as a liminal site in urban landscape, and the other is the discourse of fashion as a vital form of material consciousness.<br />
<br />
如前所述，在整个社会范围内提升女性知识分子最重要的参与者就是女性作家本身。在所有文学体裁中，现代散文成为女性作家自我提升和神话创造中最有力的表达形式。散文可以为没有任何结构的生活提供具体形式：换句话说，张爱玲和苏青等女性作家利用现代散文的形式，构建了一个个人想象和幻想可以驻留的可理解的宇宙。对日常经验的详细描述，即对物质世界的文化意义的陈述，不仅体现了动态的内心生活，而且体现了一种形成中的新的社会认同。在这一章中，我将着重介绍张爱玲散文写作中所概念化的生活的两个方面，一方面是作为城市景观中有限场所的现代公寓的空间，另一方面是将时尚的讲话视为物质意识的一个重要形式。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:13, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
'''Passage from apartment to street'''<br />
<br />
In her essay entitled “Gongyu shenghuo jiqu” (Interesting Moments in Apartment Life), Chang depicts a spatial construction which serves as the backdrop of the formation of a new urban persona:<br />
<br />
I would ride the wind, returning up there,<br />
but fear those marble domes and jade galleries<br />
the place so high, the cold is unbearable …… <br />
<br />
On reading these lines, residents who live on top floors of apartment buildings will more or less shiver with fear. The higher the apartment, the colder. Ever since the price of coal soared , radiators in apartments have become purely decorative. The “H” on the hot water faucet is indispensable in order to perfect the bathroom design; but if you turn on the hot water tap by mistake, a hollow but grievous rumble will burst out from the “Nine Springs” (''Jiu quan'') down below. It sounds like the very complicated and very capricious hot water pipe system in the apartment building has lost its temper. Even if we do not provoke it, the God of thunder still makes its power felt at any moment. <br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Out of nowhere, it can set off a long and evil buzz followed by two blasting sounds, as if an airplane was circling above for a while and then dropped two bombs. Having been terror-stricken in wartime Hong Kong, this kind of noise would always make me panic when I first returned to Shanghai. At first the pipe was still working conscientiously; in much difficulty, it would carry some hot water all the way up to the sixth floor, accompanied by a gurgling sound. That was still acceptable, but now it is like deafening thunder followed only by drizzle, and worse yet, all we get are just two droplets of yellow rusty mud. But I dare not complain anymore; the unemployed can easily fly into a rage.<br />
<br />
What is most striking in this beginning episode of Chang’s essay is how the experience of the everyday is depicted as parallel to that of war. War makes its metaphorical presence in daily life of an apartment dweller, serving as a trope for the erratic rhythm of an urban life style. Chang’s depiction of the texture of an apartment life then can be read as a parable of war. <br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
This opening episode makes references to several archetypal war themes, including death (as in the reference to the “nine springs” or Jiu quan), the scarcity of necessities in life (such as the mentioning of high price of coal and deficiency of hot water in the apartment), and the threat of air-raid (as suggested by the narrator’s haunted memory from her years living in wartime Hong Kong). Themes of unemployment, social unrest, and economic instability are also represented in Chang’s depiction of an animated world where one’s private space is constantly intruded by outside forces. The author has invented a new sense of interiority in her attempt to come to terms with the topography of urban life during wartime. The essay gives textual testimonies to two most important categories of experience in occupied Shanghai – the urban and the war; and these two categories converge precisely within the constructed space of a modern apartment.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
See Chapter 2 for a discussion of the society-wide promotion of the two women and the women’s attempt in self-fashioning. Su and Chang were often showcased together with famous singers, dancers, and movie actresses at the time. See, for instance, ”Cui Chengxi wudao zuotan” (A Roundtable Discussion of Cui Chengxi’s Dance), where women writers were presented together with the Korean Dancer Cui Chengxi and a Chinese dancer named Wang Yuan. Published in ''The Miscellany Monthly'' 12. 2 (November, 1943). Another example is ”Nalianghui ji” (A Summer Gathering), where Eileen Chang was showcased together with the singer/movie actress Li Xianglan. In The ''Miscellany Monthly'' 15. 5 (August, 1945).<br />
<br />
Originally published in ''Heaven and Earth Monthly'' 3 (December, 1943).<br />
<br />
These are the lines in the Song dynasty poet Su Shi’s famous song lyric written to the tune ”Shuidiao getou” (Song for the Water Tune).<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
This is the first time in the history of modern Chinese literature that the literary world of a woman author is so tenaciously associated with an urban life style characterized by routines in and out of a modern apartment. In other words, the spatial specificities of a modern apartment are essential to the construction of a vision of life in wartime in Eileen Chang’s writing. City offers many transitional territories such as hotels, stations, theaters, and cafes, which are spaces beyond the rigid categorization of inside or outside, private or public. In Chang’s writing, the space of an apartment is presented as such a transitional site. It is a self-contained private space, which enables a city dweller to escape the intensity of life outside the apartment when necessary. But more importantly, an apartment is also a locus point from which one can enter into various aspects of urban culture. <br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
For Eileen Chang, who, between 1942 and 1945, spent most of her time in a flat on the top floor of a six-story apartment building not too far away from the Jing’an Temple, the modern interior space is like a picture frame, encircling the nights and days of an urban dweller who constantly looks out, from her own apartment windows, that is, a new vantage point, at the kaleidoscopic world of metropolitan Shanghai. Living in an apartment seems to have changed ways of seeing, hearing, smelling, and feeling: not only the cityscape is presented differently – now from a new height (the windows of an apartment on the sixth floor), even sounds in the city become more vivid with the elevation of height:<br />
<br />
I am often amazed at how street noises can be heard so clearly from the sixth floor, as if it was all happening right beneath one’s ears. The older we get, the farther we are separated from our childhood, and yet the memories of it and its many trivial details have gradually become more sweet and vivid. <br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Just like our present bears imprints of the past, an interior space is constantly permeated and reshaped by the every-changing outside world. This is a world (un)marked by blurred boundaries; liminality characterizes one’s own positioning within such an obscure realm. And yet senses simply become more acute, and thoughts are given fresh new patterns. Here, we are witnessing the formation a new metaphysics of the everyday:<br />
<br />
I like to listen to street sounds. Those who have more refined taste would rest on their pillows and listen to wind whistling in a pine grove or the roar of ocean waves. But it is the sound of a trolley that I must hear in order to fall asleep. On the hills in Hong Kong, only in winter when the north wind blew on the evergreens all night would it remind me of the charming sound of a trolley. People who have lived in an exciting city for many years do not realize what they must have in life until they have left the place. The thoughts of a city dweller are set against a curtain of striped pattern; the light-colored stripes are running trolleys. Like neatly paralleled currents of sounds, they continuously flow into our subconscious. <br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
For Eileen Chang, an apartment is truly the center of urban life. Like a train station, it serves as an initial starting point, always ready to transport one’s senses into many different directions. Chang’s aesthetics of life is then attributed with a concrete spatial form that is deeply rooted in the soil of the everyday of wartime. If the production of popular journals in occupied Shanghai symbolizes the shaping of an imagined space, the modern apartment is another important site on the mental map of a city under siege. The aggression of wartime occupation has disrupted cycles of life, routines in and out of one’s own home, but new urban spaces and experiences were also created. Here the presence of war intensifies one’s experience of the urban, crystallized in the shaping of a particular spatial form, that is, the modern apartment.<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
Many feminist scholars have suggested the importance of studying spatial constructions. They argue that by giving the inner world a form of concreteness, spatial symbols in literature are most illuminating in showing how personal experience intersects with specific cultural categories. The study of spatial construction is then important since it is the key point in understanding women’s literature: space often serves as a vehicle by which the female protagonists attempt to launch a journey of self-discovery, which constitutes the most important part of the female experience. See, for instance, Jessica Benjamin, ”A Desire of One’s Own: Psychoanalytic Feminism and Intersubjective Space,” in ''Feminist Studies/Critical Studies'', edited by Teresa de Lauretis (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986).<br />
<br />
For a discussion of other kinds of spatial constructions in 1940s Shanghai, see Wei Shaochang, ”Jiu Shanghai de tingzijian” (The Garret in Old Shanghai), published in ''Haishang wentan'' (March, 1994). Also see a photographic history in Tang Zhenchang, ed., ''Jindai Shanghai fanhua lu'' (Modern Shanghai: The Splendor) (Hong Kong: Shangwu yinshuguan 1993.)<br />
<br />
In ”Interesting Moments in Apartment Life.”<br />
<br />
Ibid.<br />
<br />
See Nicole Huang, ''Written In the Ruins''.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s vision, this spatial experience is also gendered. The image of an apartment dweller is gendered, and often female. “It seems like only women can fully understand the advantages of life in an apartment,” Chang writes, since the household duties in an apartment are much more simplified. Therefore, a woman can much better appreciate the numerous trivial details in life; she can even start to appreciate the gorgeous colors of fresh vegetables displayed at morning markets, and enjoy the pleasures of cooking and cleaning. Chang’s reinvention of these daily trips is most forcefully presented in one essay entitled “Zhongguo de riye” (China: Days and Nights). <br />
<br />
In Chuanqi (extended edition) (Shanghai: Shanhe tushu gongsi, 1946).（注释）<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s own account, morning errands to the vegetable market seem to be her own tour through the part of the city that she is most attached to. Every morning she would take the elevator down from her sixth floor apartment, emerge onto the awakening streets, mingle with the morning crowd, and progress toward the world of the magnificent colors of the early market. Daily routines are not just bound duties that confine the everyday experiences of women; instead, they become forms of life choreographed in accordance with the distinctive rhythm of the city. Women can finally look at them as opportunities to explore a life that is wider, brighter, and more open to a variety of new possibilities.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
Life in apartment is then presented with many layers in Chang’s essay writing. In “Daolu yi mu” (Views from the Streets), Eileen Chang also reminds the reader of the many levels of urban culture taking shape outside of the apartment, that is, on the streets. On one level, the street scene of Shanghai is most distinctively characterized by the window displays and neon lights on Avenue Joffre:<br />
<br />
Designing shop windows is a fascinating job, since there is motionless drama in each display. ……… [I remember] a mid-winter night four or five years ago when my cousin and I were strolling down the Avenue Joffre, looking at shop window displays. <br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
Under neon lights, the slanted faces of those wooden beauties under slanted hats, with feathers slanting down from atop the hats. I did not wear western suits, had no need of a hat, and did not want to buy one. And yet I still looked at them with admiring eyes…… <br />
<br />
This fascination with window displays and neon lights is staged at a moment that belongs to the past – “four of five years ago.” At the present time within the essay, a different layer of images are highlighted. We see various street corners scattered in less prestigious neighborhoods of the metropolis. Chang’s impressionistic depiction of the city of Shanghai contains numerous crisscrosses of small lanes and faces of ordinary people:<br />
<br />
”Views from the Streets,” in Heaven and Earth Monthly 4 (January, 1944). （注释）<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
There are many scenes on the streets that are worth another glance. At dusk, a rickshaw is parked by the roadside, a woman is leaning against the seat, a sack in her hand, some persimmons in the sack. The rickshaw man is squatting down on the ground, trying to light up an oil lamp. It is getting dark, and the lamp by the woman’s feet slowly brightens. <br />
<br />
Here, within the space of one essay, the images of a rickshaw man and a housewife on a small street are juxtaposed with the memory of two young women window-shopping on the extravagant Avenue Joffre. The subtle light of an oil lamp is placed against the bright and luring rats of neon signs.<br />
<br />
街道上有许多场景值得一看。 黄昏时，一辆人力车停在路边，一个女人靠在座位上，手里拿着一个麻袋，麻袋里放着一些柿子。 这辆人力车男子蹲在地上，试图点亮一盏油灯。 天快黑了，女人脚旁的灯慢慢变亮。<br />
<br />
在这篇论文的空间中，在一条小街上，一辆黄包车男子和一名家庭主妇的影像并置在一起，以纪念两名年轻女子在奢侈的Joffre大街上逛街。油灯的微弱光线被放置在明亮而诱人的霓虹灯招牌上。<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
And the warmth and intimacy of the present set off the coldness and vastness of a moment in the past. Here, even though there is no direct reference to the turbulent events taking place in the background of occupied Shanghai, we can nonetheless sense the presence of war in this contrast between the two time frames and the switch back and forth between different layers of urban space. Rapid movements, swift changes, drastic transformations, and the transience of a given moment, these themes of war are represented in a most subtle and yet vivid fashion.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
To carry the argument further, Chang’s sense of modernity has extended from a modernist high culture to a culture of wartime quotidian life. The author is more interested in representing the tension between the ‘old’ and the ‘new’ surfacing in everyday routines of ordinary men and women in her city. The intrusion of war seems to have pushed the brilliance of Avenue Joffre back into one’s dusty memory. Here we can perceive how the experience of war and occupation has systematically changed the spatialization of modernity: modernity as a body of new urban sensibilities is now located somewhere between the grand avenue and the back alley.<br />
<br />
进一步说，张爱玲的现代性已经从现代主义的高等文化扩展到战时的日常生活文化。她更感兴趣的是表现在她的城市里普通男女日常生活中浮现的“旧”与“新”之间的张力。战争的入侵似乎把乔弗尔大道的辉煌推回到尘封的记忆中。在这里，我们可以看到战争和占领的经历是如何系统地改变现代性的空间化的:现代性作为一种新的城市情感体，现在位于大道和后街之间的某个地方。<br />
<br />
张爱玲的现代意识从现代主义的高级文化延伸到战时的平民生活文化。作者更感兴趣的是表现出她所在城市普通男女日常生活中出现的“旧”与“新”之间的紧张关系。战争的侵扰似乎把乔夫尔大街的辉煌重新推回到尘封已久的记忆中。在这里，我们可以看到战争和曾被占领的经历是如何系统地改变了现代性的空间化：现代性作为一个新的城市情感体，现在位于大街和后巷之间的某个地方。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:38, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
– '''Fashion talk''' – <br />
To illustrate how material imagination is essential to Chang’s aesthetics of the everyday, I will now turn to her conceptualization of fashion as an invented form of life. Chang’s discussions of fashion demonstrate her fascination with an inner vision. By depicting a world of light, brilliant colors, unique lines and shapes, Chang has also suggested that literary writing can be the beginning of a cultural history of things.<br />
<br />
In Chang’s fictional writing, colors, lines, surfaces, and words are often combined to form a network of intricate meanings. Her writing is known for its meticulous attention to details, particularly clothes. <br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
For instance, in her novella “Jinsuo ji” (Chronicle of Gilded Fetters), through the clothes of female servants, a portrait of this old-style family is introduced. Clothes with bright colors are set in contrast to neutral tones of modern fashion; the former becomes a symbol of the ‘past,’ which gradually recedes into the background, gorgeous, amorous, dazzling, but helplessly decaying. Temporality of fashion serves to punctuate narrative rhythm in Chang’s fictional writing.<br />
<br />
It is in Chang’s essay writing that a discourse of fashion is passionately elaborated. Chang’s most important essay on fashion is entitled “Gengyi ji” (A Chronicle of Changing Clothes), in which one hundred years of Chinese history is acted out in Chang’s dramatic display of clothes in movements.<br />
<br />
In Chuanqi (Romances) (Shanghai: Za¬zhishe, 1944).（注释）<br />
<br />
In Past and Present Bi-weekly 34 (December, 1943). Originally written in English and published in the English language journal XXth Century.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
In this world, the transformation of modern clothes can be read as a history of mentality that centers on a constant redefinition of notions such as femaleness, female beauty, and female proper conducts:<br />
<br />
Men have more freedom in their life than women do. Yet I do not want to become a man, only because they do not have freedom [in having a variety of clothing]. <br />
<br />
Chang goes on to tease out the absurdity of gendered assumptions in cultural discourses:<br />
<br />
Clothes seem trivial and not worth mentioning. Liu Bei once said: “Brothers are [important to each other] like hands to feet whereas their wives and children are [insignificant] like clothes.” But for women, it is much easier to cherish their clothes than their husbands. <br />
<br />
From ”A Chronicle of Changing Clothes.”<br />
<br />
Back in the 1920s, Zhang Jingsheng already highlighted the significance of the changes of clothes/fashion, which, according to him, reflects and shapes the present state of mentalities. See Zhang’s 1925 book entitled Mei de renshengguan (An Outlook on a Life of Beauty) as quoted in Peng Hsiao-yen, ”Sexual Enlightenment: ‘Dr. Sex’ Zhang Jingsheng and May Fourth First-Person （注释）<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
There was a Western writer (is it Bernard Shaw?) who once complained that when most women chose their husbands, they were not nearly as attentive and cautious as when they were selecting a hat for themselves. The most heartless woman would lament passionately when she began to talk about “that silk gown I had last year.”<br />
<br />
Never mind whether it was Bernard Shaw or some other Western writer who made these bizarre comments about women’s apparent “lack” of judgment in choosing their own destinies and their partiality for clothes and other seemingly trivial accessories in life, for Eileen Chang, these male voices were all spelling out the similarly absurd and “ancient” logic by Liu Bei of the Three Kingdoms era (third century A.D.).<br />
<br />
Narrative Fiction.” For Zhang Jingsheng, clothes are the extension of a female body and therefore are crucial elements in exploring female sexuality and inner psyche. This may serve as a mediation to explain the fascination with the female clothed bodies expressed in Eileen Chang’s writing of the 1940s.（注释）<br />
<br />
For a discussion of the correlation between clothes, gender discourses, and performance culture during the first two decades of the century, see an essay by Zhou Huiling (Katharine Hui-ling Chou) entitled ”Nü yanyuan, xieshi zhuyi, ‘xin nüxing’ lunshu: Wanqing dao Wusi shiqi Zhongguo xiandai juchang zhong de xingbie biaoyan” (Actresses, Realism, and Discourse of ”New Woman”: Gendered Performances in Modern Chinese Theater from Late Qing to the May Fourth), published in ''Jindai Zhongguo funüshi yanjiu'' (Studies of Women’s History of Modern China) 4 (August, 1996). Also see her dissertation entitled ''Staging Revolution: Actresses, Realism, and the New Woman Movement in Chinese Spoken Drama and Film, 1919-1949'' (New York University, 1997).（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
But the essay “A Chronicle of Changing Clothes” does much more than merely tease out the gendered categories embedded in fashion discourses. “We cannot really imagine the world of the past generations, so idle, so quiet, and so organized,” writes Eileen Chang, “during the three hundred years of Manchurian ruling of Qing dynasty, there was not even (jing) such a thing called women’s fashion!” The use of the adverb “jing” implies an astonishment: women did not even have fashion for three hundred years, and how could anyone have endured such a misfortune! The emphasis placed on women’s clothes seem to be a landmark that separates the modern era from the antiquated worlds.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
From the point of view of Eileen Chang, the lack of changes in three hundred years of China’s fashion history forms a sharp contrast to the thirty or forty years of the most recent history which, for Chang, can be read as a fascinating narrative put together by rapidly shifting patterns of women’s fashion.<br />
<br />
Chang’s account then turns history into a stage presentation. Her impressionistic view of modern history highlights colors, lines, shapes, and moods, which are all crystallized in the changing faces of women’s clothes. Chang’s representation of modern history through the transformation of women’s clothes has the effect of a modern museum of human fantasies, or a gallery of artifacts constantly in motion. <br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
History is turned into a fictional narrative. More interestingly, there is no real human being moving in this narrative; shapes, colors, lines, and circles occupy the space. Through a personification of clothes, Chang has created an animation effect in her world of changing fashion. Clothes replace human voices; clothes become language itself.<br />
<br />
In “Views from the Streets,” Eileen Chang also describes fashion display as “motionless drama,” a notion that highlights the correlation between literature, performance art, and material culture. By using the notion of drama as a trope, Eileen Chang has indicated that fashion, like forms of fictional narrative, is a dramatization of life, a life presented on stage. <br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
A fashion image is a frozen historical moment, that is, a close-up of a historical moment intersecting with moments in one’s personal history. The clothed body of a modern urban woman thereby carries the burden of history, as well as the marks of our present time.<br />
<br />
In his essay on fashion and modernity written back in 1904, Georg Simmel has already theorized the cultural and social significance of fashion in modern life. He views fashion as a signifier of modernity and a theatricalization of social transformations. For Simmel, fashion consciousness is vital to our conceptualization of the modern and the urban. <br />
<br />
Georg Simmel, ”Fashion” (1904), in On Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings, edited and with an introduction by Donald N. Levine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971) 294-323.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Simmel’s essay on fashion should be read side by side with his another crucial essay written a year earlier in 1903 entitled “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” which describes the heightened level of sensory stimulation associated with the construction of modern metropolis. Fashion responds most directly and instantaneously to these changes. Following is a frequently quoted passage from “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” which describes the essence of modern life from a physiological as well as psychological perspective:<br />
<br />
The psychological foundation, upon which the metropolitan individuality is erected, is the intensification of emotional life due to the swift and continuous shift of external and internal stimuli.<br />
<br />
西美尔那篇关于时尚的文章应该和他在1903年写的另一篇重要的文章并列阅读，那篇文章题为《大都市与精神生活》，描述了随着现代大都市的建设而提高的感官刺激水平。时尚界对这些变化的反应是最直接和即时的。下面是《都市与心理生活》中经常引用的一段话，它从生理和心理的角度描述了现代生活的本质:<br />
都市个性赖以建立的心理基础，是由于外部和内部刺激的迅速、持续的转移而强化的情感生活。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:10, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
Man is a creature whose existence is dependent on differences, i.e., his mind is stimulated by the difference between present impressions and those which have preceded. Lasting impressions, the slightness in their differences, the habituated regularity of their course and contrasts between them, consume, so to speak, less mental energy than the rapid telescoping of changing images, pronounced differences within what is grasped at a single glance, and the unexpectedness of violent stimuli. <br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
To the extent that the metropolis creates these psychological conditions – with every crossing of the street, with the tempo and multiplicity of economic, occupational and social life – it creates in the sensory foundations of mental life, and in the degree of awareness necessitated by our organization as creatures dependent on differences, a deep contrast with the slower, more habitual, more smoothly flowing rhythm of the sensory-mental phase of small town and rural existence. <br />
<br />
Simmel’s remarks can help illustrate how the discourse of fashion is situated at the center of Eileen Chang’s aesthetic vision. But Chang has gone well beyond Simmel. She incorporates urbanism, modernity, and femininity in her creation of fashion as a new cultural paradigm. <br />
<br />
See Simmel, ”The Metropolis and Mental Life” (1903), in On Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings, 325.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
The fact that the power of designing such a new paradigm is in the hands of a woman makes it even more unique for her time. More importantly, Chang’s fashion stories can also be read as parables of war. Designing fashion and then writing about fashion are her ways to come to terms with the world at war and the city under siege. In a world where nothing is fixed, and scenes of the present are swiftly disappearing at the very next moment, the ever-changing women’s fashion ironically becomes something that is most stable and lucid, something that can be held on to.<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s account of wartime Hong Kong in an essay entitled “Jinyu lu” (Stories from the Ashes), she describes individual attentions to details of clothes at a critical moment when one’s own life can be smashed to pieces in no time:<br />
In Hong Kong, when we first heard the news that the war had broken out, a girl classmate in my dormitory started panicking. “What am I going to do? I have nothing appropriate to wear!” she cried. Her family were wealthy overseas Chinese. She had a different wardrobe for every social occasion. From a dance party on a yacht to a formal dinner, she was always sufficiently equipped. But she never imagined that there would be a war.<br />
<br />
张爱玲在其《烬余录》中对战时香港的记述中，她对个人服装的细节上这样描写使人对生活幻灭的重要时刻：在香港，当我们第一次听说战争爆发的新闻之时，我宿舍的一位女同学开始恐慌起来。“我该做什么？我没有合适的穿的衣服！”她哭着说。她的家人都远在海外。在各个社交场合她都有不同的服装搭配。从游艇上的舞会到正式的晚宴，她总是准备有充足的衣着。但她却从未想过这里会爆发战争。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:21, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《烬余录》中讲述战时的香港时描绘到，一个人在性命攸关的时刻竟会对自己的服饰百般注意：<br />
在香港，当我们第一次听说战争爆发这个消息时，我宿舍的一个女同学开始慌张。她喊道，“我该怎么办？我都没有合适的衣服穿！”她们一家是富裕的华侨。她在不同的社交场合都有自己的服饰搭配，从游艇上的舞会到一场正式的晚宴，她的服装满满当当的。但她从没想过战争会爆发。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
She finally managed to get hold of a big black quilted jacket which probably would not attract any attention from the air force circling above. When it was time to flee we all went our separate ways. I saw her again when the war was over. She cut her hair short in the masculine Filipino style – the trend in Hong Kong at the time because a woman with that hair style could pass for a man. <br />
<br />
她终于弄到了一件黑色夹克，这件夹克可能不会引起在上空盘旋的空军的注意。逃命时我们分道扬镳了。战争结束后我又见到她了。她把头发剪成了男式的发型——当时这种发型在香港比较时髦，因为拥有此发型的女人可以替代男人。<br />
<br />
Indeed our different responses to the war are reflected in our choice of clothes. Take Suleika for example. A beauty from a remote town on the Malay peninsula, she was petite and dark, with dreamy eyes and slightly protruding teeth.<br />
<br />
事实上，我们对战争的不同反应体现在我们对衣服的选择上。例如苏莱卡，一位来自马来半岛偏僻小镇的美女。她娇小黝黑，有着梦幻般的眼睛和微微突出的牙齿。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 13:51, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Like most girls who had a convent education, she was naive to an embarrassing degree. She chose to major in medicine, which means that she had to learn to dissect human bodies. But did the corpses have clothes on or not? The question bothered her, so she was asking people about it. This had become quite a joke around our school. <br />
<br />
A bomb landed next to our dorm, so the warden had to convince us to flee down the hill. Even in such emergency, Suleika did not forget to pack up her most lavish clothes. Against the well meaning advice of many wise people, she somehow managed to transport, in the midst of the gunfire, a big heavy leather trunk of clothes down the hill.<br />
<br />
她和大多数接受过修道院教育的女孩儿一样，天真无邪，却令人尴尬。她选择学医，这就意味着她必须学习解刨人体。但是尸体穿没穿衣服呢？这个问题困扰着她，于是她就一直问别人。这在我们学校成了一个大笑话。<br />
<br />
一颗炸弹落到了我们宿舍旁边，所以监狱长不得不劝我们逃下山去。苏来卡即使在这种紧急情况下也没有忘记收拾带走她那些最奢侈的衣服。她不顾许多聪明人的善意劝告，仍设法在枪林弹雨中把一箱厚重的皮衣运下山去。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:23, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
像大多数在修道院学习的女孩一样，她天真无邪，却又令人觉得有一丝尴尬。 她选择了医学专业，这意味着她必须学习解剖人体。 但是尸体穿没穿衣服呢？这是个困扰着她的难题，所以她一直向他人请教，以至于这已经成为我们学校的一个笑话。<br />
<br />
一枚炸弹降落在我们宿舍的旁边，所以监狱长不得不劝服我们逃下山去。即使在这样的紧急情况下，苏莱卡也没有忘记打包带走自己最奢华的衣服，完全不顾智者们的善意建议，仍然想法设法在枪林弹雨中把一箱厚重的皮衣运下山去。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:56, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Suleika then joined the defense force, working as a substitute nurse for the Red Cross. She was often seen squatting on the ground, hacking firewood to light up a fire, wearing her copper red and dark green silk gown embroidered with the character “shou” (longevity). What a waste, but for her it was all worth it. This smart outfit endowed her with an unprecedented confidence; without that she would not have blended so well with her male colleagues. …… <br />
<br />
Here, Chang’s war stories are interwoven with talks of fashion.<br />
<br />
“Stories from the Ashes,” in ''Heaven and Earth Monthly 5'' (February, 1944).<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
Fashion is no longer a form of creative life that only occupies the space of leisure; rather, it becomes an essential medium through which an individual could finally comprehend the world that is otherwise incomprehensible, name the surroundings that are otherwise unnamable, and determine her own gender and ethnic identities that are otherwise indeterminate.<br />
<br />
The ending of the essay “A Chronicle of Changing Clothes” also consists of a parable:<br />
<br />
……an autumnal chill in approaching dusk as vendors at a vegetable market prepare to pack up and go home. Fish scraps and pale green corn husks litter the ground.<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
A child dashes over on his bike just to show off. He gives out a shout, lets go of the handlebars, and shoots away effortlessly, swaying back and forth all the while. At that split second, everyone on the street watches him with an indefinable admiration. Perhaps in this life that moment of letting go is the very loveliest? <br />
<br />
This scene seems detached from Chang’s detailed descriptions of the transformation of fashion trends, but it can be read a parable of how fashion actually functions in everyday life. It is exactly that moment of “letting go,” that is, the moment that one gains the power and freedom to go beyond immediate material and political conditions, that captures the essence of fashion in Chang’s world.<br />
<br />
Translated by Andrew F. Jones.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
Here the essay genre not only becomes an open-ended and ongoing process for women writers in their entry into the existing order of the literary world, it also becomes the testing ground where the boundaries between the literary world and the larger social realm become unstable and ever-shifting. Not only life styles can be read as texts, women writers as individuals can become concrete historical subjects within the space allowed by the modern essay. Life is woven together with work, the boundaries between the private and the public are further blurred, and biographical contingencies become important textual devices in constructing a legend of a new era.<br />
<br />
在这里，散文体裁不仅成为了女性作家进入文学世界的一个开放的、持续的过程，也成为了一个试验场，在这里，文坛和更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定和不断变化。不仅生活方式可以被当成文章阅读，女性作家作为个体也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公众的界限进一步模糊，传记性的偶发事件成为构筑新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:42, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
在这里，散文体裁不仅成为女作家进入文学世界现有秩序的一个开放性的持续过程，也成为一个试验场，在这个试验场中文学世界与更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定，并且不断变化。不仅生活方式可以作为文本来解读，作为个体的女作家也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公共的界限进一步模糊，传记的偶然性成为构建新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:28, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
'''Perspectives on Ideology in the Essay'''<br />
<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing, Frantz Fanon, and the Fierce White Children'''<br />
<br />
''Daniel A. Fried''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
All genres contain political possibilities, but the essay seems entitled to a particularly strong claim on politics. In the Chinese modernist context, it should be clear that one cannot understand the development of nationalism without reference to the huge body of political essays published in decades of periodicals, and equally clear that one must take stock of nationalist writings in trying to understand the generic qualities of the essay. And within our international scholarly dialogue, it seems necessary to locate the modern Chinese essay with regard to the various postulates of postcolonial theory.<br />
<br />
“论文中的意识形态观点”<br />
<br />
“朱自清，弗朗茨·法农，和凶猛的白人孩子”<br />
<br />
“丹尼尔A.弗里德”<br />
<br />
“概要”<br />
<br />
所有体裁都包含政治可能性，但这篇文章似乎有权对政治提出特别强烈的主张。在中国现代主义环境中，我们应该清楚地看到，如果不参考几十年期刊上发表的大量政治文章，就无法理解民族主义的发展；同样，我们必须审视民族主义作品，试图理解这篇文章的共性。在我们的国际学术对话中，似乎有必要根据有关后殖民理论的各种假设来定位中国现代散文.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 11:25, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
This is not easy--the relation of Chinese materials to theory has of course been debated at length, with wide disagreements over the applicability of the standard models. Indeed, the applicability of postcolonialism to several literatures has been questioned as critiques of essentialized difference have been turned against the general conclusions of postcolonial discourse itself. While theoretical contextualization of Chinese political essays seems necessary, there is no critical consensus on what theories to apply.<br />
<br />
This paper will attempt to contextualize by ignoring the oversimplified question of whether postcolonial theory is or is not applicable to Chinese modernist essays. <br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
Instead, it seeks to perform a case study in theoretical analysis of a Chinese essay which goes beyond the simple importation of “foreign” theory, to suggest the outlines of dialogue between scholars of Chinese and other anticolonial nationalisms. Specifically, it compares Zhu Ziqing's experience of a white childs gaze in the essay, “White People--God's Proud Children!” to a similar experience of Frantz Fanon recorded in his canonical ''Black Skin, White Masks''. Using the theme of the racial others gaze as a methodological allegory, it seeks to show how these two texts can be made to “gaze” at each other, to inform each other in ways which are theoretically suggestive while respecting local difference.<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
While Zhus essay seems in many ways to perfectly invoke the most familiar tropes of “Western” theory, Zhu's reaction to the gaze is ultimately opposite to Fanon's, and demonstrates how anticolonial writing is enmeshed both in internationa lpsychological constants and local historical variables.<br />
<br />
Scholarly investigation of the modern Chinese essay as a genre demands some attention to the questions posed by postcolonial theories. The same could be said of all genres of the period, but the essay has a special claim on postcolonialism. All genres were used politically, but the essay was usually seen in high modern China as the prime vehicle for explicit politics, the forum best suited for debate and rebuttal, and explication of specific political programs. <br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
Of course, there is no scholarly consensus in the field as to the extent to which postcolonial theories can or cannot be applied to modern Chinese literature. For example, Rey Chow in her 1993 ''Writing Diaspora'' produced a well-known critique of the resistance to theory by scholars of Chinese literature, arguing that the claims of untheorizable Chinese particularity are merely reintroductions of an old Orientalist cultural essentialism. Last year, Leo Lee concluded his study of Shanghai urban culture by restating the very same arguments which Chow had dismissed, making the case that theory based on native internalization of the Western “othering” gaze was not directly applicable because the Western imperialist presence in China, even in the Shanghai concession zones, never gained the colonialist control over language and education that produced such psychic disruptions in other societies. <br />
<br />
Rey Chow, ''Writing Diaspora: Tactics of Intervention in Contemporary Cultural Studies''. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993).（注释）<br />
<br />
<br />
当然，关于后殖民理论在何种程度上可以适用于现代中国文学，学界并没有达成共识。例如，周蕾在1993年的《离散书写》中，她就中国文学学者对理论的反抗提出了一个著名的批评，她认为，不可理论化的中国特殊性，只不过是对古老的东方主义文化本质主义的重新引入。 去年，李欧梵通过重述周蕾曾否定的相同观点，结束了他对上海都市文化的研究，从而证明了该理论是基于西方“他者化”的本土内化，不能直接适用。因为在中国，哪怕是在上海租界，西方帝国主义的存在从未获得殖民主义者对语言和教育的控制，而这种控制在其他社会中造成了这种心理混乱。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:57, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
We must stutter out some engagement with postcolonial theory, but how can one proceed without the safety of scholarly consensus? One could dive into polemics, but a decision that either theory is or isn't always applicable to Chinese literature assumes the existence of twin essentialized monoliths called “theory” and “Chinese literature.” We need more nuanced approaches. In fact, the terms of mainline postcolonial theory do furnish the conceptual tools with which one can derive one such approach. The very familiar discussions of the gaze of the imperial subject toward the colonized other can be employed as a metaphor for our own predicament. <br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
One of the major variations on this theme, deriving from the writings of Frantz Fanon, should be familiar: by their imperial gaze, aggressor cultures try to lock their colonized subjects into a perpetual Otherdom, with the aggressor National Subject claiming for itself a transcendent metaphysical Selfhood; colonized individuals must view themselves as Other and therefore are alienated from themselves. The solutions the discourse has found are ways in which those individuals can subvert that Otherdom in order to reclaim for themselves a new or reconstituted Selfhood. The goal is not to fall into nativist atavism and rejection of the metropole, but to eliminate dominance and blur the margins of identity, allowing a more healthful parity in the identification dialectic between colonizer and colonized.<br />
弗朗兹·法农的作品中产生了这一主题的主要变题之一，大家应该对此都很熟悉：在帝国主义的视角下，侵略者文化尝试将殖民对象封锁进永恒的他者国度，只有侵略国家自称为超验的形而上学的自我：被殖民的人必须把自己当做他者因此只能异化。对于这一问题找到的答案便是通过推翻他者国度从而为自己重建一个自我。目的不在于陷入本土主义者的返祖主义，拒绝城市，而是削弱统治，使身份边界模糊化，让殖民者和被殖民者在身份的辩证识别上有更健康的对等。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:06, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
If it is a common complaint that postcolonial theory is a creation of the metropole which should not be allowed to dominate local Chinese historical experience, the solution should not be nativist assertion of Chinese difference and superiority, with consequent ignoring of the varied experiences of imperialism from which the systems of theory have been derived. Rather, once we reject the notion that metropolitan theory has an omniscient gaze which alone possesses the right to define the meaning of Chinese texts, we are free to see how Chinese and non-Chinese experiences of imperialism can inform each other, through their mutual attractions and tensions which complicate questions of identity.<br />
<br />
如果人们普遍认为后殖民理论是大都市的创造，不应让其支配中国本土的历史经验，那么解决办法就不应是本土主义武断地主张中国的差异和优越性，一直忽视理论体系是从帝国主义的各种经验是衍生出来的。相反，一旦我们拒绝了大都市理论无所不能、只有它才有权定义中文文本的含义的观点，我们就可以自由地看到，中国和非中国的帝国主义经历是如何通过它们的相互吸引和紧张关系——这使身份问题复杂化——相互交流。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:39, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
如果人们普遍抱怨后殖民主义理论是大都会的产物，且不应允许它主导中国本土的历史经验，那么，解决的办法就不应是本土主义地宣称中国人的差异性和优越性，从而忽视理论体系所衍生的各种帝国主义的经验。相反，一旦我们摒弃了大都会理论的全知角度，那就是它独自拥有定义中国文本意义的权利，我们就可以看到中国人和非中国人的帝国主义经验如何通过他们的相互吸引和紧张关系来相互交流，而这使认知问题变得复杂。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 06:29, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
As an example of how to do this sort of theoretical application, I propose in this paper to compare Frantz Fanon's “The Fact of Blackness” (a chapter of his canonical ''Black Skin, White Masks''), with a little-known essay by Zhu Ziqing, “White People-God's Proud Children!” Both pieces focus on the narrators' experiences of meeting the gazes of white children, and thus invoke classic themes which allow easy access to theoretical considerations even in the midst of a particularistic analysis. And because both describe politicized experience, they avoid the old Orientalist dichotomy of Western theory vs. native experience. Both Fanon and Zhu are equally theoretical and experiential, and they inform each other.<br />
<br />
作为如何进行这类理论应用的例子，我在本文中拟将弗朗茨·法农的《黑的事实》（他的典籍《黑皮肤，白面具》中的一章）与朱自清的一篇鲜为人知的文章《白种人，上帝的骄子！》进行比较。这两篇作品都聚焦于叙述者与白人儿童目光交汇的经历，因此引用了经典的主题，即使在特殊主义的分析中，也能很容易进行理论思考。而且由于两者都描述了政治化的经验，因此避免了西方理论的老东方主义与本土经验的抉择。弗朗茨和朱自清都同样具有理论性和经验性，且互相借鉴。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:35, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
作为如何进行这类理论应用的一个例子，笔者拟在本文中对弗朗茨·法农的《黑人的事实》(他的经典《黑皮肤，白面具》中的一个章节)与朱自清鲜为人知的文章《白种人——上帝的骄子!》进行比较。这两篇文章都聚焦于叙述者与白人儿童目光相遇的经历，因此援引了经典主题，即使在进行具象分析中，也能很容易地进行理论思考。而且因为两者都描述了政治化的经验，他们避免了西方理论与本土经验的古老东方主义之争。法农和朱自清都具有同样的理论和经验，且相互借鉴。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 12:12, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
“The Fact of Blackness” is Fanon's analysis of a black man's frustration in attempting to create a viable self-identity in the France of the 1950's. Analysis in the psychoanalytic sense, not the scientific-sociological one; or, better still, ''self-analysis'', for the chapter is cast in the form of a first-person narrative. Fanon writes a sort of psychoanalytically fueled prose poem. There are few objective assertions made about “the way it is”; the problem is seen from what appears to be the inside of a black man's head, what he feels and how he reacts to the shiftingly solid front of White France arrayed against him..<br />
<br />
Not necesssarily Fanon's. In his introduction, Fanon writes that in this chapter, “we observe the desperate struggles of a Negro who is driven to discover the meaning of black identity." Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks. Trans. Charles Lam Markmann (New York: Grove Press, 1967) 16. The wording here suggests a fictional narrator. Nonetheless, one guesses that it is a fictualized Fanon, and I will use “Fanon” as a convenience in place of “the narrator” for the remainder of this paper.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
Some of the most striking and most quoted parts of this narrative are Fanon's attempts to deal with the intrusive voice of the white child who cries out in fear of him:<br />
<br />
“Look, a Negro!” It was an external stimulus that flicked over me as I passed by. I made a tight smile.<br />
<br />
“Look, a Negro!” It was true. It amused me.<br />
<br />
“Look, a Negro!” The circle was drawing a bit tighter. I made no secret of my amusement.<br />
<br />
“Mama, see the Negro! I'm frightened!” Frightened! Frightened! Now they were beginning to be afraid of me. I made up my mind to laugh myself to tears, but laughter had become impossible.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
这段叙述中最引人注目和引用最多的部分是 Fanon 试图处理白人儿童因害怕他而大声呼喊的侵扰性声音：<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”当我经过时，一种外在的刺激掠过我的心头。我笑得很紧。<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”是真的。我很开心。<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”圆圈越来越紧了。我毫不掩饰我的乐趣。<br />
<br />
“妈妈，看那黑鬼！我吓坏了！”害怕！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心要笑得流泪，但笑已经变得不可能了。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:18, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这段叙述中最引人注目和最常被引用的部分，是法侬试图处理那个白人孩子因为害怕他而大叫的侵扰声音:<br />
<br />
“看,一个黑人!”这是一种外部刺激，当我经过时，它掠过我的头顶。我紧张地笑了笑。<br />
<br />
“看,一个黑人!”这是真的。这太好笑了。<br />
<br />
“看,一个黑人!”圆圈变得更紧了。我毫不掩饰自己的快乐。<br />
<br />
“妈妈，你看那个黑人!我害怕!”吓!吓坏了!现在他们开始害怕我了。我决定笑得流泪，但笑已经变得不可能了。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:14, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种叙述中一些最引人注目和被引用最多的部分是法农试图处理白人儿童因为害怕他而大声疾呼发出的侵扰声音：<br />
“看，一个黑人！”这是一种外部刺激，当我经过时，它掠过我。我紧张地笑了。<br />
“看，一个黑人！”这是真的。它逗乐了我。<br />
“看，一个黑人！”圆圈画的更紧了。我掩饰不住快乐。<br />
“妈妈，看黑人！我害怕！”害怕！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心笑出眼泪，但笑声已经变得不可能了。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:41, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
In this passage as elsewhere in the chapter, there are many voices accusing Fanon, yet the voice of the child has a special bluntness, one that hits Fanon harder. Beneath that voice, his attempt to defend himself through an ever-increasing amusement is undone; the child unmasks his anguish. He is for Fanon not just a historical boy, nor an empirical average of thousands of trembling boys, but a resonance of something deeper within Fanon's narrative. Fanon does not devote an inordinate amount of space to the child, and it would be an exaggeration to say that the appearances of this child constitute the thematic center of his chapter. <br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
Nonetheless, the white child does play a crucial role, as he is in fact a grotesque foil for Fanon's own exasperated narrative voice, which is a rewriting, for race, of narratives of developmental psychology. In particular, Jacques Lacan's famous theory of the “mirror stage” is clearly its primary inspiration. Even though Fanon never makes explicit reference to Lacan or “The Mirror Stage” in the chapter, such references are numerous in Black Skin, White Masks as a whole-there is no doubt that Fanon knew the paradigm well. And the structure of his narrative runs suspiciously parallel to Lacan's explications, so much that it might be fair to call “The Fact of Blackness” an ironic rewriting of “The Mirror Stage.”<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
Lacan's theory is complex, moving in unexpected directions and drawing different sets of conclusions. But all are sourced in the moment of a baby before a mirror, fascinated to discover itself for the first time. The stage at which this critical fascination can occur lasts from the age of six to eighteen months, according to Lacan, and its primary importance is in providing the infant with a temporary shortcut to mature subjectivity. In his words, the mirror “precipitates” the child's I in a “primordial form, before it is objectified in the dialectic of identification with the other, and before language restores to it, in the universal, its function as subject.” <br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
In contrast, Fanon only reaches his version of the mirror stage ''after'' passing through objectification and restoration to subjectivity. His “mirror stage” is precisely the quest for subjectivity narrated through the “plot” outlined above. But this plot is skewed¬-consider Lacan's discussion of the mirror stage itself:<br />
<br />
The fact is that the total form of the body by which the subject anticipates in a mirage the maturation of his power is certainly more constituent than constituted, but in which it appears to him above all in a contrasting size (''un relief de stature'') that fixes it and in a symmetry that inverts it, in contrast with the turbulent movement that the subject feels are animating him.<br />
<br />
相比之下，法农只有在经过客观化并恢复到主观性后，才能“达到”他的镜像阶段。 他的“镜像阶段”正是要追求上述“情节”中描述的主体性。 但是此情节是有失偏颇的，请思考拉康对镜像阶段本身的讨论：<br />
<br />
事实是，主体总形式当然更多是构成成分而不是已构物，因为学科通过主体总形式在思维中预估其力量是否成熟。但是在他看来，主体首先是一个对比大小的个体（“形体突出”），这一个体将其固定并使其对称反转，这与对象感觉到正在使他动起来的湍流运动相反。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:17, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Fanon's mirror is of course the White. In that mirror he is inverted, re-created as an image exactly opposite to his own reality, and it is only through that inversion, that ''perversion'' of his Self that he is allowed to know himself. And, moreover, that inversion is ''fixed'' in the mirror, as Fanon puts it, fixed as a chemical solution is fixed by a dye. No matter how Fanon questions, no matter what rhetorical tack he chooses to confront the mirror, it refuses to give back any other image. Does Fanon feel a universal, rational soul animating himself? Does he well up with the turbulence of an earth-poetry that takes him to the magic font of his humanity? It does not matter. The mirror is impervious and flat. His image is fixed.<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Lacan tells us that the function of the mirror stage “is to establish a relation between the organism and its reality - or, as they say, between the ''Innenwelt'' and the ''Umwelt''.” For Lacan, it is the organism itself which determines and creates the relation, it creates its reality, but Fanon feels himself to be “overdetermined from without,” he is created by the White reality.<br />
<br />
That relation is an average of many different species of dominance. But perhaps more than any other, it is the dominance of an adult over a child. Listen again to the voices which fix Fanon: “Understand, my dear ''boy'', color prejudice is something I find entirely foreign.” <br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
“Gently, in the tone that one uses with a ''child'', they introduced me to the existence of a certain view that was held by certain people.” “now and then when we are worn out by our lives in big buildings, we will turn to you as we do to our ''children''-to the innocent, the ingenuous, the spontaneous. We will turn to you as to the ''childhood'' of the world.” (italics mine) The White mirror thus fixes Fanon as a perpetual infant, the Black “boy” who embodies youthful naiveté. He knows he is in the mirror stage, he is an infant who has already read Lacan, and he is desperate to find in the mirror the image which will allow him to realize his ''I'', but the mirror always gives him back his infant inverse. He cannot realize himself, he can never leave the mirror stage, he is ''fixed''.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
The white child is thus a point of entry into the subsurface struggle of the text. The child is Fanon's parallel and his foil: “look, a nigger, it's cold, the nigger is shivering because he is cold, the little boy is trembling because he is afraid of the nigger, the nigger is shivering with cold, the cold that goes through your bones, the handsome little boy is trembling because he thinks that the nigger is quivering with rage, the little boy throws himself into his mother's arms: Mama, the nigger's going to eat me up.”[ Fanon, 114.] The boy mirrors Fanon, but ironically: his freedom to be afraid, his freedom even to see an Other that is not synonymous with the Self[ Fanon asserts thtat the black is not Other to the white, but his argument is that the white claims he does not need to go through identification with the black-as-Other in order to come to a realization of the Sel; on the contrary, White simply “is”; black is not-White. But though the white does not idenify through the black Other, this of course does not mean that Fanon is asserting that the white does not identify the black as Other.] is a mockery of the boyhood which Fanon cannot escape. One might even profitably read this mirroring as a form of mimicry. <br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
In standard postcolonial discourse, “mimicry” refers to either a pseudo-imitation forced on the colonized by the colonizer who wants the colonized to “be like” the colonizing cultural model, but not identical to it; or it can refer to deliberate ironization of such models by the colonized. Either case results in what Homi Bhabha calls a “double vision which in disclosing the ambivalence of colonial discourse also disrupts its authority.”[ Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994) 88.] However, as Diana Fuss notes, “the mimicry of subversion can find itself reinforcing conventional power relations rather than eroding them.”[ Diana Fuss, Identification Papers (New York: Routledge, 195*) 147.] Fanon's experience is just such a case - the mimicry is the white boy's, not Fanon's, and its effect is not at all disruptive, but reinforces the conventional power relations. <br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
The boy thinks he is in danger of assault and trembles; in fact, it is Fanon who trembled first, who is the one really exposed to violence, and who is in fact ''being assaulted'' by the boy's unwitting mimicry of his weakness.<br />
<br />
The white child is thus a cruel unwitting joker who offers Fanon seeming doors of rhetorical escape into maturity, then frustrates him, turns him back on himself, locks him into the image of “the childhood of the world.” And the most destructive part is that the child does not know he is the god's mask; he screams as an innocent and can leap to the mother's arms. Fanon screams, and the monstrous mirror stays silvery and cold: it inverts and it fixes, but it never recognizes.<br />
<br />
“White People-God's Proud Children!” was written in direct response to (and less than three weeks after) the “May 30 Massacre.”<br />
<br />
男孩认为自己有被攻击的危险，吓得发抖;事实上，首先颤抖的是法龙（Fanon），真正遭受暴力的是法龙，实际上也是法龙被男孩在不知情的情况下模仿自己的弱点所攻击。<br />
因此，这个白人孩子是一个残忍的、不知情的小丑，他为法农提供了看似可以逃避语言的大门，让他走向成熟，然后让他沮丧，让他回归自我，把他锁在“世界的童年”的形象中。最可怕的是，这个孩子不知道自己是上帝的面具;他像个无辜的孩子一样尖叫，然后跳到妈妈的怀里。法农尖叫了一声，巨大的魔镜依旧银光闪闪，冰冷冰冷:它颠倒着，固定着，但永远也认不出来。<br />
“白人——上帝的骄傲的孩子!”是对“5月30日大屠杀”(不到三周后)的直接回应。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 03:05, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In mid-May of 1925, factory workers at a Japanese plant in Shanghai went on strike, and then stormed the factory grounds, demanding back wages. The Japanese managers shot and killed the strike leader and injured several others, prompting more general strikes at other Japanese factories by 20,000 workers. Students soon joined the workers in protest, and several were arrested inside the foreign concessionary zone. On May 30, the date scheduled for the trial of those arrested, 2,000 students marched on the concessionary zone demanding the release of the students and workers. In response, British troops arrested a hundred of those assembled. News of the new arrests spread rapidly, and by later that day, several thousand Shanghainese of different levels of society had surrounded the Nanjing Road jail where the protesters were being held, demanding their release. At this point, the British opened fire, killing a dozen or so Chinese and wounding several dozen.<br />
<br />
1925年5月中旬，上海一家日本工厂工人罢工，然后冲进工厂，要求讨回工资。工厂日本经理射杀了罢工领袖，打伤数名工人，导致其他日本工厂2,0000工人发起了更大规模的罢工。学生很快加入工人抗议，随后部分学生在租界遭到逮捕。5月30日原定是遭逮捕的工人和学生受审日子，2,000学生在租界游行示威，要求释放学生和工人。作为回应，英国士兵逮捕了数百名示威者。这一消息很快传开来，当天晚些时候，几千名上海社会人士包围了关押抗议者的南京路监狱，要求释放他们。鉴于此，英军开火，射杀了十几名中国人，打伤几十中国人。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 13:50, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
Nationwide protests of various sorts erupted immediately, including several literary protests, two by Zhu: “Blood Song,” an incendiary poem composed on June 10, and “White People,” written nine days later.<br />
<br />
The essay never refers explicitly to the May 30 incident; rather, it is the narration and explication of an incident which Zhu experienced on a Shanghai city trolley. After boarding and going to the first-class seats, Zhu sits down across from two white people, apparently a father and son. Zhu marvels at the lovely features of the boy, who looks eleven or twelve, and then goes into an explanation of how he has been fascinated with children ever since a friendship in elementary school with a shy younger boy named Liu Jun. He admits that he loves to stare at young children, and that he stared therefore at the white child. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
Unlike most children, disturbed by his staring, the white child appears to take no notice, but then, when he and his father are about to get off the trolley, the child flashes a violent, mimicking stare back at Zhu. The author hears words in the stare: “There were words in his eyes: 'Hah! Yellow man, yellow chinaman, you-you go ahead and look! You are worthy of looking at me!” Zhu feels this stare as a physical assault, and feels first terrified, and then patriotically enraged. He then explains his desire for a nationality-trumping universalism, but also doubts its possibility, since such a young child had already been socialized into acceptance of racist categories. Yet he praises the child for exhibiting masculine forcefulness, and claims that this is “what makes whites white.” Finally, he declares himself conflicted on the subject of nationalism versus universalism, ending the essay unresolved.<br />
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与大多数孩子不一样，这个白人小孩对于朱自清的打量毫不在意，但当白人小孩和他的父亲准备下电车时，那个孩子怒目回望了朱一眼。朱从该怒视里读出：“哈，黄种人，黄种中国人，你继续看吧！你也就配看着我的份了！”朱从中感到一种身体上的攻击，一开始觉得害怕，然后带有爱国主义的愤怒喷涌而出。他在文中解释道，这样一个年幼的孩子都已经为社会所同化，接受了种族主义的范畴，虽然自己渴望国籍优先的普遍主义，但同时也怀疑这个普遍主义的可能性。然而，他赞赏这个孩子表现出的男性之力量，同时也认为这点是“白人的典型特征”。最后，他对于民族主义和普遍主义的问题上产生了矛盾，直到文末该问题也悬而未决。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
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Given the Fanon-inspired traditions of Western postcolonial invocations of the Other, one might from a Western perspective expect Zhu to react to the gaze of the child with a crisis of ''personal'' identity. This is, after all, Fanon's Odyssean quest in “The Fact of Blackness”: to negotiate or seize for himself a space for valued selfhood against the demeaning voices of White France which try to lock him into an Otherness to itself, to himself , to the possibility of humanity. Zhu's reaction certainly fits, in name, the Self-Other trope: he experiences the white child as very White and Other. And the incident deeply traumatic: “This sudden assault made me panic; my heart was void, on all sides there was a very heavy pressure, making me unable to breathe freely.” But the incident does not fit the mirror-stage model as transmitted by Fanon. <br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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There is no reference to psychical development, and therefore no hint that the quasi-colonialist aggression experienced through the gaze is constitutive, that it denies an authentic Chinese subjectivity to Zhu and replaces it with an ironclad Otherness to himself.<br />
Rather, it confirms Zhu's sense of self by provoking an immediate nationalistic response. After recovering from the shock of the gaze, he immediately “was filled with a pressing nationalistic feeling!” He then reflects on the child's face and action and straightaway abstracts them into a symptom of history:<br />
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That which made me panic and feel terrified, was that this one lording it over me, trampling me, was no one but...a ten year-old white “child”! I always have felt that children belong to the world, and ought not to be of a single race, country, town, or family...<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
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But this ten year-old white child...had already understood the situation well enough to use racial advantage and national power to assault me with a thrust of his face. This assault was actually the small shadow of multiple assaults, and his face was the small-print version of a history of Chinese foreign relations.[ Zhu Ziqing, Zhu Ziqing Quanji, Vol. 1 (Jiangsu, Jiangsu Educational Press) 45.]<br />
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Despite our Fanon-inspired suspicions about his psychology, Zhu insists that the shock he received, the pressure, the difficulty breathing, was the result of his ''theoretical'' realization that the child was not innocent but had already been corrupted into the fabric of violence from which Sino-Western relations had been cut. The normal, the psychological-these responses are leapt over, the incident is abstracted directly into a symptom of history. And, at least on the surface, this fact might seem to confirm the anti-theoretical position which claims that postcolonial criticism is irrelevant to China because China never sunk into full colonial status.<br />
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但是这个十岁的白人孩子已经非常了解这种情况了，甚至可以利用种族优势和国家权力以他的面目攻击我。 这次袭击实际上是多次袭击的一个小阴影，而他的脸则是中国对外关系史的缩影。【朱自清，朱自清全集 卷1（江苏，江苏教育出版社）45.】<br />
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尽管我们受到法农的影响进而对他的心理学表示怀疑，但朱坚称，他受到的震惊，压力，呼吸困难是他“理论上”意识到孩子不是无辜的，而是被中西关系断绝所产生的暴力侵蚀。<br />
正常的，这些心理的反应被跳过了，事件被直接抽象为历史的象征。 而且，至少从表面上看，这一事实似乎证实了反理论立场，该立场声称后殖民批评与中国无关，因为中国从未陷入完全的殖民地状态。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:36, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但是这个十岁的白人孩子……已经非常了解这种情况了，他可以利用种族优势和国家权力的面目攻击我。这次袭击实际上是数次袭击的影子，而他的脸则是中国对外关系史的缩影。【朱自清，朱自清全集 卷1（江苏，江苏教育出版社）45.】<br />
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尽管我们受到法农的影响进而对他的心理学表示怀疑，朱坚称，他受到的震惊，压力和呼吸困难，是他从“理论上”认识到这个孩子不是无辜的，而是已经腐坏成中西关系已被割断的、暴力的结果。跳过正常的心理的反应，这个事件被抽象成历史的症状。而且，至少从表面上看，这一事实似乎证实了反理论立场，该主张声称后殖民批评与中国无关，因为中国从未陷入完全的殖民状况。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 03:42, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
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One could easily derive a trajectory from comparative history to the differences in the two men's encounters with white children, a trajectory whose terms are familiar but worth rehearsing. Fanon's Martinique was almost totally cut off from racial history, national language, and cultural identity. Any nationalism that arose from such soil would have had to have been as a reconstruction of African identity from zero, an almost impossible task. Therefore, Fanon's text has to start from the postcolonial present, analyzing the continuing damage of racism on subjugated black communities. Most of China, despite the extreme cultural upheavals which it experienced in reaction to Western aggression, never sunk into full-fledged colonial status; and therefore this aggression remained for the most part an influential and traumatic margin to the mainstream development of Chinese historical identity. There was no slavery, no tabula rasa, not even in Hong Kong and Macao, or Taiwan and “Manchuria.” <br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
On the contrary, the experience of aggression undoubtedly strengthened national consciousness; and in modernist writings such as the one in question, it is rare to read a moment of experience of the Western Other as such which does not resort to some form of nationalism.<br />
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Up to a point, this sort of analysis is useful. Certainly, it would be dangerous to move directly from historical sketches to windy declarations about the differences between African and Chinese literature. But the standard history does happen to match the particulars of these two authors' educational trajectories. The surface, then, of “White People” is simple and obvious in comparison with Fanon's text, forgoing psychological brooding to go straight to the main course of national pride. <br />
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And yet, one wonders what lurks in the essay's depths, for this is a very unusual piece in Zhu's oeuvre.<br />
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相反，侵略的经验无疑加强了民族意识；在现代主义的著作中，如有关的著作中，很少读到对西方他者这样的经验不诉诸某种形式的民族主义的时刻。<br />
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在某种程度上，这种分析是有用的。当然，如果直接从历史素描转向关于非洲文学和中国文学差异的风马牛不相及的宣言，是很危险的。 但标准的历史确实恰好符合这两位作家教育轨迹的特殊性。 那么，与法农的文字相比，《白衣人》的表面是简单而明显的，放弃了心理上的沉思，直奔民族自豪感的主菜。 <br />
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然而，人们不禁要问，这篇文章的深处到底潜藏着什么，因为这是朱的作品中很不寻常的一篇。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:54, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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相反，侵略的经验无疑增强了民族意识。 在诸如此类的现代主义著作中，很少有人会读到西方他人的经历，因为这种经历不诉诸某种形式的民族主义。<br />
到目前为止，这种分析是有用的。 当然，直接从历史速写转变为关于非洲和中国文学之间差异的风马牛不相及的宣言将是危险的。 但是，标准的历史确实与这两位作者的教育轨迹相吻合。 因此，“白人”的表述与法农的著作相比是简单而明显的，它放弃了对民族自豪感的直觉。<br />
然而，人们不禁要问，这篇文章的深处到底潜藏着什么，因为这是朱自清的作品中很不寻常的一篇。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:19, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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Normally, Zhu Ziqing is one of the last authors one associates with fiery nationalism; rather, he is usually preoccupied with just the sort of psychological introspection which characterizes Fanon's text. Furthermore, the essay was written more than a year after the original trolley ride-could the strangely quick transition from individual experience to nationalist reflection be at least partly created under the influence to retell the story in the light of the May 30 incident?<br />
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If one willfully forgets about the May 30 context of the essay and focuses on the details of the incident as Zhu narrates them, then a second and separate level of interpretation opens in the essay, one much more pregnant with Fanon-like psychological trauma. The widest portal to the inside of this essay is also its obvious crux: i.e., the white child's stare. The key to this portal is that that stare, as it happened empirically, was complete unto itself. <br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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It was an act, an aggressive act, unaccompanied by words. When Zhu tells us that “there were words in his eyes,” he wants us to believe that the words came from the child himself, and in fact we can certainly believe that that is how Zhu experienced the stare, that he felt the hate speech jabbing out at him from those astonishing eyes. But yet the language admits its paternity: not the child, but Zhu himself. Zhu creates the meaning around the act of the stare, and his entire explication of the problem of racism is based, not upon what he hears, but upon what his unconscious hermeneutic tells him that he hears. Whereas Fanon lives in a shadowy world of little but voices shouting, “look, a Negro!” to Zhu there are no voices at all, only a reality of trolleys and white skin and violent stares to which he himself has to supply the verbal accompaniment.<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
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This is absolutely not to say that Zhu's experience of racism is imaginary, that he “shouldn't be so sensitive,” as racists say. No doubt, the child was acting racistly. But it is important to notice that the racism which Zhu attributes to the child is a simple one: the child is figured as a self-assured, mature, masculine aggressor; in fact all of these qualities which Zhu feels are surely exaggerated. He might have suspected that prepubescent white children are somehow super-matured macho-men, but hopefully we know better. For Zhu's stare was not the first the boy had received. Anyone who has had the experience of living as a racial minority in a non-pluralistic society knows what it is like to be stared at constantly; this is in fact the primary condition of Fanon's experience which makes “The Fact of Blackness” possible. <br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
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Thus, in this regard, Fanon is perhaps closer to the boy than to Zhu; or if this is too strong, we could say that Fanon is split between the boy and Zhu, that Zhu shares with Fanon the experience of being dissected by the gaze of the aggressor culture, but that the boy shares with him the constancy of being stared at for being a racial minority. The boy's position in China was obviously much higher than that of Fanon's in France, and therefore the stares he would have received much less negative; yet the mere fact of the constant stare itself can exert an intense psychical pressure, especially on a boy at an age at which deep doubts about his self-identity are forming. This is not at all to excuse the real racist content of the boy's angry glare; but it does suggest that the glare was a lashing-out from a position of weakness and insecurity, rather than from the heel-grinding arrogance which Zhu assumes.<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
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Moreover, it is Zhu who initiated this discomforting dialogue of stares. Zhu's boy, like Fanon's, is a mimic, although his mimicry is just as problematic. As Homi Bhabha says, “the look of surveillance returns as the displacing gaze of the disciplined, where the observer becomes the observed and 'partial representation rearticulates the whole notion of ''identity ''and alienates it from essence,”[ Bhabha, 89.] but in this case the mimic gaze is the colonizer's , and it returns precisely as the establishment of racial boundaries. Certainly, Zhu felt this mimicry as an example of colonial aggression; it is only the boy who might have thought of the stare in Bhabha's terms, as his defense mechanism against a racially-motivated intrusion into his privacy.<br />
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And Zhu's initiating stare is certainly racial (though not racist); he gloats over the boy's Caucasianness: “His white cheeks dashed with red and his long golden eyelashes revealed a peacefulness and elegance.”[ Zhu, 43.]<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
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Zhu, of course, tries to cover this fact; this is the prime rhetorical function of the discussion of Liu Jun. Without that mini-narrative, Zhu would have had to go directly from a description of the boy's whiteness into the boy's violent reaction, thus allowing the reader to assume that Zhu's racial gaze is what produced that reaction, complicating the question of the child's aggression. Instead, Zhu asserts a different reason why he is staring: he simply likes children, he has ever since he used to play with that little Liu Jun boy. Zhu wants to figure his own gaze as mostly aracial and entirely beneficent, a happy celebration of innocence which is met by abrupt, mature, racist aggression, shocking him out of his reveries into a disturbed reflection on nationalism and interracial strife.<br />
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Fine, so be it, Zhu's gaze is completely aracial, despite his gloating about pink cheeks and golden eyelashes. It is not therefore simple. Consider the bizarreness hidden in his self-justification:<br />
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当然，朱试图掩盖这一事实，这是刘军谈及过的主要的修辞功能。没有那种迷你叙事，朱将不得不直接从描述男孩的苍白转变为男孩的暴力反应，从而使读者认为是因为朱的种族凝视才产生了这种反应，便复杂化了孩子的攻击性问题。相反，朱宣称自己凝视是因为不同的原因，即，他只是喜欢孩子，从那以后，他常常和小刘军一起玩。朱想把他的视线当做与种族无关的，完全善意的行为。当做对纯真的庆祝，然而却突然地遭到了形成已久的种族观念的侵袭。这使他幻想破灭，陷入了国籍和种族冲突的反思中。<br />
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很好，尽管粉红的脸颊和金色的眼睫毛让他看起来有些沾沾自喜，但朱的凝视完全没带种族含义。考虑到藏在他自我争辩中的怪异，所以这并不简单。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:14, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
I have always had the sort of temperament whereby if I saw an amusing little child, I would always want to be on intimate terms with him...When I was in the upper grades of elementary school, in the attached building for the middle grades there was a boy named Liu Jun with raven-black Western-style hair, who was truly docile, like a bird....his face was always that undisturbed and earnest, though under his skin there must have burned the fires of intimacy. Several times I invited him to my home, but he was never willing to go; afterwards I didn't see him for two years, and then he died. I cannot forget him! I had held his little hand, and rubbed his round chin. If I meet a young child for the first time, I naturally can't do that, that would be a little awkward; nevertheless, that's unimportant, I can look at him- once, twice, ten times, dozens of times!<br />
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我向来有种癖气，见了有趣的小孩，总想和他亲热...在高等小学时，附设的初等里，有一个养着乌黑的西发的刘君，真是依人得像小鸟一般...他的脸老是那么幽静和真诚，皮下却烧着亲热的火把。我屡次让他到我家里来，他总不肯；后来两年不见，他便死了。我不能忘记他！我牵过他的小手，又摸过他的圆下巴。但若遇着陌生的小孩，我自然不能那么做，那可有些窘了；不过也不要紧，我可用我的眼睛看他——一回，两回，十回，几十回！--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 09:22, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我向来有种癖气，见了有趣的小孩，总想和他亲热……。在高等小学时，附设的初等里，有一个养着乌黑的西发的刘君，真是依人得像小鸟一般……。他的脸老是那么幽静和真诚，皮下却烧着亲热的火把。我屡次让他到我家里来，他总不肯；后来两年不见，他便死了。我不能忘记他！我牵过他的小手，又摸过他的圆下巴。但若遇着陌生的小孩，我自然不能那么做，那可有些窘了；不过也不要紧，我可用我的眼睛看他——一回，两回，十回，几十回！--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:06, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
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Any given child probably won't pay much attention to people's eyes, so one can look at him with total freedom; it is not at all like furtive, covered glances at women. I have in the past stared at many children I had just met, and they never once protested, at most they pulled on the hand of their mother next to them, or leant on her knee, or looked at her once or twice. Therefore I was very bold. This time on the trolley my old temperament came back, and I looked again and again at that white child, that young Westerner![ Zhu, 43.]<br />
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''Sexuality! ''is the obvious cry which rises at the description of Liu Jun: the docility, the meekness, the holding and rubbing, the “fires of intimacy”--these elements conspire to suggest a nascent homosexuality. <br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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Little Liu is dead, now, but there are substitutes swirling all around Zhu; he cannot touch them as he touched Liu, that would be socially impossible, but as a substitute he can stare with impunity, “dozens of times.” And the children do not protest his stares, they are docile-at most they squirm uncomfortably beneath Zhu's visual intrusion into their world. Zhu's relationship with children is therefore predicated by his dominance of them. He says at the opening of the paragraph that he wants to be intimate with children, but it is an intimacy of power forcing itself upon them.[ The evidence for Zhu's child-fetish is strongly corroborated by his other work. Apart from the focus on childhood in works like the famous, “Back Silhouette” (beiying), in another essay of his, “Children,” he goes so far as to explicitly admit to physical child abuse. ]<br />
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Given these strange admissions, one sees Zhu's reaction to the white child's stare as much more complicated. Zhu experiences the stare as racism, and probably rightly so; yet it seems clear that he is also shocked by the reversal of power involved. <br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
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He normally enjoys the prerogative of a forced intimacy, dominating children through his gaze, and suddenly he finds, for the first time, a child that fights gaze with gaze, is able to dominate him and usurp Zhu's position as an adult, casting him down into the docility of the helpless child. When Zhu, flabbergasted, constructs a voice to put onto the child, he may be grabbing onto the real racism present in the situation to use as a defense mechanism, changing the subject to avoid the real source of the ego-crushing which is occurring. Zhu protests his amazement that he could be so disturbed by “just a ten year old white 'child'”; yet the entire scenario could never possibly have been played out with an adult.<br />
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Fanon's child is a mirror to him, highlighting the Lacanian crisis of identification which life in France causes him.<br />
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他通常享有强迫亲密的特权，通过他的目光支配孩子，突然，他发现，第一次有孩子和他对着凝视，这凝视能控制着他，篡夺朱作为一个成年人的地位，让他处于无助孩子的温顺中。当朱陷入惊讶地，想要对这孩子说话时，他可能是抓住现实的种族主义出现在这情况下，用作防御机制，改变主题，以避免正在发生的自我粉碎的真正来源。朱对只有一个十岁的白人孩子感到如此不安，他感到惊奇。但整个场景永远不可能与一个成年人一起进行。法农的孩子如同一面镜子，突出了他在法国的生活所造成的拉康认同危机。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他通常享有强迫亲密的特权，通过眼色来支配孩子，他突然发现，第一次有孩子用眼神与他对视，篡夺了朱作为成年人的地位，让他处于无助孩子的温顺中。当朱陷入惊讶地，想要对这孩子说话时，他可能是抓住现实的种族主义出现在这情况下，用作防御机制、改变主题，以避免正在发生的自我粉碎的真正来源。朱对只有十岁的一个白人孩子感到如此不安，他感到惊奇。但整个场景永远不可能与一个成年人一起。对他来说，法农的孩子如同一面镜子，暴露出法国生活中拉康认同危机对他的影响。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:43, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
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If we in turn take Fanon as a mirror for Zhu Ziqing, his Lacanian analysis throws up interesting images of the incident on the Shanghai trolley. Zhu's white boy is visually even more of a mirror image to him than Fanon's was. The man and the boy gaze at each other across the solid divide; they mutually stare along a joint axis of domination. Of course, Zhu does not have Fanon's psychoanalytic training: he had read some empiricist psychology, but less Freud and of course no Lacan. He cannot wander between psychological theory and personal experience in the same fashion Fanon did.<br />
如果我们反过来以法农为朱自清的镜子，他对拉卡尼亚主义的分析在上海电车上抛出有趣的事件图像。 在视觉上，朱自清的白人男孩比法农的更像是他的镜像。 男人和男孩在坚固的鸿沟上凝视着对方。 他们沿着共同的支配轴相互凝视。 当然，朱没有接受法农的心理分析训练：他读过一些经验主义者的心理学，但是很少读弗洛伊德，当然也没有拉康。 他无法像法农那样在心理理论和个人经历之间徘徊。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:29, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果我们反过来把法农当作朱自清的镜子，他的拉卡尼亚主义分析就会对上海电车事件抛出有趣的图像。 朱自清的白人男孩在视觉上甚至比法农的男孩更像他的镜像。 男人和男孩隔着坚实的鸿沟相互凝视，他们沿着共同的统治轴线相互凝视。 当然，朱德没有法农的精神分析训练：他读过一些经验主义心理学，但少读弗洛伊德，当然也没有拉卡尼亚。 他不能像法农那样在心理学理论和个人经验之间游走。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:57, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But a reading of Fanon forces us to ask to what extent Zhu's trauma is a crisis of delayed issues of developmental psychology. This is obviously a complex field which belongs properly to specialists, and one hardly feels there is enough material in this brief essay to make definitive conclusions.<br />
但是对法农的阅读迫使我们问朱自清的创伤在多大程度上是发展心理学迟缓问题的危机。 显然，这是一个复杂的领域，应该属于专家，并且几乎没有人认为这篇简短的文章中有足够的材料来得出明确的结论。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:29, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但对法农的解读，迫使我们要问，朱的创伤在多大程度上是发展心理学的延迟问题的危机。 这显然是一个复杂的领域，理应属于专家的范畴，在这篇简短的文章中，我们很难感觉到有足够的材料来做出明确的结论。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:57, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
不过，读了法农的书，我们不禁要问，朱自清的创伤究竟在多大程度上是发展心理学延迟问题的危机。这显然是一个完全属于专家研究的复杂领域。人们觉得，这篇简短的文章中没有足够的材料来让他们作出明确的结论。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 13:53, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
But the narrative is explicitly spun out of a story of childhood; Zhu himself derives his child-fetish from the loss of the intimate and passive Liu Jun. And Zhu's fascination with children and childhood in other essays should be an indication that something is up. Perhaps one could establish Zhu's relation to Fanon thus: that while Fanon's experience of racism is drawn into a network of theory that links his crisis of identity to an aborted mirror-stage, Zhu Ziqing sees in the mirror of his own white child a vision of himself as prematurely woven into the fabric of power. It is then only this sudden emergence of power in a half-nostalgic, half-sexual scopophilia which highlights the boy's whiteness and raises the questions of racial dominance and nationalist resistance.<br />
<br />
What makes Zhu feel nationalistic pride? It is not the boy's reaction, but his race.<br />
<br />
但故事是明确地从一个童年故事中衍生出来的;朱自清的儿童迷恋源于失去了亲密而消极的刘君。而朱自清在其他文章中对儿童和童年的迷恋，应该是表明有些事情发生了。也许可以建立朱自清与法农之间的关系:法农种族主义的经历卷入了理论之网，这将他的身份危机与流产镜像阶段连接起来, 朱自清从自己的白人孩子的镜子里看到了自己过早地融入权力的一面。正是在这种半怀旧、半性恋的恋物癖中，权力的突然出现，凸显了这个男孩的白人身份，并引发了种族统治和民族主义抵抗的问题。<br />
<br />
是什么让朱感到民族自豪感?不是男孩的反应，而是他的种族。<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 11:43, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但这部小说的叙事显然是从一个童年故事中衍生出来的；朱自清本人从失去亲密无间、被动的刘俊身上获得了对儿童的迷恋，而他在其他散文中对儿童和童年的迷恋，应该是某种事情发生的迹象。也许有人可以这样确定朱自清与法农的关系：虽然法农的种族主义经历被纳入了一个理论网络，将他的身份危机与一个失败的镜像阶段联系起来，但朱自清在自己的白人孩子的镜子中看到了自己过早地编织在权力结构中的形象。正是在这种半怀旧、半性恋的恋物癖中，权力的突然出现，凸显了这个男孩的白人身份，并引发了种族统治和民族主义抵抗的问题。<br />
<br />
是什么让朱感到民族自豪感?不是男孩的反应，而是他的种族。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 03:19, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
Given the way Zhu sets up his narrative, given the description of his frequent and unimpeded voyeurism of children in public spaces, one assumes that any child who stared back mockingly at Zhu would have shocked him-this child was the first to do so. Had the child been Chinese and stared back, Zhu's experience might have been more obviously psycho-sexual in his own recounting. The real importance of the child's whiteness is to Zhu's rational reflections over the significance of the incident. To Zhu's mind, it was not the child's whiteness but his resistance that was disturbing; but he locates the whiteness as the source of the child's ability to resist and to then turn resistance into domination. He essentializes the incident: force is what makes whites white. A gaze on a bus becomes an allegory for the sweep of modern history.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
On reflection, the appearance of nationalism here is far more abrupt than it would have seemed in the Shanghai journal culture following the May 30 Massacre. Is it really a defense mechanism against the revelations of his own psychology? Is it both a defense mechanism and an expression of conscious and justified outrage over colonialist presence in Shanghai? Is it a fiction “remembered” back onto the incident in the heat of the violent summer of 1925? I do not mean by any of these questions to imply that somehow Zhu's nationalism is fake, or secondary, or subordinate; to do that would be to write a justification of the murder of the students on Nanjing Road. But of all the essays and poems and short fiction published along with Zhu's essay in the two Literary Association journals (''Xiaoshuo yuebao and Wenxue zhoukan''), none but his strays so far from the event of the massacre itself in order to support the national cause. It is legitimate to ask why.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The bifurcations in Zhu's essay between experience and historiography, practice and theory thus are constituted in an odd mix of clarity and confusion. Patriotic messages are deeply worked into the fabric of the narration of the incident, and any division between Zhu's lived experience and the big picture view of imperialism were surely invisible to any reader in the context of the essay's production. They are invisible to us, as informed readers, but only on our first readings. The deeper explorations of Zhu's gaze, by suggesting the possible distance of ideological historiography form the original event, merely highlight a structural division between narration and theory which splits the text at “I was filled with a pressing nationalistic feeling!” The structural split is perfectly obvious; yet it is only after some thought about the nature of Zhu's project that it becomes noteworthy.<br />
<br />
因此，朱的文章中经验与史学，实践和理论之间的分歧是由清晰和混乱构成的。爱国主义的启示被深深地融入了事件的叙述之中，在这篇论文的撰写过程中，任何读者都肯定看不到朱的活生生的经验与帝国主义的大视野之间的任何分歧。作为知情的读者，它们对我们是不可见的，但仅在我们的初读时才可见。 通过暗示思想史学与原事件之间可能的距离，朱目光的更深层次的探索仅仅强调了叙事和理论之间的结构性划分，使文本分裂为“我充满了紧迫的民族主义情绪！”其中结构上的分裂非常明显； 然而，只有在对朱的项目的性质进行一些思考之后，它才值得关注。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 03:16, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
This is the Zhu Ziqing who declares himself a contradiction, and he can talk back to Fanon. His own textual complexes find their affinities in Fanon's text and the Fanonian textual systems that grew from it. It is impossible to forget, with Fanon, the wiles of language-his flourishes are too extravagant. Yet ''Black Skin, White Masks'' is filled with partial autobiographies. One knows one is reading theory, but it seems to be a theory grown organically from “Antillean experience,” even when we all know better. Though our study of Chinese literature might convince us that theory fits or does not fit Chinese experience, we should not assume that theory has a more natural and wholesome relationship with African or Indian experience, that the postcolonial debates were “derived” from fully colonial experience. Psychoanalytic theory created Fanon's experience, and the body of theory “derived” from Fanon has even more dramatically recreated him.<br />
<br />
这就是那个宣称自己自我矛盾的朱自清，他可以对法农进行反驳。他自身的文本情结在法农的文本和由其发展而来的法农文本体系中找到了相似之处。人们不可能忘记法农的语言诡计——他的华丽辞藻太过夸张。然而《黑皮肤，白面具》的一些部分充满了自传性质。一个人知道自己在阅读理论，甚至当我们更了解这理论时，但这理论似乎是一个有机地从“安的列斯经验”中成长起来的，虽然我们对中国文学的研究可能会让我们相信，理论是否符合中国的经验，但我们不应该假设理论与非洲或印度的经验有更自然和健康的关系，后殖民争论是“派生”自完全的殖民经验。精神分析理论创造了法农的经验，而从法农“衍生”出来的理论体则更戏剧性地重新塑造了他。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 11:54, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
The point of which is not to reassert the very tired discovery that theory is not experience and words not things, but to point out that the Chinese modernist friction against theory is not unique. Insofar as we need to continue to talk about postcolonial contexts when addressing Chinese modern literature, it would be helpful to keep in perspective Chinese's non-uniqueness; to do so may help us avoid the trap of either-or questions. Tension is healthy. If we must dismiss with a wave our continuing urgent desire for comparison of unmediated experience, and cannot give ourselves over to the mere nodding affirmation of sloganized thought-systems, then at least the comparative and cross-cultural analysis of tension is still available to us.<br />
<br />
The great frustration of the work of comparison is its inability to aspire to totalisms. However conscious we are of the danger of such aspirations, they are magnetic and insinuating.<br />
<br />
这里的重点并不是要重申这个老生常谈的发现，即理论不是经验，文字也不是事物，而是要指出中国现代主义与理论的摩擦并不是唯一的。在探讨中国现代文学时，如果我们需要继续探讨后殖民语境，那么审视中国的非独特性是有帮助的。这样做可以帮助我们避免陷入非此即彼的困境。对立是有益的的。如果我们必须以一种浪潮来驱散我们对未经调解的经验的比较的持续的迫切愿望，不能让我们自己沉溺于仅仅是表面肯定的口号的思想体系，那么至少对立比较和跨文化的分析对我们仍然是可用的。<br />
<br />
比较研究的不足在于它不能实现极权主义。虽然我们十分清楚这种想法的危险性，但还是会被吸引。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 07:00, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
The leap from text to context is satisfying; even if one is aware of the necessity of multiple contexts, because one can choose one's school and plant one's feet and make an argument (or ignore the need for argument) that one's chosen context is the most appropriate. The comparison of individual works requires resignation to pettiness. Any other permutation of works will produce different, perhaps contradictory, lessons. For example, comparing Zhu's essay with other May 30 protest essays, such as those by Mao Dun or Zheng Zhenduo, would vastly alter our evaluation of it. Among an infinite number of permutations of comparison, the importance of any one comparison becomes infinitesimal, and its authority to define the reception of the work shrinks commensurably. The infinitesimal still has the potential for informing other research, but only by miracles of typological allegory.<br />
<br />
从文本到语境的跳跃是令人满意的，虽然我们都知道多语境的必要性，因为我们可以选择自己的派别，然后立足于这个派别，对自己选择的语境是最合适的这个论点进行论证（或者直接忽视论证的必要性）。对各个作家的作品进行比较需要极大的耐心。将不同的作品进行不同的组合将会得出不同的，或者是相互矛盾的结论。例如，将朱自清的文章与五卅运动其他的抗议文相比较，比如茅盾或者郑振铎的作品，就会极大地改变我们对朱自清的文章的评价。在无穷无尽的各种组合比较中，单一比较的重要性会变得微乎其微，其对作品接受度做出的评价的的权威性也会相应地大打折扣。这种意义微乎其微的比较仍有可能对其他研究做出贡献，但也只有在类型学中才会发挥作用。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:02, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从文本到语境的跳跃令人满意，虽然我们都知道多语境的必要性，因为我们可以选择自己的派别，然后立足于这个派别，对自己选择的语境是最合适的这个论点进行论证（或者直接忽视论证的必要性）。对各个作家的作品进行比较需要极大的耐心。将不同的作品进行不同的组合将会得出不同的，或者是相互矛盾的结论。例如，将朱自清的文章与五卅运动其他的抗议文相比较，比如茅盾或者郑振铎的作品，就会极大地改变我们对朱自清的文章的评价。在无穷无尽的各种组合比较中，单一比较的重要性会变得微乎其微，其对作品接受度做出的评价的的权威性也会相应地大打折扣。这种意义微乎其微的比较仍有可能对其他研究做出贡献，但也只有在类型学中才会发挥作用。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:22, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
'''Incongruous Lyricism: Liu Baiyu, Yang Shuo and sanwen in Chinese Socialist Culture<br />
'''<br />
Charles A. Laughlin<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
The popularity of both Republican period and post-Mao sanwen in contemporary Chinese literary markets indicates the importance of this genre in twentieth century Chinese literature. <br />
<br />
Less obvious, but no less significant, is its importance within the socialist cultural system of the Chinese Communist Party. Ever since Chinese cultural activists began to consciously promote specific literary practices as a way of contributing to “revolution” in the late 1920s, literary prose played an important role, but at first only in the form of reportage or baogao wenxue. Beginning in Yan’an during the War of Resistance Against Japan, however, young writers who received all or in part of their education or literary training in Communist institutions began to write prose texts that more closely resembled the xiaopin and suigan of the Republican period. Unlike reportage, these texts featured lyrical and humorous moments without being critical of the social environment, and they were not concerned with contemporary historical events and figures. <br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
Such writing achieved prominence in the first decade of the People’s Republic of China, and in this paper I examine three writers that exemplify the characteristic techniques and strategies of the socialist literary essay: Liu Baiyu, Qin Mu and Yang Shuo. Liu Baiyu exemplifies how the experience of war and revolution conditioned the emergence of lyricism in socialist culture, while Qin Mu and Yang Shuo embody the maturation of this socialist lyricism in a peacetime environment. Socialist ''sanwen'' differs from Republican period forms in its characteristically friendly yet didactic second-person rhetoric, and its tendency to build verbal monuments for national heroes. But traces of the conspicuous individuality of Republican period ''sanwen'' lived on in the essayists of the 1950s and 60s. This created a subtle dissonance in the texture of socialist culture that in my opinion contributed to the prominence and popularity of these writers, whose works were included in textbooks for later generations of mainland readers.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
When we think of the Chinese essay we usually think of the works of Republican period liberal humanists drawing upon both Western ideas and premodern Chinese style and diction to produce a new genre that represented the artistic epitome of lyrical, colloquial prose. Perhaps just as commonly, when we think of revolutionary literature and of writing under the Chinese communist regime, we think of realism, social critique, polemic and propaganda. Indeed in my study of the development of reportage literature in the Republican and early PRC periods, I associate the procedures of reportage with the culture of leftism in such a way as to render the very notion of lyrical leftist nonfiction discordant if not outright absurd. The problem is, as I was aware at the time, there are prominent authors in the PRC – Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu, to name only a few – who made their names almost entirely through the writing of essays (sanwen). <br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
At that time, I dismissed this phenomenon in the usual way: these were communist lackeys simply parroting the ruling ideology at the bidding of culture czars.<br />
<br />
But even if they were, I could not account for the fact that such writing took on the form of sanwen, in many ways similar to the ''xiaopin wen'' popular the 1930s, while there was already in ''baogao wenxue'' a thriving literary nonfiction form that seemed to embody in its very form the communist vision of art and its place in society. To put it another way, there is nothing in the logic of socialist culture as I knew it that would call for the production of ''sanwen'' as written by these authors, and we know very well that authors under socialism are not at liberty to write what they please, so I had to attribute the persistence of the ''sanwen'' form in the PRC to something inherent about ''sanwen'' and Chinese literary modernity. <br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
My current project intends to approach this question by comparing Chinese literary nonfiction practice in a number of different historical and cultural scenarios from the late imperial period to the present, and this presentation concerns specifically the ''sanwen'' under Chinese socialism.<br />
<br />
'''Socialist ''sanwen'' emerged from Communist base area writing practice''' <br />
<br />
Usually in the form of reportage, literary prose of the Yan’an period was concerned with dramatizing the social and spiritual superiority of regimented, collectivized life under the leadership of the Communist Party. Such writing often relied on direct comparisons between aspects of life in ”the old society” and life in Yan’an, or the between checkered past of characters who had been rehabilitated by the Communists and their newfound belief in the socialist community and its leaders. Though often idealized, examples given are meant to be concrete and taken as factual, and names are often named of military leaders and model laborers depicted. In this respect reportage is the most direct precursor of the lyrical essays of the People’s Republic.[ The civil war of 1946-1949 so disrupted the socialist base areas that much less of this kind of writing was produced; war correspondence once again became the order of the day]</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201207_trans&diff=10728120201207 trans2020-12-04T13:56:38Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Wu Yilu 吴一露 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
The story plays with the analogy of zhang and mu. By infusing them into an imaginary “curtain,” the framed narrative engenders dialogic interplay between the narrator and the bridegroom, between the bride and the spectator, and between the public and private spaces. Zhang and mu mean different things, though they converge in the compound zhangmu. Traditionally, the word zhang denoted a canopy hung around a bed and was used to isolate an inner space in bedroom, so it can hardly be identical with the meaning of curtain. However, indirectly, it reached to the sense of “curtain” through a translation of Jerrold D. William’s (1803-57) Mrs. Caudle’s Curtain Lectures, a fiction of early nineteenth-century England. In 1915 Liu Bannong translated the title into “Zhangzhong shuofa” and published it in Zhonghua xiaoshuo jie.[ Liu Bannong, “Zhangzhong shuofa,” Zhonghua xiaoshuo jie, vol. 2, no.3 (March, 1915). Zhou should (June, 1922).] <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
The “curtain lectures” refer to Mrs. Caudle’s poignant complaints and derision at her husband, mixed with familial trivialities and comic effects. <br />
<br />
However, the overlap of zhang and mu was crucially related to a widely circulated myth about the Chinese origins of cinema, which was perhaps invented by Zhou himself. When Western-style movie theaters began to appear in late-1900s Shanghai, he was one of the earliest moviegoers. Like other Chinese at his time he also regarded film as a kind of “shadow play” (yingxi), meaning the performance on a screen. According to Zhou, the origins of “shadow play” can be found in the famous story in the Han Dynasty (206-24, B.C.), which tells of the Emperor Wu watching lady Li, dancing and singing, through a semi-transparent curtain.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
As the anecdote goes, to console his loss of the favorite lady, a sorcerer made a curtained room and asked the emperor to stay at a distance. In the night, called by the sorcerer, the spirit appears behind the curtain, amidst the candle-light, to perform as if she is alive.[ Zhou Shoujuan, “Tan yingxi” (On shadow play), in Ziluilan ji (Collections of violet) (Shanghai: Dadong shuju, 1922) 13-14. Its earlier version “Yingxi hua” appeared in the Free Talk (Ziyou tan), the literary page in Shenbao (June 20, 1919): 15.] Notwithstanding the historical merit of Zhou’s interpretation, what is significant here is that he reads history with a cinematic imagination, by which the terminology in everyday life changes - as occurred here the meaning of zhang (curtain) is substituted by that of mu (screen). <br />
<br />
In the mid-1910s Saturday and The Pastime (Youxi zazhi) magazines often appeared Zhou’s “film fiction” (yinxi xiaoshuo) - his accounts of what he had seen in the movie theaters. <br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
By the time he wrote this love confession, Zhou published a novella The Intimate Beauty (Hongyan zhiji), in which the hero recalls his lover on the “screen memory”: after he closes his eyes, he sees her beautiful image on a “snow-white screen” (xuebai de bumu) and hears her delicate voice; when he opens his eyes, they vanish and yet leaves a three-inch photograph in his heart.[ Zhou Shoujuan. Hongyan zhiji (Zhonghua tushuguan, 1917) 64.] However, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” has no description of watching film, yet the narrative itself is framed by the curtain; what was shown on the “screen” was verbalized and the text was visualized. With both meanings of zhang and mu, the “curtain” can be changed into a “screen,” onto which is projected the inner space of a wedding chamber in which the author makes his confession.<br />
在他写这篇爱情告白的时候，周出版了中篇小说《亲密之美》(《红颜之记》)，在这部小说中，主人公在“屏幕记忆”中回忆起了他的爱人:他闭上眼睛，在“雪白的屏幕”上看到了她美丽的形象，听到了她柔美的声音;当他睁开眼睛时，它们消失了，却在他的心里留下了一张三英寸的照片。(周秀娟《红颜智记》(中华图舒观1917)。然而，《九花帘幕》并没有对看电影的描述，叙事本身却被帘幕框住了;“屏幕”上显示的是语言，文字是可视化的。“窗帘”可以变成“屏风”，在“屏风”上投射出婚房的内部空间，作者在这里坦白。<br />
<br />
写下这篇爱情告白时，周寿娟已出版了一篇小说《亲密的美人》(《鸿雁集》)，男主人公以 "屏风记忆 "的方式回忆爱人：闭上眼睛后，在 "雪白的屏风"上看到了她的美丽形象，听到了她的娇声；睁开眼睛时，这些形象消失了，却在心里留下了一张三寸照片。 [ 周寿娟.鸿雁志集（中华图画馆，1917）64.]然而，《九花帘里》没有看电影的描写，但叙事本身却被帘子框住了，"屏风 "上显示的东西被口头化了，文字也被视觉化了。有了 "张 "和 "亩 "两个意思，"幕 "就可以变成 "屏"，在 "屏 "上投射出作者告白的婚房内部空间。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:37, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was visually imagined and represented in terms of the spaces divided into the inside and the outside, with the beholder within the curtain and the imagined beholders without. When Zhou fulfills his promise to his friends that he will show them his “love talk” in the Pictorial Story magazine, he makes a written tableau in Diderot’s sense, in which the beholder is absent and yet always implied.[ Jay Caplan. Framed Narratives: Diderot’s Genealogy of the Beholder (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985) 16. ] Here, we refer to the notion of “beholder” not only because of the visual nature of Zhou’s fiction, but also because it helps my imposition of the complex “subjectivity” in this paper.<br />
《九朵花的窗帘》以外部空间和内部空间的划分给人们视觉上的想象与呈现，旁观者在窗帘内，而想象中的旁观者则在窗帘外。周在兑现对其朋友承诺说他将会在《画报故事》杂志中给他们展示“爱情谈话”时，就按照狄德罗的感觉画了一幅画，在这幅画里没有旁观者，但却总是暗含其中。[杰伊·卡普兰。边框叙事：狄德罗的《旁观者的家谱》（明尼阿波利斯：明尼苏达大学出版社，1985年）16。]我们在这里提到周的小说中“旁观者”的概念，不仅仅是因为其视觉特点，也是因为它加深了我对这篇文章复杂的“主观性”的理解。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 01:09, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
At this juncture, if we look beyond this story merely as a signal of style change in Zhou’s love story from the tragic to comical, we might be curious at the positivity of the male voice as well as the brightness of the private space. In view of the erotic-sentimental tradition of the male gaze in private space, what does this love talk mean historically? Not only does it relate to the transformation of gender roles as well as the legitimacy of the private space in Chinese literature.<br />
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This transformation occurred when this male gaze is empowered ideologically and technologically. Ideologically, it is imbued with the Republican ideal of nationhood and selfhood; technologically, it is, in this case, facilitated by the structural optical perception linked to the modern inventions such as photography and cinema. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
While depicting a tableau by freezing a moment in the past, Diderot disturbs his narrative by arranging the beholder as a part of the tableau. As Jay Caplan interpreted, the beholder is presented for the “psychological reason”: he functions as compensation to the loss which the family suffers as portrayed in the tableau.[ Ibid., 20-37.] In Zhou’s case, the beholder is called for the moral reason as his presence is neutralized to legitimize his love discourse in the private space. Especially the term qinghua “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” can be traced back to his short story published in 1913. It describes a young couple meeting and then whispering at a public place, unaware of someone who takes a snapshot of their intimate scene.[ Zhou Shoujuan. “Qinghua” (Love talk), Youxi zazhi 5 (1913).] <br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
It reads like a joke, yet this reportage intriguingly justifies the privacy in the public space that is a controversy of the time. The beholder plays roles of witness, voyeurist, and more importantly, sympathizer. In portraying the photographic evidence with the story of the beholder, Zhou also becomes a sympathetic beholder. <br />
<br />
The dialogic characteristic of this love discourse lies not only in the consumerism of literary pleasure as the core of the Butterfly periodical culture, but also in the collective ethos of Butterfly community. In explicating how a bourgeois “love community” is born from the literature of intimate sphere in eighteenth-century England, Habermas says: “Subjectivity, as the innermost core of the private, was always already oriented to an audience.”[ Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. Trans. Thomas Burger with the Assistance of Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge and Mass.: The MIT Press, 1991) 49. ] <br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
Zhou’s pillow talk is more than a playful response to his friends’ voyeurist curiosity, it is fulfilled as a promise of love discourse. It might embody that “the ideas of freedom, love, and cultivation of the person that grew out of the experiences of the conjugal family’s private sphere were surely more than just ideology.”[ Ibid., 48. ]<br />
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As the pillow talk unfolds, a complex subjectivity emerges. Against its ideological and technological backdrop, it is rhetorically and aesthetically embodied by a double voice, the poetics of persuasion and linguistic theatricality. The latter part of the story talks more about his family history. “When I was six years old, I became an orphan.” With this pathological tone, Zhou narrates how his father dies at that time and how his widowed mother single-handedly rears up four children by her hard work as a seamstress.<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃的枕边私语不只是对他朋友们窥阴欲的一笑置之，还是他说给爱人的甜言蜜语。这表明男女私生活中反映出的自由观、爱情观和育人观不只是意识形态。[Ibid.,48]<br />
<br />
随着枕边私语慢慢展开，一种复杂的主观性油然而生。考虑到其意识形态和技术背景，这些枕边话通过修辞和美学手段呈现出来，如二重唱、诗歌的劝说功能以及语言学理论。故事的后半部分谈到了周瘦鹃的家族史。他说“我六岁就成了孤儿。”周瘦鹃用一种凄凉的口吻讲述自己六岁丧父，母亲辛苦做针黹活，将四个孩子拉扯大。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 02:31, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃的枕边私语不只是对他朋友们窥阴欲的一笑置之，还是他给爱人的甜言蜜语。这表明,男女私生活中反映出的自由观、爱情观和育人观不只是意识形态。[Ibid.,48]<br />
<br />
随着枕边私语慢慢展开，一种复杂的主观性油然而生。考虑到其意识形态和技术背景，这些枕边话通过修辞和美学手段呈现出来，如二重唱、诗歌的劝说功能以及语言学理论。故事的后半部分谈到了周瘦鹃的家族史。他说“我六岁就成了孤儿。”周瘦鹃用一种凄凉的口吻讲述自己六岁丧父，母亲辛苦做针黹活，将四个孩子拉扯大的往事。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:24, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
This family story is particularly heart-rending, yet it is more than that. He goes on, “When my father died, it happened in the year of 1900. The capital Beijing was totally in chaos, and thus, unexpectedly, the familial disaster and national humiliation fell on a boy of six years old.” A sense of tragic sublimation is effectively rendered as the boy is depicted as both victim and victor in these historical disasters, owing much to the rhetoric that makes the familial and national disasters “happen” to meet, and “thus” they “both” fall on the boy. The sentences sound as if it happened simultaneously when his father died and Beijing fell, and this narration enormously affects the reader. <br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
However, strictly speaking, there is some slippage between fact and fiction: according to Zhou’s chronicle, his father died 22 days after the fall of Beijing.[ Wang Zhiyi, ed., Zhou Shoujaun yanjiu zhiliao (Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 1993) 20.] The dramatic simultaneity not merely refers the narrative strategy mixed with sentimentalism and patriotism, it reflects his own trauma as projected onto the screen memory of his childhood. Compared with other versions about his father’s death, this expression is most theatrical. <br />
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Zhou’s childhood memory stores the collective traumatic experiences. The 1900 national catastrophe - the Boxers Uprising and the European Allies’ invasion in Beijing - becomes the emblem of national shame that had deeply imprinted on the Chinese minds. By such theatrical representation of his screen memory, Zhou’s love talk not merely appeals to his bride, the wedding chamber itself is transformed into a public space.<br />
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然而，严格来说，在事实和小说之间会存在一些误差：据周瘦鹃的生平记载，北京沦陷22天后，其父便亡，[王智毅，《研究资料研究资料》 (天津人民出版社，1993)20]。 戏剧性的巧合不仅指向与情感主义和爱国主义相融合的叙述策略，也将周瘦鹃的精神创伤投射到其童年的屏幕记忆之上。这种表达极具戏剧色彩，使得其余种种对其父亲之死的叙事版本黯然失色。<br />
周瘦鹃的童年伤痕累累。1990年国难当头，义和团起义，欧洲列强入侵北京，国家屈辱深深植根在中国人心中。周瘦鹃戏剧性展现其屏幕记忆，表明其甜言蜜语不仅仅说给他的新娘子听，婚房也成为了公共场所。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:12, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
Now the narrator is more aware of the presence of the public beholders. Aiming more at arousing collective pathos there inserts the scenario of his father’s death, which is also an intense moment for the author to test his rhetoric of theatricality. “When my father was dying, he was like a madman. Suddenly he jumped down from the bed and rushed out, raising his head toward heaven and shouting at the top of his lung, ‘My three sons, be heroes, join the army and fight!’ After these words, he returned to the bed and soon stopped breathing.” <br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
Permeated in the narrative of his family history are the characteristics of theatrical rhetoric: The period of his childhood is frozen, and his voice pretends to be childish; heavily emotionally charged words such as “tears,” “sorrow,” “bitter” are frequently appear between lines. Ordinary episodes are intensely represented with emphasis on the theatrical manners, gestures to deliver emotions at the highest pitch. The sentiments attached to the episodes tend to be collectively identified, such as his father’s death linked to the national calamity. There is excessive use of the adverbs to accumulate the force of persuasion and theatrical effect. No less noticeable is the role played by the narrator himself, who seems never hesitant to use the rhetoric of excess.<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Perhaps no modern readers would feel comfortable at the author’s praise of his mother for her traditional virtue; she twice cuts off a piece of flesh from her arm and cooks it as a medicine for her ill mother and husband. “From now on, we should remember what she did and do our best to be filial to her. We should erect, in our hearts, a stele for her filial piety, and a monument for her widowhood; by this means we can make her late life a happy one.” When he repeats this to his bride as a family legend and spiritual heritage, the use of rituals to enhance his language performativity nonetheless turn the persuasion into the grotesque. But we need to be cautious at the accusation of Zhou’s promotion of the “feudal rites” (fengjian lijiao), for the rituals are only used as symbolic value serving the new social structure and ideology in the early Republican era.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
According to the author’s love gospel, love must be mutual; this idea is embodied here through the narrative process itself: the act of telling the bride about his past as a token of trust aims to ask her to understand and trust him. While informing her of his intellectual paths in order to invite her to embrace his spiritual world, the pillow talk reveals its cultural meaning. Among other things, the story reveals himself as a human being who is promising yet ordinary, enduring yet fragile, and at the same time his family economy as unstable as unpredictable, indicating that they live in a hard time. It means that while sharing his bitter past and hopeful future, she must take up her duty and responsibility for him and his family.<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
Zhou’s rhetoric of persuasion also implies that the bride is also at the center of a nuclear family, who must be subject to the new ethics. As the narrator further describes how he becomes a nationally famous novelist, due to his talent, diligence and proliferation in the “time of fiction in its full swing.” His jubilant voice echoes that of the beginning of the story while talking about how his family economy is drastically improved and afterwards the Zhous moves from the shabby old city area to the decent French concession. The narrator continues: “Ah, my phoenix lady, I have fully told you about my past. Having heard of this, you can understand what I have achieved so far is due to my bloody struggles with the hardships and difficulties, not to mention my mother who experienced as harder as thousands times than mine.” <br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
The sentimental imploration conveys the bourgeois ethics no less than a “modern apocalypse”: this is a hard time yet it is promising and fair: everyone can get what he deserves by God’s gift as well as hard work. <br />
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Inscribed with such allegorized trauma, the pillow talk implies a fatal bond between the individual, family and country, and thence elicits the “community of love.” Under the persuasion she is more than a wife and a lover - she is treated at the same time as a citizen. By the device of double curtain stated above, the narrative space is imbued with the authorial anxiety before the private and public beholders, indicating that the private realm by no means becomes autonomous without being identified with peoplehood and nationhood.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A Republican subjectivity is embodied in this domestic space by a speech act of persuasion, and it is the sentimentalism that naturalizes all social relations, blurring the private and public boundaries, and it ultimately functions in identifying them with the nationhood. In a sense, this peculiar love talk using the first person genre amalgamates diary, love-letter, autobiography and confession and displays a particular revelation of the community of love.<br />
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Although the latter half of this monologue is basically dominated by historical references, Zhou’s strategy of using stylistic conventions such as verbal ornaments or rhythmic parallelism shifts to an appeal to cultural convention, such as ritual and tradition. Tradition is used as both value and form. Like the scars left on the mother’s arms, ritual is infused into the narrative to such an extent that the procedure of writing is culturally encoded. <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
Compared to the characteristic of pursuing modern fashion in the first half of the story, here Zhou reveals more of his cultural conservatism. Rooted in the traditional “Teaching of Affection,” his love discourse aims at solving complex problems in a modern society; what separates Zhou from his contemporaries is that he does not intend to make his philosophy of love a perfect, unified one. In the “community of love” lies a paradox. Habermas says: “The jeopardy into which the idea of the community of love was thereby put, up to our own day, occupied the literature as the conflict between marriage for love and marriage for reason, that is, for economic and social considerations.”[ Habermas, 47.] <br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
As shown by Zhou’s own love story, he never forgot his first lover named “Violet,” and thus we come to realize that behind this pillow talk is the rueful truth: for him this is a “marriage for reason,” not a “marriage for love.” As he says to his bride, since he failed in the first love, he never had intention of making a family, and he married her in order to make his mother happy. Probably this loving experiment with baihua is a compromise for better communicating with the bride who is almost illiterate.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Eileen Chang and the Modern Essay'''<br />
<br />
Nicole Huang<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
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In her preface to Honglou mengyan (Nightmare in the Red Chamber), Eileen Chang (1920-1995) recalls that the meanings of Liuyan, the title of her essay collection published in 1944 in the Japanese occupied city of Shanghai, derives from an English saying “written on water.” She further elaborates the implications of the metaphor: she does not expect her writing to endure-it should be like words written on water, or 'flowing words,' as 'liuyan' would mean literally, lingering momentarily and eventually elapsing; but she also hopes that her writing will be endowed with the spirit of 'rumors' or 'gossip'-a second literal meaning of the word 'liuyan'-flowing freely and swiftly, reaching a wide audience.<br />
<br />
张爱玲及现代小说<br />
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黄群兰<br />
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摘要<br />
<br />
在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，1994年出版的《流言》的书名含义来自于英文谚语“written on water”。此后她还叙述了流言的深层含义：她并不希望自己的作品只是昙花一现，她想要自己的作品能够承载着“流言”的内涵，获得广泛受众。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:22, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲及现代小说<br />
<br />
黄群兰<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，1994年在日本侵占的上海出版的散文集《流言》的书名含义来自于英文谚语“written on water”。此后她还叙述了流言的深层隐喻：她并不希望自己的作品只是昙花一现，或者说流言的字面意义“飘走的话语”，她想要自己的作品能够承载着“流言”或“绯闻”的内涵——流言的第二个字面意义——自由自在地四处漂流，获得广泛受众。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:50, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
Chang's use of a language of self-reflexivity provides a window through which the curious reader/critic can look into the rather intimate process of a creative work in the making, so much so that the creative mentality of the woman author becomes a text which is first to be deciphered. The invention of the title is characteristic of Chang's long-term effort to negotiate the boundaries between different genres of writing, and in this case, it is the distinction between critical/academic writing and the personal essay that is being questioned. Here, the mechanism behind the naming of her writing is more than just a clever pun. The title not only suggests a new style of essay writing, it also indicates a corresponding way to highlight the generic identities of this reinvented literary form. <br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
While words are described as flowing like water, and the essay genre is compared to a fluid construction of 'gossip' or leisurely talks, Chang's naming of her own writing here offers more than just commentaries on the practice of literary writing. More importantly, the renaming of the essay genre should be understood as the woman writer's commentary on the state of cultural production during a particular time in modern Chinese history that is characterized by enormous turmoil and disruption which resulted from the war and the occupation. <br />
<br />
I argue that Chang's experience of the time, the space, and the particular historical milieu of occupied Shanghai is channeled into her attempts to redefine the generic identities of the modern essay. The choice of the essay form is central to Chang's aesthetic vision.<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
The writer's self-positioning in the realm of urban culture of 1940s Shanghai is exemplified in her appropriation of the genre. The essay is made into an important discursive site where the woman writer overtly challenges the literary conventions, searches for alternatives in both literary writing and practices of everyday life, and promotes herself as an important cultural figure. <br />
<br />
The modern essay also serves to contribute concrete forms to a life that appears void of any structure; in other words, Eileen Chang uses the form of the modern essay to construct an intelligible universe where one's imagination and fantasy can anchor. Detailed descriptions of everyday experience, that is, representations of cultural meanings of the material world, manifests not only a dynamic inner life but also a new social identity in formation. <br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
My paper highlights two aspects of life that are conceptualized in Chang's essay writing, one is the space of a modern apartment as a liminal site in urban landscape, and the other is the discourse of fashion as a vital form of material consciousness. I argue that the essay genre not only becomes an open-ended and ongoing process for the woman writer in her entry into the existing order of the literary world, it also becomes the testing ground where the boundaries between the literary world and the larger social realm become unstable and ever-shifting. Not only life styles can be read as texts, a woman writer as an individual can become a concrete historical subject within the space allowed by the modern essay. Life is woven together with work, the boundaries between the private and the public are further blurred, and biographical contingencies become important textual devices in constructing a legend of a new era.<br />
<br />
本文着重论述了张爱玲散文创作中概念化的两个方面的生活：一是现代公寓空间作为城市景观的边缘场所；二是时尚作为一种重要的物质意识形式的话语。笔者认为，散文体裁不仅成为女性作家进入文学世界现有秩序的一个无止境的、持续的过程，而且成为文学世界与更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定和不断变化的试验场。不仅生活方式可以作为文本来解读，女性作家作为个体也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为一个具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公众之间的界限进一步模糊，传记的偶然性成为构建新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In her perface to Honglou mengyan (Nightmare in the Red Chamber), Eileen Chang (1920-1995) recalls that the meaning of Liuyan, the title of her essay collection published in 1944 in the Japanese occupied city of Shanghai, derives from an English saying “written on water.” She further elaborates the implications of the metaphor: she does not expect her writing to endure – it should be like words written on water, or ‘flowing words,’ as ‘liuyan’ would mean literally, lingering momentarily and eventually elapsing; but she also hopes that her writing will be endowed with the spirit of ‘rumors’ or ‘gossip’ – a second literal meaning of the word ‘liuyan’ – flowing freely and swiftly, reaching a wide audience.[ See Chang, Nightmare in the Red Chamber (Taipei: Huangguan, 1977). The book, containing Chang’s essays on authorship, themes, structure, character portrayal, and linguistic construction of the most renowned vernacular narrative of pre-modern China Dream in the Red Chamber (Honglou meng), is representative of her literary and artistic pursuits during her American years (1955-1995).]<br />
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张爱玲（1920-1995）在对《红楼梦》的演说中回想起流言，这是她1944年在日本占领的上海发表的散文集的标题，源于英语谚语“写在水上。”她进一步阐述了这种隐喻的含义：她不希望自己的写作能忍受–就像在水面上写的单词或“流淌的单词”一样，“流言”的字面意思是暂时徘徊并最终流失。但她也希望她的写作能被赋予“谣言”或“八卦”的精神（流言的第二个字面意思），并能自由，迅速地传播，并引起广泛的听众。[参见Chang，Nightmare in the红楼（台北：皇馆，1977）。这本书包含了张的文章，涉及到《红楼梦》中前现代中国梦中最著名的白话叙事的作者身份，主题，结构，人物写照和语言结构，代表了她在文学和艺术上的追求。美国年（1955-1995）。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 06:52, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张爱玲（1920-1995）在《红楼梦魇》一书的前言中谈到，“流言”意思源于英文谚语“写在水上，这也是她一部散文集的名字，出版于1944年在日本占领的上海后。她进一步阐述了这种隐喻的含义：她不指望自己的作品渊远流长–就像“在水面上写的文字”或“流淌的文字”一样，一如“流言”的字面意思，暂时徘徊并最终流逝，但她也希望她的写作能带有“谣言”或“八卦”的意味（流言的第二个字面意思），并能自由，迅速地传播，获得广泛的关注。[参见张爱爱玲，《红楼梦魇》（台北：皇冠出版社，1977）。这本书是张爱玲在美时期（1955-1995）对前现代中国梦中最著名的白话叙事小说《红楼梦》的研究成果，包含多篇文章，涉及《红楼梦》的作者身份，主题，结构，人物写照和语言结构，代表了她的文学和艺术追求。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:26, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Chang’s use of a language of self-reflexivity provides a window through which the curious reader/critic can look into the rather intimate process of a creative work in the making, so much so that the creative mentality of the woman author becomes a text which is first to be deciphered. The invention of the title is characteristic of Chang’s long-term effort to negotiate the boundaries between different genres of writing, and in this case, it is the distinction between critical/academic writing and the personal essay that is being questioned. Here, the mechanism behind the naming of her writing is more than just a clever pun. The title not only suggests a new style of essay writing, it also indicates a corresponding way to highlight the generic identities of this reinvented literary form.<br />
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张爱玲对自我反省语言的运用为好奇的读者/批评家提供了一个窗口，让他们得以深入了解正在创作中的作品的内在过程，因此，女作家的创作心理成为首先被解读的文本。书名反映了，张爱玲通过长期努力在不同写作类型之间寻求界限，在这种情况下，批评/学术写作和个人论文之间的区别受到了质疑。在这里，她作品命名背后的机制不仅仅是一个巧妙的双关语。标题不仅代表了一种新的散文写作风格，也代表了一种突出这种再造文学形式一般身份的相应方式。<br />
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张爱玲对自我反省性语言的运用为好奇的读者/评论家提供了一个窗口，通过这个窗口，他们可以观察到创作过程中相当详细的过程，因此女作家的创作心态成为首先被解读的文本。书名反映了张爱玲长期以来努力探讨不同文体之间界限，在这种情况下，批评/学术写作和个人散文之间的区别受到质疑。在这里，她的作品命名方法不仅仅是一个巧妙的双关语。这个标题不仅表明了一种新的散文写作风格，而且也代表了一种相应的方式来突出这种革新的文学形式的共性特征。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 10:09, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
During the writing process, the essay writer creates a structure of both containment (language captures the sentiments of a particular moment) and opening (language is unlimited because it lacks definite meaning or substance); and during the reading process, the immediacy and the transitoriness of the messages conveyed in these linguistic structures are first to be comprehended.<br />
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While words are described as flowing like water, and the essay genre is compared to a fluid construction of ‘gossip’ or leisurely talks, Chang’s naming of her own writing here offers more than just commentaries on the practice of literary writing. More importantly, the renaming of the essay genre should be understood as the woman writer’s commentary on the state of cultural production during a particular time in modern Chinese history that is characterized by enormous turmoil and disruption which resulted from the war and the occupation.[ For a standard historical account of cultural activities in occupied Shanghai, see Ke Ling, Zhuzi shengya (My Writing Career) (Taiyuan: Shanxi renmin chubanshe, 1986); also see Poshek Fu, Passivity, Resistance, and Collaboration: Intellectual Choices in Occupied Shanghai, 1937-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).]<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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Eileen Chang launched her writing career during the early 1940s, and her most important works, including the essays collected in Written on Water and the short stories collected in Chuanqi (Romances), were completed between 1943 and 45. Chang’s fictional writing has been subjected to abundant critical scrutiny since the late 1960s and early 1970s when scholars such as C.T. Hsia and Shui Jing started to reclaim the significance of Eileen Chang and promote her as one of the finest and the most original writers in the scene of twentieth century Chinese literature.[ See Shui Jing’s Paozhuan ji (Casting a Brick to Attract Jade) (Taipei: Sanmin shuju, 1969) and Zhang Ailing de xiaoshuo yishu (The Fictional Art of Eileen Chang ) (Taipei: Dadi chubanshe, 1973), as well as C. T. Hsia’s Aiqing, Shehui, Xiaoshuo (Love, Society, and Fiction) (Taipei: Chunwenxue chubanshe 1970), both published in Taipei. The three books were published in the midst of a renewed infatuation with the woman author shared by readers in Chinese-speaking communities outside of mainland China after 1949.] But the study of Chang’s essay writing is a different story.<br />
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张爱玲的创作生涯始于20世纪40年代初，她的重要作品包括散文集《流言》和短篇小说集《传奇》，均创作于1943年至45年间。虽然自20世纪60年代末70年代初以来，张爱玲的小说创作一直受大众批评，但是当时夏志清和水晶等学者已经开始重新认识张爱玲的意义，并称她为“二十世纪中国文学界最优秀、最具原创性的作家之一“【详见水晶的《抛砖记》（台北：三民书局，1969）和《张爱玲的小说艺术》（台北：大地出版社，1973）以及夏至清的《爱·社会·小说》（台北：纯文学出版社，1970），均在台北出版。这三本书的出版之时，正值1949年后中国大陆以外的华语读者对这位女作家重新产生迷恋之时。】但对张爱玲的散文写作的研究则是另一番景象。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:02, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Since the most popular essays by Chang were written during the same period as her fictional writing, namely, between 1942 and 45, and some of her essays conveniently provided the concrete historical and biographical background against which the plot in her fictional writing was possibly designed, Chang’s essay writing has so far been read as the best commentaries to her fictional writing, particularly to the short stories collected in the acclaimed Romances.[ Wu Fuhui, among many others, argues that Eileen Chang’s essays are only interesting when read together with her short stories. He uses the essay entitled ”Jingyu lu” (Stories from the Ashes) as an example, arguing that the essay should be read as providing the necessary historical context to our understanding of Chang’s highly acclaimed novella Qingcheng zhi lian (Romance Among the Ruins). I disagree with Wu because the emphasis of the essay clearly lies elsewhere: it presents a social gallery of figures – a group of female college students, all from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds, whose brilliance of personality is brought out by the war. The novella, however, focuses more on the falling apart and the reconstructing of the beauty legend. Here the generic distinctions between fiction and essay are instrumental in piecing together the meanings of these two literary texts. See Wu’s preface toZhang Ailing sanwen quanbian (A Complete Collection of Eileen Chang’s Essays) (Hangzhou: Zhejiang wenyi chubanshe, 1995).] While such an approach to Chang’s essays can provide a coherent discussion of Chang’s literary writing as an entirety, it may overlook the specificities of the essay genre in the Chinese context and may also downplay the cultural significance of such formalistic experiments.<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Chang’s experiments with the modern essay serve to position her at a critical moment of literary transformation in modern China. While women writers had actively participated in both fictional and poetic writing since the early decades of this century, the essay genre had been monopolized by male writers. Three major essay traditions had already been canonized when Eileen Chang took up the essay as a vital means of representation. The ‘minor essay’ (xiaopin wen) tradition, represented by Zhou Zuoren and Lin Yutang, is characterized by a light and relaxing tone, a simple and elegant diction, political disengagement, wit, and a leisurely mood. <br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
The ‘miscellaneous essay’ (zawen) tradition, represented by Lu Xun and several generations of followers, including a group of leftist writers residing in Gudao (Isolated Island) Shanghai (1937-41), highlights intellectual sharpness and rhetoric eloquence, advocates active engagement with reality, and maintains the belief that literary writing should be employed as a powerful tool for social criticism and political intervention. And finally, the ‘refined essay’ (meiwen) tradition, represented by Zhu Ziqing and many writers from both the Literary Studies Circle (Wenxue yanjiu hui) and the Creation Society (Chuangzao she) since the 1920s, advocates linguistic experiments, whose goal is to create a language of refinement and elegance, and imageries that embody highly aesthetic and sensual qualities.[ Most standard literary histories published in China do not attempt to distinguish between different styles of modern essay writing. The zawen (the miscellaneous essay) tradition is often highlighted as the mainstream style for its definition of literature as social and political critique. These standard literary histories do acknowledge the lyrical qualities of xiaopin wen and meiwen but fail to situate the practice of these alternative essay writing styles in their cultural and intellectual contexts. See Wang Yao, Zhongguo xinwenxue shigao (History of the ”New Literature” in China), Tang Tao and Yan Jiayan, Zhongguo xiandai wenxueshi (Modern Chinese History), and Qian Liqun et al., Zhongguo xiandai wenxue sanshinian (Thirty Years of Modern Chinese Literature).]<br />
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杂文派的代表人物有鲁迅及其几代追随者，包括一群上海孤岛时期（1937-41）的左翼作家。他们强调知识分子的敏锐和修辞口才，倡导积极接触现实，并坚持认为文学写作应用作社会批评和政治干预的有力工具。最后是美文派，诞生于20世纪20年代，代表人物是朱自清以及来自文学研究会和创造社的许多作家。他们倡导语言实验，旨在创造一种精致优雅的语言，以及体现高度审美和感官品质的意象。[中国出版的大多数标准文学史并不试图区分不同风格的现代散文作品。杂文经常被视作主流文体，因为它把文学定义为社会和政治批判。这些标准的文学史确实承认了小品文和美文的抒情品质，但未能将这些另类散文的写作风格实践置于他们的文化和知识背景中。参考王耀，《中国新文学史稿》，汤涛、严家炎，《中国现代文学史》，钱理群等，《中国现代文学三十年》。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:04, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
Most of the women writers in 1940s Shanghai experimented with essay writing. In fact, women produced a larger quantity of essays than any other literary genre. In addition to Eileen Chang, many women writers of the period, including Su Qing (1917-1982), Guan Lu (1908-1982), Pan Liudai (1922-?), and Shi Jimei (1920-1968), also discovered the generic fluidity embedded in the essay form. Compared to their experiments with other literary genres, such as fiction, drama, and poetry, it is in women’s essay writing of the period that the discourses of female gender and sexuality, issues of the domestic sphere, and the structures of social institutions such as marriage are most vigorously challenged and thoroughly reformulated. The essay genre is the most powerful literary form adopted by women writers such as Eileen Chang in their efforts to constantly redefine the boundaries between life and work, and to meticulously weave the space of private life together with the space provided by literary writing.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
In the following sections, I will argue that the woman writer’s experience of the time, the space, and the particular historical milieu of occupied Shanghai is not only mirrored in her representation of individual experiences of the war, the occupation, and the everyday, but also in her attempts to redefine the generic identities of the modern essay and to reinvent a kind of prose language that most vividly captures the transitional as well as eccentric nature of the essay genre. I will also argue that the choice of the essay form is central to Chang’s aesthetic vision.<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The female writer’s self-positioning in the realm of urban culture of 1940s Shanghai is exemplified in her appropriation of the genre. I will analyze Chang’s essay writing of the period to demonstrate how the genre was made into an important discursive site where the woman writer overtly challenged the literary conventions, searched for alternatives in both literary writing and practices of everyday life, and promoted herself as an important cultural figure. The uniqueness of this body of literary texts lies in the fact that it presents a version of women’s literature set within the context of the wartime occupation while interacting with urban commercial and print culture in 1940s Shanghai.<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''Essay and the aesthetics of liminality'''<br />
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How, then, does Eileen Chang write the experience of war and turbulence into the transformed form of the modern essay? While the sense of impending massive destruction is omnipresent in her essay writing of the 1940s, the representation of the specific historical situation is not delivered through any direct social and political reference to the immediate present; instead, the presence of history is often concealed under the masquerade of an aesthetic vision put together by a meditative inward gaze, an orchestra of city sounds, and an imagined border of the urban civilization endangered:<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Alone I sit next to a candle, thinking about the past and the present. What I have been busy doing for the last two years will probably be shattered soon. …… I should have a sense of it.<br />
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I was alone on the dusky balcony after Su Qing left. Suddenly I saw a tall building far away, on whose edges hung a great swatch of rouge-like redness. At first I thought it was the reflection of the setting sun on the windows, but on second glance, I realized that it was a full moon, rising crimson above the city. I thought to myself, “so this is what they mean by turbulent times.” In the evening mist, the borders of Shanghai were gently rising and falling in the distance, resembling layered mountain peaks, although there are no mountains surrounding our city.<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
I pondered the fate of many people, including myself. I began to have a melancholy sense of what we call destiny. Such intimations normally connote self-involvement and self-pity, but I now think that they might suggest something altogether more broad. When the peace and security of the future finally do arrive, they will no longer belong to us; at the present moment each of us can only strive to comfort ourselves……[ See ”Wo kan Su Qing” (The Way I Look at Su Qing), in Tiandi yuekan (Heaven and Earth Monthly) 19 (April, 1945).]<br />
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This impressionistic silhouette of the city is none other than the dramatic presence of modern history itself. Here, history is visualized, flattened, and inevitably spatialized. The image of the city and the force of history intermingle into one performative moment, instantaneously captured by the ‘I,’ the woman writer, who sits on the balcony of her private home, looking out into the distance, watching the border of the city rise and fall, observing the currents of history come and go, as if the entire setting was a mere act in a long and winding chuanqi (romance) play. <br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
History in Eileen Chang’s representation becomes a narrative which rejects any deep structure or profound meaning. Characterized by chaos and reversal, history appears to be no more than a shadowy presence in our consciousness:<br />
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In this era, the old things are falling apart, while the new ones are still in formation. Before the high tide of the era arrives, all certainty is but an illusion. We feel that everything in our everyday life is out of order to a terrifying degree. An individual belongs to a certain historical era, but our present era is sinking like a shadow; therefore we feel we have been deserted. In order to prove our own existence, we want to grasp onto something that is real, something fundamental. We then seek help from our ancient memory, the memory of human beings who have lived through various times in history.<br />
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张爱玲笔下的历史成为一种拒绝任何深层结构或深层意义的叙事。历史以混乱和反转为特征，在我们的意识中似乎只不过是一个影子：<br />
在这个时代，旧事物正在分崩离析，而新事物还未形成。在时代的高潮到来之前，所有确定的东西都只是一种幻觉。我们觉得我们日常生活中的每件事混乱不堪，令人害怕。每个人都属于某个历史时代，但我们现在的时代正在像影子一样消失，我们觉得自己被遗弃了。为了证明我们自己的存在，我们想要抓住一些真实的东西，一些基本的东西。然后，我们从我们古老的记忆中寻求帮助，即曾经经历过不同时期的人的记忆。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 09:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
Looking back helps us regain more clarity and closeness than we might gazing far into the future. We then have a strange feeling about the reality that surrounds us. We begin to suspect that this is an absurd and antiquated world, gloomy and bright at the same time. Between memory and reality, there often arise unbearable discrepancies, resulting in a perplexing but subtle agitation, an intensified but indefinable struggle.[ See ”Ziji de wenzhang” (Writing of One’s Own), in Written on Water, 1944. This translation is based on an earlier version by David Wang. See Wang, ”Fin-de-siècle Grandeur: Contemporary Women Writers’ Vision of Taiwan,” Modern Chinese Literature 5.4 (1992) 45-65.]<br />
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回首过去而不是遥望未来有助于我们重新获得更清晰、更亲近的感觉。然后我们对周围的现实有一种奇怪的感觉。我们开始怀疑这是一个荒诞而古老，阴暗而光明的世界。在记忆与现实之间，常常会产生难以忍受的差异，从而产生一种令人费解却又微妙的骚动，一种剧烈但难以言喻的斗争。[《写在水上》，1944年。此翻译是基于王大卫的早期版本。见王，“台湾当代女性作家的视野”，中国现代文学5.4（1992）45-65。]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:15, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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回顾过去可以帮助我们重新获得比凝视遥远的未来更清晰和亲近的感觉。我们对周围的现实有一种奇怪的感觉。我们开始怀疑，这是一个荒谬而陈旧的世界，黑暗与光明同时并存。在记忆和现实之间，常常会出现难以忍受的差异，导致一种令人困惑但微妙的激动，一种加剧但难以定义的挣扎。参见《自己的写作》，载于《水上记》，1944年。这个译本是根据王大卫的早期版本翻译的。参见王，“世纪末的宏伟:台湾当代女作家的视野”，中国现代文学5.4(1992)45-65。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:02, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
Here, history is no longer presented as a linearly progressing course; instead, it is broken into numerous fragments which can be reorganized and attributed with fresh meanings. The passage quoted above demonstrates Eileen Chang’s fascination with various liminal sites, in time or in space. Throughout her writing career, Chang has created many liminal sites, such as the illusory realm between memory and reality, the brief moment between past and present, and the intersection between life and work, fiction and poetry, stage movements and everyday events. The best of Chang’s writing often captures these transitional moments or sites, and the subjectivity in question is often taken over by a deep sense of uncertainty:<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
An individual can afford to wait, but an era is transient (''cangcu''). Things are being torn apart, and an even larger destruction is on its way. Someday our civilization, no matter how glorious, will become the past. I often use the word “desolation” (''huangliang'' 荒涼) because there is a premonition of impending danger underlying my thought. <br />
At such a ‘transient’ moment in history which will probably ‘sink’ like a ‘shadow’ in an instant, how, then, should an individual, in this case, a woman writer, position herself?<br />
Make yourself famous as early as possible! If success comes too late, it will not be as enjoyable. …… Hurry! Hurry! Otherwise it will be too late! Too late!<br />
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一个人可以等待，一个时代却是仓促的。一切都在四分五裂，更大的毁灭即将到来。终有一天我们的文明，不论多么辉煌，都将成为过去。我经常使用“荒凉（desolation）”一词，因为我的思想中隐含着即将降临之危险的预感。在这样一个“仓促”的历史时刻——它可能会像一个“影子”般瞬间“沉没”，那么，在这种情况下，一个女性作家应该如何定位自己呢？让自己尽早出名！如果成功来得太迟，就不那么令人愉快了......快点！再快点！否则就太迟了！太迟了！--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:32, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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一个人或许等得起，但一个时代却是仓促的。一切都在四分五裂，更大的毁灭即将到来。终有一天，我们的文明不论曾经多么辉煌，都终将成为过去。我常使用“荒凉”一词，因为我的思想中隐含着危险的预感。在这样一个“仓促”的历史时刻——它可能会像一个“影子”般瞬间“沉没”，那么，在这种情况下，一个女性作家应该如何定位自己呢？让自己尽早出名！如果成功来得太迟，就不那么令人愉快了......快点！再快点！否则就太迟了！太迟了！--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
These short, choppy sentences deliver a sense of urgency. To choose to define oneself through writing is then related to the woman writer’s understanding of the particular historical situation in 1940s Shanghai. It is a sense that the era is only a transitional moment in human history – the end is imminent and a new historical landscape will take shape. The imperative to make oneself famous then has to do with an urgent need to “occupy” a space in a swiftly dimishing landscape and to hold on to a moment that is constantly slipping away. Eileen Chang’s writing then highlights a very personal moment at a time when any individual voice is likely to be shattered by the grips of the modern warfare and eventually engulfed by the ruins of history. <br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Here the woman writer is going against her time by seeking an appropriate literary form and an adequate literary language to capture the essence of this fleeting moment in modern Chinese history. The new form and new language should be adequate to represent the dream-like world, the fragmented time, and the vanishing horizons of urban civilizations.<br />
<br />
Chang’s choice of the essay genre is then consistent with her unique vision of history and her fascination with what I would call ''the aesthetics of liminality''. One cannot find a more appropriate literary genre than the modern essay to capture the liminal qualities of that specific historical milieu. The essay is a genre that is positioned between the careful structuring of fiction and the free flow of poetry. The essence of essay writing lies exactly in its lack of essence or its eccentricity. The modern essay is a genre that is itself transitional.<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
The liminal qualities of the modern essay are further enhanced in various textual strategies Chang uses to challenge generic identities in literary conventions. For instance, Chang’s essay entitled “Shuangsheng” (Duet) represents one of the most intrepid literary experiments undertaken during the period. The influence of the roundtable talk, a prominent genre in popular culture, had penetrated the realm of literary writing. In “Duet,” literary writing takes the form of a mini roundtable talk. At the beginning of the essay, like most of the roundtable talks recorded in popular journals of the time, the surroundings and the atmosphere are provided in a painstakingly descriptive language. The conversation takes place in a coffee shop, where Eileen Chang, the narrator, and Mo Meng (named Yan Ying elsewhere), Chang’s female companion, indulge themselves in coffee and pastry while starting their rambling chat about anything and everything:<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Having seated ourselves, we started chatting about a variety of things in great detail. When our topics became more weighty, she [Mo Meng] said: “You know what, this seems a lot like a roundtable discussion.”<br />
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Within the space provided by the essay, the two women then continue to talk about a variety of topics: the language of love in both China and the West, the construction of romance in different cultural contexts, gender relationships inside and outside wedlock, fashions for women of different age groups, and the distinctiveness of the Japanese mentality. The fragmentary and all-inclusive qualities (''san'') of modern prose style (''sanwen'') had already been fully elaborated by Eileen Chang; the format of a roundtable talk coincides with the need to push the limit of modern prose style to its most eccentric, unrestrained, and far-ranging extreme.<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
For a discussion of the roundtable talk as an important cultural genre in 1940s Shanghai, see Nicole Huang, ''Written in the Ruins: War and Domesticity in Shanghai Literature of the 1940s''. The roundtable talk became an instrumental cultural genre in 1940s Shanghai. It was a new form of showcasing women writers by placing words (voices) and images (descriptions of their presence, and photographs) all on display. Major newspapers and journals of the period all used this strategy to advertise their publication, promote their circles of new writers, and take part in the construction of an expanded community put together by publishers, editors, writers, artists, and readers.<br />
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The structure of this essay also bears resemblance to that of a one-act play. The beginning passages can be viewed as stage descriptions. The action takes place in one quiet afternoon when two protagonists are engaged in a highly performative dialogue, and theatrical effect is enhanced when dramatic moments arise from time to time throughout the recorded conversation. <br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
“Wo kan Su Qing” (The Way I Look at Su Qing) presents Chang’s further effort to test the generic boundaries of the modern essay. The author effortlessly switches back and forth between her characterization of Su Qing and a close-up of the narrative self gazing inward. At one point in the essay, the author/narrative self pauses and admits that, in this essay devoted to Su Qing, she has actually devoted much more space to self-portrayal. Most of the time, the essay reads like an internal monologue: the narrative self is immersed in a constantly flowing display of numerous intimate moments. The free flowing of a sequence of random thoughts and the switch back and forth between different personas are fictional and theatrical devices used to further widen the representative capacities of the modern essay.<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
While “The Way I See Su Qing” imports fictional devices into the form ‘minor essay,’ an earlier essay entitled “Siyu” (Whispers) demonstrates an even more radical experiment, that is, to turn the genre into a new form of autobiographical writing. The title of the essay takes on double meanings: while ‘''siyu''’could mean ‘private talks,’ it could also mimic the lowered and fragmented voice used in talking about the most intimate moments in one’s private life. The narrative voice in the essay whispers, murmurs, and gossips. Nothing substantial is presented; instead, segments of life, tinted with the haziness of childhood memory, are organized in the re-invented prose form, like a stream of thoughts or a random layout of scenes. The technique used here closely resembles montage: segments of the past are presented like flashbacks, and moments of free-association further remind the reader of the constantly blurred boundaries between memory and reality, past and present. <br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The essay entitled “Tongyan wuji” (A Childish Discourse) presents another example of writing autobiography within the space of the modern essay. Sometimes the way that moments of childhood memory are narrated resembles the use of close-ups in film-making. The following episode even makes a direct reference to cinema:<br />
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I stood in front of the mirror and watched my trembling face, with tears falling down in streams. My face looked like a close-up in a movie. I told myself, grinding my teeth: “I want revenge. One day I will take my revenge.”<br />
<br />
Each sub-section in this essay – ‘Money,’ ‘Fashion,’ ‘Food,’ ‘Gentleman,’ and ‘Brother’ – can be viewed as one filmic long take, and there is no direct connection between them. The entire essay is put together by a series of long takes. Within the space of the modern essay, there appear to be many of these extended fictional or cinematic moments. Sometimes, description of details of clothing, or simply the pattern on a piece of fabric, can contribute to the shaping of a dramatic moment, the formation of a narrative structure. The following passage from the same essay is a good example:<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Japanese printed fabrics. Each bolt is a work of art. Each time I bring one home, before handing it over to a tailor, I repeatedly unroll it and bask in the image. A small Burmese temple is half shielded by the leaves of a palm tree; rain is falling incessantly through the reddish brown haze of the tropics. A pond in early summer, the water coated with a layer of green scum, above which float duckweed and fallen lilac petals, purple and white. Seemingly a fitting scene for a song lyric set to the tune “Laments of the South of the Yang-tze” (Ai Jiangnan)……<br />
<br />
Reading some of these highly aesthetic moments in Chang’s essay writing, we might argue that it is within the space provided by the modern essay and by means of cinematic devices that the fragmentation of conventional fictional language becomes inevitable.<br />
<br />
日本的印花面料。每一根螺栓都是一件艺术品。每次带回家，在交给裁缝之前，我都会反复展开，沐浴在画面中。一座缅甸小庙被棕榈树叶半遮半掩，雨水透过热带的红褐色雾气，不停地落下。初夏的池塘，水面涂上一层绿色的水垢，上面漂浮着鸭舌草和落下的丁香花瓣，紫白相间。配上一首《哀江南赋》似乎很应景......<br />
<br />
解读张爱玲散文写作中的一些极具审美性的瞬间，我们可以说，正是在现代散文所提供的空间里，并且借助电影手段，传统小说语言的碎片化才成为必然。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:56, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本织锦。每一匹日本织锦都是一件艺术品。每当我将一匹日本织锦带回家，我会反复展开织锦，醉心于上面的图案，然后才会交给裁缝。一座缅甸小佛寺在棕榈树叶的遮蔽下若隐若现；热带地区红褐色的雾霭之中，细雨绵绵。初夏的一方池塘里覆盖着一层绿色水垢，上面漂浮着被风吹落的丁香花瓣，白的紫的都有。配上一首《哀江南赋》似乎很应景……<br />
<br />
阅读张爱玲的散文作品，尤其是其中一些极具审美性的瞬间，我们可以说，正是在现代散文提供的空间里，并借助电影手段，传统小说语言的断层化已成必然。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:10, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
'''Essay and the making of a new prose language'''<br />
<br />
Few writers in twentieth-century China are as persistent as Eileen Chang was in constantly experimenting with new literary language. In her essay entitled “Ziji de wenzhang” (Writing of One’s Own), Chang retrospectively remarks on her use of a new fictional language in the novella ''Lianhuantao'' (Linked Rings):<br />
<br />
I adopted the language from traditional fiction on many occasions when writing the novella ''Chain of Rings''. In the story, Cantonese people and foreigners who lived fifty years ago speak like figures walking out of [the world of] ''Plum in a Golden Vase'' (Jing Ping Mei), …… My original intention was: I already created a considerable distance in space by writing about a romanticized Hong Kong from the point of view of a Shanghainese; I also created a distance in time by writing about the Hong Kong of fifty years ago. Therefore I intentionally adopted an antiquated diction to represent such a doubled displacement (''shuangchong juli''). ……<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
To situate the story in both a remote time and a distancing space endows the writer with abundant freedom in her choice of language. By returning to traditional literature to search for imaginative inspiration and expressive resources, Eileen Chang has redefined, on the discursive level, the cultural as well as political connotations of the modern vernacular language. For a modern reader who has considerable knowledge of the May Fourth literature, Chang’s fictional language presents the reader with a remote system of referentiality by using diction and narrative tone characteristic of those used in classical Chinese novels such as ''Plum in a Golden Vase'' and ''Dream of the Red Chamber''. <br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
What, then, are the characteristics of Chang’s linguistic experiments in her essay writing of the period? The titles of both the essay collection ''Written on Water'' and the essay “Whispers” can be viewed as the author’s own commentaries on the language she has chosen for the transformed essay genre. While literary language is compared to voices whispering, murmuring, or gossiping, and while words can eventually flow away just like water, the practice of writing then is a process of both embracing and breaking away from words, and the meanings that are presented no longer contribute to a system of enclosure. Chang’s naming highlights the indeterminacy of literary language and directs the reader’s attention to the uncertainty embodied in both the structure of the essay and the language that it employs.<br />
<br />
In the opening passage of the essay “Tan nüren” (Talking about Women), collected in ''Written on Water'', in a whimsical and relaxed tone, Eileen Chang cites a characterization of ‘women’ presented in a small pamphlet written by an English author:<br />
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那么，张爱玲这一时期的散文创作在语言实验上有什么特点呢？ 散文集''写在水面上''和散文《私语》的标题都可以看作是作者自己对转型后的散文体裁所选择的语言的评论。 文学语言被比喻为声音的窃窃私语、喃喃自语或闲聊，虽然文字最终可以像水一样流走，但那时的写作实践是一个既拥抱文字又挣脱文字的过程，所呈现的意义不再有助于形成一个围合的体系。 张先生的命名突出了文学语言的不确定性，并引导读者注意到文章的结构和所采用的语言所体现的不确定性。<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《写在水面上》收录的《谈女人》一文的开篇，以一种异想天开的轻松语气，引用了一位英国作家写的小册子中对 "女人 "的描述。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:36, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
那么，张爱玲这一时期的散文创作在语言研究方面的特点是什么？ 散文集《写在水面上》和散文《私语》的标题都可以看作是作者自己对转型后的散文体裁所选择的语言评论。 文学语言被比喻为窃窃私语、喃喃自语或闲聊，虽然文字最终可以像水一样流走，但那时的写作实践是一个既拥抱文字又挣脱文字的过程，所呈现的意义不再有助于形成一个围合的体系。 张爱玲的命名突出了文学语言的不确定性，并引导读者去注意文章的结构和所采用语言所体现的不确定性。<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《写在水面上》收录的《谈女人》一文的开篇，以一种异想天开的轻松语气，引用了一位英国作家写的小册子中对 "女人 "的描述。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:06, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Westerners refer to sinister and cruel (''yinxian kebo'') women as ‘cats.’ I ran across a pamphlet recently, written in English, entitled ''Cats'', which does nothing else except condemn women. It is not that what is said in it has never been expressed by other people. Interesting remarks (''juanyu'') concerning women are scattered everywhere and it is just not easy to collect them all together. But here this pamphlet is really a compilation (''ji qi dacheng'') [of what has been said about women]. <br />
<br />
Chang then invites her readers to accompany as she glances through a group of quotes she has selected and translated from that pamphlet, much of which is a condemnation of women’s erotic potential. Not a single word of explicit judgment is offered throughout the essay by Chang, nor are the assumptions contained in this pamphlet about the gendered character of each individual expressly challenged. After reading Chang’s essay, a reader might wonder to what extent has the ‘real’ author behind the masquerade of the narrative internalized such an ‘othered’ male view?<br />
西方人把阴险刻薄的女人称为 "猫"。我最近看到一本小册子，是用英语写的，册子标题是《猫》。这本册子里面除了谴责女人，没有其他的内容。册子里所提的内容，也有别人提起过。有关女性的有趣言论到处都是，但是要把它们收集在一起实在不容易。不过，这本小册子确实是[关于女性的]言论的汇编(集大成)。<br />
然后，张爱玲邀请读者陪着她一起读一读自己从那本小册子中选取和翻译的一组评价，其中大部分是对女性潜在情欲的谴责。在整篇文章中，张爱玲没有作出一句明确评判，也没有对这本小册子中提出的关于每个人的性别特征的假设提出明确反驳。读完了张爱玲的文章后，读者可能会问，戴了面具的叙事手法，其背后的 "真实 "作者又在多大程度上内化了这种 "他者 "的男性观？--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:54, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
And to what extent is Chang’s translation ‘faithful’ to the original text? The original author’s name remains unmentioned in Chang’s essay, making it difficult to assess the extent to which the original ‘male’ narrative voice has been twisted or distorted by Chang’s rendition. The narrative voice appears to be a composite in those quotes and is even more so in the rest of her essay. One approach to reading Chang’s essay is then to regard the quotation as an integral part of the whole essay, to view it as Eileen Chang’s own linguistic construction, a construction which already contains her critique. Within these quotes, the message is complicated, and presented in several levels. Some of the quotes are reminiscent of an archetypal ‘male’ voice:<br />
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<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
This kind of fictional and temporal distance is also characteristic of Chang’s short stories written during the period. David Wang argues that the fictional world presented in the short stories in ''Romances'' points to a remote system of referentiality for modern readers by interweaving many ”unreal” elements such as the fantastic, the grotesque, the decadent, and the dark romanticist. See Wang, ”Nü zuojia de xiandai guihua: cong Zhang Ailing dao Su Weizhen” (Modern Ghost Narratives by Women Writers: from Eileen Chang to Su Weizhen), in ''Zhongsheng xuan-hua: sanshi yu bashi niandai de Zhongguo xiaoshuo'' (Heteroglossia: Chinese Fiction of 1930s and 1980s).<br />
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这种虚构性和时代性的距离，也是他在这一时期创作的短篇故事的特点。王大卫认为，《浪漫》这一短篇故事中所呈现的虚构世界，通过交织许多“虚幻”的元素，如奇幻、怪诞、颓废、黑暗的浪漫主义，为现代读者指明了一个遥远的指称体系。参见王的《女作家的现代鬼故事:从张爱玲到苏伟真》，载于《仲生宣化:三诗于巴诗念代德中》(杂注:中国三十、八十年代小说)。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:11, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
“The physical construction of women is so exquisite; therefore, their spiritual construction is incomplete. This is predictable. We just cannot be over-critical of them [women].” <br />
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“If you do not seduce a woman, she would say that you are not a man; if you do, she would say that you are not a man of the upper-class.” <br />
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“The only difference between a woman and a dog is: a dog is not as spoiled as a woman is; a dog does not wear jewelry; and – thank God! – a dog does not speak!”<br />
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The expected readers of the pamphlet ''Cats'' are married middle-class men. According to Eileen Chang, the original author admits that, “a man, after having just fought with his wife, would feel comforted if he reads this pamphlet before he goes to bed.” Functioning as a psychological therapy, the expected reading process should yield pleasure which soothes grievances and unhappiness in one’s ‘actual’ life.<br />
<br />
“女人的身体构造如此精巧，所以她们的精神构造是不完整的。这是可以预见的。我们不能对她们（女性）过分挑剔。”<br />
“如果你不勾引女人，她会说你不是男人；如果你这样做，她会说你不是上流社会的男人。”<br />
“女人和狗的唯一区别是：狗不像女人那样娇惯；狗不戴首饰；还有——感谢上帝！–狗不会说话！”<br />
短篇小说《猫》的预期读者是已婚中产阶级男子。据张爱玲所言，钱钟书认为，“一个男人刚和妻子吵架后，如果在睡觉前读这篇小说，他会获得慰藉。”预期阅读过程作为一种心理治疗，应该会产生愉悦，从而缓和一个人“实际”生活中的不快。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:50, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
Within this reading process, through the mediation of a narrative language, the imagined male reader takes upon the implicit point of view built in the assumed male author’s account, manipulates and appropriates the construction of the female image, and displaces his sense of anger, repression, and alienation, or his frustrated desire for control and domination, onto such a constructed image. For a married man, the unsuccessful threats toward his wife in real life can then be successfully prosecuted on a textual level.<br />
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Such a female erotic image depicted in a seemingly unambiguous male text could generate a variety of culturally coded specific meanings and gendered differences. However, the tone of Chang’s language seems to invalidate the possibilities of applying an ideologically charged critique of these messages. Her narrative tone is relaxed, whimsical, playful, humorous, and somewhat ironic. The message transmitted in these quotes is impure, it has been reworked, and already contains a ‘look.’ This ‘look’ is interwoven with a sense of irony. This is even more explicit in some of her other quotes:<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
“A man can flirt with a bar waitress in the squalid bar without losing his reputation; yet an upper-class woman is not even allowed to blow a kiss at a postman from afar. We can then draw an inference that men are different from women – no matter how low they [men] bend their backs, it is never difficult for them to stand up straight again.” <br />
“Generally speaking, women do not need the variety of stimulants in their lives that men do. Therefore, we should tolerate a man if he transgresses boundaries during his leisure time, in order to enliven his weary body, [to expel] his worries, [and to accomplish] his unrealized aspirations.” <br />
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==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
These quotes should be understood as mainly Eileen Chang’s own rendition. Through the ironic tone, the message becomes twisted, distorted, highly dramatized, and thereby transformed into parody and ridicule. If Eileen Chang does seek to tease out this assumed male voice, such an attempt proceeds through the creation of a narrative distance, a sense of innuendo, a skillful rewording of the male voice, and not through any explicit charges or critiques. The reader is left to herself to read between the lines, to speculate about the hints, and to screen out the mixed messages.<br />
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==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Despite the absence of an explicit criticism toward this unambiguous male voice, Eileen Chang’s presentation has revealed the fact that the male denunciation of the public effects of a female eroticism is itself manifested in an eroticized form. Such an eroticized form has been dramatized to the extreme by Chang in her skillful rewording. A reader would ponder whether this male denunciation addresses the danger of the placing women in public display or is itself a public display of women as eroticized subjects? Eileen Chang’s appropriation of the male denunciation of female eroticism becomes a doubled affirmation of the much textualized eroticizing potential of female images, which makes it difficult to pin down the ‘femaleness’ of her use of literary language. <br />
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==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
Perhaps, then, to examine the ‘femaleness’ of Chang’s language is not an appropriate approach. Nor can we confidently situate Eileen Chang into the female literary tradition of modern China, a tradition which is usually characterized by the May Fourth style of writing. Chang’s cultural marginality, her interest in irrelevant details and domesticity, and her teasing of patriarchs and of gender relations all tempt critics to label her work with various feminine qualities. But Eileen Chang’s voice cannot be simply categorized in a dichotomy of conventional and patriarchal speech on the one hand, and experimental and anti-patriarchal speech on the other. It is obviously impure; it is a kind of language that occupies the space of the liminal; it is a mixed voice, both ‘male’ as well as ‘female.’ In many instances, her language appears to be the so-called “protective language,” a “neutralizing middle tongue,” a language of concealment rather than revelation. The mixed voices prevent us from going on to ‘genderize’ the grammar, the expression, and the diction in her writing. Eileen Chang’s language is one of resisting the process of ‘genderizing,’ and of eliminating the possibilities of polarizing different identities. <br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
In her recent study of Eileen Chang’s fictional writing, Rey Chow defines Eileen Chang’s ‘femininity’ as predominantly associated with ”irrelevant” details. In the picture painted by Chow, ‘detail’ carries a distinctively ‘feminine’ label and is defined as ”the sensuous, trivial, and superfluous textual presence that exists in an ambiguous relation with some larger ‘vision’ such as reform and revolution.” Chow argues that Eileen Chang constructs a different vision of modernity and history through ”a release of sensual details whose emotional backdrop is often that of entrapment, destruction, and desolation.” Eileen Chang’s understanding of culture, therefore, carries a ”powerfully negative affect.” See Rey Chow, Chapter III ”Modernity and Narration: in Feminine Detail” in her ''Woman and Chinese Modernity: The Politics of Reading Between West and East'' (Minnesota and Oxford: University of Minnesota Press, 1991) 85.<br />
<br />
Rey Chow’s emphasis on the intricately related history of details and the feminine in the Chinese case is certainly illuminating in the sense that she suggests a new perspective to define the significance of Eileen Chang’s writing and thus a new way of critiquing the construction of a history of modern Chinese literature as a whole. <br />
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==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
However, in Rey Chow’s categorization of Eileen Chang, a new type of femininity is classified, whose characteristics are intimate, domestic, sensuous, pre-rational, trivial, obsessed with its sexual being, yet embodying subversive strength and transgressive potentials. This seemingly fresh and autonomous femininity does take one thing for granted, that is the unproblematized association between the female, the domestic, and trivial details. Rey Chow’s emphasis on feminine detail may have endowed Eileen Chang’s writing with a critical power deriving from the marginal position that she is inscribed in; but to domesticate Chang, to enclose her within woman’s traditional domain of the home, could also lead to the draining of the heaviness and the other intellectual potentialities in Chang’s writing.<br />
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==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The terms ”protective language” and a ”neutralizing middle tongue” are lifted out of Catharine Stimpson in her discussion of Gertrude Stein’s writing. According to Stimpson, ”Stein’s coding of sexual activities becomes a privileged and a distinguished ‘anti-language’,” that is, a language of ”anti-societies.” Stimpson argues against some other critics’ attempts to ”adjectify” Stein’s work as ”female.” She suggests that Stein’s language is ultimately ”impure,” it is ”linear as well as pluridimensional,” it is ”male” as well as ”female.” Stimpson argues that Stein’s literary language is neither ”female,” nor ”an unmediated return to signifiers freely wheeling in maternal space.” See Stimpson, ”The Somagrams of Gertrude Stein,” in ''The Female Body in Western Culture: Contemporary Perspectives'', edited by Susan Rubin Suleiman.<br />
<br />
在讨论格特鲁格·斯坦因的著作时，“保护性语言”和“中立的中性语言”一词被从凯瑟琳·斯廷普森删除。斯廷普森认为，“斯坦因对性行为的编码成为一种特权和一种独特的'反语言'，即'反社会'的语言。斯廷普森反对其他一些批评家试图将斯坦因的作品“形容”为“女性”的说法。她认为斯坦的语言最终是“不纯正的”，既是“线性的又是多维度的”，既是“男性的”又是“女性的”。斯廷普森认为，斯坦因的文学语言既不是“女性的”，也不是指“无意中回归到指代者而自由地进入母体空间”。请参见苏珊·鲁滨·苏蕾曼编辑的《当代视角下西方文化中的女性身体形象》中格特鲁德·斯坦的躯体语言。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 11:10, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
在讨论格特鲁德·斯坦因的作品时，凯瑟琳·斯廷普森讨论了“保护性语言”和“中和性的中间语言”。根据斯廷普森的说法，“斯坦因对性行为的编码变成了一种特权和独特的‘反语言’”，也就是说，是一种“反社会”的语言。斯廷普森反对其他一些批评家试图将斯坦因的作品“形容为女性”。她认为斯坦因的语言最终是“有杂质的，“它是“线性也是多元维度的”，它是“男性”也是“女性”。斯廷普森认为，斯坦因的文学语言既不是“女性”，也不是“在母体空间中自由转动的能指的无中介回归”。参见斯廷普森德《当代视角下西方文化中的女性身体形象》中的格特鲁德·斯坦因的躯体语法，苏珊·鲁宾·苏莱曼主编。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:02, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
Julia Kristeva suggests that ”the very dichotomy man/woman as an opposition between two rival entities may be understood as belonging to metaphysics”; it must be dismantled through ”the demassification of the problem of difference, which would imply, in a first phase, an apparent de-dramatization of the ‘flight to the death’ between rival groups and thus between the sexes.” Kristeva refers to this as ”a strategy of disintegration.” This strategy is a ”true radicalism” in such attempts ”to undo given identities, to go beyond the policy of creating counter-identifications.” See ”Women’s Time” (translated by Alice Jardine and Harry Blake) in ''Signs'' (Autumn, 1981).<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
Perhaps, then, to examine the ‘femaleness’ of Chang’s language is not an appropriate approach. Nor can we confidently situate Eileen Chang into the female literary tradition of modern China, a tradition which is usually characterized by the May Fourth style of writing. Chang’s cultural marginality, her interest in irrelevant details and domesticity, and her teasing of patriarchs and of gender relations all tempt critics to label her work with various feminine qualities. But Eileen Chang’s voice cannot be simply categorized in a dichotomy of conventional and patriarchal speech on the one hand, and experimental and anti-patriarchal speech on the other. It is obviously impure; it is a kind of language that occupies the space of the liminal; it is a mixed voice, both ‘male’ as well as ‘female.’ In many instances, her language appears to be the so-called “protective language,” a “neutralizing middle tongue,” a language of concealment rather than revelation. The mixed voices prevent us from going on to ‘genderize’ the grammar, the expression, and the diction in her writing. Eileen Chang’s language is one of resisting the process of ‘genderizing,’ and of eliminating the possibilities of polarizing different identities.<br />
<br />
那么，分析张爱玲语言中的女性特征也许不是一种恰当的方法。我们无法十分肯定地说她的作品体现了近代中国文学中的女性传统，这一传统以五四文体为特征。张爱玲作品中的文化边缘性、对细枝末节的关注、蕴含的家庭特征以及对男性家长和性别关系的调侃无一不促使评论家将其打上女性特质的标签。但是我们不能将张爱玲的语言简单地划分为两个对立面：一方面是传统的父权话语，另一方面则是实验性的反父权话语，她的文学语言无疑是模糊的，是一种位于两种状态分界处之上的语言，是一种糅合了“男性”与“女性”与一身的语言。在很多情况下，她的语言都表现出一种所谓的“保护性”、“中性的口吻”，或者说是一种隐没而非彰显的语言。张爱玲的作品语言的复杂性让我们无法将其中的语法、表达以及用词性别化，这种语言正是一种抵制“性别化”过程的语言，消除了分化不同身份的可能性。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 03:40, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
In Eileen Chang’s essay writing, it is finally the narration itself that becomes a site where conflicting cultural discourses meet and interact. The narrative voice does not embody or point to any authoritative discourses: it is neither the passive receiver of a system of accomplished social customs and values containing stereotypes of passive femininity, nor a spokeswoman for a ‘progressive’ nationalist ideological agenda. While history is viewed as transitory and fragmented, the language used to account for this history is no longer something which is ideologically or rhetorically charged. It is not a language to account for truth and beliefs, it is a language of ‘paradox’ and ‘enigma’; it is a ‘counter-language.’ Chang’s use of language serves to recuperate a remote tradition that is incompatible to the present historical situation, and to restore a different set of voices which are inconsonant with the chorus of her time.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Chang’s essay writing indicates that the coherence of a so-called women’s literary writing tradition in modern China is a mere fabrication. The linguistic constructions in Chang’s essay writing playfully appropriate male fantasies, turning them into props in the creation of a new literary space. By turning structures of male fantasies into narrative devices, and by transforming male voices to enhance the theatrical effect of essay writing, Eileen Chang has demonstrated a much more confident gesture in offering a critique of gendered constructions in both the larger social context and the sphere of literary writing.<br />
<br />
'''Essay and the Invention of Life in Wartime'''<br />
<br />
In the preface to her 1988 collection entitled '''Xuji''' (The Sequel), Eileen Chang confesses that she has been a “loyal believer” in Greta Garbo’s philosophy of life:<br />
张爱玲的散文著作揭示了这样一个事实，现代中国所谓的女性文学写作传统不过是对男性文学写作传统的伪造。她的散文著作中，语言结构巧妙地借用了男性的幻想思维，将其转换为创造新文学空间的支柱。张将男性幻想结构转换为叙述手法，并且转换男性的叙述口吻，以此提高散文写作所带来的戏剧影响，在广大的社会背景条件下和文学创作方面，提出了性别结构批评，对此，她信心满满。在其1988年出版的名为《战争时代的散文与发现》一书的前言中，张爱玲坦白说，她是葛嘉丽·宝格生活哲学的忠诚信仰者。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 11:48, 3 December 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
张爱玲的散文作品表明现代中国所谓的女性文学创作传统的一致性仅仅是捏造而已。她在散文作品的语言结构中巧妙地运用了男性的幻想，并将其转化为创造新文学空间的支柱。通过将男性幻想结构转变为叙事手法，并通过转换男性的叙述口吻来增强散文写作的戏剧效果，张爱玲在更大的社会背景和文学创作领域中以更加自信的姿态提出了性别结构批评。<br />
<br />
'''散文和战时的生活发现'''<br />
<br />
在她1988年出版的名为《续集》(The Sequel)一书的序言中，张爱玲坦诚地说她一直是葛丽泰·嘉宝人生哲学的“忠实信仰者”：--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 07:37, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
For several decades, relying on make-up and acting skills, she [Garbo] lived the life of a recluse, seldom seen through by other people. Her life-time belief was that “I want to live by myself.” …… Why is it that writers also have a hard time preserving the privacy of their lives? <br />
<br />
These sentiments could not have been expressed back in the 1940s. The solitude of the latter half of Chang’s life, that is, the four decades since she came to America in the fall of 1955, forms a sharp contrast to the glorious moments during the first half of the 1940s, particularly the years of 1944 and 1945, when she and Su Qing emerged in the cultural scene of Shanghai simultaneously and became brighter stars than the most acclaimed movie actresses and popular singers. <br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
As argued earlier, the most important players in this society-wide promotion of women intellectuals were none other than women writers themselves. And among all literary genres, it was the modern essay that became the most powerful form of expression in women writers’ self-promotion and myth-making. Essay served to contribute concrete forms to a life that was void of any structure; in other words, women writers such as Eileen Chang and Su Qing used the form of the modern essay to construct an intelligible universe where one’s imagination and fantasy could anchor. Detailed descriptions of everyday experience, that is, representations of cultural meanings of the material world, manifests not only a dynamic inner life but also a new social identity in formation. In this section I will highlight two aspects of life that are conceptualized in Chang’s essay writing, one is the space of a modern apartment as a liminal site in urban landscape, and the other is the discourse of fashion as a vital form of material consciousness.<br />
<br />
如前所述，在整个社会范围内提升女性知识分子最重要的参与者就是女性作家本身。在所有文学体裁中，现代散文成为女性作家自我提升和神话创造中最有力的表达形式。散文可以为没有任何结构的生活提供具体形式：换句话说，张爱玲和苏青等女性作家利用现代散文的形式，构建了一个个人想象和幻想可以驻留的可理解的宇宙。对日常经验的详细描述，即对物质世界的文化意义的陈述，不仅体现了动态的内心生活，而且体现了一种形成中的新的社会认同。在这一章中，我将着重介绍张爱玲散文写作中所概念化的生活的两个方面，一方面是作为城市景观中有限场所的现代公寓的空间，另一方面是将时尚的讲话视为物质意识的一个重要形式。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:13, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
'''Passage from apartment to street'''<br />
<br />
In her essay entitled “Gongyu shenghuo jiqu” (Interesting Moments in Apartment Life), Chang depicts a spatial construction which serves as the backdrop of the formation of a new urban persona:<br />
<br />
I would ride the wind, returning up there,<br />
but fear those marble domes and jade galleries<br />
the place so high, the cold is unbearable …… <br />
<br />
On reading these lines, residents who live on top floors of apartment buildings will more or less shiver with fear. The higher the apartment, the colder. Ever since the price of coal soared , radiators in apartments have become purely decorative. The “H” on the hot water faucet is indispensable in order to perfect the bathroom design; but if you turn on the hot water tap by mistake, a hollow but grievous rumble will burst out from the “Nine Springs” (''Jiu quan'') down below. It sounds like the very complicated and very capricious hot water pipe system in the apartment building has lost its temper. Even if we do not provoke it, the God of thunder still makes its power felt at any moment. <br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Out of nowhere, it can set off a long and evil buzz followed by two blasting sounds, as if an airplane was circling above for a while and then dropped two bombs. Having been terror-stricken in wartime Hong Kong, this kind of noise would always make me panic when I first returned to Shanghai. At first the pipe was still working conscientiously; in much difficulty, it would carry some hot water all the way up to the sixth floor, accompanied by a gurgling sound. That was still acceptable, but now it is like deafening thunder followed only by drizzle, and worse yet, all we get are just two droplets of yellow rusty mud. But I dare not complain anymore; the unemployed can easily fly into a rage.<br />
<br />
What is most striking in this beginning episode of Chang’s essay is how the experience of the everyday is depicted as parallel to that of war. War makes its metaphorical presence in daily life of an apartment dweller, serving as a trope for the erratic rhythm of an urban life style. Chang’s depiction of the texture of an apartment life then can be read as a parable of war. <br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
This opening episode makes references to several archetypal war themes, including death (as in the reference to the “nine springs” or Jiu quan), the scarcity of necessities in life (such as the mentioning of high price of coal and deficiency of hot water in the apartment), and the threat of air-raid (as suggested by the narrator’s haunted memory from her years living in wartime Hong Kong). Themes of unemployment, social unrest, and economic instability are also represented in Chang’s depiction of an animated world where one’s private space is constantly intruded by outside forces. The author has invented a new sense of interiority in her attempt to come to terms with the topography of urban life during wartime. The essay gives textual testimonies to two most important categories of experience in occupied Shanghai – the urban and the war; and these two categories converge precisely within the constructed space of a modern apartment.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
See Chapter 2 for a discussion of the society-wide promotion of the two women and the women’s attempt in self-fashioning. Su and Chang were often showcased together with famous singers, dancers, and movie actresses at the time. See, for instance, ”Cui Chengxi wudao zuotan” (A Roundtable Discussion of Cui Chengxi’s Dance), where women writers were presented together with the Korean Dancer Cui Chengxi and a Chinese dancer named Wang Yuan. Published in ''The Miscellany Monthly'' 12. 2 (November, 1943). Another example is ”Nalianghui ji” (A Summer Gathering), where Eileen Chang was showcased together with the singer/movie actress Li Xianglan. In The ''Miscellany Monthly'' 15. 5 (August, 1945).<br />
<br />
Originally published in ''Heaven and Earth Monthly'' 3 (December, 1943).<br />
<br />
These are the lines in the Song dynasty poet Su Shi’s famous song lyric written to the tune ”Shuidiao getou” (Song for the Water Tune).<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
This is the first time in the history of modern Chinese literature that the literary world of a woman author is so tenaciously associated with an urban life style characterized by routines in and out of a modern apartment. In other words, the spatial specificities of a modern apartment are essential to the construction of a vision of life in wartime in Eileen Chang’s writing. City offers many transitional territories such as hotels, stations, theaters, and cafes, which are spaces beyond the rigid categorization of inside or outside, private or public. In Chang’s writing, the space of an apartment is presented as such a transitional site. It is a self-contained private space, which enables a city dweller to escape the intensity of life outside the apartment when necessary. But more importantly, an apartment is also a locus point from which one can enter into various aspects of urban culture. <br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
For Eileen Chang, who, between 1942 and 1945, spent most of her time in a flat on the top floor of a six-story apartment building not too far away from the Jing’an Temple, the modern interior space is like a picture frame, encircling the nights and days of an urban dweller who constantly looks out, from her own apartment windows, that is, a new vantage point, at the kaleidoscopic world of metropolitan Shanghai. Living in an apartment seems to have changed ways of seeing, hearing, smelling, and feeling: not only the cityscape is presented differently – now from a new height (the windows of an apartment on the sixth floor), even sounds in the city become more vivid with the elevation of height:<br />
<br />
I am often amazed at how street noises can be heard so clearly from the sixth floor, as if it was all happening right beneath one’s ears. The older we get, the farther we are separated from our childhood, and yet the memories of it and its many trivial details have gradually become more sweet and vivid. <br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Just like our present bears imprints of the past, an interior space is constantly permeated and reshaped by the every-changing outside world. This is a world (un)marked by blurred boundaries; liminality characterizes one’s own positioning within such an obscure realm. And yet senses simply become more acute, and thoughts are given fresh new patterns. Here, we are witnessing the formation a new metaphysics of the everyday:<br />
<br />
I like to listen to street sounds. Those who have more refined taste would rest on their pillows and listen to wind whistling in a pine grove or the roar of ocean waves. But it is the sound of a trolley that I must hear in order to fall asleep. On the hills in Hong Kong, only in winter when the north wind blew on the evergreens all night would it remind me of the charming sound of a trolley. People who have lived in an exciting city for many years do not realize what they must have in life until they have left the place. The thoughts of a city dweller are set against a curtain of striped pattern; the light-colored stripes are running trolleys. Like neatly paralleled currents of sounds, they continuously flow into our subconscious. <br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
For Eileen Chang, an apartment is truly the center of urban life. Like a train station, it serves as an initial starting point, always ready to transport one’s senses into many different directions. Chang’s aesthetics of life is then attributed with a concrete spatial form that is deeply rooted in the soil of the everyday of wartime. If the production of popular journals in occupied Shanghai symbolizes the shaping of an imagined space, the modern apartment is another important site on the mental map of a city under siege. The aggression of wartime occupation has disrupted cycles of life, routines in and out of one’s own home, but new urban spaces and experiences were also created. Here the presence of war intensifies one’s experience of the urban, crystallized in the shaping of a particular spatial form, that is, the modern apartment.<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
Many feminist scholars have suggested the importance of studying spatial constructions. They argue that by giving the inner world a form of concreteness, spatial symbols in literature are most illuminating in showing how personal experience intersects with specific cultural categories. The study of spatial construction is then important since it is the key point in understanding women’s literature: space often serves as a vehicle by which the female protagonists attempt to launch a journey of self-discovery, which constitutes the most important part of the female experience. See, for instance, Jessica Benjamin, ”A Desire of One’s Own: Psychoanalytic Feminism and Intersubjective Space,” in ''Feminist Studies/Critical Studies'', edited by Teresa de Lauretis (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986).<br />
<br />
For a discussion of other kinds of spatial constructions in 1940s Shanghai, see Wei Shaochang, ”Jiu Shanghai de tingzijian” (The Garret in Old Shanghai), published in ''Haishang wentan'' (March, 1994). Also see a photographic history in Tang Zhenchang, ed., ''Jindai Shanghai fanhua lu'' (Modern Shanghai: The Splendor) (Hong Kong: Shangwu yinshuguan 1993.)<br />
<br />
In ”Interesting Moments in Apartment Life.”<br />
<br />
Ibid.<br />
<br />
See Nicole Huang, ''Written In the Ruins''.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s vision, this spatial experience is also gendered. The image of an apartment dweller is gendered, and often female. “It seems like only women can fully understand the advantages of life in an apartment,” Chang writes, since the household duties in an apartment are much more simplified. Therefore, a woman can much better appreciate the numerous trivial details in life; she can even start to appreciate the gorgeous colors of fresh vegetables displayed at morning markets, and enjoy the pleasures of cooking and cleaning. Chang’s reinvention of these daily trips is most forcefully presented in one essay entitled “Zhongguo de riye” (China: Days and Nights). <br />
<br />
In Chuanqi (extended edition) (Shanghai: Shanhe tushu gongsi, 1946).（注释）<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s own account, morning errands to the vegetable market seem to be her own tour through the part of the city that she is most attached to. Every morning she would take the elevator down from her sixth floor apartment, emerge onto the awakening streets, mingle with the morning crowd, and progress toward the world of the magnificent colors of the early market. Daily routines are not just bound duties that confine the everyday experiences of women; instead, they become forms of life choreographed in accordance with the distinctive rhythm of the city. Women can finally look at them as opportunities to explore a life that is wider, brighter, and more open to a variety of new possibilities.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
Life in apartment is then presented with many layers in Chang’s essay writing. In “Daolu yi mu” (Views from the Streets), Eileen Chang also reminds the reader of the many levels of urban culture taking shape outside of the apartment, that is, on the streets. On one level, the street scene of Shanghai is most distinctively characterized by the window displays and neon lights on Avenue Joffre:<br />
<br />
Designing shop windows is a fascinating job, since there is motionless drama in each display. ……… [I remember] a mid-winter night four or five years ago when my cousin and I were strolling down the Avenue Joffre, looking at shop window displays. <br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
Under neon lights, the slanted faces of those wooden beauties under slanted hats, with feathers slanting down from atop the hats. I did not wear western suits, had no need of a hat, and did not want to buy one. And yet I still looked at them with admiring eyes…… <br />
<br />
This fascination with window displays and neon lights is staged at a moment that belongs to the past – “four of five years ago.” At the present time within the essay, a different layer of images are highlighted. We see various street corners scattered in less prestigious neighborhoods of the metropolis. Chang’s impressionistic depiction of the city of Shanghai contains numerous crisscrosses of small lanes and faces of ordinary people:<br />
<br />
”Views from the Streets,” in Heaven and Earth Monthly 4 (January, 1944). （注释）<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
There are many scenes on the streets that are worth another glance. At dusk, a rickshaw is parked by the roadside, a woman is leaning against the seat, a sack in her hand, some persimmons in the sack. The rickshaw man is squatting down on the ground, trying to light up an oil lamp. It is getting dark, and the lamp by the woman’s feet slowly brightens. <br />
<br />
Here, within the space of one essay, the images of a rickshaw man and a housewife on a small street are juxtaposed with the memory of two young women window-shopping on the extravagant Avenue Joffre. The subtle light of an oil lamp is placed against the bright and luring rats of neon signs.<br />
<br />
街道上有许多场景值得一看。 黄昏时，一辆人力车停在路边，一个女人靠在座位上，手里拿着一个麻袋，麻袋里放着一些柿子。 这辆人力车男子蹲在地上，试图点亮一盏油灯。 天快黑了，女人脚旁的灯慢慢变亮。<br />
<br />
在这篇论文的空间中，在一条小街上，一辆黄包车男子和一名家庭主妇的影像并置在一起，以纪念两名年轻女子在奢侈的Joffre大街上逛街。油灯的微弱光线被放置在明亮而诱人的霓虹灯招牌上。<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
And the warmth and intimacy of the present set off the coldness and vastness of a moment in the past. Here, even though there is no direct reference to the turbulent events taking place in the background of occupied Shanghai, we can nonetheless sense the presence of war in this contrast between the two time frames and the switch back and forth between different layers of urban space. Rapid movements, swift changes, drastic transformations, and the transience of a given moment, these themes of war are represented in a most subtle and yet vivid fashion.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
To carry the argument further, Chang’s sense of modernity has extended from a modernist high culture to a culture of wartime quotidian life. The author is more interested in representing the tension between the ‘old’ and the ‘new’ surfacing in everyday routines of ordinary men and women in her city. The intrusion of war seems to have pushed the brilliance of Avenue Joffre back into one’s dusty memory. Here we can perceive how the experience of war and occupation has systematically changed the spatialization of modernity: modernity as a body of new urban sensibilities is now located somewhere between the grand avenue and the back alley.<br />
<br />
进一步说，张爱玲的现代性已经从现代主义的高等文化扩展到战时的日常生活文化。她更感兴趣的是表现在她的城市里普通男女日常生活中浮现的“旧”与“新”之间的张力。战争的入侵似乎把乔弗尔大道的辉煌推回到尘封的记忆中。在这里，我们可以看到战争和占领的经历是如何系统地改变现代性的空间化的:现代性作为一种新的城市情感体，现在位于大道和后街之间的某个地方。<br />
<br />
张爱玲的现代意识从现代主义的高级文化延伸到战时的平民生活文化。作者更感兴趣的是表现出她所在城市普通男女日常生活中出现的“旧”与“新”之间的紧张关系。战争的侵扰似乎把乔夫尔大街的辉煌重新推回到尘封已久的记忆中。在这里，我们可以看到战争和曾被占领的经历是如何系统地改变了现代性的空间化：现代性作为一个新的城市情感体，现在位于大街和后巷之间的某个地方。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:38, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
– '''Fashion talk''' – <br />
To illustrate how material imagination is essential to Chang’s aesthetics of the everyday, I will now turn to her conceptualization of fashion as an invented form of life. Chang’s discussions of fashion demonstrate her fascination with an inner vision. By depicting a world of light, brilliant colors, unique lines and shapes, Chang has also suggested that literary writing can be the beginning of a cultural history of things.<br />
<br />
In Chang’s fictional writing, colors, lines, surfaces, and words are often combined to form a network of intricate meanings. Her writing is known for its meticulous attention to details, particularly clothes. <br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
For instance, in her novella “Jinsuo ji” (Chronicle of Gilded Fetters), through the clothes of female servants, a portrait of this old-style family is introduced. Clothes with bright colors are set in contrast to neutral tones of modern fashion; the former becomes a symbol of the ‘past,’ which gradually recedes into the background, gorgeous, amorous, dazzling, but helplessly decaying. Temporality of fashion serves to punctuate narrative rhythm in Chang’s fictional writing.<br />
<br />
It is in Chang’s essay writing that a discourse of fashion is passionately elaborated. Chang’s most important essay on fashion is entitled “Gengyi ji” (A Chronicle of Changing Clothes), in which one hundred years of Chinese history is acted out in Chang’s dramatic display of clothes in movements.<br />
<br />
In Chuanqi (Romances) (Shanghai: Za¬zhishe, 1944).（注释）<br />
<br />
In Past and Present Bi-weekly 34 (December, 1943). Originally written in English and published in the English language journal XXth Century.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
In this world, the transformation of modern clothes can be read as a history of mentality that centers on a constant redefinition of notions such as femaleness, female beauty, and female proper conducts:<br />
<br />
Men have more freedom in their life than women do. Yet I do not want to become a man, only because they do not have freedom [in having a variety of clothing]. <br />
<br />
Chang goes on to tease out the absurdity of gendered assumptions in cultural discourses:<br />
<br />
Clothes seem trivial and not worth mentioning. Liu Bei once said: “Brothers are [important to each other] like hands to feet whereas their wives and children are [insignificant] like clothes.” But for women, it is much easier to cherish their clothes than their husbands. <br />
<br />
From ”A Chronicle of Changing Clothes.”<br />
<br />
Back in the 1920s, Zhang Jingsheng already highlighted the significance of the changes of clothes/fashion, which, according to him, reflects and shapes the present state of mentalities. See Zhang’s 1925 book entitled Mei de renshengguan (An Outlook on a Life of Beauty) as quoted in Peng Hsiao-yen, ”Sexual Enlightenment: ‘Dr. Sex’ Zhang Jingsheng and May Fourth First-Person （注释）<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
There was a Western writer (is it Bernard Shaw?) who once complained that when most women chose their husbands, they were not nearly as attentive and cautious as when they were selecting a hat for themselves. The most heartless woman would lament passionately when she began to talk about “that silk gown I had last year.”<br />
<br />
Never mind whether it was Bernard Shaw or some other Western writer who made these bizarre comments about women’s apparent “lack” of judgment in choosing their own destinies and their partiality for clothes and other seemingly trivial accessories in life, for Eileen Chang, these male voices were all spelling out the similarly absurd and “ancient” logic by Liu Bei of the Three Kingdoms era (third century A.D.).<br />
<br />
Narrative Fiction.” For Zhang Jingsheng, clothes are the extension of a female body and therefore are crucial elements in exploring female sexuality and inner psyche. This may serve as a mediation to explain the fascination with the female clothed bodies expressed in Eileen Chang’s writing of the 1940s.（注释）<br />
<br />
For a discussion of the correlation between clothes, gender discourses, and performance culture during the first two decades of the century, see an essay by Zhou Huiling (Katharine Hui-ling Chou) entitled ”Nü yanyuan, xieshi zhuyi, ‘xin nüxing’ lunshu: Wanqing dao Wusi shiqi Zhongguo xiandai juchang zhong de xingbie biaoyan” (Actresses, Realism, and Discourse of ”New Woman”: Gendered Performances in Modern Chinese Theater from Late Qing to the May Fourth), published in ''Jindai Zhongguo funüshi yanjiu'' (Studies of Women’s History of Modern China) 4 (August, 1996). Also see her dissertation entitled ''Staging Revolution: Actresses, Realism, and the New Woman Movement in Chinese Spoken Drama and Film, 1919-1949'' (New York University, 1997).（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
But the essay “A Chronicle of Changing Clothes” does much more than merely tease out the gendered categories embedded in fashion discourses. “We cannot really imagine the world of the past generations, so idle, so quiet, and so organized,” writes Eileen Chang, “during the three hundred years of Manchurian ruling of Qing dynasty, there was not even (jing) such a thing called women’s fashion!” The use of the adverb “jing” implies an astonishment: women did not even have fashion for three hundred years, and how could anyone have endured such a misfortune! The emphasis placed on women’s clothes seem to be a landmark that separates the modern era from the antiquated worlds.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
From the point of view of Eileen Chang, the lack of changes in three hundred years of China’s fashion history forms a sharp contrast to the thirty or forty years of the most recent history which, for Chang, can be read as a fascinating narrative put together by rapidly shifting patterns of women’s fashion.<br />
<br />
Chang’s account then turns history into a stage presentation. Her impressionistic view of modern history highlights colors, lines, shapes, and moods, which are all crystallized in the changing faces of women’s clothes. Chang’s representation of modern history through the transformation of women’s clothes has the effect of a modern museum of human fantasies, or a gallery of artifacts constantly in motion. <br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
History is turned into a fictional narrative. More interestingly, there is no real human being moving in this narrative; shapes, colors, lines, and circles occupy the space. Through a personification of clothes, Chang has created an animation effect in her world of changing fashion. Clothes replace human voices; clothes become language itself.<br />
<br />
In “Views from the Streets,” Eileen Chang also describes fashion display as “motionless drama,” a notion that highlights the correlation between literature, performance art, and material culture. By using the notion of drama as a trope, Eileen Chang has indicated that fashion, like forms of fictional narrative, is a dramatization of life, a life presented on stage. <br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
A fashion image is a frozen historical moment, that is, a close-up of a historical moment intersecting with moments in one’s personal history. The clothed body of a modern urban woman thereby carries the burden of history, as well as the marks of our present time.<br />
<br />
In his essay on fashion and modernity written back in 1904, Georg Simmel has already theorized the cultural and social significance of fashion in modern life. He views fashion as a signifier of modernity and a theatricalization of social transformations. For Simmel, fashion consciousness is vital to our conceptualization of the modern and the urban. <br />
<br />
Georg Simmel, ”Fashion” (1904), in On Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings, edited and with an introduction by Donald N. Levine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971) 294-323.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Simmel’s essay on fashion should be read side by side with his another crucial essay written a year earlier in 1903 entitled “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” which describes the heightened level of sensory stimulation associated with the construction of modern metropolis. Fashion responds most directly and instantaneously to these changes. Following is a frequently quoted passage from “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” which describes the essence of modern life from a physiological as well as psychological perspective:<br />
<br />
The psychological foundation, upon which the metropolitan individuality is erected, is the intensification of emotional life due to the swift and continuous shift of external and internal stimuli.<br />
<br />
西美尔那篇关于时尚的文章应该和他在1903年写的另一篇重要的文章并列阅读，那篇文章题为《大都市与精神生活》，描述了随着现代大都市的建设而提高的感官刺激水平。时尚界对这些变化的反应是最直接和即时的。下面是《都市与心理生活》中经常引用的一段话，它从生理和心理的角度描述了现代生活的本质:<br />
都市个性赖以建立的心理基础，是由于外部和内部刺激的迅速、持续的转移而强化的情感生活。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:10, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
Man is a creature whose existence is dependent on differences, i.e., his mind is stimulated by the difference between present impressions and those which have preceded. Lasting impressions, the slightness in their differences, the habituated regularity of their course and contrasts between them, consume, so to speak, less mental energy than the rapid telescoping of changing images, pronounced differences within what is grasped at a single glance, and the unexpectedness of violent stimuli. <br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
To the extent that the metropolis creates these psychological conditions – with every crossing of the street, with the tempo and multiplicity of economic, occupational and social life – it creates in the sensory foundations of mental life, and in the degree of awareness necessitated by our organization as creatures dependent on differences, a deep contrast with the slower, more habitual, more smoothly flowing rhythm of the sensory-mental phase of small town and rural existence. <br />
<br />
Simmel’s remarks can help illustrate how the discourse of fashion is situated at the center of Eileen Chang’s aesthetic vision. But Chang has gone well beyond Simmel. She incorporates urbanism, modernity, and femininity in her creation of fashion as a new cultural paradigm. <br />
<br />
See Simmel, ”The Metropolis and Mental Life” (1903), in On Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings, 325.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
The fact that the power of designing such a new paradigm is in the hands of a woman makes it even more unique for her time. More importantly, Chang’s fashion stories can also be read as parables of war. Designing fashion and then writing about fashion are her ways to come to terms with the world at war and the city under siege. In a world where nothing is fixed, and scenes of the present are swiftly disappearing at the very next moment, the ever-changing women’s fashion ironically becomes something that is most stable and lucid, something that can be held on to.<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s account of wartime Hong Kong in an essay entitled “Jinyu lu” (Stories from the Ashes), she describes individual attentions to details of clothes at a critical moment when one’s own life can be smashed to pieces in no time:<br />
In Hong Kong, when we first heard the news that the war had broken out, a girl classmate in my dormitory started panicking. “What am I going to do? I have nothing appropriate to wear!” she cried. Her family were wealthy overseas Chinese. She had a different wardrobe for every social occasion. From a dance party on a yacht to a formal dinner, she was always sufficiently equipped. But she never imagined that there would be a war.<br />
<br />
张爱玲在其《烬余录》中对战时香港的记述中，她对个人服装的细节上这样描写使人对生活幻灭的重要时刻：在香港，当我们第一次听说战争爆发的新闻之时，我宿舍的一位女同学开始恐慌起来。“我该做什么？我没有合适的穿的衣服！”她哭着说。她的家人都远在海外。在各个社交场合她都有不同的服装搭配。从游艇上的舞会到正式的晚宴，她总是准备有充足的衣着。但她却从未想过这里会爆发战争。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:21, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《烬余录》中讲述战时的香港时描绘到，一个人在性命攸关的时刻竟会对自己的服饰百般注意：<br />
在香港，当我们第一次听说战争爆发这个消息时，我宿舍的一个女同学开始慌张。她喊道，“我该怎么办？我都没有合适的衣服穿！”她们一家是富裕的华侨。她在不同的社交场合都有自己的服饰搭配，从游艇上的舞会到一场正式的晚宴，她的服装满满当当的。但她从没想过战争会爆发。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
She finally managed to get hold of a big black quilted jacket which probably would not attract any attention from the air force circling above. When it was time to flee we all went our separate ways. I saw her again when the war was over. She cut her hair short in the masculine Filipino style – the trend in Hong Kong at the time because a woman with that hair style could pass for a man. <br />
<br />
她终于弄到了一件黑色夹克，这件夹克可能不会引起在上空盘旋的空军的注意。逃命时我们分道扬镳了。战争结束后我又见到她了。她把头发剪成了男式的发型——当时这种发型在香港比较时髦，因为拥有此发型的女人可以替代男人。<br />
<br />
Indeed our different responses to the war are reflected in our choice of clothes. Take Suleika for example. A beauty from a remote town on the Malay peninsula, she was petite and dark, with dreamy eyes and slightly protruding teeth.<br />
<br />
事实上，我们对战争的不同反应体现在我们对衣服的选择上。例如苏莱卡，一位来自马来半岛偏僻小镇的美女。她娇小黝黑，有着梦幻般的眼睛和微微突出的牙齿。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 13:51, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Like most girls who had a convent education, she was naive to an embarrassing degree. She chose to major in medicine, which means that she had to learn to dissect human bodies. But did the corpses have clothes on or not? The question bothered her, so she was asking people about it. This had become quite a joke around our school. <br />
<br />
A bomb landed next to our dorm, so the warden had to convince us to flee down the hill. Even in such emergency, Suleika did not forget to pack up her most lavish clothes. Against the well meaning advice of many wise people, she somehow managed to transport, in the midst of the gunfire, a big heavy leather trunk of clothes down the hill.<br />
<br />
她和大多数接受过修道院教育的女孩儿一样，天真无邪，却令人尴尬。她选择学医，这就意味着她必须学习解刨人体。但是尸体穿没穿衣服呢？这个问题困扰着她，于是她就一直问别人。这在我们学校成了一个大笑话。<br />
<br />
一颗炸弹落到了我们宿舍旁边，所以监狱长不得不劝我们逃下山去。苏来卡即使在这种紧急情况下也没有忘记收拾带走她那些最奢侈的衣服。她不顾许多聪明人的善意劝告，仍设法在枪林弹雨中把一箱厚重的皮衣运下山去。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:23, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
像大多数在修道院学习的女孩一样，她天真无邪，却又令人觉得有一丝尴尬。 她选择了医学专业，这意味着她必须学习解剖人体。 但是尸体穿没穿衣服呢？这是个困扰着她的难题，所以她一直向他人请教，以至于这已经成为我们学校的一个笑话。<br />
<br />
一枚炸弹降落在我们宿舍的旁边，所以监狱长不得不劝服我们逃下山去。即使在这样的紧急情况下，苏莱卡也没有忘记打包带走自己最奢华的衣服，完全不顾智者们的善意建议，仍然想法设法在枪林弹雨中把一箱厚重的皮衣运下山去。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 13:56, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Suleika then joined the defense force, working as a substitute nurse for the Red Cross. She was often seen squatting on the ground, hacking firewood to light up a fire, wearing her copper red and dark green silk gown embroidered with the character “shou” (longevity). What a waste, but for her it was all worth it. This smart outfit endowed her with an unprecedented confidence; without that she would not have blended so well with her male colleagues. …… <br />
<br />
Here, Chang’s war stories are interwoven with talks of fashion.<br />
<br />
“Stories from the Ashes,” in ''Heaven and Earth Monthly 5'' (February, 1944).<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
Fashion is no longer a form of creative life that only occupies the space of leisure; rather, it becomes an essential medium through which an individual could finally comprehend the world that is otherwise incomprehensible, name the surroundings that are otherwise unnamable, and determine her own gender and ethnic identities that are otherwise indeterminate.<br />
<br />
The ending of the essay “A Chronicle of Changing Clothes” also consists of a parable:<br />
<br />
……an autumnal chill in approaching dusk as vendors at a vegetable market prepare to pack up and go home. Fish scraps and pale green corn husks litter the ground.<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
A child dashes over on his bike just to show off. He gives out a shout, lets go of the handlebars, and shoots away effortlessly, swaying back and forth all the while. At that split second, everyone on the street watches him with an indefinable admiration. Perhaps in this life that moment of letting go is the very loveliest? <br />
<br />
This scene seems detached from Chang’s detailed descriptions of the transformation of fashion trends, but it can be read a parable of how fashion actually functions in everyday life. It is exactly that moment of “letting go,” that is, the moment that one gains the power and freedom to go beyond immediate material and political conditions, that captures the essence of fashion in Chang’s world.<br />
<br />
Translated by Andrew F. Jones.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
Here the essay genre not only becomes an open-ended and ongoing process for women writers in their entry into the existing order of the literary world, it also becomes the testing ground where the boundaries between the literary world and the larger social realm become unstable and ever-shifting. Not only life styles can be read as texts, women writers as individuals can become concrete historical subjects within the space allowed by the modern essay. Life is woven together with work, the boundaries between the private and the public are further blurred, and biographical contingencies become important textual devices in constructing a legend of a new era.<br />
<br />
在这里，散文体裁不仅成为了女性作家进入文学世界的一个开放的、持续的过程，也成为了一个试验场，在这里，文坛和更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定和不断变化。不仅生活方式可以被当成文章阅读，女性作家作为个体也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公众的界限进一步模糊，传记性的偶发事件成为构筑新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:42, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
在这里，散文体裁不仅成为女作家进入文学世界现有秩序的一个开放性的持续过程，也成为一个试验场，在这个试验场中文学世界与更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定，并且不断变化。不仅生活方式可以作为文本来解读，作为个体的女作家也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公共的界限进一步模糊，传记的偶然性成为构建新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:28, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
'''Perspectives on Ideology in the Essay'''<br />
<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing, Frantz Fanon, and the Fierce White Children'''<br />
<br />
''Daniel A. Fried''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
All genres contain political possibilities, but the essay seems entitled to a particularly strong claim on politics. In the Chinese modernist context, it should be clear that one cannot understand the development of nationalism without reference to the huge body of political essays published in decades of periodicals, and equally clear that one must take stock of nationalist writings in trying to understand the generic qualities of the essay. And within our international scholarly dialogue, it seems necessary to locate the modern Chinese essay with regard to the various postulates of postcolonial theory.<br />
<br />
“论文中的意识形态观点”<br />
<br />
“朱自清，弗朗茨·法农，和凶猛的白人孩子”<br />
<br />
“丹尼尔A.弗里德”<br />
<br />
“概要”<br />
<br />
所有体裁都包含政治可能性，但这篇文章似乎有权对政治提出特别强烈的主张。在中国现代主义环境中，我们应该清楚地看到，如果不参考几十年期刊上发表的大量政治文章，就无法理解民族主义的发展；同样，我们必须审视民族主义作品，试图理解这篇文章的共性。在我们的国际学术对话中，似乎有必要根据有关后殖民理论的各种假设来定位中国现代散文.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 11:25, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
This is not easy--the relation of Chinese materials to theory has of course been debated at length, with wide disagreements over the applicability of the standard models. Indeed, the applicability of postcolonialism to several literatures has been questioned as critiques of essentialized difference have been turned against the general conclusions of postcolonial discourse itself. While theoretical contextualization of Chinese political essays seems necessary, there is no critical consensus on what theories to apply.<br />
<br />
This paper will attempt to contextualize by ignoring the oversimplified question of whether postcolonial theory is or is not applicable to Chinese modernist essays. <br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
Instead, it seeks to perform a case study in theoretical analysis of a Chinese essay which goes beyond the simple importation of “foreign” theory, to suggest the outlines of dialogue between scholars of Chinese and other anticolonial nationalisms. Specifically, it compares Zhu Ziqing's experience of a white childs gaze in the essay, “White People--God's Proud Children!” to a similar experience of Frantz Fanon recorded in his canonical ''Black Skin, White Masks''. Using the theme of the racial others gaze as a methodological allegory, it seeks to show how these two texts can be made to “gaze” at each other, to inform each other in ways which are theoretically suggestive while respecting local difference.<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
While Zhus essay seems in many ways to perfectly invoke the most familiar tropes of “Western” theory, Zhu's reaction to the gaze is ultimately opposite to Fanon's, and demonstrates how anticolonial writing is enmeshed both in internationa lpsychological constants and local historical variables.<br />
<br />
Scholarly investigation of the modern Chinese essay as a genre demands some attention to the questions posed by postcolonial theories. The same could be said of all genres of the period, but the essay has a special claim on postcolonialism. All genres were used politically, but the essay was usually seen in high modern China as the prime vehicle for explicit politics, the forum best suited for debate and rebuttal, and explication of specific political programs. <br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
Of course, there is no scholarly consensus in the field as to the extent to which postcolonial theories can or cannot be applied to modern Chinese literature. For example, Rey Chow in her 1993 ''Writing Diaspora'' produced a well-known critique of the resistance to theory by scholars of Chinese literature, arguing that the claims of untheorizable Chinese particularity are merely reintroductions of an old Orientalist cultural essentialism. Last year, Leo Lee concluded his study of Shanghai urban culture by restating the very same arguments which Chow had dismissed, making the case that theory based on native internalization of the Western “othering” gaze was not directly applicable because the Western imperialist presence in China, even in the Shanghai concession zones, never gained the colonialist control over language and education that produced such psychic disruptions in other societies. <br />
<br />
Rey Chow, ''Writing Diaspora: Tactics of Intervention in Contemporary Cultural Studies''. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993).（注释）<br />
<br />
<br />
当然，关于后殖民理论在何种程度上可以适用于现代中国文学，学界并没有达成共识。例如，周蕾在1993年的《离散书写》中，她就中国文学学者对理论的反抗提出了一个著名的批评，她认为，不可理论化的中国特殊性，只不过是对古老的东方主义文化本质主义的重新引入。 去年，李欧梵通过重述周蕾曾否定的相同观点，结束了他对上海都市文化的研究，从而证明了该理论是基于西方“他者化”的本土内化，不能直接适用。因为在中国，甚至是在上海租界，西方帝国主义的存在从未获得殖民主义者对语言和教育的控制，而这种控制在其他社会中造成了这种心理混乱。<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
We must stutter out some engagement with postcolonial theory, but how can one proceed without the safety of scholarly consensus? One could dive into polemics, but a decision that either theory is or isn't always applicable to Chinese literature assumes the existence of twin essentialized monoliths called “theory” and “Chinese literature.” We need more nuanced approaches. In fact, the terms of mainline postcolonial theory do furnish the conceptual tools with which one can derive one such approach. The very familiar discussions of the gaze of the imperial subject toward the colonized other can be employed as a metaphor for our own predicament. <br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
One of the major variations on this theme, deriving from the writings of Frantz Fanon, should be familiar: by their imperial gaze, aggressor cultures try to lock their colonized subjects into a perpetual Otherdom, with the aggressor National Subject claiming for itself a transcendent metaphysical Selfhood; colonized individuals must view themselves as Other and therefore are alienated from themselves. The solutions the discourse has found are ways in which those individuals can subvert that Otherdom in order to reclaim for themselves a new or reconstituted Selfhood. The goal is not to fall into nativist atavism and rejection of the metropole, but to eliminate dominance and blur the margins of identity, allowing a more healthful parity in the identification dialectic between colonizer and colonized.<br />
弗朗兹·法农的作品中产生了这一主题的主要变题之一，大家应该对此都很熟悉：在帝国主义的视角下，侵略者文化尝试将殖民对象封锁进永恒的他者国度，只有侵略国家自称为超验的形而上学的自我：被殖民的人必须把自己当做他者因此只能异化。对于这一问题找到的答案便是通过推翻他者国度从而为自己重建一个自我。目的不在于陷入本土主义者的返祖主义，拒绝城市，而是削弱统治，使身份边界模糊化，让殖民者和被殖民者在身份的辩证识别上有更健康的对等。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:06, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
If it is a common complaint that postcolonial theory is a creation of the metropole which should not be allowed to dominate local Chinese historical experience, the solution should not be nativist assertion of Chinese difference and superiority, with consequent ignoring of the varied experiences of imperialism from which the systems of theory have been derived. Rather, once we reject the notion that metropolitan theory has an omniscient gaze which alone possesses the right to define the meaning of Chinese texts, we are free to see how Chinese and non-Chinese experiences of imperialism can inform each other, through their mutual attractions and tensions which complicate questions of identity.<br />
<br />
如果人们普遍认为后殖民理论是大都市的创造，不应让其支配中国本土的历史经验，那么解决办法就不应是本土主义武断地主张中国的差异和优越性，一直忽视理论体系是从帝国主义的各种经验是衍生出来的。相反，一旦我们拒绝了大都市理论无所不能、只有它才有权定义中文文本的含义的观点，我们就可以自由地看到，中国和非中国的帝国主义经历是如何通过它们的相互吸引和紧张关系——这使身份问题复杂化——相互交流。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:39, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
如果人们普遍抱怨后殖民主义理论是大都会的产物，且不应允许它主导中国本土的历史经验，那么，解决的办法就不应是本土主义地宣称中国人的差异性和优越性，从而忽视理论体系所衍生的各种帝国主义的经验。相反，一旦我们摒弃了大都会理论的全知角度，那就是它独自拥有定义中国文本意义的权利，我们就可以看到中国人和非中国人的帝国主义经验如何通过他们的相互吸引和紧张关系来相互交流，而这使认知问题变得复杂。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 06:29, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
As an example of how to do this sort of theoretical application, I propose in this paper to compare Frantz Fanon's “The Fact of Blackness” (a chapter of his canonical ''Black Skin, White Masks''), with a little-known essay by Zhu Ziqing, “White People-God's Proud Children!” Both pieces focus on the narrators' experiences of meeting the gazes of white children, and thus invoke classic themes which allow easy access to theoretical considerations even in the midst of a particularistic analysis. And because both describe politicized experience, they avoid the old Orientalist dichotomy of Western theory vs. native experience. Both Fanon and Zhu are equally theoretical and experiential, and they inform each other.<br />
<br />
作为如何进行这类理论应用的例子，我在本文中拟将弗朗茨·法农的《黑的事实》（他的典籍《黑皮肤，白面具》中的一章）与朱自清的一篇鲜为人知的文章《白种人，上帝的骄子！》进行比较。这两篇作品都聚焦于叙述者与白人儿童目光交汇的经历，因此引用了经典的主题，即使在特殊主义的分析中，也能很容易进行理论思考。而且由于两者都描述了政治化的经验，因此避免了西方理论的老东方主义与本土经验的抉择。弗朗茨和朱自清都同样具有理论性和经验性，且互相借鉴。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:35, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
作为如何进行这类理论应用的一个例子，笔者拟在本文中对弗朗茨·法农的《黑人的事实》(他的经典《黑皮肤，白面具》中的一个章节)与朱自清鲜为人知的文章《白种人——上帝的骄子!》进行比较。这两篇文章都聚焦于叙述者与白人儿童目光相遇的经历，因此援引了经典主题，即使在进行具象分析中，也能很容易地进行理论思考。而且因为两者都描述了政治化的经验，他们避免了西方理论与本土经验的古老东方主义之争。法农和朱自清都具有同样的理论和经验，且相互借鉴。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 12:12, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
“The Fact of Blackness” is Fanon's analysis of a black man's frustration in attempting to create a viable self-identity in the France of the 1950's. Analysis in the psychoanalytic sense, not the scientific-sociological one; or, better still, ''self-analysis'', for the chapter is cast in the form of a first-person narrative. Fanon writes a sort of psychoanalytically fueled prose poem. There are few objective assertions made about “the way it is”; the problem is seen from what appears to be the inside of a black man's head, what he feels and how he reacts to the shiftingly solid front of White France arrayed against him..<br />
<br />
Not necesssarily Fanon's. In his introduction, Fanon writes that in this chapter, “we observe the desperate struggles of a Negro who is driven to discover the meaning of black identity." Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks. Trans. Charles Lam Markmann (New York: Grove Press, 1967) 16. The wording here suggests a fictional narrator. Nonetheless, one guesses that it is a fictualized Fanon, and I will use “Fanon” as a convenience in place of “the narrator” for the remainder of this paper.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
Some of the most striking and most quoted parts of this narrative are Fanon's attempts to deal with the intrusive voice of the white child who cries out in fear of him:<br />
<br />
“Look, a Negro!” It was an external stimulus that flicked over me as I passed by. I made a tight smile.<br />
<br />
“Look, a Negro!” It was true. It amused me.<br />
<br />
“Look, a Negro!” The circle was drawing a bit tighter. I made no secret of my amusement.<br />
<br />
“Mama, see the Negro! I'm frightened!” Frightened! Frightened! Now they were beginning to be afraid of me. I made up my mind to laugh myself to tears, but laughter had become impossible.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
这段叙述中最引人注目和引用最多的部分是 Fanon 试图处理白人儿童因害怕他而大声呼喊的侵扰性声音：<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”当我经过时，一种外在的刺激掠过我的心头。我笑得很紧。<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”是真的。我很开心。<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”圆圈越来越紧了。我毫不掩饰我的乐趣。<br />
<br />
“妈妈，看那黑鬼！我吓坏了！”害怕！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心要笑得流泪，但笑已经变得不可能了。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:18, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这段叙述中最引人注目和最常被引用的部分，是法侬试图处理那个白人孩子因为害怕他而大叫的侵扰声音:<br />
<br />
“看,一个黑人!”这是一种外部刺激，当我经过时，它掠过我的头顶。我紧张地笑了笑。<br />
<br />
“看,一个黑人!”这是真的。这太好笑了。<br />
<br />
“看,一个黑人!”圆圈变得更紧了。我毫不掩饰自己的快乐。<br />
<br />
“妈妈，你看那个黑人!我害怕!”吓!吓坏了!现在他们开始害怕我了。我决定笑得流泪，但笑已经变得不可能了。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:14, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种叙述中一些最引人注目和被引用最多的部分是法农试图处理白人儿童因为害怕他而大声疾呼发出的侵扰声音：<br />
“看，一个黑人！”这是一种外部刺激，当我经过时，它掠过我。我紧张地笑了。<br />
“看，一个黑人！”这是真的。它逗乐了我。<br />
“看，一个黑人！”圆圈画的更紧了。我掩饰不住快乐。<br />
“妈妈，看黑人！我害怕！”害怕！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心笑出眼泪，但笑声已经变得不可能了。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:41, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
In this passage as elsewhere in the chapter, there are many voices accusing Fanon, yet the voice of the child has a special bluntness, one that hits Fanon harder. Beneath that voice, his attempt to defend himself through an ever-increasing amusement is undone; the child unmasks his anguish. He is for Fanon not just a historical boy, nor an empirical average of thousands of trembling boys, but a resonance of something deeper within Fanon's narrative. Fanon does not devote an inordinate amount of space to the child, and it would be an exaggeration to say that the appearances of this child constitute the thematic center of his chapter. <br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
Nonetheless, the white child does play a crucial role, as he is in fact a grotesque foil for Fanon's own exasperated narrative voice, which is a rewriting, for race, of narratives of developmental psychology. In particular, Jacques Lacan's famous theory of the “mirror stage” is clearly its primary inspiration. Even though Fanon never makes explicit reference to Lacan or “The Mirror Stage” in the chapter, such references are numerous in Black Skin, White Masks as a whole-there is no doubt that Fanon knew the paradigm well. And the structure of his narrative runs suspiciously parallel to Lacan's explications, so much that it might be fair to call “The Fact of Blackness” an ironic rewriting of “The Mirror Stage.”<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
Lacan's theory is complex, moving in unexpected directions and drawing different sets of conclusions. But all are sourced in the moment of a baby before a mirror, fascinated to discover itself for the first time. The stage at which this critical fascination can occur lasts from the age of six to eighteen months, according to Lacan, and its primary importance is in providing the infant with a temporary shortcut to mature subjectivity. In his words, the mirror “precipitates” the child's I in a “primordial form, before it is objectified in the dialectic of identification with the other, and before language restores to it, in the universal, its function as subject.” <br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
In contrast, Fanon only reaches his version of the mirror stage ''after'' passing through objectification and restoration to subjectivity. His “mirror stage” is precisely the quest for subjectivity narrated through the “plot” outlined above. But this plot is skewed¬-consider Lacan's discussion of the mirror stage itself:<br />
<br />
The fact is that the total form of the body by which the subject anticipates in a mirage the maturation of his power is certainly more constituent than constituted, but in which it appears to him above all in a contrasting size (''un relief de stature'') that fixes it and in a symmetry that inverts it, in contrast with the turbulent movement that the subject feels are animating him.<br />
<br />
相比之下，法农只有在经过客观化并恢复到主观性后，才能“达到”他的镜像阶段。 他的“镜像阶段”正是要追求上述“情节”中描述的主体性。 但是此情节是有失偏颇的，请思考拉康对镜像阶段本身的讨论：<br />
<br />
事实是，主体总形式当然更多是构成成分而不是已构物，因为学科通过主体总形式在思维中预估其力量是否成熟。但是在他看来，主体首先是一个对比大小的个体（“形体突出”），这一个体将其固定并使其对称反转，这与对象感觉到正在使他动起来的湍流运动相反。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:17, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Fanon's mirror is of course the White. In that mirror he is inverted, re-created as an image exactly opposite to his own reality, and it is only through that inversion, that ''perversion'' of his Self that he is allowed to know himself. And, moreover, that inversion is ''fixed'' in the mirror, as Fanon puts it, fixed as a chemical solution is fixed by a dye. No matter how Fanon questions, no matter what rhetorical tack he chooses to confront the mirror, it refuses to give back any other image. Does Fanon feel a universal, rational soul animating himself? Does he well up with the turbulence of an earth-poetry that takes him to the magic font of his humanity? It does not matter. The mirror is impervious and flat. His image is fixed.<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Lacan tells us that the function of the mirror stage “is to establish a relation between the organism and its reality - or, as they say, between the ''Innenwelt'' and the ''Umwelt''.” For Lacan, it is the organism itself which determines and creates the relation, it creates its reality, but Fanon feels himself to be “overdetermined from without,” he is created by the White reality.<br />
<br />
That relation is an average of many different species of dominance. But perhaps more than any other, it is the dominance of an adult over a child. Listen again to the voices which fix Fanon: “Understand, my dear ''boy'', color prejudice is something I find entirely foreign.” <br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
“Gently, in the tone that one uses with a ''child'', they introduced me to the existence of a certain view that was held by certain people.” “now and then when we are worn out by our lives in big buildings, we will turn to you as we do to our ''children''-to the innocent, the ingenuous, the spontaneous. We will turn to you as to the ''childhood'' of the world.” (italics mine) The White mirror thus fixes Fanon as a perpetual infant, the Black “boy” who embodies youthful naiveté. He knows he is in the mirror stage, he is an infant who has already read Lacan, and he is desperate to find in the mirror the image which will allow him to realize his ''I'', but the mirror always gives him back his infant inverse. He cannot realize himself, he can never leave the mirror stage, he is ''fixed''.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
The white child is thus a point of entry into the subsurface struggle of the text. The child is Fanon's parallel and his foil: “look, a nigger, it's cold, the nigger is shivering because he is cold, the little boy is trembling because he is afraid of the nigger, the nigger is shivering with cold, the cold that goes through your bones, the handsome little boy is trembling because he thinks that the nigger is quivering with rage, the little boy throws himself into his mother's arms: Mama, the nigger's going to eat me up.”[ Fanon, 114.] The boy mirrors Fanon, but ironically: his freedom to be afraid, his freedom even to see an Other that is not synonymous with the Self[ Fanon asserts thtat the black is not Other to the white, but his argument is that the white claims he does not need to go through identification with the black-as-Other in order to come to a realization of the Sel; on the contrary, White simply “is”; black is not-White. But though the white does not idenify through the black Other, this of course does not mean that Fanon is asserting that the white does not identify the black as Other.] is a mockery of the boyhood which Fanon cannot escape. One might even profitably read this mirroring as a form of mimicry. <br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
In standard postcolonial discourse, “mimicry” refers to either a pseudo-imitation forced on the colonized by the colonizer who wants the colonized to “be like” the colonizing cultural model, but not identical to it; or it can refer to deliberate ironization of such models by the colonized. Either case results in what Homi Bhabha calls a “double vision which in disclosing the ambivalence of colonial discourse also disrupts its authority.”[ Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994) 88.] However, as Diana Fuss notes, “the mimicry of subversion can find itself reinforcing conventional power relations rather than eroding them.”[ Diana Fuss, Identification Papers (New York: Routledge, 195*) 147.] Fanon's experience is just such a case - the mimicry is the white boy's, not Fanon's, and its effect is not at all disruptive, but reinforces the conventional power relations. <br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
The boy thinks he is in danger of assault and trembles; in fact, it is Fanon who trembled first, who is the one really exposed to violence, and who is in fact ''being assaulted'' by the boy's unwitting mimicry of his weakness.<br />
<br />
The white child is thus a cruel unwitting joker who offers Fanon seeming doors of rhetorical escape into maturity, then frustrates him, turns him back on himself, locks him into the image of “the childhood of the world.” And the most destructive part is that the child does not know he is the god's mask; he screams as an innocent and can leap to the mother's arms. Fanon screams, and the monstrous mirror stays silvery and cold: it inverts and it fixes, but it never recognizes.<br />
<br />
“White People-God's Proud Children!” was written in direct response to (and less than three weeks after) the “May 30 Massacre.”<br />
<br />
男孩认为自己有被攻击的危险，吓得发抖;事实上，首先颤抖的是法龙（Fanon），真正遭受暴力的是法龙，实际上也是法龙被男孩在不知情的情况下模仿自己的弱点所攻击。<br />
因此，这个白人孩子是一个残忍的、不知情的小丑，他为法农提供了看似可以逃避语言的大门，让他走向成熟，然后让他沮丧，让他回归自我，把他锁在“世界的童年”的形象中。最可怕的是，这个孩子不知道自己是上帝的面具;他像个无辜的孩子一样尖叫，然后跳到妈妈的怀里。法农尖叫了一声，巨大的魔镜依旧银光闪闪，冰冷冰冷:它颠倒着，固定着，但永远也认不出来。<br />
“白人——上帝的骄傲的孩子!”是对“5月30日大屠杀”(不到三周后)的直接回应。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 03:05, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In mid-May of 1925, factory workers at a Japanese plant in Shanghai went on strike, and then stormed the factory grounds, demanding back wages. The Japanese managers shot and killed the strike leader and injured several others, prompting more general strikes at other Japanese factories by 20,000 workers. Students soon joined the workers in protest, and several were arrested inside the foreign concessionary zone. On May 30, the date scheduled for the trial of those arrested, 2,000 students marched on the concessionary zone demanding the release of the students and workers. In response, British troops arrested a hundred of those assembled. News of the new arrests spread rapidly, and by later that day, several thousand Shanghainese of different levels of society had surrounded the Nanjing Road jail where the protesters were being held, demanding their release. At this point, the British opened fire, killing a dozen or so Chinese and wounding several dozen.<br />
<br />
1925年5月中旬，上海一家日本工厂工人罢工，然后冲进工厂，要求讨回工资。工厂日本经理射杀了罢工领袖，打伤数名工人，导致其他日本工厂2,0000工人发起了更大规模的罢工。学生很快加入工人抗议，随后部分学生在租界遭到逮捕。5月30日原定是遭逮捕的工人和学生受审日子，2,000学生在租界游行示威，要求释放学生和工人。作为回应，英国士兵逮捕了数百名示威者。这一消息很快传开来，当天晚些时候，几千名上海社会人士包围了关押抗议者的南京路监狱，要求释放他们。鉴于此，英军开火，射杀了十几名中国人，打伤几十中国人。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 13:50, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
Nationwide protests of various sorts erupted immediately, including several literary protests, two by Zhu: “Blood Song,” an incendiary poem composed on June 10, and “White People,” written nine days later.<br />
<br />
The essay never refers explicitly to the May 30 incident; rather, it is the narration and explication of an incident which Zhu experienced on a Shanghai city trolley. After boarding and going to the first-class seats, Zhu sits down across from two white people, apparently a father and son. Zhu marvels at the lovely features of the boy, who looks eleven or twelve, and then goes into an explanation of how he has been fascinated with children ever since a friendship in elementary school with a shy younger boy named Liu Jun. He admits that he loves to stare at young children, and that he stared therefore at the white child. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
Unlike most children, disturbed by his staring, the white child appears to take no notice, but then, when he and his father are about to get off the trolley, the child flashes a violent, mimicking stare back at Zhu. The author hears words in the stare: “There were words in his eyes: 'Hah! Yellow man, yellow chinaman, you-you go ahead and look! You are worthy of looking at me!” Zhu feels this stare as a physical assault, and feels first terrified, and then patriotically enraged. He then explains his desire for a nationality-trumping universalism, but also doubts its possibility, since such a young child had already been socialized into acceptance of racist categories. Yet he praises the child for exhibiting masculine forcefulness, and claims that this is “what makes whites white.” Finally, he declares himself conflicted on the subject of nationalism versus universalism, ending the essay unresolved.<br />
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与大多数孩子不一样，这个白人小孩对于朱自清的打量毫不在意，但当白人小孩和他的父亲准备下电车时，那个孩子怒目回望了朱一眼。朱从该怒视里读出：“哈，黄种人，黄种中国人，你继续看吧！你也就配看着我的份了！”朱从中感到一种身体上的攻击，一开始觉得害怕，然后带有爱国主义的愤怒喷涌而出。他在文中解释道，这样一个年幼的孩子都已经为社会所同化，接受了种族主义的范畴，虽然自己渴望国籍优先的普遍主义，但同时也怀疑这个普遍主义的可能性。然而，他赞赏这个孩子表现出的男性之力量，同时也认为这点是“白人的典型特征”。最后，他对于民族主义和普遍主义的问题上产生了矛盾，直到文末该问题也悬而未决。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
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Given the Fanon-inspired traditions of Western postcolonial invocations of the Other, one might from a Western perspective expect Zhu to react to the gaze of the child with a crisis of ''personal'' identity. This is, after all, Fanon's Odyssean quest in “The Fact of Blackness”: to negotiate or seize for himself a space for valued selfhood against the demeaning voices of White France which try to lock him into an Otherness to itself, to himself , to the possibility of humanity. Zhu's reaction certainly fits, in name, the Self-Other trope: he experiences the white child as very White and Other. And the incident deeply traumatic: “This sudden assault made me panic; my heart was void, on all sides there was a very heavy pressure, making me unable to breathe freely.” But the incident does not fit the mirror-stage model as transmitted by Fanon. <br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
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There is no reference to psychical development, and therefore no hint that the quasi-colonialist aggression experienced through the gaze is constitutive, that it denies an authentic Chinese subjectivity to Zhu and replaces it with an ironclad Otherness to himself.<br />
Rather, it confirms Zhu's sense of self by provoking an immediate nationalistic response. After recovering from the shock of the gaze, he immediately “was filled with a pressing nationalistic feeling!” He then reflects on the child's face and action and straightaway abstracts them into a symptom of history:<br />
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That which made me panic and feel terrified, was that this one lording it over me, trampling me, was no one but...a ten year-old white “child”! I always have felt that children belong to the world, and ought not to be of a single race, country, town, or family...<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
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But this ten year-old white child...had already understood the situation well enough to use racial advantage and national power to assault me with a thrust of his face. This assault was actually the small shadow of multiple assaults, and his face was the small-print version of a history of Chinese foreign relations.[ Zhu Ziqing, Zhu Ziqing Quanji, Vol. 1 (Jiangsu, Jiangsu Educational Press) 45.]<br />
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Despite our Fanon-inspired suspicions about his psychology, Zhu insists that the shock he received, the pressure, the difficulty breathing, was the result of his ''theoretical'' realization that the child was not innocent but had already been corrupted into the fabric of violence from which Sino-Western relations had been cut. The normal, the psychological-these responses are leapt over, the incident is abstracted directly into a symptom of history. And, at least on the surface, this fact might seem to confirm the anti-theoretical position which claims that postcolonial criticism is irrelevant to China because China never sunk into full colonial status.<br />
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但是这个十岁的白人孩子已经非常了解这种情况了，甚至可以利用种族优势和国家权力以他的面目攻击我。 这次袭击实际上是多次袭击的一个小阴影，而他的脸则是中国对外关系史的缩影。【朱自清，朱自清全集 卷1（江苏，江苏教育出版社）45.】<br />
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尽管我们受到法农的影响进而对他的心理学表示怀疑，但朱坚称，他受到的震惊，压力，呼吸困难是他“理论上”意识到孩子不是无辜的，而是被中西关系断绝所产生的暴力侵蚀。<br />
正常的，这些心理的反应被跳过了，事件被直接抽象为历史的象征。 而且，至少从表面上看，这一事实似乎证实了反理论立场，该立场声称后殖民批评与中国无关，因为中国从未陷入完全的殖民地状态。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:36, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但是这个十岁的白人孩子……已经非常了解这种情况了，他可以利用种族优势和国家权力的面目攻击我。这次袭击实际上是数次袭击的影子，而他的脸则是中国对外关系史的缩影。【朱自清，朱自清全集 卷1（江苏，江苏教育出版社）45.】<br />
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尽管我们受到法农的影响进而对他的心理学表示怀疑，朱坚称，他受到的震惊，压力和呼吸困难，是他从“理论上”认识到这个孩子不是无辜的，而是已经腐坏成中西关系已被割断的、暴力的结果。跳过正常的心理的反应，这个事件被抽象成历史的症状。而且，至少从表面上看，这一事实似乎证实了反理论立场，该主张声称后殖民批评与中国无关，因为中国从未陷入完全的殖民状况。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 03:42, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
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One could easily derive a trajectory from comparative history to the differences in the two men's encounters with white children, a trajectory whose terms are familiar but worth rehearsing. Fanon's Martinique was almost totally cut off from racial history, national language, and cultural identity. Any nationalism that arose from such soil would have had to have been as a reconstruction of African identity from zero, an almost impossible task. Therefore, Fanon's text has to start from the postcolonial present, analyzing the continuing damage of racism on subjugated black communities. Most of China, despite the extreme cultural upheavals which it experienced in reaction to Western aggression, never sunk into full-fledged colonial status; and therefore this aggression remained for the most part an influential and traumatic margin to the mainstream development of Chinese historical identity. There was no slavery, no tabula rasa, not even in Hong Kong and Macao, or Taiwan and “Manchuria.” <br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
On the contrary, the experience of aggression undoubtedly strengthened national consciousness; and in modernist writings such as the one in question, it is rare to read a moment of experience of the Western Other as such which does not resort to some form of nationalism.<br />
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Up to a point, this sort of analysis is useful. Certainly, it would be dangerous to move directly from historical sketches to windy declarations about the differences between African and Chinese literature. But the standard history does happen to match the particulars of these two authors' educational trajectories. The surface, then, of “White People” is simple and obvious in comparison with Fanon's text, forgoing psychological brooding to go straight to the main course of national pride. <br />
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And yet, one wonders what lurks in the essay's depths, for this is a very unusual piece in Zhu's oeuvre.<br />
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相反，侵略的经验无疑加强了民族意识；在现代主义的著作中，如有关的著作中，很少读到对西方他者这样的经验不诉诸某种形式的民族主义的时刻。<br />
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在某种程度上，这种分析是有用的。当然，如果直接从历史素描转向关于非洲文学和中国文学差异的风马牛不相及的宣言，是很危险的。 但标准的历史确实恰好符合这两位作家教育轨迹的特殊性。 那么，与法农的文字相比，《白衣人》的表面是简单而明显的，放弃了心理上的沉思，直奔民族自豪感的主菜。 <br />
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然而，人们不禁要问，这篇文章的深处到底潜藏着什么，因为这是朱的作品中很不寻常的一篇。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:54, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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相反，侵略的经验无疑增强了民族意识。 在诸如此类的现代主义著作中，很少有人会读到西方他人的经历，因为这种经历不诉诸某种形式的民族主义。<br />
到目前为止，这种分析是有用的。 当然，直接从历史速写转变为关于非洲和中国文学之间差异的风马牛不相及的宣言将是危险的。 但是，标准的历史确实与这两位作者的教育轨迹相吻合。 因此，“白人”的表述与法农的著作相比是简单而明显的，它放弃了对民族自豪感的直觉。<br />
然而，人们不禁要问，这篇文章的深处到底潜藏着什么，因为这是朱自清的作品中很不寻常的一篇。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:19, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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Normally, Zhu Ziqing is one of the last authors one associates with fiery nationalism; rather, he is usually preoccupied with just the sort of psychological introspection which characterizes Fanon's text. Furthermore, the essay was written more than a year after the original trolley ride-could the strangely quick transition from individual experience to nationalist reflection be at least partly created under the influence to retell the story in the light of the May 30 incident?<br />
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If one willfully forgets about the May 30 context of the essay and focuses on the details of the incident as Zhu narrates them, then a second and separate level of interpretation opens in the essay, one much more pregnant with Fanon-like psychological trauma. The widest portal to the inside of this essay is also its obvious crux: i.e., the white child's stare. The key to this portal is that that stare, as it happened empirically, was complete unto itself. <br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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It was an act, an aggressive act, unaccompanied by words. When Zhu tells us that “there were words in his eyes,” he wants us to believe that the words came from the child himself, and in fact we can certainly believe that that is how Zhu experienced the stare, that he felt the hate speech jabbing out at him from those astonishing eyes. But yet the language admits its paternity: not the child, but Zhu himself. Zhu creates the meaning around the act of the stare, and his entire explication of the problem of racism is based, not upon what he hears, but upon what his unconscious hermeneutic tells him that he hears. Whereas Fanon lives in a shadowy world of little but voices shouting, “look, a Negro!” to Zhu there are no voices at all, only a reality of trolleys and white skin and violent stares to which he himself has to supply the verbal accompaniment.<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
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This is absolutely not to say that Zhu's experience of racism is imaginary, that he “shouldn't be so sensitive,” as racists say. No doubt, the child was acting racistly. But it is important to notice that the racism which Zhu attributes to the child is a simple one: the child is figured as a self-assured, mature, masculine aggressor; in fact all of these qualities which Zhu feels are surely exaggerated. He might have suspected that prepubescent white children are somehow super-matured macho-men, but hopefully we know better. For Zhu's stare was not the first the boy had received. Anyone who has had the experience of living as a racial minority in a non-pluralistic society knows what it is like to be stared at constantly; this is in fact the primary condition of Fanon's experience which makes “The Fact of Blackness” possible. <br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
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Thus, in this regard, Fanon is perhaps closer to the boy than to Zhu; or if this is too strong, we could say that Fanon is split between the boy and Zhu, that Zhu shares with Fanon the experience of being dissected by the gaze of the aggressor culture, but that the boy shares with him the constancy of being stared at for being a racial minority. The boy's position in China was obviously much higher than that of Fanon's in France, and therefore the stares he would have received much less negative; yet the mere fact of the constant stare itself can exert an intense psychical pressure, especially on a boy at an age at which deep doubts about his self-identity are forming. This is not at all to excuse the real racist content of the boy's angry glare; but it does suggest that the glare was a lashing-out from a position of weakness and insecurity, rather than from the heel-grinding arrogance which Zhu assumes.<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
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Moreover, it is Zhu who initiated this discomforting dialogue of stares. Zhu's boy, like Fanon's, is a mimic, although his mimicry is just as problematic. As Homi Bhabha says, “the look of surveillance returns as the displacing gaze of the disciplined, where the observer becomes the observed and 'partial representation rearticulates the whole notion of ''identity ''and alienates it from essence,”[ Bhabha, 89.] but in this case the mimic gaze is the colonizer's , and it returns precisely as the establishment of racial boundaries. Certainly, Zhu felt this mimicry as an example of colonial aggression; it is only the boy who might have thought of the stare in Bhabha's terms, as his defense mechanism against a racially-motivated intrusion into his privacy.<br />
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And Zhu's initiating stare is certainly racial (though not racist); he gloats over the boy's Caucasianness: “His white cheeks dashed with red and his long golden eyelashes revealed a peacefulness and elegance.”[ Zhu, 43.]<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
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Zhu, of course, tries to cover this fact; this is the prime rhetorical function of the discussion of Liu Jun. Without that mini-narrative, Zhu would have had to go directly from a description of the boy's whiteness into the boy's violent reaction, thus allowing the reader to assume that Zhu's racial gaze is what produced that reaction, complicating the question of the child's aggression. Instead, Zhu asserts a different reason why he is staring: he simply likes children, he has ever since he used to play with that little Liu Jun boy. Zhu wants to figure his own gaze as mostly aracial and entirely beneficent, a happy celebration of innocence which is met by abrupt, mature, racist aggression, shocking him out of his reveries into a disturbed reflection on nationalism and interracial strife.<br />
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Fine, so be it, Zhu's gaze is completely aracial, despite his gloating about pink cheeks and golden eyelashes. It is not therefore simple. Consider the bizarreness hidden in his self-justification:<br />
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当然，朱试图掩盖这一事实，这是刘军谈及过的主要的修辞功能。没有那种迷你叙事，朱将不得不直接从描述男孩的苍白转变为男孩的暴力反应，从而使读者认为是因为朱的种族凝视才产生了这种反应，便复杂化了孩子的攻击性问题。相反，朱宣称自己凝视是因为不同的原因，即，他只是喜欢孩子，从那以后，他常常和小刘军一起玩。朱想把他的视线当做与种族无关的，完全善意的行为。当做对纯真的庆祝，然而却突然地遭到了形成已久的种族观念的侵袭。这使他幻想破灭，陷入了国籍和种族冲突的反思中。<br />
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很好，尽管粉红的脸颊和金色的眼睫毛让他看起来有些沾沾自喜，但朱的凝视完全没带种族含义。考虑到藏在他自我争辩中的怪异，所以这并不简单。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:14, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
I have always had the sort of temperament whereby if I saw an amusing little child, I would always want to be on intimate terms with him...When I was in the upper grades of elementary school, in the attached building for the middle grades there was a boy named Liu Jun with raven-black Western-style hair, who was truly docile, like a bird....his face was always that undisturbed and earnest, though under his skin there must have burned the fires of intimacy. Several times I invited him to my home, but he was never willing to go; afterwards I didn't see him for two years, and then he died. I cannot forget him! I had held his little hand, and rubbed his round chin. If I meet a young child for the first time, I naturally can't do that, that would be a little awkward; nevertheless, that's unimportant, I can look at him- once, twice, ten times, dozens of times!<br />
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我向来有种癖气，见了有趣的小孩，总想和他亲热...在高等小学时，附设的初等里，有一个养着乌黑的西发的刘君，真是依人得像小鸟一般...他的脸老是那么幽静和真诚，皮下却烧着亲热的火把。我屡次让他到我家里来，他总不肯；后来两年不见，他便死了。我不能忘记他！我牵过他的小手，又摸过他的圆下巴。但若遇着陌生的小孩，我自然不能那么做，那可有些窘了；不过也不要紧，我可用我的眼睛看他——一回，两回，十回，几十回！--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 09:22, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我向来有种癖气，见了有趣的小孩，总想和他亲热……。在高等小学时，附设的初等里，有一个养着乌黑的西发的刘君，真是依人得像小鸟一般……。他的脸老是那么幽静和真诚，皮下却烧着亲热的火把。我屡次让他到我家里来，他总不肯；后来两年不见，他便死了。我不能忘记他！我牵过他的小手，又摸过他的圆下巴。但若遇着陌生的小孩，我自然不能那么做，那可有些窘了；不过也不要紧，我可用我的眼睛看他——一回，两回，十回，几十回！--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:06, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
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Any given child probably won't pay much attention to people's eyes, so one can look at him with total freedom; it is not at all like furtive, covered glances at women. I have in the past stared at many children I had just met, and they never once protested, at most they pulled on the hand of their mother next to them, or leant on her knee, or looked at her once or twice. Therefore I was very bold. This time on the trolley my old temperament came back, and I looked again and again at that white child, that young Westerner![ Zhu, 43.]<br />
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''Sexuality! ''is the obvious cry which rises at the description of Liu Jun: the docility, the meekness, the holding and rubbing, the “fires of intimacy”--these elements conspire to suggest a nascent homosexuality. <br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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Little Liu is dead, now, but there are substitutes swirling all around Zhu; he cannot touch them as he touched Liu, that would be socially impossible, but as a substitute he can stare with impunity, “dozens of times.” And the children do not protest his stares, they are docile-at most they squirm uncomfortably beneath Zhu's visual intrusion into their world. Zhu's relationship with children is therefore predicated by his dominance of them. He says at the opening of the paragraph that he wants to be intimate with children, but it is an intimacy of power forcing itself upon them.[ The evidence for Zhu's child-fetish is strongly corroborated by his other work. Apart from the focus on childhood in works like the famous, “Back Silhouette” (beiying), in another essay of his, “Children,” he goes so far as to explicitly admit to physical child abuse. ]<br />
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Given these strange admissions, one sees Zhu's reaction to the white child's stare as much more complicated. Zhu experiences the stare as racism, and probably rightly so; yet it seems clear that he is also shocked by the reversal of power involved. <br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
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He normally enjoys the prerogative of a forced intimacy, dominating children through his gaze, and suddenly he finds, for the first time, a child that fights gaze with gaze, is able to dominate him and usurp Zhu's position as an adult, casting him down into the docility of the helpless child. When Zhu, flabbergasted, constructs a voice to put onto the child, he may be grabbing onto the real racism present in the situation to use as a defense mechanism, changing the subject to avoid the real source of the ego-crushing which is occurring. Zhu protests his amazement that he could be so disturbed by “just a ten year old white 'child'”; yet the entire scenario could never possibly have been played out with an adult.<br />
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Fanon's child is a mirror to him, highlighting the Lacanian crisis of identification which life in France causes him.<br />
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他通常享有强迫亲密的特权，通过他的目光支配孩子，突然，他发现，第一次有孩子和他对着凝视，这凝视能控制着他，篡夺朱作为一个成年人的地位，让他处于无助孩子的温顺中。当朱陷入惊讶地，想要对这孩子说话时，他可能是抓住现实的种族主义出现在这情况下，用作防御机制，改变主题，以避免正在发生的自我粉碎的真正来源。朱对只有一个十岁的白人孩子感到如此不安，他感到惊奇。但整个场景永远不可能与一个成年人一起进行。法农的孩子如同一面镜子，突出了他在法国的生活所造成的拉康认同危机。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他通常享有强迫亲密的特权，通过眼色来支配孩子，他突然发现，第一次有孩子用眼神与他对视，篡夺了朱作为成年人的地位，让他处于无助孩子的温顺中。当朱陷入惊讶地，想要对这孩子说话时，他可能是抓住现实的种族主义出现在这情况下，用作防御机制、改变主题，以避免正在发生的自我粉碎的真正来源。朱对只有十岁的一个白人孩子感到如此不安，他感到惊奇。但整个场景永远不可能与一个成年人一起。对他来说，法农的孩子如同一面镜子，暴露出法国生活中拉康认同危机对他的影响。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:43, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
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If we in turn take Fanon as a mirror for Zhu Ziqing, his Lacanian analysis throws up interesting images of the incident on the Shanghai trolley. Zhu's white boy is visually even more of a mirror image to him than Fanon's was. The man and the boy gaze at each other across the solid divide; they mutually stare along a joint axis of domination. Of course, Zhu does not have Fanon's psychoanalytic training: he had read some empiricist psychology, but less Freud and of course no Lacan. He cannot wander between psychological theory and personal experience in the same fashion Fanon did.<br />
如果我们反过来以法农为朱自清的镜子，他对拉卡尼亚主义的分析在上海电车上抛出有趣的事件图像。 在视觉上，朱自清的白人男孩比法农的更像是他的镜像。 男人和男孩在坚固的鸿沟上凝视着对方。 他们沿着共同的支配轴相互凝视。 当然，朱没有接受法农的心理分析训练：他读过一些经验主义者的心理学，但是很少读弗洛伊德，当然也没有拉康。 他无法像法农那样在心理理论和个人经历之间徘徊。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:29, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果我们反过来把法农当作朱自清的镜子，他的拉卡尼亚主义分析就会对上海电车事件抛出有趣的图像。 朱自清的白人男孩在视觉上甚至比法农的男孩更像他的镜像。 男人和男孩隔着坚实的鸿沟相互凝视，他们沿着共同的统治轴线相互凝视。 当然，朱德没有法农的精神分析训练：他读过一些经验主义心理学，但少读弗洛伊德，当然也没有拉卡尼亚。 他不能像法农那样在心理学理论和个人经验之间游走。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:57, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But a reading of Fanon forces us to ask to what extent Zhu's trauma is a crisis of delayed issues of developmental psychology. This is obviously a complex field which belongs properly to specialists, and one hardly feels there is enough material in this brief essay to make definitive conclusions.<br />
但是对法农的阅读迫使我们问朱自清的创伤在多大程度上是发展心理学迟缓问题的危机。 显然，这是一个复杂的领域，应该属于专家，并且几乎没有人认为这篇简短的文章中有足够的材料来得出明确的结论。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:29, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但对法农的解读，迫使我们要问，朱的创伤在多大程度上是发展心理学的延迟问题的危机。 这显然是一个复杂的领域，理应属于专家的范畴，在这篇简短的文章中，我们很难感觉到有足够的材料来做出明确的结论。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:57, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
不过，读了法农的书，我们不禁要问，朱自清的创伤究竟在多大程度上是发展心理学延迟问题的危机。这显然是一个完全属于专家研究的复杂领域。人们觉得，这篇简短的文章中没有足够的材料来让他们作出明确的结论。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 13:53, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
But the narrative is explicitly spun out of a story of childhood; Zhu himself derives his child-fetish from the loss of the intimate and passive Liu Jun. And Zhu's fascination with children and childhood in other essays should be an indication that something is up. Perhaps one could establish Zhu's relation to Fanon thus: that while Fanon's experience of racism is drawn into a network of theory that links his crisis of identity to an aborted mirror-stage, Zhu Ziqing sees in the mirror of his own white child a vision of himself as prematurely woven into the fabric of power. It is then only this sudden emergence of power in a half-nostalgic, half-sexual scopophilia which highlights the boy's whiteness and raises the questions of racial dominance and nationalist resistance.<br />
<br />
What makes Zhu feel nationalistic pride? It is not the boy's reaction, but his race.<br />
<br />
但故事是明确地从一个童年故事中衍生出来的;朱自清的儿童迷恋源于失去了亲密而消极的刘君。而朱自清在其他文章中对儿童和童年的迷恋，应该是表明有些事情发生了。也许可以建立朱自清与法农之间的关系:法农种族主义的经历卷入了理论之网，这将他的身份危机与流产镜像阶段连接起来, 朱自清从自己的白人孩子的镜子里看到了自己过早地融入权力的一面。正是在这种半怀旧、半性恋的恋物癖中，权力的突然出现，凸显了这个男孩的白人身份，并引发了种族统治和民族主义抵抗的问题。<br />
<br />
是什么让朱感到民族自豪感?不是男孩的反应，而是他的种族。<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 11:43, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但这部小说的叙事显然是从一个童年故事中衍生出来的；朱自清本人从失去亲密无间、被动的刘俊身上获得了对儿童的迷恋，而他在其他散文中对儿童和童年的迷恋，应该是某种事情发生的迹象。也许有人可以这样确定朱自清与法农的关系：虽然法农的种族主义经历被纳入了一个理论网络，将他的身份危机与一个失败的镜像阶段联系起来，但朱自清在自己的白人孩子的镜子中看到了自己过早地编织在权力结构中的形象。正是在这种半怀旧、半性恋的恋物癖中，权力的突然出现，凸显了这个男孩的白人身份，并引发了种族统治和民族主义抵抗的问题。<br />
<br />
是什么让朱感到民族自豪感?不是男孩的反应，而是他的种族。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 03:19, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
Given the way Zhu sets up his narrative, given the description of his frequent and unimpeded voyeurism of children in public spaces, one assumes that any child who stared back mockingly at Zhu would have shocked him-this child was the first to do so. Had the child been Chinese and stared back, Zhu's experience might have been more obviously psycho-sexual in his own recounting. The real importance of the child's whiteness is to Zhu's rational reflections over the significance of the incident. To Zhu's mind, it was not the child's whiteness but his resistance that was disturbing; but he locates the whiteness as the source of the child's ability to resist and to then turn resistance into domination. He essentializes the incident: force is what makes whites white. A gaze on a bus becomes an allegory for the sweep of modern history.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
On reflection, the appearance of nationalism here is far more abrupt than it would have seemed in the Shanghai journal culture following the May 30 Massacre. Is it really a defense mechanism against the revelations of his own psychology? Is it both a defense mechanism and an expression of conscious and justified outrage over colonialist presence in Shanghai? Is it a fiction “remembered” back onto the incident in the heat of the violent summer of 1925? I do not mean by any of these questions to imply that somehow Zhu's nationalism is fake, or secondary, or subordinate; to do that would be to write a justification of the murder of the students on Nanjing Road. But of all the essays and poems and short fiction published along with Zhu's essay in the two Literary Association journals (''Xiaoshuo yuebao and Wenxue zhoukan''), none but his strays so far from the event of the massacre itself in order to support the national cause. It is legitimate to ask why.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The bifurcations in Zhu's essay between experience and historiography, practice and theory thus are constituted in an odd mix of clarity and confusion. Patriotic messages are deeply worked into the fabric of the narration of the incident, and any division between Zhu's lived experience and the big picture view of imperialism were surely invisible to any reader in the context of the essay's production. They are invisible to us, as informed readers, but only on our first readings. The deeper explorations of Zhu's gaze, by suggesting the possible distance of ideological historiography form the original event, merely highlight a structural division between narration and theory which splits the text at “I was filled with a pressing nationalistic feeling!” The structural split is perfectly obvious; yet it is only after some thought about the nature of Zhu's project that it becomes noteworthy.<br />
<br />
因此，朱的文章中经验与史学，实践和理论之间的分歧是由清晰和混乱构成的。爱国主义的启示被深深地融入了事件的叙述之中，在这篇论文的撰写过程中，任何读者都肯定看不到朱的活生生的经验与帝国主义的大视野之间的任何分歧。作为知情的读者，它们对我们是不可见的，但仅在我们的初读时才可见。 通过暗示思想史学与原事件之间可能的距离，朱目光的更深层次的探索仅仅强调了叙事和理论之间的结构性划分，使文本分裂为“我充满了紧迫的民族主义情绪！”其中结构上的分裂非常明显； 然而，只有在对朱的项目的性质进行一些思考之后，它才值得关注。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 03:16, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
This is the Zhu Ziqing who declares himself a contradiction, and he can talk back to Fanon. His own textual complexes find their affinities in Fanon's text and the Fanonian textual systems that grew from it. It is impossible to forget, with Fanon, the wiles of language-his flourishes are too extravagant. Yet ''Black Skin, White Masks'' is filled with partial autobiographies. One knows one is reading theory, but it seems to be a theory grown organically from “Antillean experience,” even when we all know better. Though our study of Chinese literature might convince us that theory fits or does not fit Chinese experience, we should not assume that theory has a more natural and wholesome relationship with African or Indian experience, that the postcolonial debates were “derived” from fully colonial experience. Psychoanalytic theory created Fanon's experience, and the body of theory “derived” from Fanon has even more dramatically recreated him.<br />
<br />
这就是那个宣称自己自我矛盾的朱自清，他可以对法农进行反驳。他自身的文本情结在法农的文本和由其发展而来的法农文本体系中找到了相似之处。人们不可能忘记法农的语言诡计——他的华丽辞藻太过夸张。然而《黑皮肤，白面具》的一些部分充满了自传性质。一个人知道自己在阅读理论，甚至当我们更了解这理论时，但这理论似乎是一个有机地从“安的列斯经验”中成长起来的，虽然我们对中国文学的研究可能会让我们相信，理论是否符合中国的经验，但我们不应该假设理论与非洲或印度的经验有更自然和健康的关系，后殖民争论是“派生”自完全的殖民经验。精神分析理论创造了法农的经验，而从法农“衍生”出来的理论体则更戏剧性地重新塑造了他。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 11:54, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
The point of which is not to reassert the very tired discovery that theory is not experience and words not things, but to point out that the Chinese modernist friction against theory is not unique. Insofar as we need to continue to talk about postcolonial contexts when addressing Chinese modern literature, it would be helpful to keep in perspective Chinese's non-uniqueness; to do so may help us avoid the trap of either-or questions. Tension is healthy. If we must dismiss with a wave our continuing urgent desire for comparison of unmediated experience, and cannot give ourselves over to the mere nodding affirmation of sloganized thought-systems, then at least the comparative and cross-cultural analysis of tension is still available to us.<br />
<br />
The great frustration of the work of comparison is its inability to aspire to totalisms. However conscious we are of the danger of such aspirations, they are magnetic and insinuating.<br />
<br />
这里的重点并不是要重申这个老生常谈的发现，即理论不是经验，文字也不是事物，而是要指出中国现代主义与理论的摩擦并不是唯一的。在探讨中国现代文学时，如果我们需要继续探讨后殖民语境，那么审视中国的非独特性是有帮助的。这样做可以帮助我们避免陷入非此即彼的困境。对立是有益的的。如果我们必须以一种浪潮来驱散我们对未经调解的经验的比较的持续的迫切愿望，不能让我们自己沉溺于仅仅是表面肯定的口号的思想体系，那么至少对立比较和跨文化的分析对我们仍然是可用的。<br />
<br />
比较研究的不足在于它不能实现极权主义。虽然我们十分清楚这种想法的危险性，但还是会被吸引。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 07:00, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
The leap from text to context is satisfying; even if one is aware of the necessity of multiple contexts, because one can choose one's school and plant one's feet and make an argument (or ignore the need for argument) that one's chosen context is the most appropriate. The comparison of individual works requires resignation to pettiness. Any other permutation of works will produce different, perhaps contradictory, lessons. For example, comparing Zhu's essay with other May 30 protest essays, such as those by Mao Dun or Zheng Zhenduo, would vastly alter our evaluation of it. Among an infinite number of permutations of comparison, the importance of any one comparison becomes infinitesimal, and its authority to define the reception of the work shrinks commensurably. The infinitesimal still has the potential for informing other research, but only by miracles of typological allegory.<br />
<br />
从文本到语境的跳跃是令人满意的，虽然我们都知道多语境的必要性，因为我们可以选择自己的派别，然后立足于这个派别，对自己选择的语境是最合适的这个论点进行论证（或者直接忽视论证的必要性）。对各个作家的作品进行比较需要极大的耐心。将不同的作品进行不同的组合将会得出不同的，或者是相互矛盾的结论。例如，将朱自清的文章与五卅运动其他的抗议文相比较，比如茅盾或者郑振铎的作品，就会极大地改变我们对朱自清的文章的评价。在无穷无尽的各种组合比较中，单一比较的重要性会变得微乎其微，其对作品接受度做出的评价的的权威性也会相应地大打折扣。这种意义微乎其微的比较仍有可能对其他研究做出贡献，但也只有在类型学中才会发挥作用。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:02, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从文本到语境的跳跃令人满意，虽然我们都知道多语境的必要性，因为我们可以选择自己的派别，然后立足于这个派别，对自己选择的语境是最合适的这个论点进行论证（或者直接忽视论证的必要性）。对各个作家的作品进行比较需要极大的耐心。将不同的作品进行不同的组合将会得出不同的，或者是相互矛盾的结论。例如，将朱自清的文章与五卅运动其他的抗议文相比较，比如茅盾或者郑振铎的作品，就会极大地改变我们对朱自清的文章的评价。在无穷无尽的各种组合比较中，单一比较的重要性会变得微乎其微，其对作品接受度做出的评价的的权威性也会相应地大打折扣。这种意义微乎其微的比较仍有可能对其他研究做出贡献，但也只有在类型学中才会发挥作用。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:22, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
'''Incongruous Lyricism: Liu Baiyu, Yang Shuo and sanwen in Chinese Socialist Culture<br />
'''<br />
Charles A. Laughlin<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
The popularity of both Republican period and post-Mao sanwen in contemporary Chinese literary markets indicates the importance of this genre in twentieth century Chinese literature. <br />
<br />
Less obvious, but no less significant, is its importance within the socialist cultural system of the Chinese Communist Party. Ever since Chinese cultural activists began to consciously promote specific literary practices as a way of contributing to “revolution” in the late 1920s, literary prose played an important role, but at first only in the form of reportage or baogao wenxue. Beginning in Yan’an during the War of Resistance Against Japan, however, young writers who received all or in part of their education or literary training in Communist institutions began to write prose texts that more closely resembled the xiaopin and suigan of the Republican period. Unlike reportage, these texts featured lyrical and humorous moments without being critical of the social environment, and they were not concerned with contemporary historical events and figures. <br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
Such writing achieved prominence in the first decade of the People’s Republic of China, and in this paper I examine three writers that exemplify the characteristic techniques and strategies of the socialist literary essay: Liu Baiyu, Qin Mu and Yang Shuo. Liu Baiyu exemplifies how the experience of war and revolution conditioned the emergence of lyricism in socialist culture, while Qin Mu and Yang Shuo embody the maturation of this socialist lyricism in a peacetime environment. Socialist ''sanwen'' differs from Republican period forms in its characteristically friendly yet didactic second-person rhetoric, and its tendency to build verbal monuments for national heroes. But traces of the conspicuous individuality of Republican period ''sanwen'' lived on in the essayists of the 1950s and 60s. This created a subtle dissonance in the texture of socialist culture that in my opinion contributed to the prominence and popularity of these writers, whose works were included in textbooks for later generations of mainland readers.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
When we think of the Chinese essay we usually think of the works of Republican period liberal humanists drawing upon both Western ideas and premodern Chinese style and diction to produce a new genre that represented the artistic epitome of lyrical, colloquial prose. Perhaps just as commonly, when we think of revolutionary literature and of writing under the Chinese communist regime, we think of realism, social critique, polemic and propaganda. Indeed in my study of the development of reportage literature in the Republican and early PRC periods, I associate the procedures of reportage with the culture of leftism in such a way as to render the very notion of lyrical leftist nonfiction discordant if not outright absurd. The problem is, as I was aware at the time, there are prominent authors in the PRC – Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu, to name only a few – who made their names almost entirely through the writing of essays (sanwen). <br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
At that time, I dismissed this phenomenon in the usual way: these were communist lackeys simply parroting the ruling ideology at the bidding of culture czars.<br />
<br />
But even if they were, I could not account for the fact that such writing took on the form of sanwen, in many ways similar to the ''xiaopin wen'' popular the 1930s, while there was already in ''baogao wenxue'' a thriving literary nonfiction form that seemed to embody in its very form the communist vision of art and its place in society. To put it another way, there is nothing in the logic of socialist culture as I knew it that would call for the production of ''sanwen'' as written by these authors, and we know very well that authors under socialism are not at liberty to write what they please, so I had to attribute the persistence of the ''sanwen'' form in the PRC to something inherent about ''sanwen'' and Chinese literary modernity. <br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
My current project intends to approach this question by comparing Chinese literary nonfiction practice in a number of different historical and cultural scenarios from the late imperial period to the present, and this presentation concerns specifically the ''sanwen'' under Chinese socialism.<br />
<br />
'''Socialist ''sanwen'' emerged from Communist base area writing practice''' <br />
<br />
Usually in the form of reportage, literary prose of the Yan’an period was concerned with dramatizing the social and spiritual superiority of regimented, collectivized life under the leadership of the Communist Party. Such writing often relied on direct comparisons between aspects of life in ”the old society” and life in Yan’an, or the between checkered past of characters who had been rehabilitated by the Communists and their newfound belief in the socialist community and its leaders. Though often idealized, examples given are meant to be concrete and taken as factual, and names are often named of military leaders and model laborers depicted. In this respect reportage is the most direct precursor of the lyrical essays of the People’s Republic.[ The civil war of 1946-1949 so disrupted the socialist base areas that much less of this kind of writing was produced; war correspondence once again became the order of the day]</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201207_trans&diff=10727720201207 trans2020-12-04T13:33:41Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Xu Jing 许晶 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
The story plays with the analogy of zhang and mu. By infusing them into an imaginary “curtain,” the framed narrative engenders dialogic interplay between the narrator and the bridegroom, between the bride and the spectator, and between the public and private spaces. Zhang and mu mean different things, though they converge in the compound zhangmu. Traditionally, the word zhang denoted a canopy hung around a bed and was used to isolate an inner space in bedroom, so it can hardly be identical with the meaning of curtain. However, indirectly, it reached to the sense of “curtain” through a translation of Jerrold D. William’s (1803-57) Mrs. Caudle’s Curtain Lectures, a fiction of early nineteenth-century England. In 1915 Liu Bannong translated the title into “Zhangzhong shuofa” and published it in Zhonghua xiaoshuo jie.[ Liu Bannong, “Zhangzhong shuofa,” Zhonghua xiaoshuo jie, vol. 2, no.3 (March, 1915). Zhou should (June, 1922).] <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
The “curtain lectures” refer to Mrs. Caudle’s poignant complaints and derision at her husband, mixed with familial trivialities and comic effects. <br />
<br />
However, the overlap of zhang and mu was crucially related to a widely circulated myth about the Chinese origins of cinema, which was perhaps invented by Zhou himself. When Western-style movie theaters began to appear in late-1900s Shanghai, he was one of the earliest moviegoers. Like other Chinese at his time he also regarded film as a kind of “shadow play” (yingxi), meaning the performance on a screen. According to Zhou, the origins of “shadow play” can be found in the famous story in the Han Dynasty (206-24, B.C.), which tells of the Emperor Wu watching lady Li, dancing and singing, through a semi-transparent curtain.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
As the anecdote goes, to console his loss of the favorite lady, a sorcerer made a curtained room and asked the emperor to stay at a distance. In the night, called by the sorcerer, the spirit appears behind the curtain, amidst the candle-light, to perform as if she is alive.[ Zhou Shoujuan, “Tan yingxi” (On shadow play), in Ziluilan ji (Collections of violet) (Shanghai: Dadong shuju, 1922) 13-14. Its earlier version “Yingxi hua” appeared in the Free Talk (Ziyou tan), the literary page in Shenbao (June 20, 1919): 15.] Notwithstanding the historical merit of Zhou’s interpretation, what is significant here is that he reads history with a cinematic imagination, by which the terminology in everyday life changes - as occurred here the meaning of zhang (curtain) is substituted by that of mu (screen). <br />
<br />
In the mid-1910s Saturday and The Pastime (Youxi zazhi) magazines often appeared Zhou’s “film fiction” (yinxi xiaoshuo) - his accounts of what he had seen in the movie theaters. <br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
By the time he wrote this love confession, Zhou published a novella The Intimate Beauty (Hongyan zhiji), in which the hero recalls his lover on the “screen memory”: after he closes his eyes, he sees her beautiful image on a “snow-white screen” (xuebai de bumu) and hears her delicate voice; when he opens his eyes, they vanish and yet leaves a three-inch photograph in his heart.[ Zhou Shoujuan. Hongyan zhiji (Zhonghua tushuguan, 1917) 64.] However, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” has no description of watching film, yet the narrative itself is framed by the curtain; what was shown on the “screen” was verbalized and the text was visualized. With both meanings of zhang and mu, the “curtain” can be changed into a “screen,” onto which is projected the inner space of a wedding chamber in which the author makes his confession.<br />
在他写这篇爱情告白的时候，周出版了中篇小说《亲密之美》(《红颜之记》)，在这部小说中，主人公在“屏幕记忆”中回忆起了他的爱人:他闭上眼睛，在“雪白的屏幕”上看到了她美丽的形象，听到了她柔美的声音;当他睁开眼睛时，它们消失了，却在他的心里留下了一张三英寸的照片。(周秀娟《红颜智记》(中华图舒观1917)。然而，《九花帘幕》并没有对看电影的描述，叙事本身却被帘幕框住了;“屏幕”上显示的是语言，文字是可视化的。“窗帘”可以变成“屏风”，在“屏风”上投射出婚房的内部空间，作者在这里坦白。<br />
<br />
写下这篇爱情告白时，周寿娟已出版了一篇小说《亲密的美人》(《鸿雁集》)，男主人公以 "屏风记忆 "的方式回忆爱人：闭上眼睛后，在 "雪白的屏风"上看到了她的美丽形象，听到了她的娇声；睁开眼睛时，这些形象消失了，却在心里留下了一张三寸照片。 [ 周寿娟.鸿雁志集（中华图画馆，1917）64.]然而，《九花帘里》没有看电影的描写，但叙事本身却被帘子框住了，"屏风 "上显示的东西被口头化了，文字也被视觉化了。有了 "张 "和 "亩 "两个意思，"幕 "就可以变成 "屏"，在 "屏 "上投射出作者告白的婚房内部空间。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:37, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was visually imagined and represented in terms of the spaces divided into the inside and the outside, with the beholder within the curtain and the imagined beholders without. When Zhou fulfills his promise to his friends that he will show them his “love talk” in the Pictorial Story magazine, he makes a written tableau in Diderot’s sense, in which the beholder is absent and yet always implied.[ Jay Caplan. Framed Narratives: Diderot’s Genealogy of the Beholder (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985) 16. ] Here, we refer to the notion of “beholder” not only because of the visual nature of Zhou’s fiction, but also because it helps my imposition of the complex “subjectivity” in this paper.<br />
《九朵花的窗帘》以外部空间和内部空间的划分给人们视觉上的想象与呈现，旁观者在窗帘内，而想象中的旁观者则在窗帘外。周在兑现对其朋友承诺说他将会在《画报故事》杂志中给他们展示“爱情谈话”时，就按照狄德罗的感觉画了一幅画，在这幅画里没有旁观者，但却总是暗含其中。[杰伊·卡普兰。边框叙事：狄德罗的《旁观者的家谱》（明尼阿波利斯：明尼苏达大学出版社，1985年）16。]我们在这里提到周的小说中“旁观者”的概念，不仅仅是因为其视觉特点，也是因为它加深了我对这篇文章复杂的“主观性”的理解。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 01:09, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
At this juncture, if we look beyond this story merely as a signal of style change in Zhou’s love story from the tragic to comical, we might be curious at the positivity of the male voice as well as the brightness of the private space. In view of the erotic-sentimental tradition of the male gaze in private space, what does this love talk mean historically? Not only does it relate to the transformation of gender roles as well as the legitimacy of the private space in Chinese literature.<br />
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This transformation occurred when this male gaze is empowered ideologically and technologically. Ideologically, it is imbued with the Republican ideal of nationhood and selfhood; technologically, it is, in this case, facilitated by the structural optical perception linked to the modern inventions such as photography and cinema. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
While depicting a tableau by freezing a moment in the past, Diderot disturbs his narrative by arranging the beholder as a part of the tableau. As Jay Caplan interpreted, the beholder is presented for the “psychological reason”: he functions as compensation to the loss which the family suffers as portrayed in the tableau.[ Ibid., 20-37.] In Zhou’s case, the beholder is called for the moral reason as his presence is neutralized to legitimize his love discourse in the private space. Especially the term qinghua “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” can be traced back to his short story published in 1913. It describes a young couple meeting and then whispering at a public place, unaware of someone who takes a snapshot of their intimate scene.[ Zhou Shoujuan. “Qinghua” (Love talk), Youxi zazhi 5 (1913).] <br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
It reads like a joke, yet this reportage intriguingly justifies the privacy in the public space that is a controversy of the time. The beholder plays roles of witness, voyeurist, and more importantly, sympathizer. In portraying the photographic evidence with the story of the beholder, Zhou also becomes a sympathetic beholder. <br />
<br />
The dialogic characteristic of this love discourse lies not only in the consumerism of literary pleasure as the core of the Butterfly periodical culture, but also in the collective ethos of Butterfly community. In explicating how a bourgeois “love community” is born from the literature of intimate sphere in eighteenth-century England, Habermas says: “Subjectivity, as the innermost core of the private, was always already oriented to an audience.”[ Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. Trans. Thomas Burger with the Assistance of Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge and Mass.: The MIT Press, 1991) 49. ] <br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
Zhou’s pillow talk is more than a playful response to his friends’ voyeurist curiosity, it is fulfilled as a promise of love discourse. It might embody that “the ideas of freedom, love, and cultivation of the person that grew out of the experiences of the conjugal family’s private sphere were surely more than just ideology.”[ Ibid., 48. ]<br />
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As the pillow talk unfolds, a complex subjectivity emerges. Against its ideological and technological backdrop, it is rhetorically and aesthetically embodied by a double voice, the poetics of persuasion and linguistic theatricality. The latter part of the story talks more about his family history. “When I was six years old, I became an orphan.” With this pathological tone, Zhou narrates how his father dies at that time and how his widowed mother single-handedly rears up four children by her hard work as a seamstress.<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃的枕边私语不只是对他朋友们窥阴欲的一笑置之，还是他说给爱人的甜言蜜语。这表明男女私生活中反映出的自由观、爱情观和育人观不只是意识形态。[Ibid.,48]<br />
<br />
随着枕边私语慢慢展开，一种复杂的主观性油然而生。考虑到其意识形态和技术背景，这些枕边话通过修辞和美学手段呈现出来，如二重唱、诗歌的劝说功能以及语言学理论。故事的后半部分谈到了周瘦鹃的家族史。他说“我六岁就成了孤儿。”周瘦鹃用一种凄凉的口吻讲述自己六岁丧父，母亲辛苦做针黹活，将四个孩子拉扯大。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 02:31, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
周瘦鹃的枕边私语不只是对他朋友们窥阴欲的一笑置之，还是他给爱人的甜言蜜语。这表明,男女私生活中反映出的自由观、爱情观和育人观不只是意识形态。[Ibid.,48]<br />
<br />
随着枕边私语慢慢展开，一种复杂的主观性油然而生。考虑到其意识形态和技术背景，这些枕边话通过修辞和美学手段呈现出来，如二重唱、诗歌的劝说功能以及语言学理论。故事的后半部分谈到了周瘦鹃的家族史。他说“我六岁就成了孤儿。”周瘦鹃用一种凄凉的口吻讲述自己六岁丧父，母亲辛苦做针黹活，将四个孩子拉扯大的往事。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:24, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
This family story is particularly heart-rending, yet it is more than that. He goes on, “When my father died, it happened in the year of 1900. The capital Beijing was totally in chaos, and thus, unexpectedly, the familial disaster and national humiliation fell on a boy of six years old.” A sense of tragic sublimation is effectively rendered as the boy is depicted as both victim and victor in these historical disasters, owing much to the rhetoric that makes the familial and national disasters “happen” to meet, and “thus” they “both” fall on the boy. The sentences sound as if it happened simultaneously when his father died and Beijing fell, and this narration enormously affects the reader. <br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
However, strictly speaking, there is some slippage between fact and fiction: according to Zhou’s chronicle, his father died 22 days after the fall of Beijing.[ Wang Zhiyi, ed., Zhou Shoujaun yanjiu zhiliao (Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 1993) 20.] The dramatic simultaneity not merely refers the narrative strategy mixed with sentimentalism and patriotism, it reflects his own trauma as projected onto the screen memory of his childhood. Compared with other versions about his father’s death, this expression is most theatrical. <br />
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Zhou’s childhood memory stores the collective traumatic experiences. The 1900 national catastrophe - the Boxers Uprising and the European Allies’ invasion in Beijing - becomes the emblem of national shame that had deeply imprinted on the Chinese minds. By such theatrical representation of his screen memory, Zhou’s love talk not merely appeals to his bride, the wedding chamber itself is transformed into a public space.<br />
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然而，严格来说，在事实和小说之间会存在一些误差：据周瘦鹃的生平记载，北京沦陷22天后，其父便亡，[王智毅，《研究资料研究资料》 (天津人民出版社，1993)20]。 戏剧性的巧合不仅指向与情感主义和爱国主义相融合的叙述策略，也将周瘦鹃的精神创伤投射到其童年的屏幕记忆之上。这种表达极具戏剧色彩，使得其余种种对其父亲之死的叙事版本黯然失色。<br />
周瘦鹃的童年伤痕累累。1990年国难当头，义和团起义，欧洲列强入侵北京，国家屈辱深深植根在中国人心中。周瘦鹃戏剧性展现其屏幕记忆，表明其甜言蜜语不仅仅说给他的新娘子听，婚房也成为了公共场所。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 09:12, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
Now the narrator is more aware of the presence of the public beholders. Aiming more at arousing collective pathos there inserts the scenario of his father’s death, which is also an intense moment for the author to test his rhetoric of theatricality. “When my father was dying, he was like a madman. Suddenly he jumped down from the bed and rushed out, raising his head toward heaven and shouting at the top of his lung, ‘My three sons, be heroes, join the army and fight!’ After these words, he returned to the bed and soon stopped breathing.” <br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
Permeated in the narrative of his family history are the characteristics of theatrical rhetoric: The period of his childhood is frozen, and his voice pretends to be childish; heavily emotionally charged words such as “tears,” “sorrow,” “bitter” are frequently appear between lines. Ordinary episodes are intensely represented with emphasis on the theatrical manners, gestures to deliver emotions at the highest pitch. The sentiments attached to the episodes tend to be collectively identified, such as his father’s death linked to the national calamity. There is excessive use of the adverbs to accumulate the force of persuasion and theatrical effect. No less noticeable is the role played by the narrator himself, who seems never hesitant to use the rhetoric of excess.<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Perhaps no modern readers would feel comfortable at the author’s praise of his mother for her traditional virtue; she twice cuts off a piece of flesh from her arm and cooks it as a medicine for her ill mother and husband. “From now on, we should remember what she did and do our best to be filial to her. We should erect, in our hearts, a stele for her filial piety, and a monument for her widowhood; by this means we can make her late life a happy one.” When he repeats this to his bride as a family legend and spiritual heritage, the use of rituals to enhance his language performativity nonetheless turn the persuasion into the grotesque. But we need to be cautious at the accusation of Zhou’s promotion of the “feudal rites” (fengjian lijiao), for the rituals are only used as symbolic value serving the new social structure and ideology in the early Republican era.<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
According to the author’s love gospel, love must be mutual; this idea is embodied here through the narrative process itself: the act of telling the bride about his past as a token of trust aims to ask her to understand and trust him. While informing her of his intellectual paths in order to invite her to embrace his spiritual world, the pillow talk reveals its cultural meaning. Among other things, the story reveals himself as a human being who is promising yet ordinary, enduring yet fragile, and at the same time his family economy as unstable as unpredictable, indicating that they live in a hard time. It means that while sharing his bitter past and hopeful future, she must take up her duty and responsibility for him and his family.<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
Zhou’s rhetoric of persuasion also implies that the bride is also at the center of a nuclear family, who must be subject to the new ethics. As the narrator further describes how he becomes a nationally famous novelist, due to his talent, diligence and proliferation in the “time of fiction in its full swing.” His jubilant voice echoes that of the beginning of the story while talking about how his family economy is drastically improved and afterwards the Zhous moves from the shabby old city area to the decent French concession. The narrator continues: “Ah, my phoenix lady, I have fully told you about my past. Having heard of this, you can understand what I have achieved so far is due to my bloody struggles with the hardships and difficulties, not to mention my mother who experienced as harder as thousands times than mine.” <br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
The sentimental imploration conveys the bourgeois ethics no less than a “modern apocalypse”: this is a hard time yet it is promising and fair: everyone can get what he deserves by God’s gift as well as hard work. <br />
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Inscribed with such allegorized trauma, the pillow talk implies a fatal bond between the individual, family and country, and thence elicits the “community of love.” Under the persuasion she is more than a wife and a lover - she is treated at the same time as a citizen. By the device of double curtain stated above, the narrative space is imbued with the authorial anxiety before the private and public beholders, indicating that the private realm by no means becomes autonomous without being identified with peoplehood and nationhood.<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
A Republican subjectivity is embodied in this domestic space by a speech act of persuasion, and it is the sentimentalism that naturalizes all social relations, blurring the private and public boundaries, and it ultimately functions in identifying them with the nationhood. In a sense, this peculiar love talk using the first person genre amalgamates diary, love-letter, autobiography and confession and displays a particular revelation of the community of love.<br />
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Although the latter half of this monologue is basically dominated by historical references, Zhou’s strategy of using stylistic conventions such as verbal ornaments or rhythmic parallelism shifts to an appeal to cultural convention, such as ritual and tradition. Tradition is used as both value and form. Like the scars left on the mother’s arms, ritual is infused into the narrative to such an extent that the procedure of writing is culturally encoded. <br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
Compared to the characteristic of pursuing modern fashion in the first half of the story, here Zhou reveals more of his cultural conservatism. Rooted in the traditional “Teaching of Affection,” his love discourse aims at solving complex problems in a modern society; what separates Zhou from his contemporaries is that he does not intend to make his philosophy of love a perfect, unified one. In the “community of love” lies a paradox. Habermas says: “The jeopardy into which the idea of the community of love was thereby put, up to our own day, occupied the literature as the conflict between marriage for love and marriage for reason, that is, for economic and social considerations.”[ Habermas, 47.] <br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
As shown by Zhou’s own love story, he never forgot his first lover named “Violet,” and thus we come to realize that behind this pillow talk is the rueful truth: for him this is a “marriage for reason,” not a “marriage for love.” As he says to his bride, since he failed in the first love, he never had intention of making a family, and he married her in order to make his mother happy. Probably this loving experiment with baihua is a compromise for better communicating with the bride who is almost illiterate.<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
'''Eileen Chang and the Modern Essay'''<br />
<br />
Nicole Huang<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
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In her preface to Honglou mengyan (Nightmare in the Red Chamber), Eileen Chang (1920-1995) recalls that the meanings of Liuyan, the title of her essay collection published in 1944 in the Japanese occupied city of Shanghai, derives from an English saying “written on water.” She further elaborates the implications of the metaphor: she does not expect her writing to endure-it should be like words written on water, or 'flowing words,' as 'liuyan' would mean literally, lingering momentarily and eventually elapsing; but she also hopes that her writing will be endowed with the spirit of 'rumors' or 'gossip'-a second literal meaning of the word 'liuyan'-flowing freely and swiftly, reaching a wide audience.<br />
<br />
张爱玲及现代小说<br />
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黄群兰<br />
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摘要<br />
<br />
在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，1994年出版的《流言》的书名含义来自于英文谚语“written on water”。此后她还叙述了流言的深层含义：她并不希望自己的作品只是昙花一现，她想要自己的作品能够承载着“流言”的内涵，获得广泛受众。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 03:22, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲及现代小说<br />
<br />
黄群兰<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
在《红楼梦魇》的序言中，张爱玲（1920-1995）提到，1994年在日本侵占的上海出版的散文集《流言》的书名含义来自于英文谚语“written on water”。此后她还叙述了流言的深层隐喻：她并不希望自己的作品只是昙花一现，或者说流言的字面意义“飘走的话语”，她想要自己的作品能够承载着“流言”或“绯闻”的内涵——流言的第二个字面意义——自由自在地四处漂流，获得广泛受众。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:50, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
Chang's use of a language of self-reflexivity provides a window through which the curious reader/critic can look into the rather intimate process of a creative work in the making, so much so that the creative mentality of the woman author becomes a text which is first to be deciphered. The invention of the title is characteristic of Chang's long-term effort to negotiate the boundaries between different genres of writing, and in this case, it is the distinction between critical/academic writing and the personal essay that is being questioned. Here, the mechanism behind the naming of her writing is more than just a clever pun. The title not only suggests a new style of essay writing, it also indicates a corresponding way to highlight the generic identities of this reinvented literary form. <br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
While words are described as flowing like water, and the essay genre is compared to a fluid construction of 'gossip' or leisurely talks, Chang's naming of her own writing here offers more than just commentaries on the practice of literary writing. More importantly, the renaming of the essay genre should be understood as the woman writer's commentary on the state of cultural production during a particular time in modern Chinese history that is characterized by enormous turmoil and disruption which resulted from the war and the occupation. <br />
<br />
I argue that Chang's experience of the time, the space, and the particular historical milieu of occupied Shanghai is channeled into her attempts to redefine the generic identities of the modern essay. The choice of the essay form is central to Chang's aesthetic vision.<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
The writer's self-positioning in the realm of urban culture of 1940s Shanghai is exemplified in her appropriation of the genre. The essay is made into an important discursive site where the woman writer overtly challenges the literary conventions, searches for alternatives in both literary writing and practices of everyday life, and promotes herself as an important cultural figure. <br />
<br />
The modern essay also serves to contribute concrete forms to a life that appears void of any structure; in other words, Eileen Chang uses the form of the modern essay to construct an intelligible universe where one's imagination and fantasy can anchor. Detailed descriptions of everyday experience, that is, representations of cultural meanings of the material world, manifests not only a dynamic inner life but also a new social identity in formation. <br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
My paper highlights two aspects of life that are conceptualized in Chang's essay writing, one is the space of a modern apartment as a liminal site in urban landscape, and the other is the discourse of fashion as a vital form of material consciousness. I argue that the essay genre not only becomes an open-ended and ongoing process for the woman writer in her entry into the existing order of the literary world, it also becomes the testing ground where the boundaries between the literary world and the larger social realm become unstable and ever-shifting. Not only life styles can be read as texts, a woman writer as an individual can become a concrete historical subject within the space allowed by the modern essay. Life is woven together with work, the boundaries between the private and the public are further blurred, and biographical contingencies become important textual devices in constructing a legend of a new era.<br />
<br />
本文着重论述了张爱玲散文创作中概念化的两个方面的生活：一是现代公寓空间作为城市景观的边缘场所；二是时尚作为一种重要的物质意识形式的话语。笔者认为，散文体裁不仅成为女性作家进入文学世界现有秩序的一个无止境的、持续的过程，而且成为文学世界与更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定和不断变化的试验场。不仅生活方式可以作为文本来解读，女性作家作为个体也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为一个具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公众之间的界限进一步模糊，传记的偶然性成为构建新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
In her perface to Honglou mengyan (Nightmare in the Red Chamber), Eileen Chang (1920-1995) recalls that the meaning of Liuyan, the title of her essay collection published in 1944 in the Japanese occupied city of Shanghai, derives from an English saying “written on water.” She further elaborates the implications of the metaphor: she does not expect her writing to endure – it should be like words written on water, or ‘flowing words,’ as ‘liuyan’ would mean literally, lingering momentarily and eventually elapsing; but she also hopes that her writing will be endowed with the spirit of ‘rumors’ or ‘gossip’ – a second literal meaning of the word ‘liuyan’ – flowing freely and swiftly, reaching a wide audience.[ See Chang, Nightmare in the Red Chamber (Taipei: Huangguan, 1977). The book, containing Chang’s essays on authorship, themes, structure, character portrayal, and linguistic construction of the most renowned vernacular narrative of pre-modern China Dream in the Red Chamber (Honglou meng), is representative of her literary and artistic pursuits during her American years (1955-1995).]<br />
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张爱玲（1920-1995）在对《红楼梦》的演说中回想起流言，这是她1944年在日本占领的上海发表的散文集的标题，源于英语谚语“写在水上。”她进一步阐述了这种隐喻的含义：她不希望自己的写作能忍受–就像在水面上写的单词或“流淌的单词”一样，“流言”的字面意思是暂时徘徊并最终流失。但她也希望她的写作能被赋予“谣言”或“八卦”的精神（流言的第二个字面意思），并能自由，迅速地传播，并引起广泛的听众。[参见Chang，Nightmare in the红楼（台北：皇馆，1977）。这本书包含了张的文章，涉及到《红楼梦》中前现代中国梦中最著名的白话叙事的作者身份，主题，结构，人物写照和语言结构，代表了她在文学和艺术上的追求。美国年（1955-1995）。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 06:52, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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张爱玲（1920-1995）在《红楼梦魇》一书的前言中谈到，“流言”意思源于英文谚语“写在水上，这也是她一部散文集的名字，出版于1944年在日本占领的上海后。她进一步阐述了这种隐喻的含义：她不指望自己的作品渊远流长–就像“在水面上写的文字”或“流淌的文字”一样，一如“流言”的字面意思，暂时徘徊并最终流逝，但她也希望她的写作能带有“谣言”或“八卦”的意味（流言的第二个字面意思），并能自由，迅速地传播，获得广泛的关注。[参见张爱爱玲，《红楼梦魇》（台北：皇冠出版社，1977）。这本书是张爱玲在美时期（1955-1995）对前现代中国梦中最著名的白话叙事小说《红楼梦》的研究成果，包含多篇文章，涉及《红楼梦》的作者身份，主题，结构，人物写照和语言结构，代表了她的文学和艺术追求。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:26, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
Chang’s use of a language of self-reflexivity provides a window through which the curious reader/critic can look into the rather intimate process of a creative work in the making, so much so that the creative mentality of the woman author becomes a text which is first to be deciphered. The invention of the title is characteristic of Chang’s long-term effort to negotiate the boundaries between different genres of writing, and in this case, it is the distinction between critical/academic writing and the personal essay that is being questioned. Here, the mechanism behind the naming of her writing is more than just a clever pun. The title not only suggests a new style of essay writing, it also indicates a corresponding way to highlight the generic identities of this reinvented literary form.<br />
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张爱玲对自我反省语言的运用为好奇的读者/批评家提供了一个窗口，让他们得以深入了解正在创作中的作品的内在过程，因此，女作家的创作心理成为首先被解读的文本。书名反映了，张爱玲通过长期努力在不同写作类型之间寻求界限，在这种情况下，批评/学术写作和个人论文之间的区别受到了质疑。在这里，她作品命名背后的机制不仅仅是一个巧妙的双关语。标题不仅代表了一种新的散文写作风格，也代表了一种突出这种再造文学形式一般身份的相应方式。<br />
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张爱玲对自我反省性语言的运用为好奇的读者/评论家提供了一个窗口，通过这个窗口，他们可以观察到创作过程中相当详细的过程，因此女作家的创作心态成为首先被解读的文本。书名反映了张爱玲长期以来努力探讨不同文体之间界限，在这种情况下，批评/学术写作和个人散文之间的区别受到质疑。在这里，她的作品命名方法不仅仅是一个巧妙的双关语。这个标题不仅表明了一种新的散文写作风格，而且也代表了一种相应的方式来突出这种革新的文学形式的共性特征。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 10:09, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
During the writing process, the essay writer creates a structure of both containment (language captures the sentiments of a particular moment) and opening (language is unlimited because it lacks definite meaning or substance); and during the reading process, the immediacy and the transitoriness of the messages conveyed in these linguistic structures are first to be comprehended.<br />
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While words are described as flowing like water, and the essay genre is compared to a fluid construction of ‘gossip’ or leisurely talks, Chang’s naming of her own writing here offers more than just commentaries on the practice of literary writing. More importantly, the renaming of the essay genre should be understood as the woman writer’s commentary on the state of cultural production during a particular time in modern Chinese history that is characterized by enormous turmoil and disruption which resulted from the war and the occupation.[ For a standard historical account of cultural activities in occupied Shanghai, see Ke Ling, Zhuzi shengya (My Writing Career) (Taiyuan: Shanxi renmin chubanshe, 1986); also see Poshek Fu, Passivity, Resistance, and Collaboration: Intellectual Choices in Occupied Shanghai, 1937-1945 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).]<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
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Eileen Chang launched her writing career during the early 1940s, and her most important works, including the essays collected in Written on Water and the short stories collected in Chuanqi (Romances), were completed between 1943 and 45. Chang’s fictional writing has been subjected to abundant critical scrutiny since the late 1960s and early 1970s when scholars such as C.T. Hsia and Shui Jing started to reclaim the significance of Eileen Chang and promote her as one of the finest and the most original writers in the scene of twentieth century Chinese literature.[ See Shui Jing’s Paozhuan ji (Casting a Brick to Attract Jade) (Taipei: Sanmin shuju, 1969) and Zhang Ailing de xiaoshuo yishu (The Fictional Art of Eileen Chang ) (Taipei: Dadi chubanshe, 1973), as well as C. T. Hsia’s Aiqing, Shehui, Xiaoshuo (Love, Society, and Fiction) (Taipei: Chunwenxue chubanshe 1970), both published in Taipei. The three books were published in the midst of a renewed infatuation with the woman author shared by readers in Chinese-speaking communities outside of mainland China after 1949.] But the study of Chang’s essay writing is a different story.<br />
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张爱玲的创作生涯始于20世纪40年代初，她的重要作品包括散文集《流言》和短篇小说集《传奇》，均创作于1943年至45年间。虽然自20世纪60年代末70年代初以来，张爱玲的小说创作一直受大众批评，但是当时夏志清和水晶等学者已经开始重新认识张爱玲的意义，并称她为“二十世纪中国文学界最优秀、最具原创性的作家之一“【详见水晶的《抛砖记》（台北：三民书局，1969）和《张爱玲的小说艺术》（台北：大地出版社，1973）以及夏至清的《爱·社会·小说》（台北：纯文学出版社，1970），均在台北出版。这三本书的出版之时，正值1949年后中国大陆以外的华语读者对这位女作家重新产生迷恋之时。】但对张爱玲的散文写作的研究则是另一番景象。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:02, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
Since the most popular essays by Chang were written during the same period as her fictional writing, namely, between 1942 and 45, and some of her essays conveniently provided the concrete historical and biographical background against which the plot in her fictional writing was possibly designed, Chang’s essay writing has so far been read as the best commentaries to her fictional writing, particularly to the short stories collected in the acclaimed Romances.[ Wu Fuhui, among many others, argues that Eileen Chang’s essays are only interesting when read together with her short stories. He uses the essay entitled ”Jingyu lu” (Stories from the Ashes) as an example, arguing that the essay should be read as providing the necessary historical context to our understanding of Chang’s highly acclaimed novella Qingcheng zhi lian (Romance Among the Ruins). I disagree with Wu because the emphasis of the essay clearly lies elsewhere: it presents a social gallery of figures – a group of female college students, all from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds, whose brilliance of personality is brought out by the war. The novella, however, focuses more on the falling apart and the reconstructing of the beauty legend. Here the generic distinctions between fiction and essay are instrumental in piecing together the meanings of these two literary texts. See Wu’s preface toZhang Ailing sanwen quanbian (A Complete Collection of Eileen Chang’s Essays) (Hangzhou: Zhejiang wenyi chubanshe, 1995).] While such an approach to Chang’s essays can provide a coherent discussion of Chang’s literary writing as an entirety, it may overlook the specificities of the essay genre in the Chinese context and may also downplay the cultural significance of such formalistic experiments.<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Chang’s experiments with the modern essay serve to position her at a critical moment of literary transformation in modern China. While women writers had actively participated in both fictional and poetic writing since the early decades of this century, the essay genre had been monopolized by male writers. Three major essay traditions had already been canonized when Eileen Chang took up the essay as a vital means of representation. The ‘minor essay’ (xiaopin wen) tradition, represented by Zhou Zuoren and Lin Yutang, is characterized by a light and relaxing tone, a simple and elegant diction, political disengagement, wit, and a leisurely mood. <br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
The ‘miscellaneous essay’ (zawen) tradition, represented by Lu Xun and several generations of followers, including a group of leftist writers residing in Gudao (Isolated Island) Shanghai (1937-41), highlights intellectual sharpness and rhetoric eloquence, advocates active engagement with reality, and maintains the belief that literary writing should be employed as a powerful tool for social criticism and political intervention. And finally, the ‘refined essay’ (meiwen) tradition, represented by Zhu Ziqing and many writers from both the Literary Studies Circle (Wenxue yanjiu hui) and the Creation Society (Chuangzao she) since the 1920s, advocates linguistic experiments, whose goal is to create a language of refinement and elegance, and imageries that embody highly aesthetic and sensual qualities.[ Most standard literary histories published in China do not attempt to distinguish between different styles of modern essay writing. The zawen (the miscellaneous essay) tradition is often highlighted as the mainstream style for its definition of literature as social and political critique. These standard literary histories do acknowledge the lyrical qualities of xiaopin wen and meiwen but fail to situate the practice of these alternative essay writing styles in their cultural and intellectual contexts. See Wang Yao, Zhongguo xinwenxue shigao (History of the ”New Literature” in China), Tang Tao and Yan Jiayan, Zhongguo xiandai wenxueshi (Modern Chinese History), and Qian Liqun et al., Zhongguo xiandai wenxue sanshinian (Thirty Years of Modern Chinese Literature).]<br />
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杂文派的代表人物有鲁迅及其几代追随者，包括一群上海孤岛时期（1937-41）的左翼作家。他们强调知识分子的敏锐和修辞口才，倡导积极接触现实，并坚持认为文学写作应用作社会批评和政治干预的有力工具。最后是美文派，诞生于20世纪20年代，代表人物是朱自清以及来自文学研究会和创造社的许多作家。他们倡导语言实验，旨在创造一种精致优雅的语言，以及体现高度审美和感官品质的意象。[中国出版的大多数标准文学史并不试图区分不同风格的现代散文作品。杂文经常被视作主流文体，因为它把文学定义为社会和政治批判。这些标准的文学史确实承认了小品文和美文的抒情品质，但未能将这些另类散文的写作风格实践置于他们的文化和知识背景中。参考王耀，《中国新文学史稿》，汤涛、严家炎，《中国现代文学史》，钱理群等，《中国现代文学三十年》。]--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:04, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
Most of the women writers in 1940s Shanghai experimented with essay writing. In fact, women produced a larger quantity of essays than any other literary genre. In addition to Eileen Chang, many women writers of the period, including Su Qing (1917-1982), Guan Lu (1908-1982), Pan Liudai (1922-?), and Shi Jimei (1920-1968), also discovered the generic fluidity embedded in the essay form. Compared to their experiments with other literary genres, such as fiction, drama, and poetry, it is in women’s essay writing of the period that the discourses of female gender and sexuality, issues of the domestic sphere, and the structures of social institutions such as marriage are most vigorously challenged and thoroughly reformulated. The essay genre is the most powerful literary form adopted by women writers such as Eileen Chang in their efforts to constantly redefine the boundaries between life and work, and to meticulously weave the space of private life together with the space provided by literary writing.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
In the following sections, I will argue that the woman writer’s experience of the time, the space, and the particular historical milieu of occupied Shanghai is not only mirrored in her representation of individual experiences of the war, the occupation, and the everyday, but also in her attempts to redefine the generic identities of the modern essay and to reinvent a kind of prose language that most vividly captures the transitional as well as eccentric nature of the essay genre. I will also argue that the choice of the essay form is central to Chang’s aesthetic vision.<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The female writer’s self-positioning in the realm of urban culture of 1940s Shanghai is exemplified in her appropriation of the genre. I will analyze Chang’s essay writing of the period to demonstrate how the genre was made into an important discursive site where the woman writer overtly challenged the literary conventions, searched for alternatives in both literary writing and practices of everyday life, and promoted herself as an important cultural figure. The uniqueness of this body of literary texts lies in the fact that it presents a version of women’s literature set within the context of the wartime occupation while interacting with urban commercial and print culture in 1940s Shanghai.<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
'''Essay and the aesthetics of liminality'''<br />
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How, then, does Eileen Chang write the experience of war and turbulence into the transformed form of the modern essay? While the sense of impending massive destruction is omnipresent in her essay writing of the 1940s, the representation of the specific historical situation is not delivered through any direct social and political reference to the immediate present; instead, the presence of history is often concealed under the masquerade of an aesthetic vision put together by a meditative inward gaze, an orchestra of city sounds, and an imagined border of the urban civilization endangered:<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Alone I sit next to a candle, thinking about the past and the present. What I have been busy doing for the last two years will probably be shattered soon. …… I should have a sense of it.<br />
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I was alone on the dusky balcony after Su Qing left. Suddenly I saw a tall building far away, on whose edges hung a great swatch of rouge-like redness. At first I thought it was the reflection of the setting sun on the windows, but on second glance, I realized that it was a full moon, rising crimson above the city. I thought to myself, “so this is what they mean by turbulent times.” In the evening mist, the borders of Shanghai were gently rising and falling in the distance, resembling layered mountain peaks, although there are no mountains surrounding our city.<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
I pondered the fate of many people, including myself. I began to have a melancholy sense of what we call destiny. Such intimations normally connote self-involvement and self-pity, but I now think that they might suggest something altogether more broad. When the peace and security of the future finally do arrive, they will no longer belong to us; at the present moment each of us can only strive to comfort ourselves……[ See ”Wo kan Su Qing” (The Way I Look at Su Qing), in Tiandi yuekan (Heaven and Earth Monthly) 19 (April, 1945).]<br />
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This impressionistic silhouette of the city is none other than the dramatic presence of modern history itself. Here, history is visualized, flattened, and inevitably spatialized. The image of the city and the force of history intermingle into one performative moment, instantaneously captured by the ‘I,’ the woman writer, who sits on the balcony of her private home, looking out into the distance, watching the border of the city rise and fall, observing the currents of history come and go, as if the entire setting was a mere act in a long and winding chuanqi (romance) play. <br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
History in Eileen Chang’s representation becomes a narrative which rejects any deep structure or profound meaning. Characterized by chaos and reversal, history appears to be no more than a shadowy presence in our consciousness:<br />
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In this era, the old things are falling apart, while the new ones are still in formation. Before the high tide of the era arrives, all certainty is but an illusion. We feel that everything in our everyday life is out of order to a terrifying degree. An individual belongs to a certain historical era, but our present era is sinking like a shadow; therefore we feel we have been deserted. In order to prove our own existence, we want to grasp onto something that is real, something fundamental. We then seek help from our ancient memory, the memory of human beings who have lived through various times in history.<br />
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张爱玲笔下的历史成为一种拒绝任何深层结构或深层意义的叙事。历史以混乱和反转为特征，在我们的意识中似乎只不过是一个影子：<br />
在这个时代，旧事物正在分崩离析，而新事物还未形成。在时代的高潮到来之前，所有确定的东西都只是一种幻觉。我们觉得我们日常生活中的每件事混乱不堪，令人害怕。每个人都属于某个历史时代，但我们现在的时代正在像影子一样消失，我们觉得自己被遗弃了。为了证明我们自己的存在，我们想要抓住一些真实的东西，一些基本的东西。然后，我们从我们古老的记忆中寻求帮助，即曾经经历过不同时期的人的记忆。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 09:21, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
Looking back helps us regain more clarity and closeness than we might gazing far into the future. We then have a strange feeling about the reality that surrounds us. We begin to suspect that this is an absurd and antiquated world, gloomy and bright at the same time. Between memory and reality, there often arise unbearable discrepancies, resulting in a perplexing but subtle agitation, an intensified but indefinable struggle.[ See ”Ziji de wenzhang” (Writing of One’s Own), in Written on Water, 1944. This translation is based on an earlier version by David Wang. See Wang, ”Fin-de-siècle Grandeur: Contemporary Women Writers’ Vision of Taiwan,” Modern Chinese Literature 5.4 (1992) 45-65.]<br />
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回首过去而不是遥望未来有助于我们重新获得更清晰、更亲近的感觉。然后我们对周围的现实有一种奇怪的感觉。我们开始怀疑这是一个荒诞而古老，阴暗而光明的世界。在记忆与现实之间，常常会产生难以忍受的差异，从而产生一种令人费解却又微妙的骚动，一种剧烈但难以言喻的斗争。[《写在水上》，1944年。此翻译是基于王大卫的早期版本。见王，“台湾当代女性作家的视野”，中国现代文学5.4（1992）45-65。]--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 05:15, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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回顾过去可以帮助我们重新获得比凝视遥远的未来更清晰和亲近的感觉。我们对周围的现实有一种奇怪的感觉。我们开始怀疑，这是一个荒谬而陈旧的世界，黑暗与光明同时并存。在记忆和现实之间，常常会出现难以忍受的差异，导致一种令人困惑但微妙的激动，一种加剧但难以定义的挣扎。参见《自己的写作》，载于《水上记》，1944年。这个译本是根据王大卫的早期版本翻译的。参见王，“世纪末的宏伟:台湾当代女作家的视野”，中国现代文学5.4(1992)45-65。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:02, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
Here, history is no longer presented as a linearly progressing course; instead, it is broken into numerous fragments which can be reorganized and attributed with fresh meanings. The passage quoted above demonstrates Eileen Chang’s fascination with various liminal sites, in time or in space. Throughout her writing career, Chang has created many liminal sites, such as the illusory realm between memory and reality, the brief moment between past and present, and the intersection between life and work, fiction and poetry, stage movements and everyday events. The best of Chang’s writing often captures these transitional moments or sites, and the subjectivity in question is often taken over by a deep sense of uncertainty:<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
An individual can afford to wait, but an era is transient (''cangcu''). Things are being torn apart, and an even larger destruction is on its way. Someday our civilization, no matter how glorious, will become the past. I often use the word “desolation” (''huangliang'' 荒涼) because there is a premonition of impending danger underlying my thought. <br />
At such a ‘transient’ moment in history which will probably ‘sink’ like a ‘shadow’ in an instant, how, then, should an individual, in this case, a woman writer, position herself?<br />
Make yourself famous as early as possible! If success comes too late, it will not be as enjoyable. …… Hurry! Hurry! Otherwise it will be too late! Too late!<br />
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一个人可以等待，一个时代却是仓促的。一切都在四分五裂，更大的毁灭即将到来。终有一天我们的文明，不论多么辉煌，都将成为过去。我经常使用“荒凉（desolation）”一词，因为我的思想中隐含着即将降临之危险的预感。在这样一个“仓促”的历史时刻——它可能会像一个“影子”般瞬间“沉没”，那么，在这种情况下，一个女性作家应该如何定位自己呢？让自己尽早出名！如果成功来得太迟，就不那么令人愉快了......快点！再快点！否则就太迟了！太迟了！--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 11:32, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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一个人或许等得起，但一个时代却是仓促的。一切都在四分五裂，更大的毁灭即将到来。终有一天，我们的文明不论曾经多么辉煌，都终将成为过去。我常使用“荒凉”一词，因为我的思想中隐含着危险的预感。在这样一个“仓促”的历史时刻——它可能会像一个“影子”般瞬间“沉没”，那么，在这种情况下，一个女性作家应该如何定位自己呢？让自己尽早出名！如果成功来得太迟，就不那么令人愉快了......快点！再快点！否则就太迟了！太迟了！--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 04:12, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
These short, choppy sentences deliver a sense of urgency. To choose to define oneself through writing is then related to the woman writer’s understanding of the particular historical situation in 1940s Shanghai. It is a sense that the era is only a transitional moment in human history – the end is imminent and a new historical landscape will take shape. The imperative to make oneself famous then has to do with an urgent need to “occupy” a space in a swiftly dimishing landscape and to hold on to a moment that is constantly slipping away. Eileen Chang’s writing then highlights a very personal moment at a time when any individual voice is likely to be shattered by the grips of the modern warfare and eventually engulfed by the ruins of history. <br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Here the woman writer is going against her time by seeking an appropriate literary form and an adequate literary language to capture the essence of this fleeting moment in modern Chinese history. The new form and new language should be adequate to represent the dream-like world, the fragmented time, and the vanishing horizons of urban civilizations.<br />
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Chang’s choice of the essay genre is then consistent with her unique vision of history and her fascination with what I would call ''the aesthetics of liminality''. One cannot find a more appropriate literary genre than the modern essay to capture the liminal qualities of that specific historical milieu. The essay is a genre that is positioned between the careful structuring of fiction and the free flow of poetry. The essence of essay writing lies exactly in its lack of essence or its eccentricity. The modern essay is a genre that is itself transitional.<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
The liminal qualities of the modern essay are further enhanced in various textual strategies Chang uses to challenge generic identities in literary conventions. For instance, Chang’s essay entitled “Shuangsheng” (Duet) represents one of the most intrepid literary experiments undertaken during the period. The influence of the roundtable talk, a prominent genre in popular culture, had penetrated the realm of literary writing. In “Duet,” literary writing takes the form of a mini roundtable talk. At the beginning of the essay, like most of the roundtable talks recorded in popular journals of the time, the surroundings and the atmosphere are provided in a painstakingly descriptive language. The conversation takes place in a coffee shop, where Eileen Chang, the narrator, and Mo Meng (named Yan Ying elsewhere), Chang’s female companion, indulge themselves in coffee and pastry while starting their rambling chat about anything and everything:<br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Having seated ourselves, we started chatting about a variety of things in great detail. When our topics became more weighty, she [Mo Meng] said: “You know what, this seems a lot like a roundtable discussion.”<br />
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Within the space provided by the essay, the two women then continue to talk about a variety of topics: the language of love in both China and the West, the construction of romance in different cultural contexts, gender relationships inside and outside wedlock, fashions for women of different age groups, and the distinctiveness of the Japanese mentality. The fragmentary and all-inclusive qualities (''san'') of modern prose style (''sanwen'') had already been fully elaborated by Eileen Chang; the format of a roundtable talk coincides with the need to push the limit of modern prose style to its most eccentric, unrestrained, and far-ranging extreme.<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
For a discussion of the roundtable talk as an important cultural genre in 1940s Shanghai, see Nicole Huang, ''Written in the Ruins: War and Domesticity in Shanghai Literature of the 1940s''. The roundtable talk became an instrumental cultural genre in 1940s Shanghai. It was a new form of showcasing women writers by placing words (voices) and images (descriptions of their presence, and photographs) all on display. Major newspapers and journals of the period all used this strategy to advertise their publication, promote their circles of new writers, and take part in the construction of an expanded community put together by publishers, editors, writers, artists, and readers.<br />
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The structure of this essay also bears resemblance to that of a one-act play. The beginning passages can be viewed as stage descriptions. The action takes place in one quiet afternoon when two protagonists are engaged in a highly performative dialogue, and theatrical effect is enhanced when dramatic moments arise from time to time throughout the recorded conversation. <br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
“Wo kan Su Qing” (The Way I Look at Su Qing) presents Chang’s further effort to test the generic boundaries of the modern essay. The author effortlessly switches back and forth between her characterization of Su Qing and a close-up of the narrative self gazing inward. At one point in the essay, the author/narrative self pauses and admits that, in this essay devoted to Su Qing, she has actually devoted much more space to self-portrayal. Most of the time, the essay reads like an internal monologue: the narrative self is immersed in a constantly flowing display of numerous intimate moments. The free flowing of a sequence of random thoughts and the switch back and forth between different personas are fictional and theatrical devices used to further widen the representative capacities of the modern essay.<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
While “The Way I See Su Qing” imports fictional devices into the form ‘minor essay,’ an earlier essay entitled “Siyu” (Whispers) demonstrates an even more radical experiment, that is, to turn the genre into a new form of autobiographical writing. The title of the essay takes on double meanings: while ‘''siyu''’could mean ‘private talks,’ it could also mimic the lowered and fragmented voice used in talking about the most intimate moments in one’s private life. The narrative voice in the essay whispers, murmurs, and gossips. Nothing substantial is presented; instead, segments of life, tinted with the haziness of childhood memory, are organized in the re-invented prose form, like a stream of thoughts or a random layout of scenes. The technique used here closely resembles montage: segments of the past are presented like flashbacks, and moments of free-association further remind the reader of the constantly blurred boundaries between memory and reality, past and present. <br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
The essay entitled “Tongyan wuji” (A Childish Discourse) presents another example of writing autobiography within the space of the modern essay. Sometimes the way that moments of childhood memory are narrated resembles the use of close-ups in film-making. The following episode even makes a direct reference to cinema:<br />
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I stood in front of the mirror and watched my trembling face, with tears falling down in streams. My face looked like a close-up in a movie. I told myself, grinding my teeth: “I want revenge. One day I will take my revenge.”<br />
<br />
Each sub-section in this essay – ‘Money,’ ‘Fashion,’ ‘Food,’ ‘Gentleman,’ and ‘Brother’ – can be viewed as one filmic long take, and there is no direct connection between them. The entire essay is put together by a series of long takes. Within the space of the modern essay, there appear to be many of these extended fictional or cinematic moments. Sometimes, description of details of clothing, or simply the pattern on a piece of fabric, can contribute to the shaping of a dramatic moment, the formation of a narrative structure. The following passage from the same essay is a good example:<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
Japanese printed fabrics. Each bolt is a work of art. Each time I bring one home, before handing it over to a tailor, I repeatedly unroll it and bask in the image. A small Burmese temple is half shielded by the leaves of a palm tree; rain is falling incessantly through the reddish brown haze of the tropics. A pond in early summer, the water coated with a layer of green scum, above which float duckweed and fallen lilac petals, purple and white. Seemingly a fitting scene for a song lyric set to the tune “Laments of the South of the Yang-tze” (Ai Jiangnan)……<br />
<br />
Reading some of these highly aesthetic moments in Chang’s essay writing, we might argue that it is within the space provided by the modern essay and by means of cinematic devices that the fragmentation of conventional fictional language becomes inevitable.<br />
<br />
日本的印花面料。每一根螺栓都是一件艺术品。每次带回家，在交给裁缝之前，我都会反复展开，沐浴在画面中。一座缅甸小庙被棕榈树叶半遮半掩，雨水透过热带的红褐色雾气，不停地落下。初夏的池塘，水面涂上一层绿色的水垢，上面漂浮着鸭舌草和落下的丁香花瓣，紫白相间。配上一首《哀江南赋》似乎很应景......<br />
<br />
解读张爱玲散文写作中的一些极具审美性的瞬间，我们可以说，正是在现代散文所提供的空间里，并且借助电影手段，传统小说语言的碎片化才成为必然。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 07:56, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本织锦。每一匹日本织锦都是一件艺术品。每当我将一匹日本织锦带回家，我会反复展开织锦，醉心于上面的图案，然后才会交给裁缝。一座缅甸小佛寺在棕榈树叶的遮蔽下若隐若现；热带地区红褐色的雾霭之中，细雨绵绵。初夏的一方池塘里覆盖着一层绿色水垢，上面漂浮着被风吹落的丁香花瓣，白的紫的都有。配上一首《哀江南赋》似乎很应景……<br />
<br />
阅读张爱玲的散文作品，尤其是其中一些极具审美性的瞬间，我们可以说，正是在现代散文提供的空间里，并借助电影手段，传统小说语言的断层化已成必然。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:10, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
'''Essay and the making of a new prose language'''<br />
<br />
Few writers in twentieth-century China are as persistent as Eileen Chang was in constantly experimenting with new literary language. In her essay entitled “Ziji de wenzhang” (Writing of One’s Own), Chang retrospectively remarks on her use of a new fictional language in the novella ''Lianhuantao'' (Linked Rings):<br />
<br />
I adopted the language from traditional fiction on many occasions when writing the novella ''Chain of Rings''. In the story, Cantonese people and foreigners who lived fifty years ago speak like figures walking out of [the world of] ''Plum in a Golden Vase'' (Jing Ping Mei), …… My original intention was: I already created a considerable distance in space by writing about a romanticized Hong Kong from the point of view of a Shanghainese; I also created a distance in time by writing about the Hong Kong of fifty years ago. Therefore I intentionally adopted an antiquated diction to represent such a doubled displacement (''shuangchong juli''). ……<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
To situate the story in both a remote time and a distancing space endows the writer with abundant freedom in her choice of language. By returning to traditional literature to search for imaginative inspiration and expressive resources, Eileen Chang has redefined, on the discursive level, the cultural as well as political connotations of the modern vernacular language. For a modern reader who has considerable knowledge of the May Fourth literature, Chang’s fictional language presents the reader with a remote system of referentiality by using diction and narrative tone characteristic of those used in classical Chinese novels such as ''Plum in a Golden Vase'' and ''Dream of the Red Chamber''. <br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
What, then, are the characteristics of Chang’s linguistic experiments in her essay writing of the period? The titles of both the essay collection ''Written on Water'' and the essay “Whispers” can be viewed as the author’s own commentaries on the language she has chosen for the transformed essay genre. While literary language is compared to voices whispering, murmuring, or gossiping, and while words can eventually flow away just like water, the practice of writing then is a process of both embracing and breaking away from words, and the meanings that are presented no longer contribute to a system of enclosure. Chang’s naming highlights the indeterminacy of literary language and directs the reader’s attention to the uncertainty embodied in both the structure of the essay and the language that it employs.<br />
<br />
In the opening passage of the essay “Tan nüren” (Talking about Women), collected in ''Written on Water'', in a whimsical and relaxed tone, Eileen Chang cites a characterization of ‘women’ presented in a small pamphlet written by an English author:<br />
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那么，张爱玲这一时期的散文创作在语言实验上有什么特点呢？ 散文集''写在水面上''和散文《私语》的标题都可以看作是作者自己对转型后的散文体裁所选择的语言的评论。 文学语言被比喻为声音的窃窃私语、喃喃自语或闲聊，虽然文字最终可以像水一样流走，但那时的写作实践是一个既拥抱文字又挣脱文字的过程，所呈现的意义不再有助于形成一个围合的体系。 张先生的命名突出了文学语言的不确定性，并引导读者注意到文章的结构和所采用的语言所体现的不确定性。<br />
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张爱玲在《写在水面上》收录的《谈女人》一文的开篇，以一种异想天开的轻松语气，引用了一位英国作家写的小册子中对 "女人 "的描述。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 10:36, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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那么，张爱玲这一时期的散文创作在语言研究方面的特点是什么？ 散文集《写在水面上》和散文《私语》的标题都可以看作是作者自己对转型后的散文体裁所选择的语言评论。 文学语言被比喻为窃窃私语、喃喃自语或闲聊，虽然文字最终可以像水一样流走，但那时的写作实践是一个既拥抱文字又挣脱文字的过程，所呈现的意义不再有助于形成一个围合的体系。 张爱玲的命名突出了文学语言的不确定性，并引导读者去注意文章的结构和所采用语言所体现的不确定性。<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《写在水面上》收录的《谈女人》一文的开篇，以一种异想天开的轻松语气，引用了一位英国作家写的小册子中对 "女人 "的描述。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 09:06, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
Westerners refer to sinister and cruel (''yinxian kebo'') women as ‘cats.’ I ran across a pamphlet recently, written in English, entitled ''Cats'', which does nothing else except condemn women. It is not that what is said in it has never been expressed by other people. Interesting remarks (''juanyu'') concerning women are scattered everywhere and it is just not easy to collect them all together. But here this pamphlet is really a compilation (''ji qi dacheng'') [of what has been said about women]. <br />
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Chang then invites her readers to accompany as she glances through a group of quotes she has selected and translated from that pamphlet, much of which is a condemnation of women’s erotic potential. Not a single word of explicit judgment is offered throughout the essay by Chang, nor are the assumptions contained in this pamphlet about the gendered character of each individual expressly challenged. After reading Chang’s essay, a reader might wonder to what extent has the ‘real’ author behind the masquerade of the narrative internalized such an ‘othered’ male view?<br />
西方人把阴险刻薄的女人称为 "猫"。我最近看到一本小册子，是用英语写的，册子标题是《猫》。这本册子里面除了谴责女人，没有其他的内容。册子里所提的内容，也有别人提起过。有关女性的有趣言论到处都是，但是要把它们收集在一起实在不容易。不过，这本小册子确实是[关于女性的]言论的汇编(集大成)。<br />
然后，张爱玲邀请读者陪着她一起读一读自己从那本小册子中选取和翻译的一组评价，其中大部分是对女性潜在情欲的谴责。在整篇文章中，张爱玲没有作出一句明确评判，也没有对这本小册子中提出的关于每个人的性别特征的假设提出明确反驳。读完了张爱玲的文章后，读者可能会问，戴了面具的叙事手法，其背后的 "真实 "作者又在多大程度上内化了这种 "他者 "的男性观？--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 08:54, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
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==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
And to what extent is Chang’s translation ‘faithful’ to the original text? The original author’s name remains unmentioned in Chang’s essay, making it difficult to assess the extent to which the original ‘male’ narrative voice has been twisted or distorted by Chang’s rendition. The narrative voice appears to be a composite in those quotes and is even more so in the rest of her essay. One approach to reading Chang’s essay is then to regard the quotation as an integral part of the whole essay, to view it as Eileen Chang’s own linguistic construction, a construction which already contains her critique. Within these quotes, the message is complicated, and presented in several levels. Some of the quotes are reminiscent of an archetypal ‘male’ voice:<br />
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==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
This kind of fictional and temporal distance is also characteristic of Chang’s short stories written during the period. David Wang argues that the fictional world presented in the short stories in ''Romances'' points to a remote system of referentiality for modern readers by interweaving many ”unreal” elements such as the fantastic, the grotesque, the decadent, and the dark romanticist. See Wang, ”Nü zuojia de xiandai guihua: cong Zhang Ailing dao Su Weizhen” (Modern Ghost Narratives by Women Writers: from Eileen Chang to Su Weizhen), in ''Zhongsheng xuan-hua: sanshi yu bashi niandai de Zhongguo xiaoshuo'' (Heteroglossia: Chinese Fiction of 1930s and 1980s).<br />
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这种虚构性和时代性的距离，也是他在这一时期创作的短篇故事的特点。王大卫认为，《浪漫》这一短篇故事中所呈现的虚构世界，通过交织许多“虚幻”的元素，如奇幻、怪诞、颓废、黑暗的浪漫主义，为现代读者指明了一个遥远的指称体系。参见王的《女作家的现代鬼故事:从张爱玲到苏伟真》，载于《仲生宣化:三诗于巴诗念代德中》(杂注:中国三十、八十年代小说)。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:11, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
“The physical construction of women is so exquisite; therefore, their spiritual construction is incomplete. This is predictable. We just cannot be over-critical of them [women].” <br />
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“If you do not seduce a woman, she would say that you are not a man; if you do, she would say that you are not a man of the upper-class.” <br />
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“The only difference between a woman and a dog is: a dog is not as spoiled as a woman is; a dog does not wear jewelry; and – thank God! – a dog does not speak!”<br />
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The expected readers of the pamphlet ''Cats'' are married middle-class men. According to Eileen Chang, the original author admits that, “a man, after having just fought with his wife, would feel comforted if he reads this pamphlet before he goes to bed.” Functioning as a psychological therapy, the expected reading process should yield pleasure which soothes grievances and unhappiness in one’s ‘actual’ life. <br />
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==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
Within this reading process, through the mediation of a narrative language, the imagined male reader takes upon the implicit point of view built in the assumed male author’s account, manipulates and appropriates the construction of the female image, and displaces his sense of anger, repression, and alienation, or his frustrated desire for control and domination, onto such a constructed image. For a married man, the unsuccessful threats toward his wife in real life can then be successfully prosecuted on a textual level.<br />
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Such a female erotic image depicted in a seemingly unambiguous male text could generate a variety of culturally coded specific meanings and gendered differences. However, the tone of Chang’s language seems to invalidate the possibilities of applying an ideologically charged critique of these messages. Her narrative tone is relaxed, whimsical, playful, humorous, and somewhat ironic. The message transmitted in these quotes is impure, it has been reworked, and already contains a ‘look.’ This ‘look’ is interwoven with a sense of irony. This is even more explicit in some of her other quotes:<br />
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==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
“A man can flirt with a bar waitress in the squalid bar without losing his reputation; yet an upper-class woman is not even allowed to blow a kiss at a postman from afar. We can then draw an inference that men are different from women – no matter how low they [men] bend their backs, it is never difficult for them to stand up straight again.” <br />
“Generally speaking, women do not need the variety of stimulants in their lives that men do. Therefore, we should tolerate a man if he transgresses boundaries during his leisure time, in order to enliven his weary body, [to expel] his worries, [and to accomplish] his unrealized aspirations.” <br />
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==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
These quotes should be understood as mainly Eileen Chang’s own rendition. Through the ironic tone, the message becomes twisted, distorted, highly dramatized, and thereby transformed into parody and ridicule. If Eileen Chang does seek to tease out this assumed male voice, such an attempt proceeds through the creation of a narrative distance, a sense of innuendo, a skillful rewording of the male voice, and not through any explicit charges or critiques. The reader is left to herself to read between the lines, to speculate about the hints, and to screen out the mixed messages.<br />
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==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Despite the absence of an explicit criticism toward this unambiguous male voice, Eileen Chang’s presentation has revealed the fact that the male denunciation of the public effects of a female eroticism is itself manifested in an eroticized form. Such an eroticized form has been dramatized to the extreme by Chang in her skillful rewording. A reader would ponder whether this male denunciation addresses the danger of the placing women in public display or is itself a public display of women as eroticized subjects? Eileen Chang’s appropriation of the male denunciation of female eroticism becomes a doubled affirmation of the much textualized eroticizing potential of female images, which makes it difficult to pin down the ‘femaleness’ of her use of literary language. <br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
Perhaps, then, to examine the ‘femaleness’ of Chang’s language is not an appropriate approach. Nor can we confidently situate Eileen Chang into the female literary tradition of modern China, a tradition which is usually characterized by the May Fourth style of writing. Chang’s cultural marginality, her interest in irrelevant details and domesticity, and her teasing of patriarchs and of gender relations all tempt critics to label her work with various feminine qualities. But Eileen Chang’s voice cannot be simply categorized in a dichotomy of conventional and patriarchal speech on the one hand, and experimental and anti-patriarchal speech on the other. It is obviously impure; it is a kind of language that occupies the space of the liminal; it is a mixed voice, both ‘male’ as well as ‘female.’ In many instances, her language appears to be the so-called “protective language,” a “neutralizing middle tongue,” a language of concealment rather than revelation. The mixed voices prevent us from going on to ‘genderize’ the grammar, the expression, and the diction in her writing. Eileen Chang’s language is one of resisting the process of ‘genderizing,’ and of eliminating the possibilities of polarizing different identities. <br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
In her recent study of Eileen Chang’s fictional writing, Rey Chow defines Eileen Chang’s ‘femininity’ as predominantly associated with ”irrelevant” details. In the picture painted by Chow, ‘detail’ carries a distinctively ‘feminine’ label and is defined as ”the sensuous, trivial, and superfluous textual presence that exists in an ambiguous relation with some larger ‘vision’ such as reform and revolution.” Chow argues that Eileen Chang constructs a different vision of modernity and history through ”a release of sensual details whose emotional backdrop is often that of entrapment, destruction, and desolation.” Eileen Chang’s understanding of culture, therefore, carries a ”powerfully negative affect.” See Rey Chow, Chapter III ”Modernity and Narration: in Feminine Detail” in her ''Woman and Chinese Modernity: The Politics of Reading Between West and East'' (Minnesota and Oxford: University of Minnesota Press, 1991) 85.<br />
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Rey Chow’s emphasis on the intricately related history of details and the feminine in the Chinese case is certainly illuminating in the sense that she suggests a new perspective to define the significance of Eileen Chang’s writing and thus a new way of critiquing the construction of a history of modern Chinese literature as a whole. <br />
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==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
However, in Rey Chow’s categorization of Eileen Chang, a new type of femininity is classified, whose characteristics are intimate, domestic, sensuous, pre-rational, trivial, obsessed with its sexual being, yet embodying subversive strength and transgressive potentials. This seemingly fresh and autonomous femininity does take one thing for granted, that is the unproblematized association between the female, the domestic, and trivial details. Rey Chow’s emphasis on feminine detail may have endowed Eileen Chang’s writing with a critical power deriving from the marginal position that she is inscribed in; but to domesticate Chang, to enclose her within woman’s traditional domain of the home, could also lead to the draining of the heaviness and the other intellectual potentialities in Chang’s writing.<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
The terms ”protective language” and a ”neutralizing middle tongue” are lifted out of Catharine Stimpson in her discussion of Gertrude Stein’s writing. According to Stimpson, ”Stein’s coding of sexual activities becomes a privileged and a distinguished ‘anti-language’,” that is, a language of ”anti-societies.” Stimpson argues against some other critics’ attempts to ”adjectify” Stein’s work as ”female.” She suggests that Stein’s language is ultimately ”impure,” it is ”linear as well as pluridimensional,” it is ”male” as well as ”female.” Stimpson argues that Stein’s literary language is neither ”female,” nor ”an unmediated return to signifiers freely wheeling in maternal space.” See Stimpson, ”The Somagrams of Gertrude Stein,” in ''The Female Body in Western Culture: Contemporary Perspectives'', edited by Susan Rubin Suleiman.<br />
<br />
在讨论格特鲁格·斯坦因的著作时，“保护性语言”和“中立的中性语言”一词被从凯瑟琳·斯廷普森删除。斯廷普森认为，“斯坦因对性行为的编码成为一种特权和一种独特的'反语言'，即'反社会'的语言。斯廷普森反对其他一些批评家试图将斯坦因的作品“形容”为“女性”的说法。她认为斯坦的语言最终是“不纯正的”，既是“线性的又是多维度的”，既是“男性的”又是“女性的”。斯廷普森认为，斯坦因的文学语言既不是“女性的”，也不是指“无意中回归到指代者而自由地进入母体空间”。请参见苏珊·鲁滨·苏蕾曼编辑的《当代视角下西方文化中的女性身体形象》中格特鲁德·斯坦的躯体语言。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 11:10, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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在讨论格特鲁德·斯坦因的作品时，凯瑟琳·斯廷普森讨论了“保护性语言”和“中和性的中间语言”。根据斯廷普森的说法，“斯坦因对性行为的编码变成了一种特权和独特的‘反语言’”，也就是说，是一种“反社会”的语言。斯廷普森反对其他一些批评家试图将斯坦因的作品“形容为女性”。她认为斯坦因的语言最终是“有杂质的，“它是“线性也是多元维度的”，它是“男性”也是“女性”。斯廷普森认为，斯坦因的文学语言既不是“女性”，也不是“在母体空间中自由转动的能指的无中介回归”。参见斯廷普森德《当代视角下西方文化中的女性身体形象》中的格特鲁德·斯坦因的躯体语法，苏珊·鲁宾·苏莱曼主编。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 12:02, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
Julia Kristeva suggests that ”the very dichotomy man/woman as an opposition between two rival entities may be understood as belonging to metaphysics”; it must be dismantled through ”the demassification of the problem of difference, which would imply, in a first phase, an apparent de-dramatization of the ‘flight to the death’ between rival groups and thus between the sexes.” Kristeva refers to this as ”a strategy of disintegration.” This strategy is a ”true radicalism” in such attempts ”to undo given identities, to go beyond the policy of creating counter-identifications.” See ”Women’s Time” (translated by Alice Jardine and Harry Blake) in ''Signs'' (Autumn, 1981).<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
Perhaps, then, to examine the ‘femaleness’ of Chang’s language is not an appropriate approach. Nor can we confidently situate Eileen Chang into the female literary tradition of modern China, a tradition which is usually characterized by the May Fourth style of writing. Chang’s cultural marginality, her interest in irrelevant details and domesticity, and her teasing of patriarchs and of gender relations all tempt critics to label her work with various feminine qualities. But Eileen Chang’s voice cannot be simply categorized in a dichotomy of conventional and patriarchal speech on the one hand, and experimental and anti-patriarchal speech on the other. It is obviously impure; it is a kind of language that occupies the space of the liminal; it is a mixed voice, both ‘male’ as well as ‘female.’ In many instances, her language appears to be the so-called “protective language,” a “neutralizing middle tongue,” a language of concealment rather than revelation. The mixed voices prevent us from going on to ‘genderize’ the grammar, the expression, and the diction in her writing. Eileen Chang’s language is one of resisting the process of ‘genderizing,’ and of eliminating the possibilities of polarizing different identities.<br />
<br />
那么，分析张爱玲语言中的女性特征也许不是一种恰当的方法。我们无法十分肯定地说她的作品体现了近代中国文学中的女性传统，这一传统以五四文体为特征。张爱玲作品中的文化边缘性、对细枝末节的关注、蕴含的家庭特征以及对男性家长和性别关系的调侃无一不促使评论家将其打上女性特质的标签。但是我们不能将张爱玲的语言简单地划分为两个对立面：一方面是传统的父权话语，另一方面则是实验性的反父权话语，她的文学语言无疑是模糊的，是一种位于两种状态分界处之上的语言，是一种糅合了“男性”与“女性”与一身的语言。在很多情况下，她的语言都表现出一种所谓的“保护性”、“中性的口吻”，或者说是一种隐没而非彰显的语言。张爱玲的作品语言的复杂性让我们无法将其中的语法、表达以及用词性别化，这种语言正是一种抵制“性别化”过程的语言，消除了分化不同身份的可能性。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 03:40, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
In Eileen Chang’s essay writing, it is finally the narration itself that becomes a site where conflicting cultural discourses meet and interact. The narrative voice does not embody or point to any authoritative discourses: it is neither the passive receiver of a system of accomplished social customs and values containing stereotypes of passive femininity, nor a spokeswoman for a ‘progressive’ nationalist ideological agenda. While history is viewed as transitory and fragmented, the language used to account for this history is no longer something which is ideologically or rhetorically charged. It is not a language to account for truth and beliefs, it is a language of ‘paradox’ and ‘enigma’; it is a ‘counter-language.’ Chang’s use of language serves to recuperate a remote tradition that is incompatible to the present historical situation, and to restore a different set of voices which are inconsonant with the chorus of her time.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
Chang’s essay writing indicates that the coherence of a so-called women’s literary writing tradition in modern China is a mere fabrication. The linguistic constructions in Chang’s essay writing playfully appropriate male fantasies, turning them into props in the creation of a new literary space. By turning structures of male fantasies into narrative devices, and by transforming male voices to enhance the theatrical effect of essay writing, Eileen Chang has demonstrated a much more confident gesture in offering a critique of gendered constructions in both the larger social context and the sphere of literary writing.<br />
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'''Essay and the Invention of Life in Wartime'''<br />
<br />
In the preface to her 1988 collection entitled '''Xuji''' (The Sequel), Eileen Chang confesses that she has been a “loyal believer” in Greta Garbo’s philosophy of life:<br />
张爱玲的散文著作揭示了这样一个事实，现代中国所谓的女性文学写作传统不过是对男性文学写作传统的伪造。她的散文著作中，语言结构巧妙地借用了男性的幻想思维，将其转换为创造新文学空间的支柱。张将男性幻想结构转换为叙述手法，并且转换男性的叙述口吻，以此提高散文写作所带来的戏剧影响，在广大的社会背景条件下和文学创作方面，提出了性别结构批评，对此，她信心满满。在其1988年出版的名为《战争时代的散文与发现》一书的前言中，张爱玲坦白说，她是葛嘉丽·宝格生活哲学的忠诚信仰者。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 11:48, 3 December 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
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张爱玲的散文作品表明现代中国所谓的女性文学创作传统的一致性仅仅是捏造而已。她在散文作品的语言结构中巧妙地运用了男性的幻想，并将其转化为创造新文学空间的支柱。通过将男性幻想结构转变为叙事手法，并通过转换男性的叙述口吻来增强散文写作的戏剧效果，张爱玲在更大的社会背景和文学创作领域中以更加自信的姿态提出了性别结构批评。<br />
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'''散文和战时的生活发现'''<br />
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在她1988年出版的名为《续集》(The Sequel)一书的序言中，张爱玲坦诚地说她一直是葛丽泰·嘉宝人生哲学的“忠实信仰者”：--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 07:37, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
For several decades, relying on make-up and acting skills, she [Garbo] lived the life of a recluse, seldom seen through by other people. Her life-time belief was that “I want to live by myself.” …… Why is it that writers also have a hard time preserving the privacy of their lives? <br />
<br />
These sentiments could not have been expressed back in the 1940s. The solitude of the latter half of Chang’s life, that is, the four decades since she came to America in the fall of 1955, forms a sharp contrast to the glorious moments during the first half of the 1940s, particularly the years of 1944 and 1945, when she and Su Qing emerged in the cultural scene of Shanghai simultaneously and became brighter stars than the most acclaimed movie actresses and popular singers. <br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
As argued earlier, the most important players in this society-wide promotion of women intellectuals were none other than women writers themselves. And among all literary genres, it was the modern essay that became the most powerful form of expression in women writers’ self-promotion and myth-making. Essay served to contribute concrete forms to a life that was void of any structure; in other words, women writers such as Eileen Chang and Su Qing used the form of the modern essay to construct an intelligible universe where one’s imagination and fantasy could anchor. Detailed descriptions of everyday experience, that is, representations of cultural meanings of the material world, manifests not only a dynamic inner life but also a new social identity in formation. In this section I will highlight two aspects of life that are conceptualized in Chang’s essay writing, one is the space of a modern apartment as a liminal site in urban landscape, and the other is the discourse of fashion as a vital form of material consciousness.<br />
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如前所述，在整个社会范围内提升女性知识分子最重要的参与者就是女性作家本身。在所有文学体裁中，现代散文成为女性作家自我提升和神话创造中最有力的表达形式。散文可以为没有任何结构的生活提供具体形式：换句话说，张爱玲和苏青等女性作家利用现代散文的形式，构建了一个个人想象和幻想可以驻留的可理解的宇宙。对日常经验的详细描述，即对物质世界的文化意义的陈述，不仅体现了动态的内心生活，而且体现了一种形成中的新的社会认同。在这一章中，我将着重介绍张爱玲散文写作中所概念化的生活的两个方面，一方面是作为城市景观中有限场所的现代公寓的空间，另一方面是将时尚的讲话视为物质意识的一个重要形式。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 08:13, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
'''Passage from apartment to street'''<br />
<br />
In her essay entitled “Gongyu shenghuo jiqu” (Interesting Moments in Apartment Life), Chang depicts a spatial construction which serves as the backdrop of the formation of a new urban persona:<br />
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I would ride the wind, returning up there,<br />
but fear those marble domes and jade galleries<br />
the place so high, the cold is unbearable …… <br />
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On reading these lines, residents who live on top floors of apartment buildings will more or less shiver with fear. The higher the apartment, the colder. Ever since the price of coal soared , radiators in apartments have become purely decorative. The “H” on the hot water faucet is indispensable in order to perfect the bathroom design; but if you turn on the hot water tap by mistake, a hollow but grievous rumble will burst out from the “Nine Springs” (''Jiu quan'') down below. It sounds like the very complicated and very capricious hot water pipe system in the apartment building has lost its temper. Even if we do not provoke it, the God of thunder still makes its power felt at any moment. <br />
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==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Out of nowhere, it can set off a long and evil buzz followed by two blasting sounds, as if an airplane was circling above for a while and then dropped two bombs. Having been terror-stricken in wartime Hong Kong, this kind of noise would always make me panic when I first returned to Shanghai. At first the pipe was still working conscientiously; in much difficulty, it would carry some hot water all the way up to the sixth floor, accompanied by a gurgling sound. That was still acceptable, but now it is like deafening thunder followed only by drizzle, and worse yet, all we get are just two droplets of yellow rusty mud. But I dare not complain anymore; the unemployed can easily fly into a rage.<br />
<br />
What is most striking in this beginning episode of Chang’s essay is how the experience of the everyday is depicted as parallel to that of war. War makes its metaphorical presence in daily life of an apartment dweller, serving as a trope for the erratic rhythm of an urban life style. Chang’s depiction of the texture of an apartment life then can be read as a parable of war. <br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
This opening episode makes references to several archetypal war themes, including death (as in the reference to the “nine springs” or Jiu quan), the scarcity of necessities in life (such as the mentioning of high price of coal and deficiency of hot water in the apartment), and the threat of air-raid (as suggested by the narrator’s haunted memory from her years living in wartime Hong Kong). Themes of unemployment, social unrest, and economic instability are also represented in Chang’s depiction of an animated world where one’s private space is constantly intruded by outside forces. The author has invented a new sense of interiority in her attempt to come to terms with the topography of urban life during wartime. The essay gives textual testimonies to two most important categories of experience in occupied Shanghai – the urban and the war; and these two categories converge precisely within the constructed space of a modern apartment.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
See Chapter 2 for a discussion of the society-wide promotion of the two women and the women’s attempt in self-fashioning. Su and Chang were often showcased together with famous singers, dancers, and movie actresses at the time. See, for instance, ”Cui Chengxi wudao zuotan” (A Roundtable Discussion of Cui Chengxi’s Dance), where women writers were presented together with the Korean Dancer Cui Chengxi and a Chinese dancer named Wang Yuan. Published in ''The Miscellany Monthly'' 12. 2 (November, 1943). Another example is ”Nalianghui ji” (A Summer Gathering), where Eileen Chang was showcased together with the singer/movie actress Li Xianglan. In The ''Miscellany Monthly'' 15. 5 (August, 1945).<br />
<br />
Originally published in ''Heaven and Earth Monthly'' 3 (December, 1943).<br />
<br />
These are the lines in the Song dynasty poet Su Shi’s famous song lyric written to the tune ”Shuidiao getou” (Song for the Water Tune).<br />
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==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
This is the first time in the history of modern Chinese literature that the literary world of a woman author is so tenaciously associated with an urban life style characterized by routines in and out of a modern apartment. In other words, the spatial specificities of a modern apartment are essential to the construction of a vision of life in wartime in Eileen Chang’s writing. City offers many transitional territories such as hotels, stations, theaters, and cafes, which are spaces beyond the rigid categorization of inside or outside, private or public. In Chang’s writing, the space of an apartment is presented as such a transitional site. It is a self-contained private space, which enables a city dweller to escape the intensity of life outside the apartment when necessary. But more importantly, an apartment is also a locus point from which one can enter into various aspects of urban culture. <br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
For Eileen Chang, who, between 1942 and 1945, spent most of her time in a flat on the top floor of a six-story apartment building not too far away from the Jing’an Temple, the modern interior space is like a picture frame, encircling the nights and days of an urban dweller who constantly looks out, from her own apartment windows, that is, a new vantage point, at the kaleidoscopic world of metropolitan Shanghai. Living in an apartment seems to have changed ways of seeing, hearing, smelling, and feeling: not only the cityscape is presented differently – now from a new height (the windows of an apartment on the sixth floor), even sounds in the city become more vivid with the elevation of height:<br />
<br />
I am often amazed at how street noises can be heard so clearly from the sixth floor, as if it was all happening right beneath one’s ears. The older we get, the farther we are separated from our childhood, and yet the memories of it and its many trivial details have gradually become more sweet and vivid. <br />
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==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
Just like our present bears imprints of the past, an interior space is constantly permeated and reshaped by the every-changing outside world. This is a world (un)marked by blurred boundaries; liminality characterizes one’s own positioning within such an obscure realm. And yet senses simply become more acute, and thoughts are given fresh new patterns. Here, we are witnessing the formation a new metaphysics of the everyday:<br />
<br />
I like to listen to street sounds. Those who have more refined taste would rest on their pillows and listen to wind whistling in a pine grove or the roar of ocean waves. But it is the sound of a trolley that I must hear in order to fall asleep. On the hills in Hong Kong, only in winter when the north wind blew on the evergreens all night would it remind me of the charming sound of a trolley. People who have lived in an exciting city for many years do not realize what they must have in life until they have left the place. The thoughts of a city dweller are set against a curtain of striped pattern; the light-colored stripes are running trolleys. Like neatly paralleled currents of sounds, they continuously flow into our subconscious. <br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
For Eileen Chang, an apartment is truly the center of urban life. Like a train station, it serves as an initial starting point, always ready to transport one’s senses into many different directions. Chang’s aesthetics of life is then attributed with a concrete spatial form that is deeply rooted in the soil of the everyday of wartime. If the production of popular journals in occupied Shanghai symbolizes the shaping of an imagined space, the modern apartment is another important site on the mental map of a city under siege. The aggression of wartime occupation has disrupted cycles of life, routines in and out of one’s own home, but new urban spaces and experiences were also created. Here the presence of war intensifies one’s experience of the urban, crystallized in the shaping of a particular spatial form, that is, the modern apartment.<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
Many feminist scholars have suggested the importance of studying spatial constructions. They argue that by giving the inner world a form of concreteness, spatial symbols in literature are most illuminating in showing how personal experience intersects with specific cultural categories. The study of spatial construction is then important since it is the key point in understanding women’s literature: space often serves as a vehicle by which the female protagonists attempt to launch a journey of self-discovery, which constitutes the most important part of the female experience. See, for instance, Jessica Benjamin, ”A Desire of One’s Own: Psychoanalytic Feminism and Intersubjective Space,” in ''Feminist Studies/Critical Studies'', edited by Teresa de Lauretis (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986).<br />
<br />
For a discussion of other kinds of spatial constructions in 1940s Shanghai, see Wei Shaochang, ”Jiu Shanghai de tingzijian” (The Garret in Old Shanghai), published in ''Haishang wentan'' (March, 1994). Also see a photographic history in Tang Zhenchang, ed., ''Jindai Shanghai fanhua lu'' (Modern Shanghai: The Splendor) (Hong Kong: Shangwu yinshuguan 1993.)<br />
<br />
In ”Interesting Moments in Apartment Life.”<br />
<br />
Ibid.<br />
<br />
See Nicole Huang, ''Written In the Ruins''.<br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s vision, this spatial experience is also gendered. The image of an apartment dweller is gendered, and often female. “It seems like only women can fully understand the advantages of life in an apartment,” Chang writes, since the household duties in an apartment are much more simplified. Therefore, a woman can much better appreciate the numerous trivial details in life; she can even start to appreciate the gorgeous colors of fresh vegetables displayed at morning markets, and enjoy the pleasures of cooking and cleaning. Chang’s reinvention of these daily trips is most forcefully presented in one essay entitled “Zhongguo de riye” (China: Days and Nights). <br />
<br />
In Chuanqi (extended edition) (Shanghai: Shanhe tushu gongsi, 1946).（注释）<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s own account, morning errands to the vegetable market seem to be her own tour through the part of the city that she is most attached to. Every morning she would take the elevator down from her sixth floor apartment, emerge onto the awakening streets, mingle with the morning crowd, and progress toward the world of the magnificent colors of the early market. Daily routines are not just bound duties that confine the everyday experiences of women; instead, they become forms of life choreographed in accordance with the distinctive rhythm of the city. Women can finally look at them as opportunities to explore a life that is wider, brighter, and more open to a variety of new possibilities.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
Life in apartment is then presented with many layers in Chang’s essay writing. In “Daolu yi mu” (Views from the Streets), Eileen Chang also reminds the reader of the many levels of urban culture taking shape outside of the apartment, that is, on the streets. On one level, the street scene of Shanghai is most distinctively characterized by the window displays and neon lights on Avenue Joffre:<br />
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Designing shop windows is a fascinating job, since there is motionless drama in each display. ……… [I remember] a mid-winter night four or five years ago when my cousin and I were strolling down the Avenue Joffre, looking at shop window displays. <br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
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Under neon lights, the slanted faces of those wooden beauties under slanted hats, with feathers slanting down from atop the hats. I did not wear western suits, had no need of a hat, and did not want to buy one. And yet I still looked at them with admiring eyes…… <br />
<br />
This fascination with window displays and neon lights is staged at a moment that belongs to the past – “four of five years ago.” At the present time within the essay, a different layer of images are highlighted. We see various street corners scattered in less prestigious neighborhoods of the metropolis. Chang’s impressionistic depiction of the city of Shanghai contains numerous crisscrosses of small lanes and faces of ordinary people:<br />
<br />
”Views from the Streets,” in Heaven and Earth Monthly 4 (January, 1944). （注释）<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
There are many scenes on the streets that are worth another glance. At dusk, a rickshaw is parked by the roadside, a woman is leaning against the seat, a sack in her hand, some persimmons in the sack. The rickshaw man is squatting down on the ground, trying to light up an oil lamp. It is getting dark, and the lamp by the woman’s feet slowly brightens. <br />
<br />
Here, within the space of one essay, the images of a rickshaw man and a housewife on a small street are juxtaposed with the memory of two young women window-shopping on the extravagant Avenue Joffre. The subtle light of an oil lamp is placed against the bright and luring rats of neon signs.<br />
<br />
街道上有许多场景值得一看。 黄昏时，一辆人力车停在路边，一个女人靠在座位上，手里拿着一个麻袋，麻袋里放着一些柿子。 这辆人力车男子蹲在地上，试图点亮一盏油灯。 天快黑了，女人脚旁的灯慢慢变亮。<br />
<br />
在这篇论文的空间中，在一条小街上，一辆黄包车男子和一名家庭主妇的影像并置在一起，以纪念两名年轻女子在奢侈的Joffre大街上逛街。油灯的微弱光线被放置在明亮而诱人的霓虹灯招牌上。<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
And the warmth and intimacy of the present set off the coldness and vastness of a moment in the past. Here, even though there is no direct reference to the turbulent events taking place in the background of occupied Shanghai, we can nonetheless sense the presence of war in this contrast between the two time frames and the switch back and forth between different layers of urban space. Rapid movements, swift changes, drastic transformations, and the transience of a given moment, these themes of war are represented in a most subtle and yet vivid fashion.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
To carry the argument further, Chang’s sense of modernity has extended from a modernist high culture to a culture of wartime quotidian life. The author is more interested in representing the tension between the ‘old’ and the ‘new’ surfacing in everyday routines of ordinary men and women in her city. The intrusion of war seems to have pushed the brilliance of Avenue Joffre back into one’s dusty memory. Here we can perceive how the experience of war and occupation has systematically changed the spatialization of modernity: modernity as a body of new urban sensibilities is now located somewhere between the grand avenue and the back alley.<br />
<br />
进一步说，张爱玲的现代性已经从现代主义的高等文化扩展到战时的日常生活文化。她更感兴趣的是表现在她的城市里普通男女日常生活中浮现的“旧”与“新”之间的张力。战争的入侵似乎把乔弗尔大道的辉煌推回到尘封的记忆中。在这里，我们可以看到战争和占领的经历是如何系统地改变现代性的空间化的:现代性作为一种新的城市情感体，现在位于大道和后街之间的某个地方。<br />
<br />
张爱玲的现代意识从现代主义的高级文化延伸到战时的平民生活文化。作者更感兴趣的是表现出她所在城市普通男女日常生活中出现的“旧”与“新”之间的紧张关系。战争的侵扰似乎把乔夫尔大街的辉煌重新推回到尘封已久的记忆中。在这里，我们可以看到战争和曾被占领的经历是如何系统地改变了现代性的空间化：现代性作为一个新的城市情感体，现在位于大街和后巷之间的某个地方。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:38, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
– '''Fashion talk''' – <br />
To illustrate how material imagination is essential to Chang’s aesthetics of the everyday, I will now turn to her conceptualization of fashion as an invented form of life. Chang’s discussions of fashion demonstrate her fascination with an inner vision. By depicting a world of light, brilliant colors, unique lines and shapes, Chang has also suggested that literary writing can be the beginning of a cultural history of things.<br />
<br />
In Chang’s fictional writing, colors, lines, surfaces, and words are often combined to form a network of intricate meanings. Her writing is known for its meticulous attention to details, particularly clothes. <br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
For instance, in her novella “Jinsuo ji” (Chronicle of Gilded Fetters), through the clothes of female servants, a portrait of this old-style family is introduced. Clothes with bright colors are set in contrast to neutral tones of modern fashion; the former becomes a symbol of the ‘past,’ which gradually recedes into the background, gorgeous, amorous, dazzling, but helplessly decaying. Temporality of fashion serves to punctuate narrative rhythm in Chang’s fictional writing.<br />
<br />
It is in Chang’s essay writing that a discourse of fashion is passionately elaborated. Chang’s most important essay on fashion is entitled “Gengyi ji” (A Chronicle of Changing Clothes), in which one hundred years of Chinese history is acted out in Chang’s dramatic display of clothes in movements.<br />
<br />
In Chuanqi (Romances) (Shanghai: Za¬zhishe, 1944).（注释）<br />
<br />
In Past and Present Bi-weekly 34 (December, 1943). Originally written in English and published in the English language journal XXth Century.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
In this world, the transformation of modern clothes can be read as a history of mentality that centers on a constant redefinition of notions such as femaleness, female beauty, and female proper conducts:<br />
<br />
Men have more freedom in their life than women do. Yet I do not want to become a man, only because they do not have freedom [in having a variety of clothing]. <br />
<br />
Chang goes on to tease out the absurdity of gendered assumptions in cultural discourses:<br />
<br />
Clothes seem trivial and not worth mentioning. Liu Bei once said: “Brothers are [important to each other] like hands to feet whereas their wives and children are [insignificant] like clothes.” But for women, it is much easier to cherish their clothes than their husbands. <br />
<br />
From ”A Chronicle of Changing Clothes.”<br />
<br />
Back in the 1920s, Zhang Jingsheng already highlighted the significance of the changes of clothes/fashion, which, according to him, reflects and shapes the present state of mentalities. See Zhang’s 1925 book entitled Mei de renshengguan (An Outlook on a Life of Beauty) as quoted in Peng Hsiao-yen, ”Sexual Enlightenment: ‘Dr. Sex’ Zhang Jingsheng and May Fourth First-Person （注释）<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
There was a Western writer (is it Bernard Shaw?) who once complained that when most women chose their husbands, they were not nearly as attentive and cautious as when they were selecting a hat for themselves. The most heartless woman would lament passionately when she began to talk about “that silk gown I had last year.”<br />
<br />
Never mind whether it was Bernard Shaw or some other Western writer who made these bizarre comments about women’s apparent “lack” of judgment in choosing their own destinies and their partiality for clothes and other seemingly trivial accessories in life, for Eileen Chang, these male voices were all spelling out the similarly absurd and “ancient” logic by Liu Bei of the Three Kingdoms era (third century A.D.).<br />
<br />
Narrative Fiction.” For Zhang Jingsheng, clothes are the extension of a female body and therefore are crucial elements in exploring female sexuality and inner psyche. This may serve as a mediation to explain the fascination with the female clothed bodies expressed in Eileen Chang’s writing of the 1940s.（注释）<br />
<br />
For a discussion of the correlation between clothes, gender discourses, and performance culture during the first two decades of the century, see an essay by Zhou Huiling (Katharine Hui-ling Chou) entitled ”Nü yanyuan, xieshi zhuyi, ‘xin nüxing’ lunshu: Wanqing dao Wusi shiqi Zhongguo xiandai juchang zhong de xingbie biaoyan” (Actresses, Realism, and Discourse of ”New Woman”: Gendered Performances in Modern Chinese Theater from Late Qing to the May Fourth), published in ''Jindai Zhongguo funüshi yanjiu'' (Studies of Women’s History of Modern China) 4 (August, 1996). Also see her dissertation entitled ''Staging Revolution: Actresses, Realism, and the New Woman Movement in Chinese Spoken Drama and Film, 1919-1949'' (New York University, 1997).（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
But the essay “A Chronicle of Changing Clothes” does much more than merely tease out the gendered categories embedded in fashion discourses. “We cannot really imagine the world of the past generations, so idle, so quiet, and so organized,” writes Eileen Chang, “during the three hundred years of Manchurian ruling of Qing dynasty, there was not even (jing) such a thing called women’s fashion!” The use of the adverb “jing” implies an astonishment: women did not even have fashion for three hundred years, and how could anyone have endured such a misfortune! The emphasis placed on women’s clothes seem to be a landmark that separates the modern era from the antiquated worlds.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
From the point of view of Eileen Chang, the lack of changes in three hundred years of China’s fashion history forms a sharp contrast to the thirty or forty years of the most recent history which, for Chang, can be read as a fascinating narrative put together by rapidly shifting patterns of women’s fashion.<br />
<br />
Chang’s account then turns history into a stage presentation. Her impressionistic view of modern history highlights colors, lines, shapes, and moods, which are all crystallized in the changing faces of women’s clothes. Chang’s representation of modern history through the transformation of women’s clothes has the effect of a modern museum of human fantasies, or a gallery of artifacts constantly in motion. <br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
History is turned into a fictional narrative. More interestingly, there is no real human being moving in this narrative; shapes, colors, lines, and circles occupy the space. Through a personification of clothes, Chang has created an animation effect in her world of changing fashion. Clothes replace human voices; clothes become language itself.<br />
<br />
In “Views from the Streets,” Eileen Chang also describes fashion display as “motionless drama,” a notion that highlights the correlation between literature, performance art, and material culture. By using the notion of drama as a trope, Eileen Chang has indicated that fashion, like forms of fictional narrative, is a dramatization of life, a life presented on stage. <br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
A fashion image is a frozen historical moment, that is, a close-up of a historical moment intersecting with moments in one’s personal history. The clothed body of a modern urban woman thereby carries the burden of history, as well as the marks of our present time.<br />
<br />
In his essay on fashion and modernity written back in 1904, Georg Simmel has already theorized the cultural and social significance of fashion in modern life. He views fashion as a signifier of modernity and a theatricalization of social transformations. For Simmel, fashion consciousness is vital to our conceptualization of the modern and the urban. <br />
<br />
Georg Simmel, ”Fashion” (1904), in On Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings, edited and with an introduction by Donald N. Levine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971) 294-323.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Simmel’s essay on fashion should be read side by side with his another crucial essay written a year earlier in 1903 entitled “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” which describes the heightened level of sensory stimulation associated with the construction of modern metropolis. Fashion responds most directly and instantaneously to these changes. Following is a frequently quoted passage from “The Metropolis and Mental Life,” which describes the essence of modern life from a physiological as well as psychological perspective:<br />
<br />
The psychological foundation, upon which the metropolitan individuality is erected, is the intensification of emotional life due to the swift and continuous shift of external and internal stimuli.<br />
<br />
西美尔那篇关于时尚的文章应该和他在1903年写的另一篇重要的文章并列阅读，那篇文章题为《大都市与精神生活》，描述了随着现代大都市的建设而提高的感官刺激水平。时尚界对这些变化的反应是最直接和即时的。下面是《都市与心理生活》中经常引用的一段话，它从生理和心理的角度描述了现代生活的本质:<br />
都市个性赖以建立的心理基础，是由于外部和内部刺激的迅速、持续的转移而强化的情感生活。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:10, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
Man is a creature whose existence is dependent on differences, i.e., his mind is stimulated by the difference between present impressions and those which have preceded. Lasting impressions, the slightness in their differences, the habituated regularity of their course and contrasts between them, consume, so to speak, less mental energy than the rapid telescoping of changing images, pronounced differences within what is grasped at a single glance, and the unexpectedness of violent stimuli. <br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
To the extent that the metropolis creates these psychological conditions – with every crossing of the street, with the tempo and multiplicity of economic, occupational and social life – it creates in the sensory foundations of mental life, and in the degree of awareness necessitated by our organization as creatures dependent on differences, a deep contrast with the slower, more habitual, more smoothly flowing rhythm of the sensory-mental phase of small town and rural existence. <br />
<br />
Simmel’s remarks can help illustrate how the discourse of fashion is situated at the center of Eileen Chang’s aesthetic vision. But Chang has gone well beyond Simmel. She incorporates urbanism, modernity, and femininity in her creation of fashion as a new cultural paradigm. <br />
<br />
See Simmel, ”The Metropolis and Mental Life” (1903), in On Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings, 325.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
The fact that the power of designing such a new paradigm is in the hands of a woman makes it even more unique for her time. More importantly, Chang’s fashion stories can also be read as parables of war. Designing fashion and then writing about fashion are her ways to come to terms with the world at war and the city under siege. In a world where nothing is fixed, and scenes of the present are swiftly disappearing at the very next moment, the ever-changing women’s fashion ironically becomes something that is most stable and lucid, something that can be held on to.<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
In Chang’s account of wartime Hong Kong in an essay entitled “Jinyu lu” (Stories from the Ashes), she describes individual attentions to details of clothes at a critical moment when one’s own life can be smashed to pieces in no time:<br />
In Hong Kong, when we first heard the news that the war had broken out, a girl classmate in my dormitory started panicking. “What am I going to do? I have nothing appropriate to wear!” she cried. Her family were wealthy overseas Chinese. She had a different wardrobe for every social occasion. From a dance party on a yacht to a formal dinner, she was always sufficiently equipped. But she never imagined that there would be a war.<br />
<br />
张爱玲在其《烬余录》中对战时香港的记述中，她对个人服装的细节上这样描写使人对生活幻灭的重要时刻：在香港，当我们第一次听说战争爆发的新闻之时，我宿舍的一位女同学开始恐慌起来。“我该做什么？我没有合适的穿的衣服！”她哭着说。她的家人都远在海外。在各个社交场合她都有不同的服装搭配。从游艇上的舞会到正式的晚宴，她总是准备有充足的衣着。但她却从未想过这里会爆发战争。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:21, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
张爱玲在《烬余录》中讲述战时的香港时描绘到，一个人在性命攸关的时刻竟会对自己的服饰百般注意：<br />
在香港，当我们第一次听说战争爆发这个消息时，我宿舍的一个女同学开始慌张。她喊道，“我该怎么办？我都没有合适的衣服穿！”她们一家是富裕的华侨。她在不同的社交场合都有自己的服饰搭配，从游艇上的舞会到一场正式的晚宴，她的服装满满当当的。但她从没想过战争会爆发。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
She finally managed to get hold of a big black quilted jacket which probably would not attract any attention from the air force circling above. When it was time to flee we all went our separate ways. I saw her again when the war was over. She cut her hair short in the masculine Filipino style – the trend in Hong Kong at the time because a woman with that hair style could pass for a man. <br />
<br />
Indeed our different responses to the war are reflected in our choice of clothes. Take Suleika for example. A beauty from a remote town on the Malay peninsula, she was petite and dark, with dreamy eyes and slightly protruding teeth. <br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Like most girls who had a convent education, she was naive to an embarrassing degree. She chose to major in medicine, which means that she had to learn to dissect human bodies. But did the corpses have clothes on or not? The question bothered her, so she was asking people about it. This had become quite a joke around our school. <br />
<br />
A bomb landed next to our dorm, so the warden had to convince us to flee down the hill. Even in such emergency, Suleika did not forget to pack up her most lavish clothes. Against the well meaning advice of many wise people, she somehow managed to transport, in the midst of the gunfire, a big heavy leather trunk of clothes down the hill.<br />
<br />
她和大多数接受过修道院教育的女孩儿一样，天真无邪，却令人尴尬。她选择学医，这就意味着她必须学习解刨人体。但是尸体穿没穿衣服呢？这个问题困扰着她，于是她就一直问别人。这在我们学校成了一个大笑话。<br />
<br />
一颗炸弹落到了我们宿舍旁边，所以监狱长不得不劝我们逃下山去。苏来卡即使在这种紧急情况下也没有忘记收拾带走她那些最奢侈的衣服。她不顾许多聪明人的善意劝告，仍设法在枪林弹雨中把一箱厚重的皮衣运下山去。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:23, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Suleika then joined the defense force, working as a substitute nurse for the Red Cross. She was often seen squatting on the ground, hacking firewood to light up a fire, wearing her copper red and dark green silk gown embroidered with the character “shou” (longevity). What a waste, but for her it was all worth it. This smart outfit endowed her with an unprecedented confidence; without that she would not have blended so well with her male colleagues. …… <br />
<br />
Here, Chang’s war stories are interwoven with talks of fashion.<br />
<br />
“Stories from the Ashes,” in ''Heaven and Earth Monthly 5'' (February, 1944).<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
Fashion is no longer a form of creative life that only occupies the space of leisure; rather, it becomes an essential medium through which an individual could finally comprehend the world that is otherwise incomprehensible, name the surroundings that are otherwise unnamable, and determine her own gender and ethnic identities that are otherwise indeterminate.<br />
<br />
The ending of the essay “A Chronicle of Changing Clothes” also consists of a parable:<br />
<br />
……an autumnal chill in approaching dusk as vendors at a vegetable market prepare to pack up and go home. Fish scraps and pale green corn husks litter the ground.<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
A child dashes over on his bike just to show off. He gives out a shout, lets go of the handlebars, and shoots away effortlessly, swaying back and forth all the while. At that split second, everyone on the street watches him with an indefinable admiration. Perhaps in this life that moment of letting go is the very loveliest? <br />
<br />
This scene seems detached from Chang’s detailed descriptions of the transformation of fashion trends, but it can be read a parable of how fashion actually functions in everyday life. It is exactly that moment of “letting go,” that is, the moment that one gains the power and freedom to go beyond immediate material and political conditions, that captures the essence of fashion in Chang’s world.<br />
<br />
Translated by Andrew F. Jones.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
Here the essay genre not only becomes an open-ended and ongoing process for women writers in their entry into the existing order of the literary world, it also becomes the testing ground where the boundaries between the literary world and the larger social realm become unstable and ever-shifting. Not only life styles can be read as texts, women writers as individuals can become concrete historical subjects within the space allowed by the modern essay. Life is woven together with work, the boundaries between the private and the public are further blurred, and biographical contingencies become important textual devices in constructing a legend of a new era.<br />
<br />
在这里，散文体裁不仅成为了女性作家进入文学世界的一个开放的、持续的过程，也成为了一个试验场，在这里，文坛和更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定和不断变化。不仅生活方式可以被当成文章阅读，女性作家作为个体也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公众的界限进一步模糊，传记性的偶发事件成为构筑新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 09:42, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
在这里，散文体裁不仅成为女作家进入文学世界现有秩序的一个开放性的持续过程，也成为一个试验场，在这个试验场中文学世界与更大的社会领域之间的边界变得不稳定，并且不断变化。不仅生活方式可以作为文本来解读，作为个体的女作家也可以在现代散文所允许的空间内成为具体的历史主体。生活与工作交织在一起，私人与公共的界限进一步模糊，传记的偶然性成为构建新时代传奇的重要文本手段。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 13:28, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
'''Perspectives on Ideology in the Essay'''<br />
<br />
'''Zhu Ziqing, Frantz Fanon, and the Fierce White Children'''<br />
<br />
''Daniel A. Fried''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
All genres contain political possibilities, but the essay seems entitled to a particularly strong claim on politics. In the Chinese modernist context, it should be clear that one cannot understand the development of nationalism without reference to the huge body of political essays published in decades of periodicals, and equally clear that one must take stock of nationalist writings in trying to understand the generic qualities of the essay. And within our international scholarly dialogue, it seems necessary to locate the modern Chinese essay with regard to the various postulates of postcolonial theory.<br />
<br />
“论文中的意识形态观点”<br />
<br />
“朱自清，弗朗茨·法农，和凶猛的白人孩子”<br />
<br />
“丹尼尔A.弗里德”<br />
<br />
“概要”<br />
<br />
所有体裁都包含政治可能性，但这篇文章似乎有权对政治提出特别强烈的主张。在中国现代主义环境中，我们应该清楚地看到，如果不参考几十年期刊上发表的大量政治文章，就无法理解民族主义的发展；同样，我们必须审视民族主义作品，试图理解这篇文章的共性。在我们的国际学术对话中，似乎有必要根据有关后殖民理论的各种假设来定位中国现代散文.<br />
--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 11:25, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
This is not easy--the relation of Chinese materials to theory has of course been debated at length, with wide disagreements over the applicability of the standard models. Indeed, the applicability of postcolonialism to several literatures has been questioned as critiques of essentialized difference have been turned against the general conclusions of postcolonial discourse itself. While theoretical contextualization of Chinese political essays seems necessary, there is no critical consensus on what theories to apply.<br />
<br />
This paper will attempt to contextualize by ignoring the oversimplified question of whether postcolonial theory is or is not applicable to Chinese modernist essays. <br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
Instead, it seeks to perform a case study in theoretical analysis of a Chinese essay which goes beyond the simple importation of “foreign” theory, to suggest the outlines of dialogue between scholars of Chinese and other anticolonial nationalisms. Specifically, it compares Zhu Ziqing's experience of a white childs gaze in the essay, “White People--God's Proud Children!” to a similar experience of Frantz Fanon recorded in his canonical ''Black Skin, White Masks''. Using the theme of the racial others gaze as a methodological allegory, it seeks to show how these two texts can be made to “gaze” at each other, to inform each other in ways which are theoretically suggestive while respecting local difference.<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
While Zhus essay seems in many ways to perfectly invoke the most familiar tropes of “Western” theory, Zhu's reaction to the gaze is ultimately opposite to Fanon's, and demonstrates how anticolonial writing is enmeshed both in internationa lpsychological constants and local historical variables.<br />
<br />
Scholarly investigation of the modern Chinese essay as a genre demands some attention to the questions posed by postcolonial theories. The same could be said of all genres of the period, but the essay has a special claim on postcolonialism. All genres were used politically, but the essay was usually seen in high modern China as the prime vehicle for explicit politics, the forum best suited for debate and rebuttal, and explication of specific political programs. <br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
Of course, there is no scholarly consensus in the field as to the extent to which postcolonial theories can or cannot be applied to modern Chinese literature. For example, Rey Chow in her 1993 ''Writing Diaspora'' produced a well-known critique of the resistance to theory by scholars of Chinese literature, arguing that the claims of untheorizable Chinese particularity are merely reintroductions of an old Orientalist cultural essentialism. Last year, Leo Lee concluded his study of Shanghai urban culture by restating the very same arguments which Chow had dismissed, making the case that theory based on native internalization of the Western “othering” gaze was not directly applicable because the Western imperialist presence in China, even in the Shanghai concession zones, never gained the colonialist control over language and education that produced such psychic disruptions in other societies. <br />
<br />
Rey Chow, ''Writing Diaspora: Tactics of Intervention in Contemporary Cultural Studies''. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993).（注释）<br />
<br />
<br />
当然，关于后殖民理论在何种程度上可以适用于现代中国文学，学界并没有达成共识。例如，周蕾在1993年的《离散书写》中，她就中国文学学者对理论的反抗提出了一个著名的批评，她认为，不可理论化的中国特殊性，只不过是对古老的东方主义文化本质主义的重新引入。 去年，李欧梵通过重述周蕾曾否定的相同观点，结束了他对上海都市文化的研究，从而证明了该理论是基于西方“他者化”的本土内化，不能直接适用。因为在中国，甚至是在上海租界，西方帝国主义的存在从未获得殖民主义者对语言和教育的控制，而这种控制在其他社会中造成了这种心理混乱。<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
We must stutter out some engagement with postcolonial theory, but how can one proceed without the safety of scholarly consensus? One could dive into polemics, but a decision that either theory is or isn't always applicable to Chinese literature assumes the existence of twin essentialized monoliths called “theory” and “Chinese literature.” We need more nuanced approaches. In fact, the terms of mainline postcolonial theory do furnish the conceptual tools with which one can derive one such approach. The very familiar discussions of the gaze of the imperial subject toward the colonized other can be employed as a metaphor for our own predicament. <br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
One of the major variations on this theme, deriving from the writings of Frantz Fanon, should be familiar: by their imperial gaze, aggressor cultures try to lock their colonized subjects into a perpetual Otherdom, with the aggressor National Subject claiming for itself a transcendent metaphysical Selfhood; colonized individuals must view themselves as Other and therefore are alienated from themselves. The solutions the discourse has found are ways in which those individuals can subvert that Otherdom in order to reclaim for themselves a new or reconstituted Selfhood. The goal is not to fall into nativist atavism and rejection of the metropole, but to eliminate dominance and blur the margins of identity, allowing a more healthful parity in the identification dialectic between colonizer and colonized.<br />
弗朗兹·法农的作品中产生了这一主题的主要变题之一，大家应该对此都很熟悉：在帝国主义的视角下，侵略者文化尝试将殖民对象封锁进永恒的他者国度，只有侵略国家自称为超验的形而上学的自我：被殖民的人必须把自己当做他者因此只能异化。对于这一问题找到的答案便是通过推翻他者国度从而为自己重建一个自我。目的不在于陷入本土主义者的返祖主义，拒绝城市，而是削弱统治，使身份边界模糊化，让殖民者和被殖民者在身份的辩证识别上有更健康的对等。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:06, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
If it is a common complaint that postcolonial theory is a creation of the metropole which should not be allowed to dominate local Chinese historical experience, the solution should not be nativist assertion of Chinese difference and superiority, with consequent ignoring of the varied experiences of imperialism from which the systems of theory have been derived. Rather, once we reject the notion that metropolitan theory has an omniscient gaze which alone possesses the right to define the meaning of Chinese texts, we are free to see how Chinese and non-Chinese experiences of imperialism can inform each other, through their mutual attractions and tensions which complicate questions of identity.<br />
<br />
如果人们普遍认为后殖民理论是大都市的创造，不应让其支配中国本土的历史经验，那么解决办法就不应是本土主义武断地主张中国的差异和优越性，一直忽视理论体系是从帝国主义的各种经验是衍生出来的。相反，一旦我们拒绝了大都市理论无所不能、只有它才有权定义中文文本的含义的观点，我们就可以自由地看到，中国和非中国的帝国主义经历是如何通过它们的相互吸引和紧张关系——这使身份问题复杂化——相互交流。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 09:39, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
如果人们普遍抱怨后殖民主义理论是大都会的产物，且不应允许它主导中国本土的历史经验，那么，解决的办法就不应是本土主义地宣称中国人的差异性和优越性，从而忽视理论体系所衍生的各种帝国主义的经验。相反，一旦我们摒弃了大都会理论的全知角度，那就是它独自拥有定义中国文本意义的权利，我们就可以看到中国人和非中国人的帝国主义经验如何通过他们的相互吸引和紧张关系来相互交流，而这使认知问题变得复杂。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 06:29, 4 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
As an example of how to do this sort of theoretical application, I propose in this paper to compare Frantz Fanon's “The Fact of Blackness” (a chapter of his canonical ''Black Skin, White Masks''), with a little-known essay by Zhu Ziqing, “White People-God's Proud Children!” Both pieces focus on the narrators' experiences of meeting the gazes of white children, and thus invoke classic themes which allow easy access to theoretical considerations even in the midst of a particularistic analysis. And because both describe politicized experience, they avoid the old Orientalist dichotomy of Western theory vs. native experience. Both Fanon and Zhu are equally theoretical and experiential, and they inform each other.<br />
<br />
作为如何进行这类理论应用的例子，我在本文中拟将弗朗茨·法农的《黑的事实》（他的典籍《黑皮肤，白面具》中的一章）与朱自清的一篇鲜为人知的文章《白种人，上帝的骄子！》进行比较。这两篇作品都聚焦于叙述者与白人儿童目光交汇的经历，因此引用了经典的主题，即使在特殊主义的分析中，也能很容易进行理论思考。而且由于两者都描述了政治化的经验，因此避免了西方理论的老东方主义与本土经验的抉择。弗朗茨和朱自清都同样具有理论性和经验性，且互相借鉴。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:35, 3 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
作为如何进行这类理论应用的一个例子，笔者拟在本文中对弗朗茨·法农的《黑人的事实》(他的经典《黑皮肤，白面具》中的一个章节)与朱自清鲜为人知的文章《白种人——上帝的骄子!》进行比较。这两篇文章都聚焦于叙述者与白人儿童目光相遇的经历，因此援引了经典主题，即使在进行具象分析中，也能很容易地进行理论思考。而且因为两者都描述了政治化的经验，他们避免了西方理论与本土经验的古老东方主义之争。法农和朱自清都具有同样的理论和经验，且相互借鉴。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 12:12, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
“The Fact of Blackness” is Fanon's analysis of a black man's frustration in attempting to create a viable self-identity in the France of the 1950's. Analysis in the psychoanalytic sense, not the scientific-sociological one; or, better still, ''self-analysis'', for the chapter is cast in the form of a first-person narrative. Fanon writes a sort of psychoanalytically fueled prose poem. There are few objective assertions made about “the way it is”; the problem is seen from what appears to be the inside of a black man's head, what he feels and how he reacts to the shiftingly solid front of White France arrayed against him..<br />
<br />
Not necesssarily Fanon's. In his introduction, Fanon writes that in this chapter, “we observe the desperate struggles of a Negro who is driven to discover the meaning of black identity." Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks. Trans. Charles Lam Markmann (New York: Grove Press, 1967) 16. The wording here suggests a fictional narrator. Nonetheless, one guesses that it is a fictualized Fanon, and I will use “Fanon” as a convenience in place of “the narrator” for the remainder of this paper.（注释）<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
Some of the most striking and most quoted parts of this narrative are Fanon's attempts to deal with the intrusive voice of the white child who cries out in fear of him:<br />
<br />
“Look, a Negro!” It was an external stimulus that flicked over me as I passed by. I made a tight smile.<br />
<br />
“Look, a Negro!” It was true. It amused me.<br />
<br />
“Look, a Negro!” The circle was drawing a bit tighter. I made no secret of my amusement.<br />
<br />
“Mama, see the Negro! I'm frightened!” Frightened! Frightened! Now they were beginning to be afraid of me. I made up my mind to laugh myself to tears, but laughter had become impossible.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
这段叙述中最引人注目和引用最多的部分是 Fanon 试图处理白人儿童因害怕他而大声呼喊的侵扰性声音：<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”当我经过时，一种外在的刺激掠过我的心头。我笑得很紧。<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”是真的。我很开心。<br />
<br />
“看，一个黑人！”圆圈越来越紧了。我毫不掩饰我的乐趣。<br />
<br />
“妈妈，看那黑鬼！我吓坏了！”害怕！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心要笑得流泪，但笑已经变得不可能了。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:18, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这段叙述中最引人注目和最常被引用的部分，是法侬试图处理那个白人孩子因为害怕他而大叫的侵扰声音:<br />
<br />
“看,一个黑人!”这是一种外部刺激，当我经过时，它掠过我的头顶。我紧张地笑了笑。<br />
<br />
“看,一个黑人!”这是真的。这太好笑了。<br />
<br />
“看,一个黑人!”圆圈变得更紧了。我毫不掩饰自己的快乐。<br />
<br />
“妈妈，你看那个黑人!我害怕!”吓!吓坏了!现在他们开始害怕我了。我决定笑得流泪，但笑已经变得不可能了。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:14, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种叙述中一些最引人注目和被引用最多的部分是法农试图处理白人儿童因为害怕他而大声疾呼发出的侵扰声音：<br />
“看，一个黑人！”这是一种外部刺激，当我经过时，它掠过我。我紧张地笑了。<br />
“看，一个黑人！”这是真的。它逗乐了我。<br />
“看，一个黑人！”圆圈画的更紧了。我掩饰不住快乐。<br />
“妈妈，看黑人！我害怕！”害怕！害怕！现在他们开始害怕我了。我下定决心笑出眼泪，但笑声已经变得不可能了。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:41, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
In this passage as elsewhere in the chapter, there are many voices accusing Fanon, yet the voice of the child has a special bluntness, one that hits Fanon harder. Beneath that voice, his attempt to defend himself through an ever-increasing amusement is undone; the child unmasks his anguish. He is for Fanon not just a historical boy, nor an empirical average of thousands of trembling boys, but a resonance of something deeper within Fanon's narrative. Fanon does not devote an inordinate amount of space to the child, and it would be an exaggeration to say that the appearances of this child constitute the thematic center of his chapter. <br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
Nonetheless, the white child does play a crucial role, as he is in fact a grotesque foil for Fanon's own exasperated narrative voice, which is a rewriting, for race, of narratives of developmental psychology. In particular, Jacques Lacan's famous theory of the “mirror stage” is clearly its primary inspiration. Even though Fanon never makes explicit reference to Lacan or “The Mirror Stage” in the chapter, such references are numerous in Black Skin, White Masks as a whole-there is no doubt that Fanon knew the paradigm well. And the structure of his narrative runs suspiciously parallel to Lacan's explications, so much that it might be fair to call “The Fact of Blackness” an ironic rewriting of “The Mirror Stage.”<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
Lacan's theory is complex, moving in unexpected directions and drawing different sets of conclusions. But all are sourced in the moment of a baby before a mirror, fascinated to discover itself for the first time. The stage at which this critical fascination can occur lasts from the age of six to eighteen months, according to Lacan, and its primary importance is in providing the infant with a temporary shortcut to mature subjectivity. In his words, the mirror “precipitates” the child's I in a “primordial form, before it is objectified in the dialectic of identification with the other, and before language restores to it, in the universal, its function as subject.” <br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
In contrast, Fanon only reaches his version of the mirror stage ''after'' passing through objectification and restoration to subjectivity. His “mirror stage” is precisely the quest for subjectivity narrated through the “plot” outlined above. But this plot is skewed¬-consider Lacan's discussion of the mirror stage itself:<br />
<br />
The fact is that the total form of the body by which the subject anticipates in a mirage the maturation of his power is certainly more constituent than constituted, but in which it appears to him above all in a contrasting size (''un relief de stature'') that fixes it and in a symmetry that inverts it, in contrast with the turbulent movement that the subject feels are animating him.<br />
<br />
相比之下，法农只有在经过客观化并恢复到主观性后，才能“达到”他的镜像阶段。 他的“镜像阶段”正是要追求上述“情节”中描述的主体性。 但是此情节是有失偏颇的，请思考拉康对镜像阶段本身的讨论：<br />
<br />
事实是，主体总形式当然更多是构成成分而不是已构物，因为学科通过主体总形式在思维中预估其力量是否成熟。但是在他看来，主体首先是一个对比大小的个体（“形体突出”），这一个体将其固定并使其对称反转，这与对象感觉到正在使他动起来的湍流运动相反。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 08:17, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Fanon's mirror is of course the White. In that mirror he is inverted, re-created as an image exactly opposite to his own reality, and it is only through that inversion, that ''perversion'' of his Self that he is allowed to know himself. And, moreover, that inversion is ''fixed'' in the mirror, as Fanon puts it, fixed as a chemical solution is fixed by a dye. No matter how Fanon questions, no matter what rhetorical tack he chooses to confront the mirror, it refuses to give back any other image. Does Fanon feel a universal, rational soul animating himself? Does he well up with the turbulence of an earth-poetry that takes him to the magic font of his humanity? It does not matter. The mirror is impervious and flat. His image is fixed.<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Lacan tells us that the function of the mirror stage “is to establish a relation between the organism and its reality - or, as they say, between the ''Innenwelt'' and the ''Umwelt''.” For Lacan, it is the organism itself which determines and creates the relation, it creates its reality, but Fanon feels himself to be “overdetermined from without,” he is created by the White reality.<br />
<br />
That relation is an average of many different species of dominance. But perhaps more than any other, it is the dominance of an adult over a child. Listen again to the voices which fix Fanon: “Understand, my dear ''boy'', color prejudice is something I find entirely foreign.” <br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
“Gently, in the tone that one uses with a ''child'', they introduced me to the existence of a certain view that was held by certain people.” “now and then when we are worn out by our lives in big buildings, we will turn to you as we do to our ''children''-to the innocent, the ingenuous, the spontaneous. We will turn to you as to the ''childhood'' of the world.” (italics mine) The White mirror thus fixes Fanon as a perpetual infant, the Black “boy” who embodies youthful naiveté. He knows he is in the mirror stage, he is an infant who has already read Lacan, and he is desperate to find in the mirror the image which will allow him to realize his ''I'', but the mirror always gives him back his infant inverse. He cannot realize himself, he can never leave the mirror stage, he is ''fixed''.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
The white child is thus a point of entry into the subsurface struggle of the text. The child is Fanon's parallel and his foil: “look, a nigger, it's cold, the nigger is shivering because he is cold, the little boy is trembling because he is afraid of the nigger, the nigger is shivering with cold, the cold that goes through your bones, the handsome little boy is trembling because he thinks that the nigger is quivering with rage, the little boy throws himself into his mother's arms: Mama, the nigger's going to eat me up.”[ Fanon, 114.] The boy mirrors Fanon, but ironically: his freedom to be afraid, his freedom even to see an Other that is not synonymous with the Self[ Fanon asserts thtat the black is not Other to the white, but his argument is that the white claims he does not need to go through identification with the black-as-Other in order to come to a realization of the Sel; on the contrary, White simply “is”; black is not-White. But though the white does not idenify through the black Other, this of course does not mean that Fanon is asserting that the white does not identify the black as Other.] is a mockery of the boyhood which Fanon cannot escape. One might even profitably read this mirroring as a form of mimicry. <br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
In standard postcolonial discourse, “mimicry” refers to either a pseudo-imitation forced on the colonized by the colonizer who wants the colonized to “be like” the colonizing cultural model, but not identical to it; or it can refer to deliberate ironization of such models by the colonized. Either case results in what Homi Bhabha calls a “double vision which in disclosing the ambivalence of colonial discourse also disrupts its authority.”[ Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York: Routledge, 1994) 88.] However, as Diana Fuss notes, “the mimicry of subversion can find itself reinforcing conventional power relations rather than eroding them.”[ Diana Fuss, Identification Papers (New York: Routledge, 195*) 147.] Fanon's experience is just such a case - the mimicry is the white boy's, not Fanon's, and its effect is not at all disruptive, but reinforces the conventional power relations. <br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
The boy thinks he is in danger of assault and trembles; in fact, it is Fanon who trembled first, who is the one really exposed to violence, and who is in fact ''being assaulted'' by the boy's unwitting mimicry of his weakness.<br />
<br />
The white child is thus a cruel unwitting joker who offers Fanon seeming doors of rhetorical escape into maturity, then frustrates him, turns him back on himself, locks him into the image of “the childhood of the world.” And the most destructive part is that the child does not know he is the god's mask; he screams as an innocent and can leap to the mother's arms. Fanon screams, and the monstrous mirror stays silvery and cold: it inverts and it fixes, but it never recognizes.<br />
<br />
“White People-God's Proud Children!” was written in direct response to (and less than three weeks after) the “May 30 Massacre.”<br />
<br />
男孩认为自己有被攻击的危险，吓得发抖;事实上，首先颤抖的是法龙（Fanon），真正遭受暴力的是法龙，实际上也是法龙被男孩在不知情的情况下模仿自己的弱点所攻击。<br />
因此，这个白人孩子是一个残忍的、不知情的小丑，他为法农提供了看似可以逃避语言的大门，让他走向成熟，然后让他沮丧，让他回归自我，把他锁在“世界的童年”的形象中。最可怕的是，这个孩子不知道自己是上帝的面具;他像个无辜的孩子一样尖叫，然后跳到妈妈的怀里。法农尖叫了一声，巨大的魔镜依旧银光闪闪，冰冷冰冷:它颠倒着，固定着，但永远也认不出来。<br />
“白人——上帝的骄傲的孩子!”是对“5月30日大屠杀”(不到三周后)的直接回应。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 03:05, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In mid-May of 1925, factory workers at a Japanese plant in Shanghai went on strike, and then stormed the factory grounds, demanding back wages. The Japanese managers shot and killed the strike leader and injured several others, prompting more general strikes at other Japanese factories by 20,000 workers. Students soon joined the workers in protest, and several were arrested inside the foreign concessionary zone. On May 30, the date scheduled for the trial of those arrested, 2,000 students marched on the concessionary zone demanding the release of the students and workers. In response, British troops arrested a hundred of those assembled. News of the new arrests spread rapidly, and by later that day, several thousand Shanghainese of different levels of society had surrounded the Nanjing Road jail where the protesters were being held, demanding their release. At this point, the British opened fire, killing a dozen or so Chinese and wounding several dozen.<br />
<br />
1925年5月中旬，上海一家日本工厂工人罢工，然后冲进工厂，要求讨回工资。工厂日本经理射杀了罢工领袖，打伤数名工人，导致其他日本工厂2,0000工人发起了更大规模的罢工。学生很快加入工人抗议，随后部分学生在租界遭到逮捕。5月30日原定是遭逮捕的工人和学生受审日子，2,000学生在租界游行示威，要求释放学生和工人。作为回应，英国士兵逮捕了数百名示威者。这一消息很快传开来，当天晚些时候，几千名上海社会人士包围了关押抗议者的南京路监狱，要求释放他们。鉴于此，英军开火，射杀了十几名中国人，打伤几十中国人。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 13:50, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
Nationwide protests of various sorts erupted immediately, including several literary protests, two by Zhu: “Blood Song,” an incendiary poem composed on June 10, and “White People,” written nine days later.<br />
<br />
The essay never refers explicitly to the May 30 incident; rather, it is the narration and explication of an incident which Zhu experienced on a Shanghai city trolley. After boarding and going to the first-class seats, Zhu sits down across from two white people, apparently a father and son. Zhu marvels at the lovely features of the boy, who looks eleven or twelve, and then goes into an explanation of how he has been fascinated with children ever since a friendship in elementary school with a shy younger boy named Liu Jun. He admits that he loves to stare at young children, and that he stared therefore at the white child. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
Unlike most children, disturbed by his staring, the white child appears to take no notice, but then, when he and his father are about to get off the trolley, the child flashes a violent, mimicking stare back at Zhu. The author hears words in the stare: “There were words in his eyes: 'Hah! Yellow man, yellow chinaman, you-you go ahead and look! You are worthy of looking at me!” Zhu feels this stare as a physical assault, and feels first terrified, and then patriotically enraged. He then explains his desire for a nationality-trumping universalism, but also doubts its possibility, since such a young child had already been socialized into acceptance of racist categories. Yet he praises the child for exhibiting masculine forcefulness, and claims that this is “what makes whites white.” Finally, he declares himself conflicted on the subject of nationalism versus universalism, ending the essay unresolved.<br />
<br />
与大多数孩子不一样，这个白人小孩对于朱自清的打量毫不在意，但当白人小孩和他的父亲准备下电车时，那个孩子怒目回望了朱一眼。朱从该怒视里读出：“哈，黄种人，黄种中国人，你继续看吧！你也就配看着我的份了！”朱从中感到一种身体上的攻击，一开始觉得害怕，然后带有爱国主义的愤怒喷涌而出。他在文中解释道，这样一个年幼的孩子都已经为社会所同化，接受了种族主义的范畴，虽然自己渴望国籍优先的普遍主义，但同时也怀疑这个普遍主义的可能性。然而，他赞赏这个孩子表现出的男性之力量，同时也认为这点是“白人的典型特征”。最后，他对于民族主义和普遍主义的问题上产生了矛盾，直到文末该问题也悬而未决。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:33, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
Given the Fanon-inspired traditions of Western postcolonial invocations of the Other, one might from a Western perspective expect Zhu to react to the gaze of the child with a crisis of ''personal'' identity. This is, after all, Fanon's Odyssean quest in “The Fact of Blackness”: to negotiate or seize for himself a space for valued selfhood against the demeaning voices of White France which try to lock him into an Otherness to itself, to himself , to the possibility of humanity. Zhu's reaction certainly fits, in name, the Self-Other trope: he experiences the white child as very White and Other. And the incident deeply traumatic: “This sudden assault made me panic; my heart was void, on all sides there was a very heavy pressure, making me unable to breathe freely.” But the incident does not fit the mirror-stage model as transmitted by Fanon. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
There is no reference to psychical development, and therefore no hint that the quasi-colonialist aggression experienced through the gaze is constitutive, that it denies an authentic Chinese subjectivity to Zhu and replaces it with an ironclad Otherness to himself.<br />
Rather, it confirms Zhu's sense of self by provoking an immediate nationalistic response. After recovering from the shock of the gaze, he immediately “was filled with a pressing nationalistic feeling!” He then reflects on the child's face and action and straightaway abstracts them into a symptom of history:<br />
<br />
That which made me panic and feel terrified, was that this one lording it over me, trampling me, was no one but...a ten year-old white “child”! I always have felt that children belong to the world, and ought not to be of a single race, country, town, or family...<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
But this ten year-old white child...had already understood the situation well enough to use racial advantage and national power to assault me with a thrust of his face. This assault was actually the small shadow of multiple assaults, and his face was the small-print version of a history of Chinese foreign relations.[ Zhu Ziqing, Zhu Ziqing Quanji, Vol. 1 (Jiangsu, Jiangsu Educational Press) 45.]<br />
<br />
Despite our Fanon-inspired suspicions about his psychology, Zhu insists that the shock he received, the pressure, the difficulty breathing, was the result of his ''theoretical'' realization that the child was not innocent but had already been corrupted into the fabric of violence from which Sino-Western relations had been cut. The normal, the psychological-these responses are leapt over, the incident is abstracted directly into a symptom of history. And, at least on the surface, this fact might seem to confirm the anti-theoretical position which claims that postcolonial criticism is irrelevant to China because China never sunk into full colonial status.<br />
<br />
但是这个十岁的白人孩子已经非常了解这种情况了，甚至可以利用种族优势和国家权力以他的面目攻击我。 这次袭击实际上是多次袭击的一个小阴影，而他的脸则是中国对外关系史的缩影。【朱自清，朱自清全集 卷1（江苏，江苏教育出版社）45.】<br />
<br />
尽管我们受到法农的影响进而对他的心理学表示怀疑，但朱坚称，他受到的震惊，压力，呼吸困难是他“理论上”意识到孩子不是无辜的，而是被中西关系断绝所产生的暴力侵蚀。<br />
正常的，这些心理的反应被跳过了，事件被直接抽象为历史的象征。 而且，至少从表面上看，这一事实似乎证实了反理论立场，该立场声称后殖民批评与中国无关，因为中国从未陷入完全的殖民地状态。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 15:36, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但是这个十岁的白人孩子……已经非常了解这种情况了，他可以利用种族优势和国家权力的面目攻击我。这次袭击实际上是数次袭击的影子，而他的脸则是中国对外关系史的缩影。【朱自清，朱自清全集 卷1（江苏，江苏教育出版社）45.】<br />
<br />
尽管我们受到法农的影响进而对他的心理学表示怀疑，朱坚称，他受到的震惊，压力和呼吸困难，是他从“理论上”认识到这个孩子不是无辜的，而是已经腐坏成中西关系已被割断的、暴力的结果。跳过正常的心理的反应，这个事件被抽象成历史的症状。而且，至少从表面上看，这一事实似乎证实了反理论立场，该主张声称后殖民批评与中国无关，因为中国从未陷入完全的殖民状况。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 03:42, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
One could easily derive a trajectory from comparative history to the differences in the two men's encounters with white children, a trajectory whose terms are familiar but worth rehearsing. Fanon's Martinique was almost totally cut off from racial history, national language, and cultural identity. Any nationalism that arose from such soil would have had to have been as a reconstruction of African identity from zero, an almost impossible task. Therefore, Fanon's text has to start from the postcolonial present, analyzing the continuing damage of racism on subjugated black communities. Most of China, despite the extreme cultural upheavals which it experienced in reaction to Western aggression, never sunk into full-fledged colonial status; and therefore this aggression remained for the most part an influential and traumatic margin to the mainstream development of Chinese historical identity. There was no slavery, no tabula rasa, not even in Hong Kong and Macao, or Taiwan and “Manchuria.” <br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
On the contrary, the experience of aggression undoubtedly strengthened national consciousness; and in modernist writings such as the one in question, it is rare to read a moment of experience of the Western Other as such which does not resort to some form of nationalism.<br />
<br />
Up to a point, this sort of analysis is useful. Certainly, it would be dangerous to move directly from historical sketches to windy declarations about the differences between African and Chinese literature. But the standard history does happen to match the particulars of these two authors' educational trajectories. The surface, then, of “White People” is simple and obvious in comparison with Fanon's text, forgoing psychological brooding to go straight to the main course of national pride. <br />
<br />
And yet, one wonders what lurks in the essay's depths, for this is a very unusual piece in Zhu's oeuvre.<br />
<br />
相反，侵略的经验无疑加强了民族意识；在现代主义的著作中，如有关的著作中，很少读到对西方他者这样的经验不诉诸某种形式的民族主义的时刻。<br />
<br />
在某种程度上，这种分析是有用的。当然，如果直接从历史素描转向关于非洲文学和中国文学差异的风马牛不相及的宣言，是很危险的。 但标准的历史确实恰好符合这两位作家教育轨迹的特殊性。 那么，与法农的文字相比，《白衣人》的表面是简单而明显的，放弃了心理上的沉思，直奔民族自豪感的主菜。 <br />
<br />
然而，人们不禁要问，这篇文章的深处到底潜藏着什么，因为这是朱的作品中很不寻常的一篇。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:54, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
相反，侵略的经验无疑增强了民族意识。 在诸如此类的现代主义著作中，很少有人会读到西方他人的经历，因为这种经历不诉诸某种形式的民族主义。<br />
到目前为止，这种分析是有用的。 当然，直接从历史速写转变为关于非洲和中国文学之间差异的风马牛不相及的宣言将是危险的。 但是，标准的历史确实与这两位作者的教育轨迹相吻合。 因此，“白人”的表述与法农的著作相比是简单而明显的，它放弃了对民族自豪感的直觉。<br />
然而，人们不禁要问，这篇文章的深处到底潜藏着什么，因为这是朱自清的作品中很不寻常的一篇。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 11:19, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Normally, Zhu Ziqing is one of the last authors one associates with fiery nationalism; rather, he is usually preoccupied with just the sort of psychological introspection which characterizes Fanon's text. Furthermore, the essay was written more than a year after the original trolley ride-could the strangely quick transition from individual experience to nationalist reflection be at least partly created under the influence to retell the story in the light of the May 30 incident?<br />
<br />
If one willfully forgets about the May 30 context of the essay and focuses on the details of the incident as Zhu narrates them, then a second and separate level of interpretation opens in the essay, one much more pregnant with Fanon-like psychological trauma. The widest portal to the inside of this essay is also its obvious crux: i.e., the white child's stare. The key to this portal is that that stare, as it happened empirically, was complete unto itself. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
It was an act, an aggressive act, unaccompanied by words. When Zhu tells us that “there were words in his eyes,” he wants us to believe that the words came from the child himself, and in fact we can certainly believe that that is how Zhu experienced the stare, that he felt the hate speech jabbing out at him from those astonishing eyes. But yet the language admits its paternity: not the child, but Zhu himself. Zhu creates the meaning around the act of the stare, and his entire explication of the problem of racism is based, not upon what he hears, but upon what his unconscious hermeneutic tells him that he hears. Whereas Fanon lives in a shadowy world of little but voices shouting, “look, a Negro!” to Zhu there are no voices at all, only a reality of trolleys and white skin and violent stares to which he himself has to supply the verbal accompaniment.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
This is absolutely not to say that Zhu's experience of racism is imaginary, that he “shouldn't be so sensitive,” as racists say. No doubt, the child was acting racistly. But it is important to notice that the racism which Zhu attributes to the child is a simple one: the child is figured as a self-assured, mature, masculine aggressor; in fact all of these qualities which Zhu feels are surely exaggerated. He might have suspected that prepubescent white children are somehow super-matured macho-men, but hopefully we know better. For Zhu's stare was not the first the boy had received. Anyone who has had the experience of living as a racial minority in a non-pluralistic society knows what it is like to be stared at constantly; this is in fact the primary condition of Fanon's experience which makes “The Fact of Blackness” possible. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
Thus, in this regard, Fanon is perhaps closer to the boy than to Zhu; or if this is too strong, we could say that Fanon is split between the boy and Zhu, that Zhu shares with Fanon the experience of being dissected by the gaze of the aggressor culture, but that the boy shares with him the constancy of being stared at for being a racial minority. The boy's position in China was obviously much higher than that of Fanon's in France, and therefore the stares he would have received much less negative; yet the mere fact of the constant stare itself can exert an intense psychical pressure, especially on a boy at an age at which deep doubts about his self-identity are forming. This is not at all to excuse the real racist content of the boy's angry glare; but it does suggest that the glare was a lashing-out from a position of weakness and insecurity, rather than from the heel-grinding arrogance which Zhu assumes.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Moreover, it is Zhu who initiated this discomforting dialogue of stares. Zhu's boy, like Fanon's, is a mimic, although his mimicry is just as problematic. As Homi Bhabha says, “the look of surveillance returns as the displacing gaze of the disciplined, where the observer becomes the observed and 'partial representation rearticulates the whole notion of ''identity ''and alienates it from essence,”[ Bhabha, 89.] but in this case the mimic gaze is the colonizer's , and it returns precisely as the establishment of racial boundaries. Certainly, Zhu felt this mimicry as an example of colonial aggression; it is only the boy who might have thought of the stare in Bhabha's terms, as his defense mechanism against a racially-motivated intrusion into his privacy.<br />
<br />
And Zhu's initiating stare is certainly racial (though not racist); he gloats over the boy's Caucasianness: “His white cheeks dashed with red and his long golden eyelashes revealed a peacefulness and elegance.”[ Zhu, 43.]<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
Zhu, of course, tries to cover this fact; this is the prime rhetorical function of the discussion of Liu Jun. Without that mini-narrative, Zhu would have had to go directly from a description of the boy's whiteness into the boy's violent reaction, thus allowing the reader to assume that Zhu's racial gaze is what produced that reaction, complicating the question of the child's aggression. Instead, Zhu asserts a different reason why he is staring: he simply likes children, he has ever since he used to play with that little Liu Jun boy. Zhu wants to figure his own gaze as mostly aracial and entirely beneficent, a happy celebration of innocence which is met by abrupt, mature, racist aggression, shocking him out of his reveries into a disturbed reflection on nationalism and interracial strife.<br />
<br />
Fine, so be it, Zhu's gaze is completely aracial, despite his gloating about pink cheeks and golden eyelashes. It is not therefore simple. Consider the bizarreness hidden in his self-justification:<br />
<br />
当然，朱试图掩盖这一事实，这是刘军谈及过的主要的修辞功能。没有那种迷你叙事，朱将不得不直接从描述男孩的苍白转变为男孩的暴力反应，从而使读者认为是因为朱的种族凝视才产生了这种反应，便复杂化了孩子的攻击性问题。相反，朱宣称自己凝视是因为不同的原因，即，他只是喜欢孩子，从那以后，他常常和小刘军一起玩。朱想把他的视线当做与种族无关的，完全善意的行为。当做对纯真的庆祝，然而却突然地遭到了形成已久的种族观念的侵袭。这使他幻想破灭，陷入了国籍和种族冲突的反思中。<br />
<br />
很好，尽管粉红的脸颊和金色的眼睫毛让他看起来有些沾沾自喜，但朱的凝视完全没带种族含义。考虑到藏在他自我争辩中的怪异，所以这并不简单。--[[User:Zhang Yinliu|Zhang Yinliu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yinliu|talk]]) 13:14, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
I have always had the sort of temperament whereby if I saw an amusing little child, I would always want to be on intimate terms with him...When I was in the upper grades of elementary school, in the attached building for the middle grades there was a boy named Liu Jun with raven-black Western-style hair, who was truly docile, like a bird....his face was always that undisturbed and earnest, though under his skin there must have burned the fires of intimacy. Several times I invited him to my home, but he was never willing to go; afterwards I didn't see him for two years, and then he died. I cannot forget him! I had held his little hand, and rubbed his round chin. If I meet a young child for the first time, I naturally can't do that, that would be a little awkward; nevertheless, that's unimportant, I can look at him- once, twice, ten times, dozens of times!<br />
<br />
我向来有种癖气，见了有趣的小孩，总想和他亲热...在高等小学时，附设的初等里，有一个养着乌黑的西发的刘君，真是依人得像小鸟一般...他的脸老是那么幽静和真诚，皮下却烧着亲热的火把。我屡次让他到我家里来，他总不肯；后来两年不见，他便死了。我不能忘记他！我牵过他的小手，又摸过他的圆下巴。但若遇着陌生的小孩，我自然不能那么做，那可有些窘了；不过也不要紧，我可用我的眼睛看他——一回，两回，十回，几十回！--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 09:22, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
我向来有种癖气，见了有趣的小孩，总想和他亲热……。在高等小学时，附设的初等里，有一个养着乌黑的西发的刘君，真是依人得像小鸟一般……。他的脸老是那么幽静和真诚，皮下却烧着亲热的火把。我屡次让他到我家里来，他总不肯；后来两年不见，他便死了。我不能忘记他！我牵过他的小手，又摸过他的圆下巴。但若遇着陌生的小孩，我自然不能那么做，那可有些窘了；不过也不要紧，我可用我的眼睛看他——一回，两回，十回，几十回！--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:06, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
Any given child probably won't pay much attention to people's eyes, so one can look at him with total freedom; it is not at all like furtive, covered glances at women. I have in the past stared at many children I had just met, and they never once protested, at most they pulled on the hand of their mother next to them, or leant on her knee, or looked at her once or twice. Therefore I was very bold. This time on the trolley my old temperament came back, and I looked again and again at that white child, that young Westerner![ Zhu, 43.]<br />
<br />
''Sexuality! ''is the obvious cry which rises at the description of Liu Jun: the docility, the meekness, the holding and rubbing, the “fires of intimacy”--these elements conspire to suggest a nascent homosexuality. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Little Liu is dead, now, but there are substitutes swirling all around Zhu; he cannot touch them as he touched Liu, that would be socially impossible, but as a substitute he can stare with impunity, “dozens of times.” And the children do not protest his stares, they are docile-at most they squirm uncomfortably beneath Zhu's visual intrusion into their world. Zhu's relationship with children is therefore predicated by his dominance of them. He says at the opening of the paragraph that he wants to be intimate with children, but it is an intimacy of power forcing itself upon them.[ The evidence for Zhu's child-fetish is strongly corroborated by his other work. Apart from the focus on childhood in works like the famous, “Back Silhouette” (beiying), in another essay of his, “Children,” he goes so far as to explicitly admit to physical child abuse. ]<br />
<br />
Given these strange admissions, one sees Zhu's reaction to the white child's stare as much more complicated. Zhu experiences the stare as racism, and probably rightly so; yet it seems clear that he is also shocked by the reversal of power involved. <br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
He normally enjoys the prerogative of a forced intimacy, dominating children through his gaze, and suddenly he finds, for the first time, a child that fights gaze with gaze, is able to dominate him and usurp Zhu's position as an adult, casting him down into the docility of the helpless child. When Zhu, flabbergasted, constructs a voice to put onto the child, he may be grabbing onto the real racism present in the situation to use as a defense mechanism, changing the subject to avoid the real source of the ego-crushing which is occurring. Zhu protests his amazement that he could be so disturbed by “just a ten year old white 'child'”; yet the entire scenario could never possibly have been played out with an adult.<br />
<br />
Fanon's child is a mirror to him, highlighting the Lacanian crisis of identification which life in France causes him.<br />
<br />
他通常享有强迫亲密的特权，通过他的目光支配孩子，突然，他发现，第一次有孩子和他对着凝视，这凝视能控制着他，篡夺朱作为一个成年人的地位，让他处于无助孩子的温顺中。当朱陷入惊讶地，想要对这孩子说话时，他可能是抓住现实的种族主义出现在这情况下，用作防御机制，改变主题，以避免正在发生的自我粉碎的真正来源。朱对只有一个十岁的白人孩子感到如此不安，他感到惊奇。但整个场景永远不可能与一个成年人一起进行。法农的孩子如同一面镜子，突出了他在法国的生活所造成的拉康认同危机。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:16, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他通常享有强迫亲密的特权，通过眼色来支配孩子，他突然发现，第一次有孩子用眼神与他对视，篡夺了朱作为成年人的地位，让他处于无助孩子的温顺中。当朱陷入惊讶地，想要对这孩子说话时，他可能是抓住现实的种族主义出现在这情况下，用作防御机制、改变主题，以避免正在发生的自我粉碎的真正来源。朱对只有十岁的一个白人孩子感到如此不安，他感到惊奇。但整个场景永远不可能与一个成年人一起。对他来说，法农的孩子如同一面镜子，暴露出法国生活中拉康认同危机对他的影响。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 15:43, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
If we in turn take Fanon as a mirror for Zhu Ziqing, his Lacanian analysis throws up interesting images of the incident on the Shanghai trolley. Zhu's white boy is visually even more of a mirror image to him than Fanon's was. The man and the boy gaze at each other across the solid divide; they mutually stare along a joint axis of domination. Of course, Zhu does not have Fanon's psychoanalytic training: he had read some empiricist psychology, but less Freud and of course no Lacan. He cannot wander between psychological theory and personal experience in the same fashion Fanon did.<br />
如果我们反过来以法农为朱自清的镜子，他对拉卡尼亚主义的分析在上海电车上抛出有趣的事件图像。 在视觉上，朱自清的白人男孩比法农的更像是他的镜像。 男人和男孩在坚固的鸿沟上凝视着对方。 他们沿着共同的支配轴相互凝视。 当然，朱没有接受法农的心理分析训练：他读过一些经验主义者的心理学，但是很少读弗洛伊德，当然也没有拉康。 他无法像法农那样在心理理论和个人经历之间徘徊。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:29, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
如果我们反过来把法农当作朱自清的镜子，他的拉卡尼亚主义分析就会对上海电车事件抛出有趣的图像。 朱自清的白人男孩在视觉上甚至比法农的男孩更像他的镜像。 男人和男孩隔着坚实的鸿沟相互凝视，他们沿着共同的统治轴线相互凝视。 当然，朱德没有法农的精神分析训练：他读过一些经验主义心理学，但少读弗洛伊德，当然也没有拉卡尼亚。 他不能像法农那样在心理学理论和个人经验之间游走。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:57, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
But a reading of Fanon forces us to ask to what extent Zhu's trauma is a crisis of delayed issues of developmental psychology. This is obviously a complex field which belongs properly to specialists, and one hardly feels there is enough material in this brief essay to make definitive conclusions.<br />
但是对法农的阅读迫使我们问朱自清的创伤在多大程度上是发展心理学迟缓问题的危机。 显然，这是一个复杂的领域，应该属于专家，并且几乎没有人认为这篇简短的文章中有足够的材料来得出明确的结论。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:29, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但对法农的解读，迫使我们要问，朱的创伤在多大程度上是发展心理学的延迟问题的危机。 这显然是一个复杂的领域，理应属于专家的范畴，在这篇简短的文章中，我们很难感觉到有足够的材料来做出明确的结论。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 10:57, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
不过，读了法农的书，我们不禁要问，朱自清的创伤究竟在多大程度上是发展心理学延迟问题的危机。这显然是一个完全属于专家研究的复杂领域。人们觉得，这篇简短的文章中没有足够的材料来让他们作出明确的结论。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 13:53, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
But the narrative is explicitly spun out of a story of childhood; Zhu himself derives his child-fetish from the loss of the intimate and passive Liu Jun. And Zhu's fascination with children and childhood in other essays should be an indication that something is up. Perhaps one could establish Zhu's relation to Fanon thus: that while Fanon's experience of racism is drawn into a network of theory that links his crisis of identity to an aborted mirror-stage, Zhu Ziqing sees in the mirror of his own white child a vision of himself as prematurely woven into the fabric of power. It is then only this sudden emergence of power in a half-nostalgic, half-sexual scopophilia which highlights the boy's whiteness and raises the questions of racial dominance and nationalist resistance.<br />
<br />
What makes Zhu feel nationalistic pride? It is not the boy's reaction, but his race.<br />
<br />
但故事是明确地从一个童年故事中衍生出来的;朱自清的儿童迷恋源于失去了亲密而消极的刘君。而朱自清在其他文章中对儿童和童年的迷恋，应该是表明有些事情发生了。也许可以建立朱自清与法农之间的关系:法农种族主义的经历卷入了理论之网，这将他的身份危机与流产镜像阶段连接起来, 朱自清从自己的白人孩子的镜子里看到了自己过早地融入权力的一面。正是在这种半怀旧、半性恋的恋物癖中，权力的突然出现，凸显了这个男孩的白人身份，并引发了种族统治和民族主义抵抗的问题。<br />
<br />
是什么让朱感到民族自豪感?不是男孩的反应，而是他的种族。<br />
--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 11:43, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但这部小说的叙事显然是从一个童年故事中衍生出来的；朱自清本人从失去亲密无间、被动的刘俊身上获得了对儿童的迷恋，而他在其他散文中对儿童和童年的迷恋，应该是某种事情发生的迹象。也许有人可以这样确定朱自清与法农的关系：虽然法农的种族主义经历被纳入了一个理论网络，将他的身份危机与一个失败的镜像阶段联系起来，但朱自清在自己的白人孩子的镜子中看到了自己过早地编织在权力结构中的形象。正是在这种半怀旧、半性恋的恋物癖中，权力的突然出现，凸显了这个男孩的白人身份，并引发了种族统治和民族主义抵抗的问题。<br />
<br />
是什么让朱感到民族自豪感?不是男孩的反应，而是他的种族。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 03:19, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
Given the way Zhu sets up his narrative, given the description of his frequent and unimpeded voyeurism of children in public spaces, one assumes that any child who stared back mockingly at Zhu would have shocked him-this child was the first to do so. Had the child been Chinese and stared back, Zhu's experience might have been more obviously psycho-sexual in his own recounting. The real importance of the child's whiteness is to Zhu's rational reflections over the significance of the incident. To Zhu's mind, it was not the child's whiteness but his resistance that was disturbing; but he locates the whiteness as the source of the child's ability to resist and to then turn resistance into domination. He essentializes the incident: force is what makes whites white. A gaze on a bus becomes an allegory for the sweep of modern history.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
On reflection, the appearance of nationalism here is far more abrupt than it would have seemed in the Shanghai journal culture following the May 30 Massacre. Is it really a defense mechanism against the revelations of his own psychology? Is it both a defense mechanism and an expression of conscious and justified outrage over colonialist presence in Shanghai? Is it a fiction “remembered” back onto the incident in the heat of the violent summer of 1925? I do not mean by any of these questions to imply that somehow Zhu's nationalism is fake, or secondary, or subordinate; to do that would be to write a justification of the murder of the students on Nanjing Road. But of all the essays and poems and short fiction published along with Zhu's essay in the two Literary Association journals (''Xiaoshuo yuebao and Wenxue zhoukan''), none but his strays so far from the event of the massacre itself in order to support the national cause. It is legitimate to ask why.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The bifurcations in Zhu's essay between experience and historiography, practice and theory thus are constituted in an odd mix of clarity and confusion. Patriotic messages are deeply worked into the fabric of the narration of the incident, and any division between Zhu's lived experience and the big picture view of imperialism were surely invisible to any reader in the context of the essay's production. They are invisible to us, as informed readers, but only on our first readings. The deeper explorations of Zhu's gaze, by suggesting the possible distance of ideological historiography form the original event, merely highlight a structural division between narration and theory which splits the text at “I was filled with a pressing nationalistic feeling!” The structural split is perfectly obvious; yet it is only after some thought about the nature of Zhu's project that it becomes noteworthy.<br />
<br />
因此，朱的文章中经验与史学，实践和理论之间的分歧是由清晰和混乱构成的。爱国主义的启示被深深地融入了事件的叙述之中，在这篇论文的撰写过程中，任何读者都肯定看不到朱的活生生的经验与帝国主义的大视野之间的任何分歧。作为知情的读者，它们对我们是不可见的，但仅在我们的初读时才可见。 通过暗示思想史学与原事件之间可能的距离，朱目光的更深层次的探索仅仅强调了叙事和理论之间的结构性划分，使文本分裂为“我充满了紧迫的民族主义情绪！”其中结构上的分裂非常明显； 然而，只有在对朱的项目的性质进行一些思考之后，它才值得关注。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 03:16, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
This is the Zhu Ziqing who declares himself a contradiction, and he can talk back to Fanon. His own textual complexes find their affinities in Fanon's text and the Fanonian textual systems that grew from it. It is impossible to forget, with Fanon, the wiles of language-his flourishes are too extravagant. Yet ''Black Skin, White Masks'' is filled with partial autobiographies. One knows one is reading theory, but it seems to be a theory grown organically from “Antillean experience,” even when we all know better. Though our study of Chinese literature might convince us that theory fits or does not fit Chinese experience, we should not assume that theory has a more natural and wholesome relationship with African or Indian experience, that the postcolonial debates were “derived” from fully colonial experience. Psychoanalytic theory created Fanon's experience, and the body of theory “derived” from Fanon has even more dramatically recreated him.<br />
<br />
这就是那个宣称自己自我矛盾的朱自清，他可以对法农进行反驳。他自身的文本情结在法农的文本和由其发展而来的法农文本体系中找到了相似之处。人们不可能忘记法农的语言诡计——他的华丽辞藻太过夸张。然而《黑皮肤，白面具》的一些部分充满了自传性质。一个人知道自己在阅读理论，甚至当我们更了解这理论时，但这理论似乎是一个有机地从“安的列斯经验”中成长起来的，虽然我们对中国文学的研究可能会让我们相信，理论是否符合中国的经验，但我们不应该假设理论与非洲或印度的经验有更自然和健康的关系，后殖民争论是“派生”自完全的殖民经验。精神分析理论创造了法农的经验，而从法农“衍生”出来的理论体则更戏剧性地重新塑造了他。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 11:54, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
The point of which is not to reassert the very tired discovery that theory is not experience and words not things, but to point out that the Chinese modernist friction against theory is not unique. Insofar as we need to continue to talk about postcolonial contexts when addressing Chinese modern literature, it would be helpful to keep in perspective Chinese's non-uniqueness; to do so may help us avoid the trap of either-or questions. Tension is healthy. If we must dismiss with a wave our continuing urgent desire for comparison of unmediated experience, and cannot give ourselves over to the mere nodding affirmation of sloganized thought-systems, then at least the comparative and cross-cultural analysis of tension is still available to us.<br />
<br />
The great frustration of the work of comparison is its inability to aspire to totalisms. However conscious we are of the danger of such aspirations, they are magnetic and insinuating.<br />
<br />
这里的重点并不是要重申这个老生常谈的发现，即理论不是经验，文字也不是事物，而是要指出中国现代主义与理论的摩擦并不是唯一的。在探讨中国现代文学时，如果我们需要继续探讨后殖民语境，那么审视中国的非独特性是有帮助的。这样做可以帮助我们避免陷入非此即彼的困境。对立是有益的的。如果我们必须以一种浪潮来驱散我们对未经调解的经验的比较的持续的迫切愿望，不能让我们自己沉溺于仅仅是表面肯定的口号的思想体系，那么至少对立比较和跨文化的分析对我们仍然是可用的。<br />
<br />
比较研究的不足在于它不能实现极权主义。虽然我们十分清楚这种想法的危险性，但还是会被吸引。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 07:00, 3 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
The leap from text to context is satisfying; even if one is aware of the necessity of multiple contexts, because one can choose one's school and plant one's feet and make an argument (or ignore the need for argument) that one's chosen context is the most appropriate. The comparison of individual works requires resignation to pettiness. Any other permutation of works will produce different, perhaps contradictory, lessons. For example, comparing Zhu's essay with other May 30 protest essays, such as those by Mao Dun or Zheng Zhenduo, would vastly alter our evaluation of it. Among an infinite number of permutations of comparison, the importance of any one comparison becomes infinitesimal, and its authority to define the reception of the work shrinks commensurably. The infinitesimal still has the potential for informing other research, but only by miracles of typological allegory.<br />
<br />
从文本到语境的跳跃是令人满意的，虽然我们都知道多语境的必要性，因为我们可以选择自己的派别，然后立足于这个派别，对自己选择的语境是最合适的这个论点进行论证（或者直接忽视论证的必要性）。对各个作家的作品进行比较需要极大的耐心。将不同的作品进行不同的组合将会得出不同的，或者是相互矛盾的结论。例如，将朱自清的文章与五卅运动其他的抗议文相比较，比如茅盾或者郑振铎的作品，就会极大地改变我们对朱自清的文章的评价。在无穷无尽的各种组合比较中，单一比较的重要性会变得微乎其微，其对作品接受度做出的评价的的权威性也会相应地大打折扣。这种意义微乎其微的比较仍有可能对其他研究做出贡献，但也只有在类型学中才会发挥作用。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:02, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从文本到语境的跳跃令人满意，虽然我们都知道多语境的必要性，因为我们可以选择自己的派别，然后立足于这个派别，对自己选择的语境是最合适的这个论点进行论证（或者直接忽视论证的必要性）。对各个作家的作品进行比较需要极大的耐心。将不同的作品进行不同的组合将会得出不同的，或者是相互矛盾的结论。例如，将朱自清的文章与五卅运动其他的抗议文相比较，比如茅盾或者郑振铎的作品，就会极大地改变我们对朱自清的文章的评价。在无穷无尽的各种组合比较中，单一比较的重要性会变得微乎其微，其对作品接受度做出的评价的的权威性也会相应地大打折扣。这种意义微乎其微的比较仍有可能对其他研究做出贡献，但也只有在类型学中才会发挥作用。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 13:22, 4 December 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
'''Incongruous Lyricism: Liu Baiyu, Yang Shuo and sanwen in Chinese Socialist Culture<br />
'''<br />
Charles A. Laughlin<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
The popularity of both Republican period and post-Mao sanwen in contemporary Chinese literary markets indicates the importance of this genre in twentieth century Chinese literature. <br />
<br />
Less obvious, but no less significant, is its importance within the socialist cultural system of the Chinese Communist Party. Ever since Chinese cultural activists began to consciously promote specific literary practices as a way of contributing to “revolution” in the late 1920s, literary prose played an important role, but at first only in the form of reportage or baogao wenxue. Beginning in Yan’an during the War of Resistance Against Japan, however, young writers who received all or in part of their education or literary training in Communist institutions began to write prose texts that more closely resembled the xiaopin and suigan of the Republican period. Unlike reportage, these texts featured lyrical and humorous moments without being critical of the social environment, and they were not concerned with contemporary historical events and figures. <br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
Such writing achieved prominence in the first decade of the People’s Republic of China, and in this paper I examine three writers that exemplify the characteristic techniques and strategies of the socialist literary essay: Liu Baiyu, Qin Mu and Yang Shuo. Liu Baiyu exemplifies how the experience of war and revolution conditioned the emergence of lyricism in socialist culture, while Qin Mu and Yang Shuo embody the maturation of this socialist lyricism in a peacetime environment. Socialist ''sanwen'' differs from Republican period forms in its characteristically friendly yet didactic second-person rhetoric, and its tendency to build verbal monuments for national heroes. But traces of the conspicuous individuality of Republican period ''sanwen'' lived on in the essayists of the 1950s and 60s. This created a subtle dissonance in the texture of socialist culture that in my opinion contributed to the prominence and popularity of these writers, whose works were included in textbooks for later generations of mainland readers.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
When we think of the Chinese essay we usually think of the works of Republican period liberal humanists drawing upon both Western ideas and premodern Chinese style and diction to produce a new genre that represented the artistic epitome of lyrical, colloquial prose. Perhaps just as commonly, when we think of revolutionary literature and of writing under the Chinese communist regime, we think of realism, social critique, polemic and propaganda. Indeed in my study of the development of reportage literature in the Republican and early PRC periods, I associate the procedures of reportage with the culture of leftism in such a way as to render the very notion of lyrical leftist nonfiction discordant if not outright absurd. The problem is, as I was aware at the time, there are prominent authors in the PRC – Yang Shuo, Liu Baiyu, and Qin Mu, to name only a few – who made their names almost entirely through the writing of essays (sanwen). <br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
At that time, I dismissed this phenomenon in the usual way: these were communist lackeys simply parroting the ruling ideology at the bidding of culture czars.<br />
<br />
But even if they were, I could not account for the fact that such writing took on the form of sanwen, in many ways similar to the ''xiaopin wen'' popular the 1930s, while there was already in ''baogao wenxue'' a thriving literary nonfiction form that seemed to embody in its very form the communist vision of art and its place in society. To put it another way, there is nothing in the logic of socialist culture as I knew it that would call for the production of ''sanwen'' as written by these authors, and we know very well that authors under socialism are not at liberty to write what they please, so I had to attribute the persistence of the ''sanwen'' form in the PRC to something inherent about ''sanwen'' and Chinese literary modernity. <br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
My current project intends to approach this question by comparing Chinese literary nonfiction practice in a number of different historical and cultural scenarios from the late imperial period to the present, and this presentation concerns specifically the ''sanwen'' under Chinese socialism.<br />
<br />
'''Socialist ''sanwen'' emerged from Communist base area writing practice''' <br />
<br />
Usually in the form of reportage, literary prose of the Yan’an period was concerned with dramatizing the social and spiritual superiority of regimented, collectivized life under the leadership of the Communist Party. Such writing often relied on direct comparisons between aspects of life in ”the old society” and life in Yan’an, or the between checkered past of characters who had been rehabilitated by the Communists and their newfound belief in the socialist community and its leaders. Though often idealized, examples given are meant to be concrete and taken as factual, and names are often named of military leaders and model laborers depicted. In this respect reportage is the most direct precursor of the lyrical essays of the People’s Republic.[ The civil war of 1946-1949 so disrupted the socialist base areas that much less of this kind of writing was produced; war correspondence once again became the order of the day]</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201130_trans&diff=10614720201130 trans2020-11-28T12:32:24Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Wu Yilu 吴一露 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
A good example to illustrate this is the cuisine that is often still defined by national borders (but certainly also in even smaller regional units). The existence of Italian cuisine is undisputed, but you don't have to go to Italy to eat quite authentic Italian food. Of course, there have always been Europeanized variations of Chinese cuisine (e.g. with thickened sauces), and the Istanbul native who orders a kebab in Germany will be surprised that he is served flat bread and not a plate of cutlery.<br />
<br />
Eating habits, especially at breakfast, seem to be difficult to change, so that the author did not get used to the Chinese breakfast (rice soup with salty vegetable side dish) in China for years. <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
When Italian spaghetti with bolognese sauce was announced one lunchtime in the cafeteria of Beijing University, the joy was great, at least until the dish could be tasted. Obviously only the outward appearance had been preserved here, the appearance of the spaghetti largely corresponded to that which one can see in cookbooks. However, in terms of taste it was a catastrophe, the tomatoes used had obviously been understood by the cook not as vegetables but as fruit and the noodles had been overcooked for an extra long time.<br />
<br />
Also with the enterprises there are such cultures, German enterprises are considered e.g. in many countries as well organized. Even manufacturing processes for the same products often differ from country to country, but are increasingly standardized worldwide, especially when a company has a patented process in several countries.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
This can lead to interesting national solutions when the same task is set, namely to design a street cleaning vehicle:<br />
<br />
[[File:che1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Street cleaning vehicle a) China<br />
<br />
[[File:che2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Street cleaning vehicle b)<br />
<br />
Since the 1990s, the author has personally experienced the differences in working in a foreign Chinese software company in America (e.g. PC Express, later TwinBridge in Los Angeles), in a Chinese software company on the mainland (e.g. Suntendy, Beijing), in a German company in China and in a German-Chinese mixed company. These personal experiences flow into the present booklet.<br />
<br />
Thus, the term culture here is largely synonymous with tradition or philosophy, whereby tradition appears to be related to the past and philosophy often appears as reflected culture reduced to a few principles, and thus already consciously controlled and teleological. For these reasons, the author has chosen the term culture in the present context.<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Japanese production culture is known to us, the Chinese (here abbreviated CMPC) has hardly been investigated in literature, so this booklet has a pioneering character.<br />
<br />
In this booklet, the author draws on Geert Hofstede's comparative cultural model, which he discussed with him at the LMU in Munich on January 22, 2009, on fundamental observations on the Chinese economy from a macro perspective by Philip Huang, and on the results of a field study by Jianzhong Hong, Aino Pöyhönen, Kalevi Kyläheiku 1998-2000 (see bibliography). <br />
<br />
This booklet was prepared to be presented at the conference "Beyond Japan - Values and Attitudes of Asian Production Cultures" in autumn 2010. The author is grateful to Dirko Thomsen, AutoUni Wolfsburg, who invited the author to contribute to the conference.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
'''Approaches/Perspectives'''<br />
<br />
The distinction between craftsman culture and trader culture has been established for some time. This means that in an economy, more emphasis is placed on developing products that are as perfect as possible, and constantly improving them. A dealer culture places more value on the profit that is made between the cheapest possible purchase and the most expensive possible sale. This distinction becomes clear when we examine a typical case of complaint: <br />
<br />
If a customer complains a product in a craftsman culture, then the salesman is concerned, offers an error free exchange product or a financial compensation and reports the product error further, sends the equipment possibly in, with the goal of letting the error, if it should occur e.g. at several devices, in principle of letting the development department eliminate the error. <br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In a dealer culture the service and satisfaction of the customer is more important, here it is more important to see if the customer is angry and reacts accordingly to his complaint with apologies and compensation offers. Feedback to the manufacturer is of secondary importance. <br />
<br />
Here are some of the countries that fall under the relevant categories:<br />
<br />
Craftsmen's Culture Retailer Culture<br />
<br />
Germany, France Poland, USA, China, Korea<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made between production and design cultures. <br />
<br />
In the 19th and 20th centuries, a production culture developed in mechanical engineering in the USA, whereas in Germany a construction culture developed. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
The experience of rationalization in the U.S. with the pioneer Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) was quickly received in Germany, among other things by establishing chairs of business administration in Berlin in 1904, Aachen in 1908 and Hanover in 1910. Accordingly, I follow Kunze in 2008 when he rejects Kothes' assertion that German production culture before 1914 is backward.<br />
<br />
In Germany as a culture of craftsmen, a diversification of products developed early on, which was made possible by constantly optimizing the product. Even in teams, the focus is still on the highly qualified individual who does his part of the teamwork independently and assumes responsibility.<br />
<br />
在德国，弗雷德里克·温斯洛·泰勒率先在美国进行了合理化的各项工作，很快就为大众所接受，其中包括在1904年在柏林，1908年在亚琛以及1910年在汉诺威依次设立了工商管理部主任。因此，我认同库恩泽（Kunze)在2008年提出的观点，当时他对科斯关于1914年之前德国生产文化落后的看法是持反对意见的。<br />
<br />
在德国，作为一种工匠文化，产品在早期就注重多样性，并通过不断优化来实现。即使是在团队中，焦点仍是那些高素质的人，他们独立完成团队任务并承担相应的责任。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:21, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
In the USA, the goal is rather the production of a cost-effective mass product. Responsibility was delegated to teams and budget control was introduced to control these teams. However, this is more in keeping with the lawnmower principle and does not apply to the appropriateness of the individual special product or the individual employee.<br />
<br />
This can be illustrated in an overview:<br />
<br />
[[File:233.jpg]]<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The Japanese Production Culture''' <br />
<br />
After World War II, Japan did not have as many investments available as Germany, for example, through the Marshall Plan. Out of necessity, the Japanese economy therefore did what was possible, namely an optimization of existing machines, processes and personnel. This also resulted in the development of a special national production culture, the characteristics of which can be seen in an overview:<br />
<br />
[[File:566.jpg]]<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
Today, the Japanese production philosophy is considered the pacemaker for new production technologies and the benchmark for modern industrial nations. Former Porsche boss Wendelin Wiedeking is an admirer and imitator of the Toyota Production System: "Toyota is synonymous with consistency". It is the international standard by which the modernity of a factory is measured.<br />
<br />
The basic idea of the Japanese model was that storage costs were incurred because more was produced than purchased. So technologies were developed which ensured that the product was only (re)produced when the customer bought the product (production on demand). The higher costs of producing a single item are more than compensated by the savings in intermediate storage (and, in the case of slow-moving items, final storage) of products. This procedure is successfully used today, for example, in book production.<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
More important, however, is the idea that there should be as few production interruptions as possible, and if so, that these should be eliminated as quickly as possible. A typical phenomenon on the construction site is that work stops because a certain part / material to be installed has not been delivered on time. In production plants, a machine in the assembly line production breaks down and the whole production is stopped. This is where the Japanese philosophy comes into play, training the individual employee to the extent that he or she can repair minor defects on their own and assigning the responsibility to them to do so. For larger defects, a central team is available. <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
This motivates them to ensure that these smaller defects do not occur in the first place and not only repairs the defect, but also thinks of a way to ensure that this defect does not occur in the future, i.e. they not only repair the defect, but also the cause of the defect.<br />
<br />
With production on demand, interruptions in production would also be conceivable if demand were to decline. Ideally, production then adjusts, i.e. it runs correspondingly slower or faster, depending on how strong demand is at the moment. The most important thing is that production is uninterrupted and trouble-free.<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些较小的缺陷不会先出现，除了修复缺陷，还要想出一种防范此缺陷发生的方法，即，他们不仅修复缺陷，而且根除缺陷。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，生产也可能会中断。 理想情况下，生产会进行调整，即根据当前的需求量，生产速度相应地变慢或变快。最重要的是保证生产不间断且无故障。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些小缺陷不会第一时间出现，一旦出现，不仅要修复缺陷，而且要想出避免缺陷再次发生的办法，即：他们不仅要修复缺陷，而且要找出缺陷出现的原因。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，生产中断的情况可能会出现。 然而在理想情况下，产量会根据需求进行调整，即根据当前的需求量，生产速度相应地减慢或加快，最重要的是保证生产无间断且不发生任何故障。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The Japanese reward system works in a similar way for innovations introduced by individual employees involved in the production process. Here, it is important that the person who had the idea receives a relevant sum of money immediately and unbureaucratically, long before the idea is implemented.<br />
<br />
Another element are the quality circles or Kaizen teams. These are smaller working groups that are responsible for a small part of the production. They should meet once at the beginning and then regularly at least once a week to openly discuss suggestions for improvement. <br />
<br />
Recently, other Japanese elements of production culture have also been mentioned, such as multi-divisional structures and decentralization. They are also found in the American production culture.<br />
<br />
参与生产过程的员工可以提出自己的创新想法，日本的奖励制度与此类似。在这里，重要的是，在该想法实现之前，提出这个想法的人立即就得到一笔相关的钱，不需要重重审批。<br />
<br />
另一个要素是质量圈或是持续改善团队。这些是比较小的工作组，负责生产环节的一小部分。他们应该在一开始就碰个面，然后至少每周定期开一次会，公开讨论改进建议。<br />
<br />
最近，人们也提到了日本生产文化的其他因素，例如多部门结构和权力下放机制。它们也同样存在于美国的生产文化中。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:03, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本的奖励制度对参与生产过程的雇员个人提出的创新也有类似的作用。在这里，重要的是，有想法的人在想法实施之前很久就能立即无官僚主义地得到一笔相关的资金。<br />
<br />
另一个要素是质量圈或Kaizen小组。这些是较小的工作小组，负责生产的一小部分。他们应该在开始时开一次会，然后定期至少每周开一次会，公开讨论改进的建议。<br />
<br />
最近，日本生产文化的其他要素也被提及，如多部门结构和分权。美国的生产文化中也有这些内容。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 01:58, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
The Japanese production culture, whose optimization was born out of necessity, proved to be more competitive than the cultures of other countries, which is why it quickly became the model, even the epitome, of modern production culture, and in the 1960s and 1970s it began a worldwide triumphal march.<br />
<br />
'''China - Factory of the world''' <br />
<br />
Today, however, China has replaced Japan and the other classic industrial nations as the factory of the world.<br />
<br />
[[File:fangjieling.jpg]]<br />
<br />
It also leads the emerging markets worldwide.<br />
<br />
In the projection of economic performance, Goldmann/ Sachs sees China ahead of the USA, India and Germany.<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
[[File:6.jpg]]<br />
<br />
So China is today again (after the period 0 A.D. until about 1200 A.D.) the leading economy in the world. One of the characteristics of the Chinese production culture is its continuity. For thousands of years, China has been producing products such as silk, tea, porcelain, etc. without interruption. Even though Chinese production was not a world leader in the period 1200 to 2000 A.D., it remained at a roughly constant level for a long time before it caught up with the Industrial Revolution in a rapid development. Such a long production culture is without equal worldwide.<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
It is still important to bear in mind that China is once again growing to become the leading economic nation, but in this most populous country not all Chinese are yet benefiting equally from this leadership role. This is easy to see when comparing the absolute figures (e.g. GDP in country comparison or related to the growth of its own GDP) with the relative figures (GDP/capita). Here is one such comparison with the USA:<br />
<br />
[[File:7.jpg]]<br />
<br />
I would like to start my analysis of the importance of production culture with a few questions:<br />
<br />
Does the production culture have anything to do with the rapid increase? Is it perhaps the cause of the increase? <br />
<br />
Obviously, the Chinese production culture has not been an international model for modern production culture. Could the reason for this be the problem that the production culture is culture-specific? What other reasons could there be? Are these reasons justified?<br />
<br />
In order to find clues to answer these questions, the Chinese production culture is examined and defined below.<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
'''Genuity of Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
The Silk Road has been documented since about the 5th century BCE, but gene analysis proves that it was used to trade domesticated plants and animals in both directions already about 10 millenia BCE. There is also proof of cultural exchange through this trade road. The following products manufactured in China were traded on it:<br />
<br />
·Silk<br />
<br />
·Tea<br />
<br />
·Spices<br />
<br />
·Ceramics/Porcellain<br />
<br />
·Jade<br />
<br />
·Bronze<br />
<br />
·Lacquerware/Paints<br />
<br />
·Iron<br />
<br />
·Paper<br />
<br />
·Gunpowder<br />
<br />
·Furs etc. <br />
<br />
The Silk Road was of course used in both directions, gold, precious stones and for a long time glass were imported into China. If the New Silk Road can be built with rail roads, it will lower the costs and time of shipping several times compared to the current maritime container shipping.<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
With the world's largest merchant ships, junks, which could hold up to 4000 tons, China also dominated maritime trade for centuries. Already in the 3rd century B.C. the Emperor's Canal was built in China for inland navigation.<br />
<br />
中国拥有世界上最大的商船--军舰，可容纳4000吨货物，中国也在海上贸易中占据了数百年的主导地位。早在公元前3世纪，中国就修建了皇帝运河，用于内河航运。<br />
<br />
[[File:gdf.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Previous picture: Chinese junk from the year 1804.[ John Barrow, „Travels in China: containing descriptions, observations, and comparisons, made and collected in the course of a short residence at the Imperial palace of Yuen-Min-Yuen, and on a subsequent journey through the country from Pekin to Canton“, Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12.1.2010, ISBN 9781153190947, 302 pp., p. 59.]<br />
<br />
[[File:gdf2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Ming period junk (14th century).<br />
<br />
In the period from the birth of Christ until 1200 A.D., China had the highest gross domestic product in the world. Only in 1200 was China overtaken by Western Europe.<br />
ing时期的垃圾（14世纪）。<br />
<br />
从基督诞生到公元1200年，中国的国内生产总值是世界上最高的。直到1200年，中国才被西欧超越。<br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
[[File:10.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Between 1200 and about 2000, China lagged far behind the West and was considered a developing country. Nevertheless, from 1700 until today, China has experienced the same population explosion as America and Europe.<br />
<br />
[[File:11.jpg]]<br />
<br />
While Europe ensured the food supply of the larger population at the end of the 18th century with the Industrial Revolution, China slept through this development and caught up with it in fast motion from 1900 with its first factories, from 1950 with centrally planned larger production units and from 2000 with private enterprises, at first mainly joint ventures, which led to an uneven development in the country.<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
The example of silk production in Japan and China already reveals the first differences in the production culture:<br />
<br />
In Japan, a loom was introduced that was copied thousands of times without a license, thus ensuring a nationwide standard. Silk from Japan was always woven in the same way, and buyers could always rely on the same product quality.<br />
<br />
In China there were various independent production facilities and regional traditions. So silk from China was of a variable quality.<br />
<br />
Another aspect of Chinese production culture is the ethnic component: <br />
<br />
·Western companies have better cards in China if they use Chinese middlemen. <br />
<br />
·Chinese companies that are active in Africa export their entire business model including employees, cook, buildings. <br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
Nevertheless, today's Chinese production culture is no longer genuine, but is also more strongly influenced by history than the Japanese Western culture.<br />
<br />
Even party schools at the beginning of the 21st century are commissioning business faculties of American universities to conduct management training.<br />
<br />
'''Made in China'''<br />
<br />
The label "Made in Germany" was originally a British origin label to distinguish itself from poor quality German goods. It was only later that the mark of Cain became a trademark due to the improvement in quality.<br />
<br />
"Made in China" stands for cheap products, low wages, poor quality, mass production and plagiarism, hierarchical management and an "ant-like" workforce.<br />
<br />
<br />
然而，如今中国的生产文化已不再封闭，比起日本受到西方文化的影响，中国受到历史影响的程度更深。甚至在21世纪初的党校也委托美国大学的商科对其进行管理培训。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”<br />
<br />
“德国制造”的标签原本是英国的标签，用来区别德国的劣质产品。直到后来，由于质量的提高，“德国制造”才成为商标。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”代表着廉价、低工资、劣质、大规模生产和剽窃、等级观念以及廉价劳动力。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 09:48, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，今天的中国生产文化不再纯正了，而且比日本的西方文化更受历史的影响。<br />
<br />
甚至连21世纪初的党校也委托美国大学的商学院进行管理培训。<br />
<br />
中国制造<br />
<br />
“德国制造”的标签原本是英国的标签，用来把本国的产品与德国的劣质产品区别开。直到后来，由于质量的提高，这个罪恶的标记才成为商标。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”代表着廉价产品、低工资、低质量、大规模生产、抄袭、等级管理以及像“蚁族”一样的廉价劳动力。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:21, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But in fact this is only an impression that applied to the first mass products in China; in the meantime the picture has changed.<br />
<br />
1 At the beginning of the 21st century, the labor market in China appears saturated for the first time. This is accompanied by extreme wage increases. In the meantime, one has to pay almost as much for a man-day of an engineer with comparable qualifications in China as for an engineer-man-day in western industrialized countries.<br />
<br />
2. The previously most important productive sector is being replaced by the service sector as the most important economic sector.<br />
<br />
3. Following the example of Western companies that have consistently introduced quality assurance in China, the proverbial poor quality of Chinese products is now a thing of the past. In many companies, quality assurance is now also practiced.<br />
<br />
但是实际上这个印象也只是停留在中国第一次大量生产的时候；在此期间的情形已经变了。<br />
<br />
1.在21世纪初，伴随着工资的极度增加，中国劳动市场第一次出现饱和。同时，支付给相对合格的一名中国工程师一天的工资和西方工业国家的是差不多的。<br />
<br />
2.之前最重要的生产部门现在已被作为经济领域中最重要的服务部门所取代。<br />
<br />
3.西方公司在中国一向都有质量保证的规则，中国也正在向西方学习。总所周知的劣质中国产品也已不再出现。在许多公司中，质量保证这一规则正在被实行。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:14, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但事实上，这只是对中国第一次大规模生产的早期印象而已；与此同时，情况在不断地变化。<br />
<br />
1 在21世纪初，中国的劳动市场第一次接近于饱和状态，这是由于工资的急剧增加。同时，一名合格的中国工程师的工资和西方工业国家的工资是差不多的。<br />
<br />
2 服务业逐渐替代了早些年最重要的生产部门作为重要的经济组成部分。<br />
<br />
<br />
3 中国现在也正在学习西方国家公司的质量保障规则，中国的产品很差这一传言已经成为了过去式了。如今在大部分的公司，质量保障这一规章用于实践。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:43, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
4. apart from the reproduction of products developed in the West, the first high-tech products that have been further developed in China (cell phones, notebooks, etc.) are already available.<br />
<br />
5. Chinese companies are now buying companies worldwide with the required know-how (notebook division of IBM => Lenovo, Volvo etc.).<br />
<br />
6. with a real ravenous appetite, Chinese managers devour bestsellers that explain Western management principles and apply them with playful curiosity and great zeal, such as team meetings. Meetings in Chinese companies are now more common (5 meetings/day) than in Germany (1-2 meetings/day).<br />
<br />
[[File:12.jpg]]<br />
<br />
4，除了复制西方的产品，中国也已经有了在国内进一步发展的第一批高科技产品（手机和笔记本电脑等）。<br />
<br />
5，中国公司如今正在全世界地购买一些掌握技术的公司（IBM笔记本部门=>联想‘沃尔沃等）。<br />
<br />
6，由于极大地需求，中国公司的管理人员几乎把那些介绍了西方管理规则的畅销书买完了，并且带着好奇心和热情把这些规则应用于实践，比如说西方比较盛行的小组会议。如今在中国的公司，开会的频率远远高于德国（中国一天5次会议，而德国一天1-2次会议）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:26, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.除了再生产西方的产品，中国进一步发展的第一批高科技产品（手机，笔记本电脑等）已经可以买到。<br />
<br />
5.中国公司现在正在世界各地收购具备所需技术的公司（IBM的笔记本部门--联想、沃尔沃等）。<br />
<br />
6.由于庞大的渴求，中国公司的管理人员读完了所有讲述西方管理细则的畅销书，并带着极大的好奇心和热情将这些细则运用于实践之中，例如，小组会议。如今相较于德国公司来说，小组会议在中国公司更加的普遍。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Characteristics of Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
'''Hierarchy'''<br />
<br />
Chinese companies are traditionally strictly hierarchical, with many levels. Authority gives face. As in other countries, functions are called together with the name as titles. According to Hofstede, the yardstick for hierarchy is the power distance index.<br />
<br />
'''Appreciation of age''' <br />
<br />
In addition to hierarchies based on professional positions, age also has a corresponding authority. Older people are seldom deported to retirement homes after their retirement, but live until death in the extended family, in which they fulfill tasks until the end. The neighborhood also takes care of the elderly people by involving them in work assignments (street cleaning, support for traffic regulation) depending on their readiness.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
The older brother automatically has a more prestigious position than the younger one. In Chinese, kinship terms are strictly separated into "older" or "younger". The preceding adjective "alter" in the confidential form of address is an honorific. <br />
<br />
In business life, too, older employees are respected because of their life experience (and possibly because of the large network of relationships to be expected). <br />
A positive side effect is that the experience remains in the company. New research also shows in the West: older employees are often underestimated, their experience must be used more and knowledge can be kept in the company.<br />
<br />
'''Concept of Face'''<br />
<br />
For the protection of the individual, there is the face concept, where everyone can preserve his or her honor, even if mistakes have been made or someone is inferior. For this purpose, unwritten rules (institutions) are observed in the company: No one criticizes the other person in front of others. If criticism must be exercised, then indirectly. A request is not rejected directly, there is no "No! The Chinese employees are particularly sensitive to the nuances, to the "maybe" and know how to classify it accordingly without being damaged.<br />
<br />
哥哥的地位自然比弟弟高。在汉语中，亲属称谓严格分为“长”和“幼”。前一个形容词“alter（改变）”在亲密形式中是一个敬语。<br />
在商业生活中，年长的员工也会因为他们的生活经历而受到尊重（也可能是因为他们所拥有的庞大关系网）。一个积极的副作用是这种经验仍然存在于公司。新的研究还显示，西方国家的老员工往往被低估，他们的经验必须得到更多的利用，知识才能留在公司。<br />
<br />
”面子的概念“<br />
面子这个概念是为了保护个人，每个人都可以维护自己的荣誉，即使是那些犯了错误的人或者是等级低的。为此，公司遵守不成文的规则（制度）：不要在大众面前批评别人。如果必须进行批评，那么就委婉间接的说出来。一个人的请求不会被直接拒绝，我们不会直接说“不！”中国人对此的细微差别可能会有相应的分类。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“面子的概念<br />
面子之所以存在，是为了自我保护，每个人都可以维护自己的荣誉，即使是那些犯了错误的人或者是等级低的也是如此。为此，公司有个不成文的规定：不要当众批评别人。如果必须要批评，那就婉约一点。我们不会直接拒绝别人的请求，不会直接说“不。”中国人对于这一观念极为敏感，他们“或许”知道怎样进行区分才能避免伤害。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 09:52, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
'''Incompetence of bosses leads to informal decision-making'''<br />
<br />
Traditionally, the position of General Manager, or even senior positions in Chinese companies, is preferably filled with people who can be trusted by those making the appointments. The greatest trust is given by a family relationship, somewhat less so in the case of friendship between families or between individuals, or by shared periods of life, such as being born in the same village, attending the same school, the same club, etc. Of course, professional qualifications also help to build trust, but this is only of secondary importance. <br />
<br />
The leadership positions of the largest state-owned enterprises in China are assigned by the party, and these positions are cobbled together with correspondingly deserving cadres. <br />
<br />
One consequence of this appointment policy is the widespread incompetence of leaders.<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
<br />
传统上，总经理的职位，甚至中国公司的高级职位，最好是由可以任命的人所信任的人。 家庭关系给人最大的信任，家庭之间或个人之间的友情或家庭生活的共同点（例如在同一个村庄出生，在同一所学校，在同一家具乐部等）则给予最大的信任。 当然，专业资格也有助于建立信任，但这仅是次要的。<br />
<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是由党派出的，这些职务与相应的应聘干部结合在一起。<br />
<br />
这项任命政策的结果是领导人普遍无能。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:56, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
传统上，中国公司的总经理职位，甚至是高级职位，最好都是那些能被任命者信任的人。最大的信任是由家庭关系给予的,或者是通过共同的生活阶段，例如出生在同一个村庄，在同一所学校，同一个俱乐部，等等。当然，职业资格也有助于建立信任，但这种信任不是特别重要。<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是党指定的，这些职位是由相应的干部结合而成的。<br />
这种任命政策的一个后果是领导普遍无能。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 09:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
In economic terms, this too is an emergency situation, especially for the bosses concerned, who are surrounded by more competent subordinates. In combination with the facial concept, the bosses thus have to hide their incompetence on the one hand and on the other hand want to keep their position, i.e. they are under enormous pressure to make the right decisions. This has led to an informal decision-making system. The boss discusses possible alternatives informally with the experts. In the end, he has obtained a broad opinion and makes the decision that seems best to him alone. The fact that the laurels are actually due to others remains unspoken; it increases the intensity of the personal relationships (renqing) of the people involved. Once the boss has made a decision and communicated it, the employees will implement it without contradiction due to the hierarchical structures.<br />
从经济角度来说，这也是一个紧急情况，尤其是对那些管理着更有能力的下属的老板们来说。因此，结合表层含义，一方面，老板们不得不隐藏自己的无能，另一方面又想保住自己的位置，也就是说，他们面临着做出正确决策的巨大压力。由此产生了一个非正式的决策体系。老板与专家非正式地讨论了可能的替代方案。最终，他获得了广泛的意见，并独自做出了对他来说最好的决定。桂冠实际上是别人的，这一事实仍未明说；它深厚了相关人员间的人情关系。一旦老板做出决定并传达给员工，员工就会执行，不会因为等级结构而产生矛盾。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
If a superior's decision is not considered correct, the subordinate may not address the boss. Rather, when the hierarchical structures do not apply (joint leisure activities or similar), an opportunity must be sought to indirectly point out the wrong decision to the boss.<br />
<br />
Meetings per day C > USA > D<br />
<br />
The frequency of meetings is much higher in China than in Germany. In the country comparison of four selected countries/regions the following order results:<br />
<br />
1. Hong Kong <br />
<br />
2. China<br />
<br />
3. USA<br />
<br />
4. Germany<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
'''Shapes of modern Chinese production culture and their causes'''<br />
<br />
[[File:13.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Modern Chinese production culture shows the following characteristics:<br />
<br />
1. in the area of know-how China lags behind the western industrial nations and Japan, which causes feelings of shame. Many Chinese feel that they are on the defensive and regard their country's relationship with the USA and Japan as the David's against Goliath. This results in a subjective legitimacy for broad-based industrial espionage with national interest and know-how theft.<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
'''2. Innovation'''<br />
<br />
China is traditionally known as an empire of inventions, so letterpress printing, gunpowder, porcelain etc. were invented long before similar inventions were made elsewhere in the world. However, these inventions were often not brought to serial production and were produced in masses, as for example in Europe, where gunpowder led to the production of handguns and cannons. It can be exaggerated to say that gunpowder was used instead for New Year's fireworks by the nobility. This shows the Chinese characteristic of a capacity for innovation with a simultaneous lack of diffusion in the market.<br />
<br />
The Industrial Revolution also largely passed China by. Since China, like Europe, was experiencing a population explosion due to better hygiene and medicine, but at the same time the automation of food production did not go beyond manufactories, China fell behind in its standard of living.<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
<br />
Traditionally, imitation has always been highly valued in China. A good copy was almost as important as the original. Thus, both the civil service examination system of previous centuries and today's school system were strongly oriented towards reproduction rather than creativity. One reason may be the enormous amount of characters that requires students to memorize for years.<br />
<br />
自古以来，模仿对中国来说十分重要。好的模仿同原型几乎地位相等。因此，前几个世纪的公务员考试制度和如今的学校系统都着重指向再生产而非创造。其中一个原因可能是学生在多年里需要记忆大量的人物。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 01:53, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从古至今，中国都十分重视效仿。好的副本与原本几乎同样重要。因此，先前世纪的公务员考试制度与现今学校系统都着重强调再生产而不是创新。其原因可能是学生们在几年里需要记的人物数不胜数。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 02:20, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自古以来，中国就十分重视模仿。好的模仿几乎和原创一样重要。因此，前几世纪的公务员考试和现在的学校体制都以再生产为导向而不是创造性。其中一个原因可能就是其要求学生花费数年时间去记大量的人物。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:20, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
The idea of copyright is also less rooted in China than in the West.<br />
<br />
When the Chinese were awakened from their sleep by the cannon thunder of the 1st Opium War, there was great regret that they had not carried out their own research and development. Although physical violence was disregarded, the foreigners were envied their technical superiority and since then they have propagated the idea of learning technology from foreigners and reproducing it in order to be able to defend their own cultural values and sovereignty more effectively. This feeling of envy gave rise to an extreme motivation to both imitate the superiority of others and ultimately to outdo them.<br />
<br />
中国的版权意识没有西方那么深刻。<br />
当中国人在第一次鸦片战争的炮声中惊醒时，他们非常遗憾没有自己的研发创造。国人虽然憎恨外国人的暴行，但仍旧羡慕他们的技术优势。从那以后，他们师夷长技，以便能够更有效地捍卫自己的文化价值观和国家主权。但这种嫉妒感催生了一种极端的动机，既模仿他人的优越感，最终在该方面又超越他人。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与西方相比，中国的版权观念不那么根深蒂固。<br />
当第一次鸦片战争的炮声把中国人从睡梦中惊醒的时候，他们没有进行自己的研究和开发是非常遗憾的。即使中国人可以忽略外国侵略者的暴力，但却羡慕他们的技术优势，从那时起，他们开始宣传向外国人学习技术并加以复制，以便能够更有效地捍卫自己的文化价值观和主权。这种嫉妒感产生了一种极端的动机，既模仿别人的优越感，又最终超越别人。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:59, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''3. Competition'''<br />
<br />
The toughest competition worldwide is in China. Successful products immediately find numerous imitators. As soon as an imitator can produce the product at more favorable conditions, the client switches to him. Together with state arbitrariness, this has resulted in the emergence of a typical Chinese type of company: The financial holding company as a family-owned enterprise with involvement in various industries. This enables a company to survive even if the sales market for a product suddenly collapses. In hardly any other country in the world do companies have to be as vigilant as in China, adapting products to changing customer requirements within the shortest possible time and always being one step ahead of the competition. New trends have to be recognized early and capacities have to be built up or reduced flexibly.<br />
<br />
Those who survive in this hard school are also prepared for more peaceful and fairer markets like those in Europe and America.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''4. State control'''<br />
<br />
The reform and opening policy since 1978 has led to a predominance of foreign companies in China at the end of the 20th century. In order to protect their own industry, laws were introduced obliging companies to provide a certain percentage of their production in China locally. As a result, Chinese suppliers had to be sought who were able to contribute parts to the production chain. This promoted local industry and also the transfer of know-how. <br />
<br />
At the same time, foreign suppliers were also forced to follow the large companies to China if they did not want to be replaced by a Chinese company. This accelerated the settlement of foreign companies in China.<br />
1978年以来的改革开放政策导致20世纪末外来企业占据了中国市场的主导地位。为了保护本国产业，中国出台了相关法律，要求外来企业必须在当地提供一定比例的产品。因此，他们必须寻找能够向生产链提供零部件的中国供应商。这促进了当地工业的发展，也促进了技术的转让。<br />
与此同时，外国供应商如果不想被中国公司取代，他们就必须跟随大公司来到中国。这加快了外国公司在中国的落户。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 10:53, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. 国家管控'''<br />
<br />
1978年改革开放以来，直到20世纪末，外来企业占据了中国市场的主导地位。为保护本国产业，中国出台了相关法律，要求外来企业生产产品必须有一定比例的当地产品。因此，这些公司必须寻找中国的供应商以为生产链提供零部件，这促进了当地产业发展和技术转让。<br />
<br />
与此同时，外国供应商如果不想被中国公司取代，他们就必须跟随大公司来到中国。这进一步加快了外国公司在中国的落户。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:44, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
However, legislation (like the joint venture laws) and court decisions favoured domestic companies. Also, China has built up a state capitalism that sponsors industry, supports domestic industry on the world market and helps financing overseas investment. Also, copyright infringement and industrial espionage (including civil-military alliance) supports the Chinese economy. Under the Trump administration, the USA has responded with a protectionist “America first” strategy.<br />
<br />
'''5. Legal system'''<br />
<br />
The legal system in China is not independent. It acts at the behest of the state.<br />
<br />
Western companies came to China with superior know-how and financial power. These companies were admired in China, but at the same time a feeling of disadvantage arose with regard to their own backward industry.<br />
<br />
然而，法规（例如，合资企业法）以及法庭判决都有利于国内企业。中国也已经建立起一种国家资本主义，用来资助企业、支持出于世界市场中的国内企业、为海外投资提供资助。除此之外，版权侵权法规和企业情报刺探（包括军民联合）都促使中国经济发展。在特朗普的治理下，美国提出了“美国第一”的保护主义策略，以此作为回应。<br />
<br />
'''5.法律体系'''<br />
<br />
中国的法律体系不是彼此独立，互不相关的。它是应整个国家的要求而实行的。<br />
西方公司带着先进的技术知识和强大的财政实力来到中国。中国欣赏这些公司，但是同时觉得这些公司会对自己国家落后的企业不利。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:03, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
As a counterbalance to this perceived weakness in relation to the large foreign corporations, the legislation was designed and the judiciary was urged to protect their own corporations.<br />
<br />
This puts Chinese partners in a better position when joint ventures are dissolved (often the know-how and capital goes to the owner).<br />
<br />
'''Necessity is the mother of invention'''<br />
<br />
The reason for the increase in efficiency, known worldwide as Japanese management culture or production culture, was the lack of money for new machines in Japan after World War II.<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
In China, another emergency situation is also the reason for developing a separate response to the challenges of the market: it is the professional incompetence of management personnel. This has grown historically. In China, management positions are primarily given to people who can be trusted. Traditionally, the most trustworthy people in China are family members or family members of old school friends, acquaintances who come from their own village and who have indulged in the same hobbies together (see Deng Xiaoping's Bridge round or the golf acquaintances in Western lobbying) etc. Loyalty to the party plays a secondary role. In principle, members of the Communist Party have it easier in business life, cadres even easier. Membership in the People's Liberation Army plays a similar role.<br />
<br />
在中国，另一种紧急情况也是制定单独应对市场挑战的原因:管理人员的专业能力不足。这随历史的发展不断涌现。在中国，管理职位主要由可信赖的人担任。传统上最值得信赖的人是家庭成员或老同学的家庭成员，来自自己村庄的熟人，有共同爱好的熟人(比如邓小平的桥牌圈或西方游说中一起打的高尔夫熟人)等等。对党的忠诚是次要的。原则上，共产党员做生意很容易做起来，共产党员干部就更容易。中国人民解放军的战友也扮演着类似的角色。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:24, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
在中国，另一种紧急情况也是制定单独应对市场挑战策略的原因:管理人员的专业能力不足。这种情况随历史的发展不断涌现。在中国，管理职位主要由可信赖的人担任。在中国传统中，最值得信赖的人是自己的或老同学的家人，同村的熟人和有共同爱好的熟人(比如邓小平的桥牌圈或在西方游说中一起打高尔夫的熟人)等等。对党的忠诚是次要的。原则上，共产党员很容易把生意做起来，共产党员干部就更容易。中国人民解放军的战友关系也起着类似的作用。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:54, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Professional competence often plays no role at all. But here, too, a generational change has taken place; the highest leadership cadres in the Central Committee often had no education or training at all in the Soviet Union at the beginning, were replaced by technocrats in the 1980s, and at the beginning of the 21st century many have an American university degree. <br />
<br />
In the business sector, the leadership positions of the largest Chinese state-owned enterprises are still awarded by the party to deserving cadres.<br />
<br />
The professional incompetence of the bosses represents a plight that must be countered in daily work with a sophisticated strategy if one does not want to be replaced by a more professionally competent boss.<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
This strategy consists of the following:<br />
<br />
·Avoiding the disclosure of own professional incompetence<br />
<br />
·Informal consultation and coordination with the actual experts in the company before each decision process<br />
<br />
·Announcement and representation of the decision by the boss alone, this decision may then also no longer be questioned<br />
<br />
This informal participation in the decision-making process is organized in a network which, however, in contrast to the Japanese model, is not lived out in team discussions, but rather through several face-to-face meetings between the boss and a different expert in each case, since if the boss sought the advice of a first expert in the presence of a second expert, he would lose face with the second expert. This network character is therefore very personal and usually consists of direct two-person relationships.<br />
<br />
该战略包括以下内容：<br />
<br />
·避免披露自己的职业能力不足<br />
<br />
·在每个决策过程之前，与公司的专家进行非正式协商和协调<br />
<br />
·由老板单独宣布和陈述决定后，这一决定也可能不再受到质疑<br />
<br />
这种非正式参与决策过程是在一个网络中组织的，然而，与日本模式不同的是，这种网络不是通过团队讨论，而是通过老板和不同专家之间的几次面对面会议来进行的，因为如果老板在第二位专家在场的情况下征求第一位专家的意见，他会在第二个专家面前丢脸。因此，这种人际网络特征非常私人，通常由直接的两人关系组成。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
该策略包括以下内容：<br />
<br />
·避免披露自己的职业能力不足<br />
<br />
·在每个决策过程之前，与公司真正的专家进行非正式的协商和协调<br />
<br />
·由老板单独宣布和陈述决定后，这一决定也可能不再受到质疑<br />
<br />
这种非正式参与决策过程是在一个网络中组织的，然而，与日本模式不同的是，这种网络不是通过团队讨论，而是通过老板和不同专家之间的几次面对面会议来进行的，因为如果老板在第二位专家在场的情况下征求第一位专家的意见，他会在第二个专家面前丢脸。因此，这种人际网络特征非常私人，通常由直接的两人关系组成。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:49, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
However, it is also possible to contact a third person who knows the second person, whereby the second person then only establishes contact and then withdraws.<br />
<br />
A further emergency in China is that due to the sleepy industrial revolution and the lack of information diffusion in the market, no research and development tradition of its own has been established to date. Instead of carrying out basic research for a long time, information about the state of the art of advanced competitors was obtained and attempts were made to copy and eventually outperform them. Only recently, due to enormous governmental support, e.g. in hybrid drive technology and electric motor technology, self-developed products have been created in China.<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
'''Changes in the Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
When the production site in China opened up to the global industry, the egalitarianism of the planned economy had already erased the tradition of quality assurance from the memory of the factory workers. In the decades before, they had been used to selling along with the scrap. The first factories, which produced goods in China due to the low labor costs, also delivered rejects accordingly. The foreign investors first had to reintroduce the quality assurance concept in China. Due to the strong competition in China and the orientation towards world market prices and standards, quality assurance has now been internalized in China.<br />
<br />
“中国生产文化的变化”<br />
<br />
当中国的生产基地向全球产业开放时，计划经济的平均主义使得工厂工人追求质量保证这一传统不复存在。在过去的几十年里，工人已经习惯了把废料一同出售。由于劳动力成本低廉，在中国生产商品的第一批工厂也相应地交付了废料。外国投资者须先重申质量保证的重要性，唤起中国生产商的重视。与此同时，由于中国市场的激烈竞争以及其对世界市场价格和标准的关注，质量保证在中国内部现已普及。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:28, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''中国生产文化的变化'''<br />
<br />
在中国生产基地向全球产业开放时，计划经济的平均主义已经从工厂工人的记忆中抹去了质量保证的传统。在过去的几十年中，它们已经习惯与废料一同出售。 由于劳动力成本低廉，在中国生产商品的第一批工厂也相应地交付了废品。 外国投资者首先必须在中国重申质量保证理念。 由于中国的激烈竞争以及对世界市场价格和标准的遵循，质量保证现已在中国内部化。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 06:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
The originally traditional lifelong relationship with the employer, as we also know it from Japan, has now been reversed. China currently has one of the highest employee turnover rates in the world, even higher than the already high rate in the USA.<br />
<br />
In the period 1950 to 1980, the production culture was characterized by blind fulfillment of plans; since 1980, production has been oriented to the market.<br />
Today, management concepts are as en vogue in China as political campaigns were in the past. They are read and discussed, but often misunderstood due to the lack of foreign language skills and context/background knowledge.<br />
<br />
通过日本我们可以知道，最初的传统终生雇佣关系现在已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于员工流动率本就很高的。<br />
<br />
在1950年至1980年期间，生产文化的特征是盲目地执行计划经济；自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。 如今，管理理念在中国就像过去的政治运动一样流行。 它们被阅读和讨论，但由于缺乏外语技能和语境背景知识而常常被误解。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 07:59, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
通过日本我们也可以知道，最初的传统终身雇佣关系现已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于员工流动率已经很高的美国。<br />
<br />
在20世纪50年代至80年代，生产文化的特点是盲目执行计划; 自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。如今，在中国，管理理念就像过去的政治运动一样流行。他们被阅读和讨论，但常因为缺乏外语技能和背景知识而被误解。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:42, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
Similar to the campaigns, the concepts are introduced with an eternal claim, but only last as long as a seasonal fashion. This type of management, which is based on current trends in management strategies, could also be called guerrilla management, following Sebastian Heilmann's concept of "guerrilla politics".<br />
<br />
In China, a culture of secrecy (ID badges, access restrictions), especially among high-tech companies, is prevalent, which is exactly the same as in America. In China, this culture was simply copied from the USA, certainly also due to the findings of Chinese industrial espionage abroad that know-how, e.g. in German companies, is often insufficiently protected against access by third parties.<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
'''Roles in the Chinese production culture''' <br />
<br />
The central role in the Chinese production and management culture is played by the boss. This can also be seen in the comparatively high values of China's Power Distance Index.<br />
<br />
The specific behavior of the boss in the decision making process has already been explained above.<br />
<br />
In the following, the difference in the relationship between the boss and his subordinates in China and Germany will be described.<br />
<br />
The team member in Germany expects a target for the overall project and the specification of the assigned subarea within the project, feels responsible for the timely achievement of his own and the team goal and wants to find the way to this goal independently. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
It would like to be little supervised and communicates intensively with the other team members. The team leader in Germany is rather a primus inter pares, who has a small area of responsibility as a specialist and is responsible for coordination. The success is always a success of the team.<br />
<br />
In China, the boss has a much higher position than the other team members. He gives each team member the individual goal and the individual steps to reach this goal. He closely monitors the progress and cares for the team members, also regarding job satisfaction and in private matters. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
He expects a feedback only to him and no exchange of information between the team members. If the input of the first team member is a prerequisite for the work of the second team member, the boss himself forwards the intermediate / work results of the first to the second team member. <br />
<br />
The role of the employee in China is determined by the following characteristics: He cultivates a culture of error, in which it is important not to make any mistakes of his own, and in case mistakes are made, to correct them if possible without being noticed and in case they are noticed, to at least not immediately admit the guilt. <br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In all these behaviours, the principle of face awareness applies.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the loyalty of employees to an employer in China is extremely low at the beginning of the 21st century. For a few yuan a month, workers change employers. Headhunters intercept employees at the factory gate, ask about the salary and offer correspondingly more. <br />
<br />
The paid passing on of information, especially about customers, suppliers, purchase prices and patents, is also considered a trivial offence. <br />
Chinese companies communicate less and employees are more demotivated. This is mainly due to the high production pressure, as case studies by Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku 2006 show (see list of literature in the appendix).<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
'''The Intermezzo of Socialism from 1949-1979'''<br />
<br />
In the phase of socialism, the centrally planned economy applied in it blossomed as follows:<br />
<br />
When the news reached the top, there was a culture of whitewashing.<br />
<br />
The breakup of the unions made the culture of co-determination in companies even more informal.<br />
<br />
'''Gaming in the Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
In China, playful experimentation is a core element of the production culture. In this way, individual management elements, but also entire foreign production philosophies can be tried out in a playful way.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
One of the main differences between young people in China and those in the West is that, even as young adults, they can still play hilariously without making themselves look ridiculous to others. The joy of playing is particularly unrestrained if the ambition is there to copy a foreign product as similar as possible or even to surpass it and also to implement, for example, a new management concept or a production philosophy. <br />
<br />
New rules of the game are accepted very quickly. The introduction of a reward system (''incentives'') for long service has led to a situation in China where it is always calculated when a change is worthwhile.<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
Sustainable concepts can only be introduced if the benefits of the concept are clear. Other concepts with no discernible added value, such as alignment with the American corporate philosophy on mergers and acquisitions, are forgotten just as quickly as they were introduced, and people return to old habits.<br />
<br />
'''Effects on the company''' <br />
<br />
In China today, we find a modern production culture that is international but has its Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
It has positive and negative effects on the company:<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
'''Positive effects of the Chinese management and production culture (CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
·Networks<br />
<br />
·the preferential treatment of Chinese companies (e.g. in tenders, competition, within corporate groups such as joint ventures)<br />
<br />
·playful enthusiasm for technology<br />
<br />
·Brutality, which in turn promotes competition<br />
<br />
'''Negative effects of the Chinese management and production culture (CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
·through their distortion of competition <br />
<br />
·by promoting incompetence in management positions<br />
<br />
·through their priority of personal rather than non-cash benefits, which is fundamentally negative for the production culture <br />
<br />
·through rituals/conventions (face, criticism, status etc.)<br />
<br />
·intransparent state sponsoring and corruption<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The fundamental difference of the free trade zone established by China, Japan, Australia and other Asian Pacific countries in 2020 from suggestions of free trade zones involving the US or the EU is, that state-sponsoring and corruption are not restricted. Therefore China benefits most of this new free trade zone.<br />
<br />
'''Where is modern Chinese management and production culture (CMPC) an international role model?'''<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
The Chinese management and production culture (CMPC), as explained in the previous chapters, has its own characteristics that distinguish it from, for example, the Japanese or American management and production culture. Nevertheless, the CMPC is successful and manages the world's largest production market. Elements of the Japanese production culture have been successfully used worldwide to modernize production facilities. Can Chinese elements also lead to global success?<br />
<br />
The following 5 elements appear at least compatible on the international market:<br />
<br />
'''1. informal decision making through horizontal and vertical network management'''<br />
<br />
In China, important and unimportant decisions are seldom made by competent committees or officials, but rather are investigated informally.<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The hierarchical position in the company of those involved in the decision-making process is irrelevant, only their professional competence. Questioning the most competent is possible because this questioning is completely detached from the honor and reward system, but takes place in a parallel world, the so-called personal relationship system (Chinese: guanxi 关系). Due to this decoupling, the responsible decision-maker does not mind questioning other, not responsible but more competent colleagues/employees/outsiders. At the same time, the colleague/employee/external is motivated to give the best possible decision support, since he can score points in the parallel world.<br />
<br />
The results are well-founded and accepted decisions.<br />
<br />
参与决策过程的人在公司中的等级地位无关紧要，只有他们的专业能力。对最有能力的人提出质疑是可能的，因为这种质疑完全脱离了荣誉和奖励系统，而是发生在一个平行的世界，即所谓的个人关系系统中。由于这种脱钩，负责任的决策者并不介意质疑其他不负责任但更有能力的同事/员工/外人。同时，同事/员工/外部人员也有动力给予尽可能好的决策支持，因为他可以在平行世界中得分。<br />
<br />
结果是有理有据，被接受的决策。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 01:57, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
'''2. playfully trying out new forms of production and management (attention: hermeneutics/sustainability)'''<br />
<br />
The play instinct in people up to old age is socially sanctioned. In phases when there is little to do in the office, a Mahjong or Go board or cards are taken out as a matter of course. Similarly, new methods, often imported from the West or Japan, are tried out with playful zeal. An incentive system, for example, challenges colleagues to earn as much capital as possible in the form of incentives in as short a time as possible. It is not unusual for hit lists to be posted in the office, so that colleagues encourage each other. <br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
But it is important to pay attention to three aspects:<br />
<br />
1. the actual goals should be achieved without neglecting other aspects of the work or even worsening the overall result, because the colleagues are addicted to the urge to play. The introduction of new management or production strategies is nothing new for Chinese employees, they know this from political or education-oriented campaigns (e.g. traffic education). <br />
<br />
The second aspect that must be kept in mind is the understanding of the corresponding philosophies. For this it is important, for example, when importing Western management culture into China, that the correct Chinese term is first found for the fashionable e.g. English expression. <br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Terms that are translated incorrectly or not at all lead to success messages that a new system has been introduced, with what was understood by it being introduced instead. <br />
<br />
A third aspect that must be considered in this context is sustainability. Many new concepts that have been introduced are forgotten after a few weeks and the old rut has returned. Only individual, often senior employees still remember the newly introduced things and occasionally refer back to them without being able to enforce them on their employees.<br />
<br />
翻译不正确或根本没有翻译的术语会带来成功信息，即引入了一个新系统，而引入了该系统所理解的内容。<br />
<br />
在这情形下必须考虑的第三个方面是可持续性。许多引入的新概念在几周后就被遗忘而老一套又回来了。只有个别的，通常是高级员工还记得新引进的东西，偶尔也会提到，但不能强加在他们的员工身上。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
翻译错误或根本没有翻译的术语也会有所成果，其引入了一个新系统，并引入了该系统所理解的内容。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:45, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
在这种情况下，可持续性是必须考虑的第三个方面。许多引入的新概念在几周后就为人们所遗忘，取而代之的是重蹈覆辙的老一套概念。只有个别人，通常是高层还记得新引进的东西，他们偶尔也会提起，但却无法强迫他们的员工也记得。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:45, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
A process description system that is integrated into the daily work routine (e.g. daily used computer work surface) is useful here, where the employees make or execute decisions and processes in the given paths.<br />
<br />
All in all, the playful approach reduces fear of contact with new things, the daily work routine is varied and the employees gain further qualifications.<br />
<br />
'''3. speed and flexibility in product development'''<br />
<br />
One of the hallmarks of the Chinese manufacturing industry is the speed at which products are cribbed and developed further, or at which they react to changing customer requirements or market conditions.<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
The ambition that Chinese product developers put into developing solutions for specific requirements is comparable to the play instinct described above.<br />
<br />
他希望中国的产品开发人员为特定需求开发解决方案，这一雄心壮志与上述游戏本能不相上下。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This high speed and flexibility strengthens the competitiveness of Chinese companies. Western companies can learn these qualities by locating in China and thus benefit from these experiences in the comparatively sluggish production location in their home countries.<br />
<br />
这种高速和灵活性增强了中国企业的竞争力。西方企业可以在中国开公司来学习这些品质，从经验中获益，与本国相对迟缓的生产环境来说。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
这种高速和灵活性增强了中国企业的竞争力。处在本国相对迟缓的生产环境下的西方企业可以落户中国来学习这些品质，并从这些经验中获益。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 11:07, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. focusing on personal competence instead of things or functions'''<br />
<br />
4注重个人能力而不是事物或职能--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Interesting and certainly typical Chinese is the fixation on people instead of the thing.<br />
<br />
有趣的是，中国人是典型的对人不对事。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
有趣无疑的是，大凡中国人都对人不对事。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 11:50, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
[[File:majuan]]<br />
An original feature is the logistics. As this picture illustrates, existing primitive means are exploited to the utmost. Admirable is the matter-of-course way in which the extremes are mastered.<br />
<br />
For a long time, production capacity in China grew faster than logistics. Only at the beginning of the 21st century are delivery services and infrastructure (highways, high-speed train connections, etc.) catching up.<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
'''The Freedom of Intellectual Exchange'''<br />
<br />
Starting to work on the modern Chinese literary essay in the 1990s, I published my Ph.D. thesis ''The History of the Chinese Essay'' in 1998. Because it was written in German, I hoped since then to raise interest in this subject in the anglophone world, too. With this volume in hand, this wish has become true. Some of the topics I dealt with in my thesis like the development of the genre, biblio-biographies of several essayists etc., are elaborated here extensively by my collegues in English and more detailed than I could do it in my first ground work in German. <br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Moreover, this collection documents the lively discussion, which started among sinologists in the last years of the 20th century.<br />
<br />
I remember quite clearly, how the idea of the conference was born during a meal at the Boston AAS conference hotel with King-Fai Tam. Leo Ou-fan Lee had helped to bring both of us together, knowing that we shared a seemingly specialized hobby, the modern Chinese essay. King-Fai was preparing two collection of essay translations, one with essays from mainland China and one from Taiwan. The first is scheduled for publication. I prepared another collection of essays with both, Chinese original and English translation, published by The University Press Bochum half a year ago. The common intention of both of us is to make more Chinese essays available in English translations. <br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
King-Fai Tam and me are both fascinated of the idea of promoting this long time neglected genre and to find out more about its characteristics and the reasons of its success in the 1920s and 1930s as well as in the 1980s and 1990s. On a napkin, we outlined an AAS panel, an international conference and a volume with essays on the essay. All of these ideas are now becoming real more or less in the way we planned it: The AAS panel became an NEAAS panel at Yale, the conference took place in August 25-27, 2000 at the Academy of Euro-Asian Economy and Culture in Achern, in the Black Forest, Germany. <br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
14 scholars of Chinese literature, from the States, Taiwan, the United Kingdom and Germany took part. All of them share the fascination of the phenomenon of the essay. Language was no barrier: The conference was conducted in English with the exception of a few papers in Chinese with English abstracts.<br />
<br />
The collection of essays on the essay are the conference proceedings in hand, this book contains extended versions of the conference papers. It was published by The University Press Bochum in December 2000. More important is the fact, that through this opportunity, we now have lively email discussions and a website with updated information on the Chinese essay.<br />
<br />
来自中国大陆、台湾、英国以及德国的14位研究中国文学的学者参加了此次会议。他们都分享了论文中令人着迷的表达。语言没有边界：大会虽用英文举行，但也破例宣读了部分含有英文摘要的中文论文。<br />
<br />
按照大会的流程，这些论文中的一部分会组成一本文集。这本文集中的文章都是大会论文的修改版，在2000年由波鸿大学出版社出版。更重要的是，通过这一契机，如今我们能进行实时邮件讨论，并且能在网站上看到不断更新的中文论文。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
来自美国、中国台湾、英国和德国的14位中国文学领域的学者都参加了此次会议。他们都分享了论文中有趣的现象。语言无边界：大会除了部分论文是含有英文摘要的中文论文之外，其余都是用英文展开的。<br />
<br />
会议过程中的论文选集发到人们手中，这本文集中的文章都是大会论文的修改版。在2000年12月由波鸿大学出版社出版。更重要的是，通过这一契机，如今我们能借助邮件展开激烈的讨论，并且能在网站上获取不断更新的中文论文。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Here I would like to take the opportunity to thank the members of the organizing committee Charles Laughlin, Xinmin Liu, King-Fai Tam, and Alexandra Wagner for their great help. I very much enjoyed the discussions via email.<br />
<br />
A common philosophy stands behind the whole project: We want to share information, help each other and do not care about language barriers. Everybody can contribute in English or Chinese, some of us like me being non-native English speakers.<br />
<br />
We encourage the reader to make use of the large margins for personal notes in the awareness of pursuing a tradition dating back to the very origins of essay writing. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Having most of the conference papers in hand with this book, everybody is welcomed to give a feed back. This kind of free intellectual exchange I first experienced in the States when Leo Ou-fan Lee invited me to stay from 1998-1999 as a visiting scholar at the Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations at Harvard University.<br />
<br />
The contributors to this volume can only introduce and draw the attention of the readers to this Chinese genre, the joy of reading remains to the reader himself.<br />
<br />
M.W.<br />
<br />
这本书中含有大部分会议所用论文，因此，欢迎每位与会者给出反馈。我第一次进行这种自由的学术交流是在美国，当时李欧梵邀请我作为访问学者到哈佛大学东亚语言与文明系学习，时长为1998到1999年。这期期刊的撰写者只能吸引中国读者的注意力，但阅读的乐趣得靠读者自己领会。<br />
<br />
M.W.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 03:28, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
''The Flourishing of the Chinese Essay''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the periods of accelerated modernization, the Western-influenced one (1920s/30s) and the one of liberated economical actors (1980/90s), was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines and book series that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists. The emergence of this media show a clear trend: the essay is a genre of overwhelming and increasing interest among Chinese authors and readers.<br />
<br />
There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
·The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ Donald Hall, The Contemporary Essay (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984) xiii. In this textbook, Hall has chosen a wide range of contemporary American essayists. In his introduction, Hall applies for clear writing, and active reading.]; <br />
<br />
·the increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
·a revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
Because of its increasing importance, the essay can now be assigned its proper place in the canon of contemporary genres and in the history of literature.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the last two decades of the 20th century, the essay has been the main communication medium between the discourse of the intelligentsia and the mass of readers of daily newspapers. Therefore we have a genre which transports ideas of the elite in small pieces and common language and functions as the link between mass and elite culture.<br />
<br />
December 2000<br />
<br />
20世纪最后20年中，小品文成了知识分子和那些读日报的普罗大众沟通的主要媒介，由此，这种文学体裁开始以小篇幅和通用语将精英分子的思想传播开来，成为了大众文化和精英文化间的纽带。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
在二十世纪最后二十年中，小品文成了知识分子话语圈和日报读者群的主要沟通媒介。因此，我们拥有了一种文学体裁，这种体裁能用小篇幅传播精英分子的思想，也能充当大众文化和精英文化之间的纽带。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:43, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Keynote: “Let us Assign the Essay its Proper Place in Chinese Literature!”'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. We are used to the established narratives of C.T. Hsia, Průšek, and Anderson, which let Chinese literature appear overshadowed by its elder brother, fiction. The latter has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularization of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement.<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly: <br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
•The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history. The impact of the essay genre, with its direct language, its connection to life, and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers, was larger than the indirect effects of fiction or poetry.<br />
<br />
•The essay also reflects trends in society better than poetry and fiction. Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem, which is limited in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
•The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, and does not require the large amount of time spent on reading novels. The essay itself is a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
•The volume of essay production exceeds the volume of xiaoshuo production.<br />
<br />
Can the picture of Chinese literature remain unchanged if we take the essay into consideration? As stated above, there is a large contrast between the true value and the current valuing of the essay. Let us assign the essay its proper place!<br />
<br />
•与诗歌相比，论文占人口的比例更大，不需要花大量时间阅读小说。论文本身是一种高度现实的类型，即使不仅仅是今天的类型。<br />
<br />
•论文的产量超过小说的产量。<br />
<br />
如果考虑到这篇论文，中国文学的图画能否保持不变？ 如上所述，论文的真实价值与当前价值之间存在很大的反差。让我们为论文分配适当的位置！--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 09:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 09:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
'''The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90); whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
<br />
'''未知的体裁'''<br />
<br />
由20世纪选集和文集讲述的文学历史叙事所绘画出的中国文学图景并不完整：即散文体裁的缺失。长期以来，人们有意（马古烈 1949，施密特·格林策 1990）或无意地(麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90）忽视了这种体裁的优点：然而，自从五四运动确立主叙事、民国初期重视小说文学和创作通俗化以来，散文的兄长--小说就一直受到珍视。现代选集会让读者相信，诗歌、小说和戏剧的三足鼎立才是中国现代文学作品的支柱。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 06:10, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
···未知体裁···<br />
20世纪的选集和文集所记叙的文学史，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景：散文的体裁是缺乏的。长期以来，散文作为一种功利性文体被忽视（马格里斯1949年，施寒微1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年）；而它的兄长--小说，自民国初年重视小说文学和写作白话化以来，在五四运动确立的总叙事之后，一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信，诗歌、小说、戏剧三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:12, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
20世纪文学选集对于中国文学史的叙述是不完整的，其中缺失了散文这一体裁。长期起来，人们有意（马古烈 1949，施密特·格林策 1990）或无意地(麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90）地忽视了这一出色的体裁，但与此同时，由于五四运动树立起了以叙事为主的创作风格，到民国初期发展为重视小说体裁和通俗化创作，散文的兄长--小说，则一直受到重视。而现代文选则告诉读者，诗歌、小说和戏剧的三足鼎立才是中国现代文学的支柱。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
Two times in the 20th century the Chinese essay was flourishing, first in the 1920s and 1930s, then in the 1980s and 1990s. <br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'', see works of Laughlin, Klaschka). The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文丛书 (essay bookseries). <br />
<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging ''xiangtu'' literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
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The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political ''zawen'' of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). <br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996 (see Denton). The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of ''novel'' and ''opera'' in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lives, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
-The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao, etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his zawen), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang'' lu derived).<br />
<br />
Let us assign the essay its proper place<br />
The consequence which must be derived from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! <br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature<br />
I will name a few points to illustrate what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Pršek and Anderson.<br />
<br />
<br />
“杂文”制作量超过“小说”制作量：从十九世纪七十年代起，中国报纸（申报，时报等等。梁启超认为报纸的作用既自由又权威：一方面，他认为新闻媒体是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他赞成审查制度。）作为20世纪初期的大众传播媒介，报纸以序列化形式仅展示一个或两个虚构的故事，不过它发明了杂文专栏，如“杂感 ”（鲁迅从中发展了他的杂文），和“ 随笔”或“ 随想”（从其中衍生出像巴金的《穗香路》这样的著名收藏）。<br />
<br />
让我们为杂文指定适当的位置<br />
<br />
必须从以上提出的杂文价值与评价之间的对比中得出以下结论：让我们为散文指定适当的位置！<br />
<br />
重新考虑杂文将会改写中国文学的历史<br />
<br />
我仅举几例来说明杂文对中国文学的贡献，迄今为止，由于C.T. Hsia, Prçšek and Anderson等人的叙述，小说的光芒盖过了杂文。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 04:12, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the yuanyang hudie pai played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
In the following, I will name two aspects (chronologically sorted by past, and modern times) to promote the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
<br />
1. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned<br />
How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay both in China and the West are notes written in the margins of books, as well as letters and travel notes saved. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality and subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber.''<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference[ This is older than the ones referred to in Morohashi, 5:529a / sequential page counting 5167a, and in the The Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language, vol. 73c / s.p.c. 6137c.] this far for the term sanwen that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù. 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatells, is limited. Luo Dajing 14:Baihai:1). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
从一开始，人们就认为散文的价值低于诗歌:最古老的参考文献[这比在Morohashi, 5:529a /连续页数5167a，和在中国语言的百科词典，第73卷/ s.p.c. 6137c中提到的更古老。)“散文”这个术语,我发现是罗大经提出(?- 1248年之后):“詩騷妙天下,而散文頗覺瑣碎局促”。诗歌以一种美妙的方式感化人类，散文则是不连贯的杂谈，影响有限。罗大经 14: Baihai: 1)。罗大经提出的另一种质疑则更为正式:与具有高度艺术性和百年历史的诗歌创作传统相比，在他看来，直接的、通常是白话的散文没有什么价值。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 09:19, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge. The reorganization originated from the observations of Copernicus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Ages.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of ''san'' 散 as to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
<br />
During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written in the paper margins originated the ''biji'' 筆記 (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming dynasty. The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as ''a genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences. Until now, the Chinese pre-''Honglou meng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
<br />
Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the “Eight legged essay” as as appealing and intoxicating as the “pleasure of doing opium.” (Zhou Zuoren 1932c, 148).<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, 71).<br />
<br />
Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''wen yi zai dao'' 文以載道 (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xin wenti'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
<br />
但他也认为这是一种在现代作品中流行的体裁，如洋八股和党八股（吴志辉，71）。<br />
理学强调文以载道。如果从体裁的角度重新解读这一措辞，我们可以说，当时的散文已被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
梁启超受西方语言的影响，发展了一种新文体，但这种文体在报纸成为大众传媒之前就开始流行起来，语言也变成了白话。<br />
--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 12:40, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但他也认为这是一种在现代作品中流行的体裁，如洋八股和党八股（吴志辉，71）。<br />
理学强调文以载道。如果从体裁的角度重新解读这一措辞，我们可以说，当时的散文已被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
受西方语言的影响，梁启超发展了一种新文体，但这种文体在报纸成为大众传媒媒介之前就流行起来，新文体的语言也变成了白话。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
'''2. The essay as the medium of modernity'''<br />
<br />
The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. It was short, dealt with reality, there was no limitation regarding the contents, therefore it was also capable of documenting and spreading the ideas about the best form of society. It was simply the best form to transport the thoughts of the intellectual leaders of the time to the public and to create a public sphere. Imagine the May Fourth Movement without essays! Most of Lu Xun's work consists out of essays!<br />
<br />
Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming “needs” of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is “a genre of self-reflection”. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
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Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays.<br />
<br />
I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).(文献 无需翻译)<br />
<br />
但是从本质上说，这篇论文在形式和内容上设定了新的界限，因此不仅脱离了意识形态限制，而且在其中建立了自己的批判亚文化。这篇文章不仅是我们今天讨论的媒介和社会政治背景的记录，还是关于作家在不断变化的环境中寻找定位的个人奋斗的记录，因为这篇文章是“反思类型”。有些文章甚至像左派意识形态之一一样破坏了主叙述，通常只是将其与主观经验，现实或艺术联系起来去面对。<br />
<br />
如果我们考虑论文的话，会对文学的整体理解发生了变化，如果我们既看作者的小说诗歌作品，又看他们的论文的话，对单一作者的观点也会改变。<br />
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我想提到文学的另一种立场，强调文学对生活的影响，特别是在革命前夕对生活的影响。按照这种观点，所有文学都是政治性的（詹姆森）。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:17, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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'''The Aesthetic of Marginalism and the Impact of the West on the Chinese Essay'''<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
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'''Abstract'''<br />
Chinese and Western essays derived from the notes in the margins of books. With this step from the private to the public sphere, we find the impact of subjectivity and individualism on literature. The origin of the essay has influenced the later essay tradition in its ephemeral, subjective, marginal character; its claim for understatement; the conversational and colloquial style of expression; and its eclecticism. The essay itself often deals with one subject, but this topic is looked on from different perspectives.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
The aesthetic of marginalism, invented by Schlette in 1977 and further developed by Pfeiffer and others in 1996, proves helpful for understanding the character of the essay. Following its methodological perspective, marginalism grants the essayist a distant view of the text body itself from the margins of the book. This enables the essayist to think unorthodoxly, the condition ''sine qua non'' of critique and protest. <br />
<br />
In my paper, I use the concept of marginalism to explain the rhetorical means of digression in Lu Xun's essays. Lu Xun seems to digress: 1) on purpose for rhetorical effects; 2) going off-target for arts’ sake; 3) as an experiment; 4) for its own sake with socio-critical side blows; 5) as understatement with surprising effects. Further I will show marginalism in the founder of Western essayism, Montaigne, and the Chinese scholar Qian Zhongshu.<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
As for the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, both traditions are relevant: The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations, starting from 1907. From this, there first developed a Chinese essay tradition which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology. Later, the Chinese essay’s own proponents succumbed to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history alone. The legendary authors of the May Fourth movement considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition.<br />
<br />
中国散文是源于本土传统？还是产自西方翻译？这个问题一直是个争议。但无论如何，这两种说法本身就具关联性：自1907年起直至现在，中国散文的体裁形式主要出自西方的散文译本。从这一点来看，中国散文自发展伊始就一直在语言、形式和术语上借鉴西方模式。后来，中国散文的推行者无奈只能仅仅诉诸于中国历史来证明中国本土散文的渊源。五四运动中涌现的传奇作家认为英语散文是中国散文的起源。但之后其中一些作家改变观念，通过证明中国散文自成一家来支撑自己的散文理论。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
Wherever on earth human beings developed a high culture, the written language was its essence. Early traces we find in the pictograms of the Near East, Latin America and China. The more the characters remind of the ontological world, the more the written language itself was an object of cult. From the Chinese we know the use of characters in the tortoise shell oracles, from the Germans in sacrificial stones. Later, with the improvement of writing material, the first rolls were created, either from papyrus (Egypt), pergament (Europe) or bamboo (China). Due to the expensive material, written rolls were reserved to wealthier people. The texts were reduced to the documentation of important things.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
For the first time, it was possible not only to document events and therefore to extend the human mind and memory, but to communicate complex information from one author to another or more readers. At this stage, the first reading notes were written. Due to the lack of the precious writing material, the margins of the rolls were used. Still today we find these notes as well as on early European (for example ancient Greek) rolls as well as on Chinese ones. These notes were personal thoughts about the text, explanations of places and events maybe unknown to third readers, interpretations of unclear text passages, alternatives to seemingly miswritten characters, sometimes only marks for structuring the texts, which were used as school textsoles to teach reading, too. <br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Some notes were intended for other readers, and from this in Europe and China the tradition of commentary developed. Other notes were of a private nature, personal comments to the text, not written down for other people. And both, in Europe as in China, the same evolution took place, when the authors of the notes discovered, that the notes were worth collecting. From these collections of notes they compiled short essays. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality and subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
The names given to these essays reminded of their origin. In Europe they were called “marginal notes,” “marginalia,” in China “brush notes” (''biji'' 筆記, or occasional notes). They were flourishing in the Ming dynasty. They could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as ''a genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynasty, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
All these terms for the essay, and also the term “essay” itself, which means “try, attempt,” invented by Montaigne, reflect the ephemeral, subjective, marginal character of the essay. The term itself carried the claim for understatement, which is substantial especially when you want to express subjective, individual thoughts, in order not to seem schoolmasterly to the reader.<br />
<br />
这些文章的名字使人想起了它们的起源。在欧洲，它们被称为“旁注”、“边注”，在中国被称为“笔记”（biji筆記，或临时记录）。它们在明朝盛极一时。它们可以是私人的史料、轶事、谈话和沉思。然而，作为一种特有的体裁，人们有散文意识的时候已经是清朝过后了，当时已有大量的散文选集被编撰出来。<br />
所有这些散文术语，以及蒙田创造出的“随笔”这个词本身，即“尝试，试图”，都反映出散文短暂的、主观的、边缘化的特点。这个词本身就带有轻描淡写的意思，尤其是当你想表达主观的个人想法时又为了不让读者觉得自己很有学究气的时候就更显得具有实质性。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
From this origin, different characteristics of the essay came, which are still valid for essays today. One is the conversational style of expression, which comes while you create the sentences from the notes the very moment you are writing them down. From Greek philosophers we know that they sat relaxed in the yard, while one person was reading them their notes from the margins of the books which the philosopher transformed into sentences orally, while another person wrote it down. This also explains the colloquial character of the essays. In fact, the whole development of ideas was based on a conversation in mind with the author of the original role, and many Greek philosophical schools knew about the importance of dialogues for the development of thoughts.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
Another characteristic of the essay is its eclecticism. While reading an original text, the educated scholar constantly thinks of quotations and links to other works. Therefore many notes consist out of references to other works. The essay itself therefore often deals with one subject, but is looked on from different perspectives.<br />
<br />
In 1977 Heinz Robert Schlette developed the aesthetic of marginalism, in 1996 Klaus-Peter Pfeiffer developed this concept further. It proves helpful for the understanding of the character of the essay. In its methodological understanding, marginalism grants the essayist a distant view from the margins of the book to the text body itself. Following Schlette, marginalism is only possible where dissident thinking is possible. Marginalism is the private sphere left to the reader during the reading process.<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
It is the condition sine qua non of critique and protest. A marginalist reader is one, who reads a text critically. Also Montaigne saw himself as a marginalist (Ulke, 31 - 38).<br />
<br />
Let us now use the concept of marginalism to look on the 20th century Chinese essay. I choose here the example of Lu Xuns' essays. One of Lu Xun's rhethorical means in his essays is the digression. The digression is closely related to marginalism and essayism: <br />
<br />
In some of his essays, Lu Xun digresses from his actual subject. This phenomenon increases in his later work. Following Wilpert, digression is one possible expression of conscious scepticism and a warning signal, that something is wrong.<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Walf 1996 in his article “Marginalism in the Daoism” portrays the margi¬na¬lis¬m as an aesthetic, which in China are linked close to the tradition of scepticism of Wang Chong (27 - 97). As a youth, Lu Xun was optimistic about the impact of literature on society. He soon lost this optimism, as documented in “Preface to ‘Call to Arms’” (Lu Xun 1922b). Finally, he became a sceptic regarding the possibilities of literature to change society.<br />
<br />
1, digression on purpose<br />
<br />
In 1926, in his essay on “Wuchang, the Ghost of Perishable Life” (Lu Xun 1926b) Lu Xun digressed to contemporary critic on his contemporary Chen Xiying. In “Illustrations of 24 Examples of Children Piety” (Lu Xun 1926a), he protested against the slogan “Down with the colloquial language”. Lu Xun uses here historiographical and autobio¬gra¬phical essays for appeals of daily-political value.<br />
<br />
沃夫1996年在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，这在中国与王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。他很快就失去了这种乐观，正如鲁迅在他的《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学改变社会的可能性产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在他的文章《武昌，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)中转移了对他同时代的陈希英的当代批评。在《24个孩子虔诚的例子的插图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他抗议“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用史学和自传体散文来呼吁日常政治的价值。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 08:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1996年沃夫在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，在中国，这种边缘主义与王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。但这种乐观很快就消失不见，，正如鲁迅在他的《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学能否改变社会产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在他的文章《武昌，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)中改变了对他同时代的陈希英的当代批评。在《24个孩子虔诚的例子的插图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他抗议“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用史学和自传体散文来呼吁日常政治的价值.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:51, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
2, not targeted digression<br />
<br />
In May 1927, Lu Xun starts his “Morning Blossoms Picked at Dusk - Afterword,” continues to write it until July 11 (Lu Xun 1928b). It becomes a full-length essay, which again describes historiographically the character of the servant of the underworld Huo Wuchang and Si Youfen. <br />
<br />
3, Marginalism as experiment<br />
In the essay “What the Youth Should Read” (Lu Xun 1919), the actual essay does not appear in the text body, but in the footnote. On a questionnaire Lu Xun answers the question about recommended literature shortly, that he never paid attention to this and therefore could not recommend anything. But he makes a footnote, where he starts writing freely. The subject of the questionnaire with the essay in the footnote corresponds parodistically to the classical “discussion” of a “subject”.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
4, Marginalismus for its own sake with sociocritical side blows<br />
<br />
In 1924, Lu Xun writes the consciously trivial essay “My Moustache” (Lu Xun 1924). In this essay, he makes fun of the things, other people are interpreting into the shape of his moustache. After that, he writes the even more trivial essay “From the Moustache to the Teeth” (Lu Xun 1925a), where he mocks about the fact, that the readers are reproaching him with banality.<br />
<br />
5, Marginalism as understatement with surprising effect<br />
<br />
Montaigne, too, consciously introduces his essays with understatement. Lu Xun wraps explosive contents into essays, which are titled with marginal headers: In the essay “Idle Thoughts at the End of Spring” he compares the paralyzing effect of Confucianism with the poison of a dangerous wasp (Lu Xun 1925b).<br />
<br />
4、社会批判的一面打击了边缘主义<br />
<br />
1924年，鲁迅写了一篇自觉琐碎的散文《我的胡子》（鲁迅1924）。在这篇文章中，他调侃的事情，别人都在解读成他的胡子形状。在那之后，他写了一篇更为琐碎的文章《从胡子到牙齿》（鲁迅1925a），他嘲笑读者指责他平庸的事实。<br />
<br />
5、边缘主义是一种效果惊人的轻描淡写<br />
<br />
蒙田也有意识地低调地介绍他的文章。鲁迅把爆炸性的内容包装成随笔，这些文章的标题是边缘标题：在《春末闲思》一文中，他把儒家思想的麻痹作用比作危险黄蜂的毒药（鲁迅1925b）。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:39, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4、边缘主义本身就带有社会批判的一面<br />
<br />
1924年，鲁迅写了一篇自觉琐碎的散文《我的胡子》（鲁迅1924）。在这篇文章中，他取笑的事情，别人都解读成他的胡子形状。在那之后，他写了一篇更为琐碎的文章《从胡子到牙齿》（鲁迅1925a），他嘲笑读者指责他平庸的事实。<br />
<br />
5、边缘主义是效果惊人的轻描淡写<br />
<br />
蒙田也有意识地低调地介绍他的文章。鲁迅把爆炸性的内容包装成随笔，这些文章的标题是边缘标题：在《春末闲思》一文中，他把儒家思想的麻痹作用比作危险黄蜂的毒药（鲁迅1925b）。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 06:14, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
In “Casual Remarks under the Shine of a Lamp” he assumes the Chinese people, that they wanted to be slaves forever, in history as well as in the future (Lu Xun 1925c). In the autobiographical essay “Lightweight Reminiscences” he explains his decision to go to study in Japan (Lu Xun 1926c).<br />
<br />
Another example for the awareness of the origin of the essay is Qian Zhongshu's essay collection ''Marginalia of Life'', Shanghai 1941. In it, Qian mocks about human failures, like hypocrisy, humorlessness and groups of people like guards of morality, charlatans, literary reviewers, etc. (see Ba Ping, 1168 - 1173).<br />
<br />
'''Questioning the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
<br />
散文起源认识的另一例子是1941年钱锺书在上海发表的“围城”散文集。文中，他嘲讽人类的失败，比如伪善，缺乏幽默感，以及一群如道德卫士，江湖骗子和文学评论员等的人。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:45, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在《灯光下的随评》中，他认为中国人想成为永远的奴隶，不论是在过去还是在未来(Lu Xun 1925c)。在自传体散文《轻量回忆》中，鲁迅表明他决意去日本学习(Lu Xun 1926c)。关于这种意识的起源在文章中的体现，另一例子是1941年钱锺书在上海发表的散文集《写在人生边上》。文中，他嘲讽人类的失败，如伪善，缺乏幽默感，以及一群人如道德卫士、江湖骗子、文学批评家等等。(see Ba Ping, 1168 - 1173) 质疑中文文章的真实性--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
To solve the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Washington Irving's essays by Lin Shu 1907, Joseph Addison's by Ma/Gan 1911). The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations (for Chinese translations of English essays in the 1980s and 1990s see appendix). First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only.<br />
<br />
为了解决有关中国文论是起源于本土传统还是受西方翻译影响的争议，人们认为这两种传统有相通之处：从1907年开始，西方翻译就通过中文翻译引入文学改革运动的作家们的文论，（1907年林纾翻译的华盛顿欧文的文论，1911年马/甘翻译的约瑟夫·艾迪生的文论）。 该类型的当前形式主要是基于西方文论翻译的影响（有关20世纪80年代和90年代英语论文的中文翻译，请参见附录）。 首先发展了中国散文传统，有意识地在语言，形式和术语上依赖西方模式，其拥护者很快屈从于仅从中国历史中继承中国文论传统的诱惑。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:00, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Pršek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition.<br />
<br />
中国教科书中出现了一种看似无法打破“文言散文”的中国传统（于在春，1978至1982年，李喜尚1985年）。中国学者对中国传统散文写作的价值和西方对其影响仍有争议。一些人承认西方的影响对当今我们理解中国散文十分重要。（王斌，1992年,范培松，1993年；西方的总体影响参考普罗西克，1964年，盖利克，1966年，麦克杜格尔1971年）。其他学者认为西方的影响被高估了。1996年丹顿表明中国缺少理解西方文学理论的理论背景，建议我们首先按照本国传统理解散文。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 11:49, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition: for example, Lu Xun with his theory “'Zhankai' shuo yu 'mengya' lun “展開”說與“萌芽”論” (Theory of “Starting” and “Blossoming”) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin Dynasty (265-420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the biji (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his “Gonganpai yu Yingguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合 成”論” (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the Engli¬sh Essay).<br />
<br />
后来，其中有些作家转变了自己的想法，他们通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证据，来支持散文中本人的理论：比如，鲁迅及其理论——“展开”说与”萌芽“论——视金朝（265-420）散文中的斗争性和批判性特征为中国“散文之父”；另外，周作人首先研究英国散文（1921），随后研究明朝笔记，但是他仍然尝试将英国散文融入自己公安派与“英国小说‘合成’论”之中。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 07:31, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
后来，其中有些作家改变了自己的想法，他们通过寻找一种中国本土散文传统的证据，来支撑自己的散文理论：比如，在鲁迅及其“展开说”与“萌芽论”中，将金朝（265-420）散文中的斗争性和批判性特征视为中国“散文之父”；另外，周作人首先研究英国散文（1921），随后研究明朝笔记，尽管他仍然尝试将英国散文融入自己公安派与英国小品“合成”论中。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 12:32, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1934, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1932].<br />
<br />
Wang Zengqi in 1993 regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays. The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
<br />
五四运动时期的许多作家都可以被称为传奇，他们演绎着个人的观点对叙述史实有多大的影响。所以作家都认为英文文章是中文文章的鼻祖：周作人，1921，鲁迅，1934，无政府主义者以及后来的国民党吴稚晖（1932）。<br />
<br />
汪曾祺1993年写到他感到很遗憾五四运动时期文学作品里的中国传统文化没有留下，当代文学作品中也没有体现，中国文学主要是用来学习的，人们主要是通过查阅其来证明其中的理论。你可以找到每一时期每个话题的例子，因为文章海纳百川。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 09:30, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
五四运动时期的传奇作家可以告诉我们个人观点对史实阐述而产生的影响有多大。这些作家都认为英国散文是中国散文的鼻祖：周作人，1921，鲁迅，1934，无政府主义者以及后来的国民党吴稚晖（1932）。<br />
<br />
汪曾祺1993年写到他感到很遗憾，在五四运动时期文学作品中中国传统文化没有占据一席之地，在当代文学作品中也没有得到传承。中国文学适合用来学习研究，因为人们可以通过查阅来证明文章中的理论。正是因为文章海纳百川，所以你可以找到任何时期任何话题的范例。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 07:45, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
'''Formation of Modern Subjectivity and Essay:''' <br />
<br />
'''Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain”'''<br />
<br />
'''Jianhua Chen'''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
How to define the modern Chinese essay? Is it modern because of using ''baihua''? Does it start from its naming of ''sanwen''? While scholars identified its origins with May Fourth literature, the complicated trends of literary modernity in the first two decades of the 20th century was neglected. Relating Zhou Shoujuan, a major figure in the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school, to his contribution to the formation of modern Chinese essay has to encounter the problems of literary canons in modern China. <br />
<br />
Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” (''Jiuhua zhang li'') reveals that this 1917 vernacular “pillow talk” (''qinghua'') in the wedding night came out of chaotic conditions of literary genre before the generic system of poetry, fiction, prose, and drama is established in the May Fourth period.<br />
<br />
如何界定现代汉语散文?是因为使用了“百花”才变得现代吗?它是从“三文”的名字开始的吗?虽然学者们将其根源归结为五四文学，但20世纪头20年文学现代性的复杂趋势却被忽视了。把鸳鸯蝴蝶派的主要人物周瘦娟与他对中国现代散文形成的贡献联系起来，必然会遇到中国现代文学经典的问题。<br />
<br />
周瘦娟的《九花帘》揭示了这段1917年《新婚之夜》中的白话“枕边话”（“清华”）是在“五四”时期诗歌、小说、散文、戏剧的通俗体系建立之前，从文学体裁的混乱状态中走出来的。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:01, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
如何界定中国现代散文?是因为使用了“白话”才成为现代散文吗?“散文”这一名字出现就有了现代散文吗?当学者们将其根源归结于五四文学，便忽视了20世纪前20年文学现代化的复杂趋势。鸳鸯蝴蝶派的重要人物周瘦娟对中国现代散文的形成作出了重要贡献，但仍面临着现代中国文学经典的问题。<br />
周寿鹃的《九花帐里》揭示了在五四时期诗歌、小说、散文、戏剧等整体体系尚未建立之前，1917年出版的《新婚夜》中的白话“情话”是在文学体裁混乱的情况下产生的。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:56, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Obsessed with first person narratives it hybridizes diary, love-letter, autobiography, and journalist reportage. I will argue that this Butterflies obsession with subjective genres in the early 20th-century lays a foundation for the growth of modern Chinese essay. <br />
<br />
The theatrical devices used in this work create a double self in the narrative space - the self as a performer and the self in the beholders’ gaze. This paper emphasizes that the rhetoric of theatricality is indebted to the repertoires of traditional poetry and drama, which become unavailable when the New Literature triumphs in the 1920s. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, I will elaborate how the theatricality helps to construct an early Republican subjectivity based on the divisions between the individual, family and nation-building.<br />
<br />
痴迷于第一人称叙事，它杂糅了日记、情书、自传和记者报道。我将认为，《蝴蝶》在20世纪初对主观文体的这种痴迷，为中国现代散文的成长奠定了基础。<br />
这部作品所使用的戏剧手段在叙事空间中创造了一个双重的自我--作为表演者的自我和观看者目光中的自我。本文强调，戏剧性的修辞是依赖于传统诗歌和戏剧的剧目，而当新文学在20世纪20年代取得胜利时，这些剧目就变得不可用了。<br />
此外，我还将阐述戏剧性如何帮助建构一种基于个人、家庭和国家建设之间划分的早期民国主体性。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:10, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
由于痴迷于第一人称的叙述，它混合了日记，情诗，自传和新闻报道这些体裁。我认为 20世纪初对《蝴蝶》这种主观体裁的痴迷为中国现代散文打下了基础。<br />
作品中的戏剧手段在叙述空间中创造出了双重自我- 身为表演者的自我和旁观者眼中的自我。本文强调戏剧性的修辞得益于传统诗歌和戏剧，当20世纪20年代新文学成为主流时传统诗歌和戏剧就退出了舞台。<br />
此外，我将阐述戏剧性如何帮助建立一种基于个人、家庭和国家建设划分之上的早期的民国主体性。 --[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 07:44, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
''Twilight is that moment of the day that foreshadows''<br />
<br />
''the night of forgetting, but that seems to slow time itself,''<br />
<br />
''an in-between state in which the last light of the day may''<br />
<br />
''still play out its ultimate marvels.'' <br />
<br />
Andreas Huyssen. ''Twilight Memories''<br />
<br />
By way of tackling the origins of modern Chinese ''sanwen'', this paper opens up a zone of “twilight memories” of literary modernity early in the twentieth century, which has recently haunted the field of modern Chinese literature. In terms of modern Chinese ''essay'' or ''prose'', how do we define this genre? Is it modern because it uses ''baihua''? Does its ''modern'' start from being called ''sanwen''? How was the May Fourth generic system established? And what were its consequences to literary history? <br />
<br />
Andreas Huyssen, Twilight Memories: Making Time in a Culture of Amnesia (New York and London: Routledge, 1995) 3（文献 无需翻译）<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, searching for Chinese literary modernities other than May Fourth have continued with rigor. In this vital current of scholarly reflections on Chinese literary modernities, prominent are Milena Dolezelova-Velingerova’s emphasis on late Qing origins of modern Chinese literature (“The Origins of Modern Chinese Literature,” in Merle Goldman, ed., Modern Chinese Literature in the May Fourth Era (Cambridge and Mass.: Harvard University Press 1977) 17-36; The Turn of the Century Novel (Toronto University Press, 1981), Perry Link’s path-breaking study of the Mandarin ducks and Butterflies fiction (Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies: Popular Fiction in Early Twentieth Century China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981)), Liu Ts’un-yan’s advocacy of “Middle-blow Fiction” (Chinese Middle-blow Fiction: From the Ch’ing and Early Republican Era (Hong Kong: The Chinese University, 1984)), and recently David Wang’s exciting and sophisticate interpretation of late 19th-century novels (Fin-de-Siecle Splendor: Repressed Modernities of Late Qing Fiction, 1848-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997)). In a larger context, approximately in the same period, this basically north American academia has interacted the rapidly changed literary criticism in China - from the theories and practices of “rewriting literary history” with a revision of “twentieth-century Chinese literature” (Chen Guoqiu, ed., Zhongguo wenxueshi de xingsi (Reflections on the history of Chinese literature) (Hong Kong: Sanlian shudian, 1993).（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
“黄昏是一天中有预兆的时刻”<br />
“遗忘之夜，却似乎延缓了时间本身，”<br />
“一种中间的状态，在这种状态下，可能是白天的最后一丝阳光”<br />
“仍在上演它的终极奇迹。”<br />
Andreas Huyssen。<br />
《暮光之城》的记忆”<br />
本文通过对中国现代“散文”起源的探究，开辟了20世纪初文学现代性的“朦胧记忆”区，这一“朦胧记忆”区最近一直困扰着中国现代文学领域。从现代汉语的“文章”或“散文”来看，我们如何定义这一体裁?它之所以现代是因为它使用了“白话”吗?它的“现代”是从被称为“散文”开始的吗?五四通用制度是如何建立的?它对文学史的影响是什么?<br />
自20世纪80年代以来，对“五四”以外的中国文学现代性的探索一直在继续。<br />
在对中国文学现代性的学术反思中，最突出的是Milena Dolezelova-Velingerova对晚清中国现代文学起源的强调(“现代中国文学的起源”，Merle Goldman, ed.，《五四时期的现代中国文学》17-36;世纪之交的小说，Perry Link对鸳鸯蝴蝶小说的开创性研究(《鸳鸯蝴蝶:二十世纪初中国的通俗小说》)，刘子彦对“中庸小说”的倡导，以及最近王大卫对19世纪晚期小说的激动人心的、复杂的解读。在一个更大的背景下，大约在同一时期，这一基本上是北美的学术界从“重写文学史”的理论和实践与《二十世纪中国文学》(陈国秋主编，《中国文学》)的修订，相互影响了迅速变化的中国文学批评。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:29, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
With these questions, our inquiry into the formation of modern sanwen is inevitably engaged with a process of canon formation, and perhaps this is the appropriate genre by which we can trace the birth of modern subjectivity. In analyiss of Zhou Shoujuan’s (1894-1968) “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” (Jiuhua zhang li), a vernacular autobiographical fiction published in 1917, I will reveal no more than a historical chaos of literature in which a subjectivity was constructed with complex strands in fusion and contestation. This subjectivity owed much to first person narratives Zhou had intensely experimented in his earlier writings; its double voice was not only helped by the traditional theatricality and poetics, but also linked to the modern spatial perception of cinematic representation.<br />
<br />
有了这些问题，我们对现代散文形成的探究就必然涉及到一个经典形成的过程，也许这正是我们追溯现代主体性诞生的合适体裁。通过对周寿娟（1894-1968）1917年出版的白话自传体小说《九花帘幕》的分析，我将揭示一场文学的历史混沌，在这种混沌中，用融合和争鸣的复杂线索建构了一种主体性。这种主观性在很大程度上得益于周作人在早期作品中所做的大量实验，它的双重声音不仅得益于传统的戏剧性和诗学，而且与现代电影表现的空间感知有关。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
随着这些问题的出现，我们对现代散文形成的探究就必然涉及到一个经典形成的过程，也许这正是我们追溯现代主体性诞生的合适体裁。通过对周瘦娟（1894-1968）1917年出版的白话自传体小说《九花帘幕》的分析，我将揭示的不过是一场文学的历史混乱，在这种混乱中，主体性是由复杂的线在融合和争鸣中建构起来的。这种主观性在很大程度上得益于周作人在早期作品中所做的大量实验，它的双重声音不仅得益于传统的戏剧性和诗学，而且与现代电影表现的空间感知有关。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:27, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
To set the terms from the outset, the ''sanwen'' will be treated historically as a canonical category grown out of the May Fourth literature. The term ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction, small talk) by which Zhou’s work was categorized will also be historicized. Immune from the modern generic system, it was transitionally intertwined with prose, fiction, drama, and other subgenres in the repertoire of traditional literature. My analysis of the work in question aims at revealing literary modernity of the period in its own terms, rather than redeem Zhou, a key figure of the so-called “Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school” (''Yuanyang hudie pai''), for his contribution to the birth of modern essay. Nor will I provide a generic definition of modern essay other than open up a new terrain to inquire different genealogies of literary modernity.<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
'''Literary Modernization: Generic and Canonical'''<br />
<br />
One of the spectacles in the literary arena of late 1990s China was the revival of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies (hereafter Butterfly) literature. Along with countless reprints of Butterfly fiction commercially catering to the post-socialist urban readers, there were sympathetic academic reappraisals that apparently challenged the May Fourth canon. Since the 1980s, the rapidly changed landscape of literary criticism marked a transformation of the critical codes from “revolutionary literature” to “literary modernity.” “Pure literature” (''chun wenxue''), a core value of literary modernity, was developed by a new generation of literary critics and academics and was ambiguously engaged with the post-socialist conditions: on the one hand, literary criticism was academically institutionalized and practiced with certain intellectual authorities; on the other hand, the “pure literature” was suspicious of its modernist poetics which implied a subversive force to the status quo.<br />
<br />
In recent few years around a dozen of scholarly-edited series of Butterfly literature appeared, not to mention other numerous compilations for commercial purpose. To mention a few: Fan Boqun, ed., Zhongguo jin xiandai tongsu zuojia pingzhuan congshu (Nanjing: Nanjing chubanshe, 1994); Fan Boqun and Fan Zijiang, eds., Yuanyang hudie-Libailiu pai jingdian xiaoshuo wenku (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1996); Wei Shaochang, ed., Yuanyang hudie pai libai liu xiaoshuo. (Tianjin: Chunfeng wenyi chubanshe, 1997); Yu Runqi, ed., Qingmo minchu xiaoshuo shuxi (Beijing: Zhongguo wenlian chuban gongsi, 1997). （文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
1990年代后期中国文学舞台上的奇观之一是文华鸭和蝴蝶（以下简称蝴蝶）文学的复兴。除了无数版的《蝴蝶小说》在商业上迎合后社会主义都市读者的小说外，还有一些富有同情心的学术评估显然挑战了“五四”教规。自1980年代以来，文学批评的格局迅速变化，标志着批判密码从“革命文学”到“文学现代性”的转变。作为文学现代性的核心价值的“纯文学”（“纯文学”）是由新一代的文学评论家和学者开发的，并与后社会主义的环境am昧地联系在一起：一方面，文学批评是在学术上制度化并在某些智力权威上实践；另一方面，“纯文学”怀疑它的现代主义诗学，这暗示着对现状的颠覆力量。<br />
<br />
在最近几年中，出现了大约十二本经过学术界编辑的蝴蝶文学系列，更不用说其他许多用于商业目的的汇编了。仅举几例：范伯群主编，《中国近代通俗作》《平传丛书》（南京：南京市出版社，1994）；范伯群和范子江，主编，《 yang阳呼迪-李白柳排经编小说说文库》（南京：江苏文艺出版社，1996）。魏绍昌主编，Yuan阳护蝶派立派刘小硕。 （天津：春风文艺出版社，1997）；于润奇编，《清末民初小说集》（北京：中国文联出版公司，1997）。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 11:47, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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Today, the difference between May Fourth and Butterfly was not discussed in terms of “revolutionary vs. reactionary” or “progressive vs. backward,” but rather in terms of ''ya'' (elitism, elegance) vs. ''su'' (populism, commonality). While the Butterfly scholarship carved out a critical space in the name of “popular,” the price was high: their proteges can only be canonized through the codes of May Fourth literary modernity. If what underlay the literary modernity, - the premises of progressive history or of national literature - remained unquestionable, then Butterflies can only be considered inferior.<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
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For example, in his recent reevaluation of ''Yuanyang hudie pai'', Wei Shaochang, whose pathbreaking bibliography of Butterfly published in the early 1960s made a study of this school possible, affectionately called this term “a beautiful cap” (''meili de maozi''). Yet this metaphor implies a re-justification of the “cap” imposed on it by the May Fourth writers. Accordingly, Wei maintained that even the best Butterfly works, despite their accomplishments, fail to compete with Lu Xun, Mao Dun and other modern literary giants in terms of intellectual and aesthetic qualities. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, until recently scholarly interests in Butterfly never went beyond fiction.<br />
<br />
See Wei Shaochang, Wo kan Yuanyang hudie pai (My view of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies literature) (Taiwan: Commercial Press, 1992) 1-11. One month ago, the first international conference on Butterfly school was held at Suzhou University, China, and one of its designed events was to celebrate the publication of A History of Modern Chinese Popular Literature, an enormous and enduring project fulfilled by the Chinese department of the host university. With a massive masquerade of Butterfly literature from the late Qing to Republican era (1,500,000 characters), this book boldly claims a new theory that the modern Chinese literature is constituted by a “pair of wings” - May Fourth and Butterfly. In this revision, the literary histories heretofore are invalid since they missed the other half - the popular literature. Thus, a new correct history of modern Chinese literature was called for. Impressively, this theory was unanimously accepted by all the participants, including notable May Fourth scholars Jia Zhifang, Yan Jiayan, and Qian Gurong. Nevertheless, this acceptance seemed more theoretical than practical, more sympathetic than critical. The problem remained unsolved and more crucial to the future of Butterfly scholarship: How to evaluate Butterfly in terms of aesthetic values? During the conference, the debates over the term “tongsu” (popular), by which the Butterfly was labeled, revealed certain anxiety. This anxiety had some reason: if Butterfly is limited to the popular, it would be inferior to the “pure literature” (chun wenxue), and, of course, ultimately it would be subject to the elite - May Fourth. In other words, if this popular “wing” is not strong enough, the double wing theory itself would hardly hold. The hidden core of the debates is that the May Fourth canon continues to dominate the field of literary criticism.(文献，无需翻译)<br />
<br />
<br />
例如，早在1960年代初魏绍昌发表了具有开创性的鸳鸯蝴蝶派书目，使这一派别的研究成为可能。最近他对“鸳鸯蝴蝶派”重新进行了评价，将其亲切地称为“美丽的帽子”。然而，这种隐喻却暗示着五四作家对鸳鸯蝴蝶派扣上“帽子”的再一次辩护。因此，魏先生坚称，哪怕是取得成功的最出色的鸳蝶派作品，论才智，论美学，他们都无法与鲁迅，茅盾和其他现代文学巨人媲美。<br />
此外，到目前为止，人们对鸳蝶派的学术兴趣从未超越小说。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:10, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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In 1997, a new claim for Butterfly essay arose when an eight-volume series ''The Compendium of Essays by Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school'' (Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi) was published. Implicitly, by the term ''daxi'' in the title, this series contended with the May Fourth canon, as it reminded one of the well-known ''Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi'' (The Compendium of Modern Chinese Literature) in ten volumes published in 1935, which became a monumental for the May Fourth literature. In his introduction, Yuan Jin, chief-editor of this ''Compendium of Butterfly Essay'', asserts that prior to the May Fourth period Butterflies had greatly achieved in essay writings. <br />
<br />
Yuan Jin, Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi: 1909-1949 (Shanghai: Dongfang chuban zhongxin, 1997) 3-4. （文献，无需翻译）<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
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Although after the 1920s most of them gradually accepted the new concept of ''sanwen'' used by May Fourth writers, they wrote in both vernacular and classical, and their essays still inherited the traditional literature, specifically the styles of ''xiaopin'' and ''biji''. Emphatic on their thematic and aesthetic characteristics as “representing quotidian life, the private feelings and tastes,” Yuan suggests that the Butterfly essay has its own literary and cultural roots. <br />
<br />
The ''Compendium of New Literature'' serves a linkage ''par excellence'', for it displays how a canon is formed by defining a genre.<br />
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尽管在20世纪20年代以后，他们大多数都逐渐接受了五四作家用的“散文”这个新概念，他们既用白话文也用文言文写作，他们的文章仍然继承着传统文学，尤其是“小品”和“笔记”的风格。袁强调这些文章的主题和美学要素“体现着现代生活，私人感情，和品位，”他认为蝴蝶散文的文学性和文化都有着自己的来源。<br />
《新文学纲要》起着连接伟大作品的作用，它体现了经典是如何通过定义一种文学流派而形成的。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 07:29, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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虽然20世纪20年代以后，他们中的大多数人逐渐接受了“五四”作家有关“散文”的新观念，但他们既用白话文也用文言文写作，他们的文章仍然继承传统文学，特别是“小品”和“笔记”的风格。袁着重指出，《蝴蝶随笔》具有“代表日常生活、私人情感和情趣”的主题和审美特征，并认为《蝴蝶随笔》有其独特的文学和文化根源。《新文学纲要》起着连接“卓越”的作用，因为它展示了经典作品是如何通过定义一种流派而形成的。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 05:08, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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As the view that the form of modern Chinese essay was born from May Fourth literary movement was still prevailing, it is necessary to see how this modern myth was made. At least, a kind of authentic definition of modern essay was explicated by Yu Dafu (1896-1945) and Zhou Zuoren (1885-1968) in their introductions to the ''sanwen'' anthologies they separately compiled for the ''Compendium''.<br />
<br />
At the time, almost two decades had elapsed since the May Fourth movement. And the New Culture, as incessantly embracing diverse isms from the West on the one hand and tortured by national and intellectual crises on the other, became more ideologically charged and consequently split into antagonistic camps.<br />
<br />
For example, Fan Peisong. Zhongguo xiandai sanwen shi (A History of Modern Chinese Essay) (Nanjing: Jiangsu jiaoyu chubanshe, 1993) 3. The first sentence: “The history of modern Chinese essay opened its curtain when the May Fourth new cultural movement started.”（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
有观点任务中国现代散文的形式诞生于五四文学运动，这一观点仍然盛行，该现代迷思是如何产生的值得一看。至少，郁达夫（1896-1945）和周作人（1885-1968）在他们各自为《纲要》编撰的“散文”选集时，于引言部分给予了现代散文一个真正的定义。<br />
<br />
当时，五四运动已经过去了近二十年。新文化运动一方面不断地接受来自西方的各种主义，另一方面又受到民族和知识危机的折磨，更受意识形态的控制，并因此分裂成对立的阵营。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 08:26, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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As for these invited editors, their relationships (for example, between Hu Shi and Lu Xun, or between Mao Dun and Yu Dafu) were ruined by political arguments, or by personal quarrels and insults. All these, however, did not prevent them from being together to make a new literary myth. It was unlikely that they would return to the old days, yet this tremendous project certainly offered each of them a role of literary master in reshaping the May Fourth history.<br />
<br />
至于这些被邀请的编辑，他们的关系（如胡适与鲁迅的关系，茅盾与郁达夫的关系），则毁于政治争论，或个人的争吵与侮辱。然而，所有这些，都不妨碍他们在一起创造新的文学神话。他们不可能再回到从前，然而这个巨大的工程无疑给他们每个人提供了作为文学大师重塑五四历史的机会。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:06, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
至于这些被邀请的编辑，他们的关系(例如胡适和鲁迅的关系，茅顿和郁达夫的关系)被政治争论、个人争吵和侮辱所破坏。然而，这一切并没有阻止他们共同创造一个新的文学神话。他们不太可能回到过去的日子，但这个宏大的计划无疑让他们每个人都成为了重塑五四历史的文学大师。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:30, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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Compromises were necessary, yet, as a matter of fact, the ''Compendium'' cannot be easily assessed as a whole, for all the works included were miscellaneous and conflicted in content and form. As most editors claimed, using ''baihua'' is the hallmark for the new literature, but there was some flaw in their consensus of excluding the Butterfly School and the Shanghai School (''haipai''), for both schools also wrote in ''baihua''; rather, the exclusions implied moral bias against urbanism. It was no wonder that a great collective effort was made to reconstruct the conception of new, which itself was authoritative, at least theoretically, inbred with the ideas of progressive history, humanistic universality, and the utopian future.<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
Thus, traced back to the moment of revolutionary departure, the new literature was portrayed as a myth of rootless origins, a timeless creation, isolated from the past; accordingly, the series presented their self-portraits as literary revolutionaries and cultural iconoclasts. In defining the modern essay, Yu Dafu can hardly figure out where the term ''sanwen'' comes from, left with a vague notion that it probably comes from the translation of the English term “prose.”<br />
<br />
As Yu stressed in his introduction, the greatest contribution the ''sanwen'' genre makes to May Fourth literature is the free expression of individualism.<br />
<br />
<br />
因此，追溯到革命离开的那一刻，新文学被描绘成一个无根起源的神话，一个与过去隔离的永恒的创造；在此基础上，以文学革命者和文化偶像派的形象展现了他们的自我形象 .在界定现代散文时，郁达夫很难找出“三文”这个词的来源，留下了一个模糊的概念，即它可能来自于英语“散文”这个词的翻译。<br />
<br />
正如余在导言中强调的那样，“三文”体裁对五四文学的最大贡献就是个人主义的自由表达。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:55, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，追溯到革命离开的那一刻，新文学被描绘成一个无根源的神话，一个与过去隔绝的永恒的创造；因此，这一系列作品呈现了他们作为文学革命者和文化偶像破坏者的自画像。郁达夫在定义现代散文时，很难弄清楚“三文”这个词的来源，只留下一个模糊的概念，认为它可能来自英语“散文”一词的翻译 <br />
<br />
正如俞正声在引言中所强调的那样，“三文”体裁对五四文学的最大贡献就是个人主义的自由表达。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:43, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
He is fascinated by this new and independent genre, with its multiple modes of representation and creative linguistic capacities distinct from those of fiction, poetry and drama. It is no accident that as a novelist well known for his autobiographical fiction displaying his sentimental, decadent and masochist personae, Yu believes that the essay should be a kind of self-writing in nature. In the same vein, Zhou Zuoren asserts that the modern essay was born from the linguistic shift from ''wenyan'' to ''baihua'', which of course should be attributed to the May Fourth literary achievement. He also gives the highest credit to this genre for its casualty, fluidity and flexibility - its specific capabilities of expressing the author’s own material and spiritual world.<br />
<br />
他着迷于这一新的独立的文体，其多样的表现方式和创造性的语言能力不同于小说、诗歌和戏剧。作为一个以表现自己感伤、颓废、受虐倾向的自传体小说而闻名的小说家，自然而然地，郁达夫会认为散文本质上应该是一种自我的书写。周作人同样认为，现代散文是在“文言”向“白话”的语言转换中诞生的，这当然要归功于“五四”的文学成就。他还高度赞扬了这一体裁的随意性、流动性和灵活性——这些特质可以表达出作者的物质和精神世界。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:11, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他着迷于这一新的独立文体，其具有不同于小说、诗歌和戏剧的多种表现方式和创造性的语言能力。绝非偶然，作为一个以自传体小说表现自己多愁善感、颓废和受虐倾向而著称的小说家，郁达夫认为，散文在本质上应该是一种自我的书写。同样，周作人断言，现代散文诞生于从“文言文”到“白话文”的转变，这当然应该归功于五四文学的成就。他还对这一文体的随意性、流动性和灵活性--表达作者自身物质世界和精神世界的特殊能力给予了最高的评价。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 01:42, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
In exalting the sanwen for its charismatic power, both Zhou and Yu exhibit a kind of anxiety, symbolically related to their status not only as masters of modern essay but, more interestingly, as spokesmen of May Fourth individualism. Their anxiety were charged with different motivation and rhetoric, however, for in the mid-1930s, their political and cultural stands were in stark contrast. More pessimistic to China’s internal and external crises, Zhou retreated from the revolutionary frontier of New Culture and turned to cultural conservatism. On the other hand, Yu was more inclined toward the Left Wing radicalism to redeem himself from his early decadent proclivity.<br />
<br />
在赞扬散文的魅力时，周作人和郁达夫都表现出一种焦虑，这是由于他们不仅是现代散文大师，更有趣的是，他们是五四个人主义的发言人。 然而，他们的焦虑来源于不同的动机和言辞，因为在20世纪30年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。周作人对中国内忧外患更加悲观，因此他从新文化革命的前沿退隐，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，郁达夫为了弥补自己早期的颓废倾向，所以更倾向于左翼激进主义。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:33, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
周瑜在提升三文的魅力时，表现出一种焦虑，象征着他们不仅是现代散文的大师，更有趣的是，他们是五四个人主义的代言人。他们的焦虑带有不同的动机和言辞，但在 1930 年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。对中国的内外危机更加悲观的是，周从新文化的革命前沿退缩，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，余更倾向于左翼激进主义，以弥补自己早期的堕落倾向。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在赞扬散文的魅力力量时，周和郁都表现出一种焦虑，这象征着他们不仅是现代散文大师，更有趣的是，他们是“五四”个人主义的代言人。然而，他们的焦虑被归咎于不同的动机和言辞，因为在20世纪30年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。周对中国内忧外患更加悲观，从新文化革命的前沿退隐，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，为了弥补自己早期的颓废倾向，俞正声更倾向于左翼激进主义。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:03, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
While characterizing the modern essay in social and ideological context, Yu emphasized the essayists’ responsibility to search for a harmony between the individual, nature and society. Moreover, he pointed out that May Fourth writers have endured an intellectual ordeal as they had first embraced the individuality and finally discovered the necessity to connect it to society and collectivity thanks to their moral conscience awakened by the bloody May Thirtieth incident. In contrast, Zhou showed a strong tendency of aestheticism and nihilism when claiming that he dislikes discussing ''sanwen'' in terms of history, political partisanship or any new isms.<br />
<br />
在描述社会和意识形态背景下的现代论文的特点时，于强调了论文家在个人，自然与社会之间寻求和谐的责任。 此外，他指出，“五四”作家首先接受了个性，然后由于血腥的“五月三十号”事件唤醒了他们的道德良心，最终发现了将其与社会和集体联系起来的必要性，因此经受了一次智力考验。 相比之下，周声称自己不喜欢在历史，政治党派或任何新思想上讨论“三文”时，表现出强烈的唯美主义和虚无主义倾向。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:59, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Yu Dafu. “Daoyan,” in Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi - Sanwen er ji (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu chuban gongsi, 1935) 1-19.（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
在描述社会和意识形态背景下的现代散文的特点时，于强调了散文家在个人、自然与社会之间寻求和谐的责任。 此外，他指出，“五四”作家首先接受了个性，然后由于血腥的“五月三十号”事件唤醒了他们的道德良心，最终发现了将其与社会和集体联系起来的必要性，因此经受了一次智力考验。 相比之下，周声称自己不喜欢在历史，政治党派或任何新思想上讨论“三文”时，表现出强烈的唯美主义和虚无主义倾向。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 12:00, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
Despite their different views, they actually shared the historical perspective in discussing the development and characteristics of modern essay, and neither of them could see beyond their own historical limits. In their reinterpreting the ''new'' literature, the history of form was encoded by the new ideology. First of all, integral with the canonical codes and process, the Compendium definitively presented the modern generic division of ''xiaoshuo'', ''shige'', ''xiju'', and ''sanwen''. Lydia Liu called this four-way division a “self-colonizing project” as these terms were perfectly translatable into “fiction,” “poetry,” “drama,” and “familiar essay,” respectively, in English. Historically, as she pointed out, the canonization of these “translated” norms of literary form radically subverted the classical canon as the legitimate source of meaning for Chinese culture and literature.<br />
<br />
尽管他们意见分歧，但在讨论现代论文的发展和其特点时，他们历史观点其实一样的，他们都无法超越自己的历史束缚。 在他们重新解释“新”文学时，形式的历史是由新意识形态编码的。 首先，与规范代码和过程集成在一起，该纲要明确地提出了“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏局”和“散文”的现代通用划分。 吕迪亚·刘（Lydia Liu）将此四分方式称为“自我殖民化项目”，因为这些术语完美地翻译成英语中的“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏剧”和“熟悉的论文”。 正如她所指出的那样，从历史上看，对这些文学形式“已译”规范的规范化从根本上颠覆了经典规范作为中国文化和文学意义的合法来源。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:45, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管意见存在分歧，但在讨论现代论文的发展和其特点时，他们历史观点其实一样的，这些文章都无法超越自身的历史束缚。 他们在重新解释“新”文学时指出，形式的历史是由新意识形态编码而成的。 首先，该纲要将规范代码和过程融合在一起，明确地提出了“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏局”和“散文”的现代通用划分。 吕迪亚·刘（Lydia Liu）将这四种方式称为“自我殖民化项目”，这是因为这些术语能完美对应英语中的“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏剧”和“熟悉的论文”。 正如她所指出的那样，从历史上看，对这些文学形式的翻译标准规范化从根本上颠覆了经典规范作为中国文化和文学意义的合法来源。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Both Yu and Zhou took this modernized generic system for granted. The genre of essay, according to Zhou, represents the finest achievement of New Literature thanks to its capacities to represent widest scopes of life and individual emotions and reflections, with multiple, sophisticate techniques and styles, yet it is succeeded lastly compared to fiction and drama. Zhou’s discontent can be heard when he traced the tradition of modern essay back to the late Ming ''xiaopin wen'', a move showing his pro-tradition revision that was arguable within the May Fourth camp. But he treated ''sanwen'' as an integral part in the system of four genres, and his discussion of formal problems was restricted by this systemic framework.<br />
<br />
郁达夫和周作人都视这种现代化的通用体系为理所当然。在周看来，散文这种文体代表着新文学的最好成就。因为散文能够以多样的，复杂的技巧和风格体现广阔的生活视野和个人的情感与思考，它最终与小说和戏剧相比也是成功的。周的不满可以从他追溯现代散文传统到晚明时期的小品文的中寻迹。此举表明了他对传统的修正，也引发了五四阵营中的争论。但他将散文视为四种文体体系中的一个重要组成部分，对形式问题的探讨就受到了这一体系框架的制约。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 10:55, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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郁和周都认为这种现代化的通用体系是理所当然的。 在周看来，散文代表着新文学的最佳成就，这是因为散文能够以多样，复杂的技巧和风格，展现最广泛的生活画面和个人情感和思考，最终与小说和戏剧相比较也是成功的。 周的不满体现在他追溯现代散文的传统至明晚期的“小品文”，此举表明他亲传统的修正，在五四阵营中是有争议的。 但是他将“散文”视为锶中文体系中不可或缺的一部分，他对形式问题的讨论受到这种系统框架的制约。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 08:11, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
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It was with this canon of modernized generic division that both Zhou and Yu described sanwen in rational terms, defining its linguistic and literary features in order to assert its superiority to other genres. This assertion was grounded on the legitimacy of the generic system and ultimately verified the system as a scientific and organic whole. In characterizing ''sanwen''’s representational capacities, Zhou used three terms: narrating, reasoning, and expressing emotions. More elaborate was Yu’s characterization with four terms, each of which was matched with an English equivalent in parenthesis – “description,” “narration,” “exposition,” and “persuasion” or “argumentation.” A slightly variant explication was allowed when he at the same time showed his favor to other categorical terms such as the reasoning, lyricism, description, and narration.<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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Here Zhou’s notion of ''meiwen'' (beautiful essay) invites our special attention as it is involved with his historical speculation of the genre, which nonetheless suggests something else. Citing his published articles in chronological order, Zhou shows how he had tirelessly explored ''sanwen'' as a new form and at the same time elaborated his own theory of the genre. As he says he still cherishes his original idea that essay should be as perfect as ''meiwen'', which he had advocated as early as the late 1910s. This historical tracing seemed not only to review his insights from the mirror of history, as a matter of fact it aimed at reshaping his politics of “aesthetic essay” in the new cultural situation.<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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Nevertheless, Zhou’s historicity in the 1935 introduction might reveal more about his painstaking search for the ideal concept of literature if he had drawn deeper from his memory. As early as 1908, he wrote a long essay, whose importance was manifested by its title “On the Significance and Mission of Writing and the Mistakes in Recent Chinese Literary Criticism” (Lun wenzhang zhi yiyi ji qi shiming, yin ji Zhongguo jinshi lunwen zhi deshi). It reveals his initial idea of ''meiwen'' as he had already talked about it, yet the fact that it was neglected by Zhou in 1935 might be more revelatory, for in 1908 what he really argued for was the term ''wenzhang'' (literature) rather than ''meiwen''. In other words, the excavation of Zhou’s literary past repressed by himself opens up a zone of “twilight memories” to serve my purpose.<br />
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然而，如果周能从自己的记忆中汲取更多的话，他在1935年序言中的历史性可能会更多地揭示出他对文学理想的苦苦追寻。早在1908年，他就写了一篇题为《论写作的意义和使命及中国近代文学批评中的错误》的长文，他的重要性就体现在这篇长文上。正如他之前所说，这本书揭示了他对“文学性”的最初想法，但更具有启示性的是，这本书在1935年被周忽视了，因为在1908年，他真正主张的是“文学”一词，而不是“美文”。换句话说，对曾为周所压抑的文学的挖掘，打开了一个“朦胧记忆”的区域，为我的目的服务。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，如果周能回忆起更多细节的话，他在1935年所作序言中的历史性可能会更多地揭示出他对理想化文学概念的苦苦追寻。早在1908年，他就写了一篇题为《论文章之义以及其使命及中国近代文学批评中的错误》的长文，其重要性正如标题所言。这本书揭示了他对美文的最初想法，但令人惊喜的是，周的这一观点早在1935年提出过，但却未得到重视。因为在1908年，他真正主张的是“文学”一词，而不是“美文”。换句话说，对周树人文学经历的挖掘为我展现了一块“暮光记忆”的区域，对本篇文章的论述大有裨益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:07, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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The essay shows how he intensely seeks a legitimate idea of literature between the terms of ''wenzhang, wenxue, and xiaoshuo'', or in a sense it epitomizes a battlefield of naming literature at the time. While sharing the contemporary intellectual consensus that literary discourse is one of the most viable medium to reshape national spirit, Zhou attempts to construct a system of literature by glorifying the idea of ''wenzhang'' which he identifies with the Latin word ''literature''. The ideal of wenzhang is embodied by artistic and affectionate expressions in archaic style (no wonder this essay was written in classical language). In order to enthrone his concept of ''wenzhang'' as a kind of new authentic classicism, he annotates the term by deriving from Western literary theories on the one hand, and on the other he combatively denounces other influential terms such as ''wenxue'' or ''xiaoshuo''.<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
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Paradoxically, Zhou criticizes Liang Qichao’s notion of ''xiaoshuo'' for its utilitarian bent, yet he embraces it to such an extent that he equates it with the ''wenzhang'', lest it should be furnished with true sincerity in describing reality so as to move human emotions. The terms ''sanwen'' and ''meiwen'' do appear, once for each, and yet were casually treated; the former means trivial and lack of aesthetic quality, and the latter is less than a concept.<br />
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矛盾的是，周批评梁启超“小说”的功利主义倾向，却又欣然接受，甚至将小说与文章相提并论，惟恐文章在描写现实时表现出真诚，从而打动人心。“散文”和“美文”这两个词确实各自出现过一次，但却被随意对待;前者意味着琐碎和缺乏审美品质，后者则称不上是一个概念。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:54, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
Lydia Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity China, 1900-1937 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995) 235.<br />
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Charles A. Laughlin excellently analyzed Zhou Zuoren's advocacy of late Ming xiaopin and its tension within the May Fourth literary theory in his paper "Legacies of Leisure: Late Imperial Influences on the 20th Century Chinese Essay" held at the essay conference in Achern (Germany) in August 25-27, 2000.<br />
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Zhou Zuoren, “Daoyan”, in Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi, Sanwen yi ji (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu gongsi, 1935) 1-14.<br />
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Zhou Zuoren, “Lun wenzhang zhi yiyi ji qi shiming, yin ji Zhongguo jinshi lunwen zhi deshi.” In Wang Yunxi, Wu Guoping, and Huang Lin, eds., Zhongguo wenlun xuan, jindai juan (Selections of Chinese literary criticism, The modern period) (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1996) 689-725.<br />
（文献无需翻译）<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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Obviously, the text, with his idea and style, looked outmoded by 1935. He had lost the battle of naming. The contestation of these terms resulted in the establishment of literary hierarchy consisted by the concepts of ''wenxue'' that meant literature in general sense, and the genres of ''xiaoshuo'' and ''sanwen'' as its major constituents. While forgetting his past as a neo-classicist, Zhou’s memory was effected by the canonical process of modern division of genres. Nevertheless, dimly echoing his early neo-classical vision he rebelled against the literary division while identifying the “beautiful essay” with late Ming ''xiaopin wen'', though in the end he must remain as a modern master essayist, filled with agony and nostalgia.<br />
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显然，1935年时，再回首他的这篇文章，从思想和风格来看，都已经过时了。周作人已经输掉了这场命名之战。关于这些术语的论战，直接促成了文学分层。而文学分层主要是由“文学”概念构成，并且还主要包含“小说”和“散文”这两个体裁。周作人虽然业已忘却他身为新古典主义作家的过去，不过他的思维还是受到了现代体裁划分的经典过程影响。不过，在用明朝晚期的“小品文”来判别“优美的散文”同时，简单地重复周作人反对文学层次划分的早期新古典主义思想，他也还是满腹悲伤与思乡，哪怕最终他必须捍卫自己现代散文大师的身份。<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
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'''Search for New Form and Subject'''<br />
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While the Poetry Revolution (''shijie geming''), Prose Revolution (''wenjie geming'') and Fiction Revolution (''xiaoshuojie geming''), launched by Liang Qichao from 1899 to 1902, signified that Chinese literature entered the modern epoch, the division of literary genres emerged. The most influential and controversial was the Fiction Revolution, for it was traditionally despised yet directly linked with the mass politics that loomed at the threshold of the century. In his famous essay “On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People” (Lun xiaoshuo yu qunzhi zhi guanxi), Liang claimed that “fiction is the crowning glory of literature,” and that the “new fiction” should embody a new national soul. This intellectual subservience to populism was not whimsical, rather the subversion of poetic reign within the hierarchy of traditional genres served a metaphor for the collapse of traditional value system.<br />
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寻求新形式、新主旨<br />
梁启超在1899年至1902年发动的诗界革命、文界革命和小说界革命，预示着中国文学开启了现代化的纪元，不同的文学体裁开始出现。小说界革命是影响力最大的，也最受争议，因为它历来受到鄙视，但与降临于世纪之初的群众政治有着直接联系。梁在其著名文章《论小说与群治之关系》中声称“小说是文学的无上光荣”，“新小说”应该体现一种新的民族魂。这对于有民粹主义倾向的知识分子来说，不是在异想天开，相反，它颠覆了诗歌在传统体裁等级制度下的统治地位，象征着传统价值体系的崩塌。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:32, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
As Ted Huters explicated, the transformation of prose theories in late Qing period resulted in the ascendancy of the status of “writing” (''wen'') that is closer to the modern conception of “literature” (''wenxue''). Yet, the Fiction Revolution changed the generic course drastically. Widely anticipated for its superiority in mass education, the concept of xiaoshuo was elevated to the ontological level, as important as that of ''wen''. Although the Prose Revolution carried with it the power of “new prose style” (''xin wenti'') invented by Liang himself, it could hardly compete with the Fiction Revolution. While the “new prose style” was limited in its modes of expression, the literary contours were more vibrant with the movement of ''xiaoshuo''. Put it simply, in this period, what determined the formation of modern essay were the theory and practice of ''xiaoshuo'' rather than those of ''wen''.<br />
<br />
正如胡志德（Ted Huters）所阐明的那样，清末时期的散文理论导致“文”地位的上升，更接近于现代的“文学”概念。然而，小说革命彻底改变了通用路线。由于小说在大众教育的地位显著，小说的概念已提升到本体论的水平，与“文”的地位同等重要。虽然散文革命有梁启超提出的“新文体”，但其地位还是难以与小说革命相媲美。“新文体”在表达方式上受限，但其文学轮廓比小说革命更加鲜明。简而言之，在这个时期，决定现代散文形成的原因是小说理论和实践的出现，而非“文”理论和实践的提出。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, literary tradition was reinvented by the notion of new fiction. Contrary to Liang’s expectation, ''xin xiaoshuo'' was still entangled with its tradition; selected and combined by new rules, the tradition offered ''new fiction'' possibilities to adopt literary techniques from the West. Perhaps Liang and his followers created this ambiguity, as the ''xiaoshuo'' came from the Japanese translation of Western “fiction” or “novel” and at the same time it was mixed with traditional popular genres of drama and ''tanci'' (musical and performing story-telling). Ironically, while claiming for its capacities to represent the human realms with “complexity, penetration, vividness, and thoroughness” (''quzhe touda, linli jingzhi''), it was also offered with almost a full range of traditional literary genres for choice.<br />
<br />
实际上，文学传统是由新小说的概念再创的。与梁启超的期望相反，“新小说”仍然与其传统相联系；通过新规则的选择与结合，这一传统为“新小说”提供了接受西方文学技法的可能性。也许梁启超和他的追随者创造了这种模棱两可，因为“小说”来自于日本对西方"fiction“或"novel"的翻译，与此同时，它又混合了传统的流行戏剧和”弹词“（音乐和表演故事）。具有讽刺意味的是，尽管它以”复杂,渗透，生动，彻底“宣称人类领域的能力，它也出于自己的喜爱得到了一种全方位的传统文学种类。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:42, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
There was a tension within the “new fiction” between its lofty mission to save China and its tradition of “small talk” - fiction for popular desires. The pendulum did not go back to the “small talk” until the mid-1910s when a new wave of urban periodicals surged, this time catering to intimate space and individual pleasure. This was the time of despair and expectation, of reshaping the public and private spheres, full of conflicts between tradition and modernity in terms of social norms of love, marriage and family. New interests in romances were accompanied with the aspiration for first person narratives from the West, such as memoir, love-letter, diary, and confession. It was no accident that popular magazines and newspapers were saturated with the sad love stories, among which Xu Zhenya’s (1889-1937) ''Yu li hun'' (Jade Pearl Spirit) became a bestseller in 1914. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
This weird combination - a tragic romance interwoven with the author’s memory of youth and the style of archaic parallelism - seemed to attract more the refined reading public. Wu Shuangre (1884-1934), a writer also known for tragic romance, redefined the ''xiaoshuo'' as the “opposite to the big discourse (''dashuo''),” his emphasis on the ''smallness'' of fiction was urged by new desire and social needs.<br />
<br />
这种怪异的组合-悲剧性的浪漫情怀与作者对青年的记忆和古老的平行主义风格交织在一起-这似乎吸引了更多精准的读者。 吴双热（1884-1934），又是一位以悲剧性的浪漫闻名的作家，将“小说”重新定义为“与大话语（“大说”）相对”，新的欲望和社会需求促使他强调小说的“小”。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:11, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种奇怪的组合-悲剧性的浪漫故事与作者对青春的记忆和古老的平行主义风格交织在一起-似乎吸引了更多精准的读者。吴双热（1884-1934），一位以悲剧性浪漫闻名的作家，将“小说”重新定义为“大篇幅（大说）的对立面”，他受到新欲的望和社会需求的敦促，强调小说的“小”。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:05, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
Zhou’s intellectual background behind his critique of Liang Qichao and Lin Shu should not be ignored. Influenced by Zhang Taiyan whom Zhou and his brother Zhou Shuren (later Lu Xun) followed during their stay in Japan, Zhou’s archaic vision of literature was based on the conviction that learning from the West by deriving from the Chinese past with deeper and wider scopes can prevent from the danger of populism and mass politics. <br />
<br />
Liang Qichao, “On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People.” Trans. Gek Nai Cheng, in Kirk Denton, ed., Modern Chinese Literary Thought, 74-81.<br />
<br />
Theodore Huters, “From Writing to Literature: The Development of Late Qing Theories of Prose.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 47 (1987) 51-90.<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
周批判梁启超和林纾背后的知识背景不容忽视。周和他的兄弟周树人(后来的鲁迅)在日本期间跟随张太炎，受张太炎的影响，周对文学的陈旧看法是建立在这样一种信念之上的，即从更深更广的范围借鉴中国的过去，学习西方，以此防止出现民粹主义和大众政治的危险。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 06:08, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
See, “Zhongguo weiyi zhi wenxue bao Xin xiaoshuo” (The only literary magazine New Fiction in China). Xinmin congbao 14 (1902). When the New Fiction magazine was inaugurated in 1902, Liang and his colleagues lent its representational capacities the widest scopes of lifeworld and the richest literary resources, though in the name of “Western fiction.” The genres include popular song, rhythmic expressions such as drama and musicala storytelling.<br />
<br />
<br />
参见《中国文学史》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民同保14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们以“西方小说”的名义，将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。<br />
<br />
参见《中国唯意志文学报新小说》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民从报14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志创刊时，梁启超和他的同事们虽然打着 "西洋小说 "的旗号，将其代表能力赋予了全世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。体裁包括流行歌曲、戏剧等韵律性的表现形式和音乐剧故事。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
参见《中国文学史》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民同保14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们虽以“西方小说”的名义，但将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Zhou meticulously experimented with first person narratives in the mid-1910s. In the wake of collapse of traditional values, literature became a vent for repressed psychology, and meanwhile functioned in reordering the structures of feelings and perceptions that purported to pave a way to rebuilding national spirituality. Therefore, intellectual anxiety was attached to seeking new literary genres. At the time, Zhou was spotlighted on the literary arena with ''Saturday'' (Libailiu), a weekly popular magazine aimed to entertain and educate urban readers mainly by the principles of literary pleasure aimed to articulate and regulate desires of everyday life and consumer psychology. This boom of urban print culture signified an inversion to the previous Fiction Revolution devoted to patriotism and national ethos; its representations focused more on the private realms and individuals, revealing a clearer character of the “small talk.” In this sense, Zhou’s intense uses of first person narratives were a necessity for him to represent a kind of the autonomous individual in urban space as an integral part of the periodical culture.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” appeared in 1917, in the ''Pictorial Story'' (Xiaoshuo huabao) edited by Bao Tianxiao, who announced from the outset that this monthly fiction magazine aims to promote the ''baihua'' fiction. In a history of Chinese literature published in late-1950s, this story was picked out as a typical Butterfly work: “[it is] empty and poor in its content, full of meaningless words and sentences.” However, this biased criticism neglected the fact that this short story was a pioneering ''baihua'' fiction, which appeared in a fiction magazine, which advocated the ''baihua'' prior to the May Fourth movement! 、<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
Indeed, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was labeled as ''xiaoshuo'', but the notion of ''xiaoshuo'' in the teens ambiguously crossed the boundaries of old and new, and Zhou had barely the idea of modern ''sanwen''. Rather, shown by the story mixed with the elements of poetry, prose and drama, his understanding of ''xiaoshuo'' was conventional and transitional. Interestingly, some critic conceived that the notion of ''sanwen'' was stemmed from ''xiaoshuo''. In 1914, Cheng Zhi’s essay “Miscellaneous Remarks on Fiction” (Xiaoshuo conghua) holds that nowadays only ''xiaoshuo'' can do what literature can do; it is so important and enchanting that it can fulfill the task of literature while artistically expressing human emotions and aesthetic thoughts. Since all literary expressions, according to him, appeal to optic and audio perceptions, ''xiaoshuo'' contains both ''sanwen'' (prosaic) and ''yunwen'' (rhythmic) texts. The former can be the vernacular or literary language; the latter includes romance drama and rhythmic story-telling. As the chart intricately shows, the ''sanwen'' is sandwiched: on one side it grows out of the trunk of ''xiaoshuo'', and on other side it bifurcates its own branches of literary and vernacular languages. We cannot decide to what extent this concept of ''sanwen'' can be related to that of the May Fourth generic system, yet its connotations were still valid in the Butterfly use after the 1920s. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
The chaotic conditions of literary genres opened up new possibilities, and “In the Nine-Flower Curtain,” as a kind of self-representation, exhibited Zhou’s obsession with subjective writings, blended with the elements of dairy, love-letter, confession, and fictional autobiography. Here, I only briefly show Zhou’s devotion to two kinds of the first person narratives - autobiography and lover-letter. These forms adopted by Zhou, no matter it belongs to the concept of ''xiaoshuo'' at the time or more to the ''sanwen'' in today’s standard, had a specific charm of lyricism and sensuality that most appealed to him. One type referred to the subgenre of autobiography - amorous memoirs - a colorful branch in Ming-Qing erotic-sentimental tradition, represented by Mao Xiang’s ''Memoirs of the Plum Shadow Studio'' (Ying mei an yiyu) and Jiang Tan’s ''Reminiscences of the Autumn Lamp'' (Qiu deng suoyi). These texts were included in an anthology titled ''Selections of Memoirs'' (Yiyu xuan) Zhou edited and published in 1920s. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Another inspiration came from Washington Irving, whom Zhou considered a literary genius. He highly praised Irving’s ''Sketch-Book'' for its “creativity and uniqueness”; he appreciated most “Westminster Abbey,” “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” “The Broken Heart” and “RipVan Winkle.” Interestingly, Zhou understoods Irving through the window of Chinese literary past. He translated the ''Sketch-Book'' into the form of ''biji'', with his comments saturated with the classical poetics: “His writings are secluded and flagrant, limped and stretching far (''youxin danyuan''), like violets in flower-shrubes; they are also delicate and charming, drifting aloof (''qingqian piaoyi''), like a pen thrown into the sky becomes a capricious dragon.” <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
Zhou’s mania for love-letters evinces his pursuit of the fashion, chic and commercial, in contrast to his literati personality immersed in the erotic-sentimental poetics. Raoul Findeisen rightly pointed out that the genre of love-letter enhances to codify the heterosexual love in modern Chinese literature. This form was introduced into China hand in hand with the assimilation of Western-style customs and the idea of free communication between man and woman. At least in 1911, ''qingshu'' as a translated term for “love-letter” appeared in a funny essay “Ji qingshu zhi xinfa” (A new way to send a love-letter) in ''Shenbao''. As a piece of passionate ''qinghua'', “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” should be connected to Zhou’s “Qingshu hua” (On love-letter), a series of essays he contributed to ''Shenbao'' in 1919. These essays talk about the world famous love stories of Napoleon, Byron, Hugo, and many others, and specifically about how they wrote love-letters. For example, amidst wars Napoleon never forgot to write to Josephine; Zhou translated his words: “I am begging you to receive my thousand kisses, and don’t give me back any of your’s, otherwise my blood will boil.” Also with great zeal he talks about how Hugo wrote 120 letters to his fiancee Adele Forcher. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
Known as master of the “sad love story” in the mid-1910s, he wrote numerous short stories which appeared in around a dozen periodicals and newspapers; among them a number of first person narratives were in best quality. While breaking with the traditional love discourse and modes of romance, his love stories depicted new urban subjects in newly formed public spaces such as the public park, tramcar, medical clinic, and movie theater. Most noticeable is his ''Short Stories from Famous European and American Writers'' (Oumei mingjia dianpian xiaoshuo congkan) published in 1917, revealing his ways of dealing with the personal pronounces under chaotic conditions. Among fifty stories included, twenty-six stories belong to first person narrative. Interestingly, in all the eight vernacular texts the first person pronoun is ''wo'', and in the rest eighteen stories in classical language, the first person pronouns are variantly used between ''yu'', ''yu'' and ''wu''.<br />
<br />
作为1910年代中期描写爱情悲剧的大师，他写了许多短篇故事，并发表在众多期刊和报纸上；其中，那些以第一人称的角度叙述的故事是最好的。他打破了传统爱情故事的语言和抒情方式，他的爱情故事描述了发生在公园、电车、诊所、电影院等新式公共空间的新的城镇主体。更惹人注意的是，他的译作《欧美名家短篇小说丛刊》在1917年出版，揭示了他在嘈杂的环境中处理个人观点的方式。书中所包含的50个故事，其中26个从第一人称的角度进行叙述。有趣的是，在8篇用方言写的文本中，第一人称的代词用的是“wo”，在剩下的18篇用古典语言写的故事中，第一人称的代词多用“yu”“yu”和“wu”。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:05, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
This selection of ''wo'' for the vernacular seemed identical to the establishment of “I” as the male subjectivity in May Fourth literature, but they bore different logic of modernity. Perhaps there was another kind of “translated modernity” in Zhou: the vernacular ''wo'' is not the absolute in the whole anthology. Zhou’s selected uses of the personal pronouns include not only the first person pronouns but the second and third person pronouns, showing a chaotic state of literary subject. He is more plural and playful while experimenting with both the vernacular and the classical, and one is not subject to the other. Fascinated by multiple possibilities in the new literary situations, he was more concerned with ways of using different first person pronouns to suit different modes and styles of representations, in accordance with his own linguistic sensitivity and capability. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Fan Boqun pointed out that Zhou contributed to modern literature in its early phase by experimenting with psychological forms such as diary, epistoral fiction, and that his creative writings were indebted to his translation. See, “Zhu, bian, yi jie jing de ‘wenzi laogong’: Zhou Shoujuan pingzhuan” (A literary laboror in his refined achievements of writing, editing and translating: A biography of Zhou Shoujuan), in Fan Boqun, ed., Zhongguo jin xiandai tongsu zuojia pingzhuan congshu (A series of modern Chinese popular writers) vol. 4, 177. If this was a late credit to Zhou, there had been another one about his 1917 translation of Famous European and American Short Stories. In the early 1960s he wrote to his daughter revealing the fact that his 1917 translation was praised by Lu Xun and awarded by the Republican Education Bureau, and that he did not know this until he had read Zhou Zuoren’s memoir in the early 1950s. This information was revealed after his literary career was criticized as a reactionary current against the new literature.<br />
<br />
范伯群（Fan Boqun）指出，周小川（Zhou Xiaochuan）对现代文学的早期贡献在于心理文学方面，例如日记、书信体小说等，同时，他的翻译对其创作贡献极大。见“朱，卞，易节经得‘文子劳公'：《周守隽（Zhou Shoujuan)评传》”（文学工作者，在写作、编辑、翻译方面取得卓越成就:《周守隽传》），范伯群编:《中国现代通俗作家丛书》第4卷，177页。如果说这本书是周小川迟来的荣誉的话，那么他1917年翻译的欧美著名短篇小说就是他的另一荣耀。上世纪60年代初他给女儿写的信中表明，他1917年的译作受到了鲁迅的赞赏和民国教育局的嘉奖，但是这一点还是他在上世纪50年代初读周作人的回忆录中知晓的。他的文学生涯被批判为反对新文学的反动潮流后，这一信息才透露出来的。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:35, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
Lydia Liu deals with the use of first person pronoun wo that designates “I” as a central issue of “translated modernity” in modern Chinese literature. Along with wo becoming the only victor in the contests of first person pronouns through heavy traffic of transnational cultures, the male vernacular subjectivity is established (see Lydia Liu, 154-55).<br />
<br />
The Poetics of Persuasion“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was the author’s “love talk” (''qinghua'') to his bride in the first night of marriage, a passionate confession of his bitter past, with sentiment and self-esteem, and meanwhile he expresses his love and hope for their conjugal life in the future. The narrative begins with a third person account of how the author’s wedding ceremony was held in ''Yeshiyuan'', one of famous public parks in the city, and how in the night his friends gathered in the wedding chamber making fun of the new couple.<br />
<br />
莉迪亚·刘指明“I”的第一人称代词“我”的运用作为现代中国文学中翻译现代化的核心问题。随着wo成为通过跨国文化在阻力很大的前进路线上第一人称代词竞赛的唯一胜利者，男性白话主体性得到了确立（见莉迪亚·刘，154-55）。<br />
<br />
《九花帐里》是作者在新婚夜晚对他新娘的情话,他充满激情,带有情绪和自尊地忏悔着他痛苦的过去，同时表达了他对未来夫妻生活的爱和希望。故事以第三人称开始叙述，描述了作者在城市著名的公园之一，也是园的婚礼是如何举行的，在新婚夜里他的朋友聚在新房里如何打趣这对新人的。 --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:13, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
This brief opening is like the “prologue” in premodern vernacular stories, a device originated from thirteen-century drama. By this convention a stage is set for the drama of the pillow talk, predicting his theatricality. Nevertheless, with the phrase “Zhou Shoujuan says” at the very beginning, the tradition is inverted, for in old days, fiction writing is not a respectful job and the author’s name never appeared. While the vernacular storytellers were too humble to claim his authorship, literati were too proud to do so. Perhaps it was Lin Shu who self-consciously broke with the tradition as he signed his name on the novels he translated.<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，这种手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，为枕边话的戏剧性搭建了一个舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，一开始就用“周守娟说”这句话来颠覆了传统，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么尊贵的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，但文人却为之骄傲。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:04, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，这种手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，为枕边话的戏剧性搭建了一个舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，有了开头的 "周寿娟说 "这句话，这个传统就被颠覆了，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么尊贵的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，文人却骄傲得不敢。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，其手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，作者为枕边话剧搭建了舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，有了开头 "周寿娟说 "这句话，这个传统就被颠覆了，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么体面的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，文人却骄傲得不屑。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:52, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
This self-referential information at the outset is more than a self-promotion: it sets a tone of respectfulness and expectation, evoking a blissful and jubilant atmosphere for what follows. Moreover, the voice from a famous writer suggests new semantics of love and new ways of expressing love. Of course, the marriage is a new chapter in his life; it was the fashion to have a Western-style wedding (''wenming jiehun'') in a public park. The guests are celebrities, novelist, journalists and print entrepreneurs, such as Bao Tianxiao, Chen Diexian, Ding Song, indicative of a newly born social stratum recognized by the urban public.<br />
<br />
这种自我参照的信息在一开始就不仅仅是自我推销:它设定了尊重和期待的基调，为接下来的事情唤起一种幸福和欢乐的氛围。此外，一位著名作家的声音暗示了爱的新语义和表达爱的新方式。当然，婚姻是他人生的新篇章;在公园举行西式婚礼是当时的时尚。受邀的嘉宾有名人、小说家、记者和报业大亨，如鲍天晓、陈蝶仙、丁松等，他们代表着城市公认的新生社会阶层。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
When Zhou promises to satisfy his friends’ curiosity about what he said to the bride “inside the curtain” in the first night, he deliberately shifts the scene from the backdrop to the main tableau - the curtain. His wedding, albeit part of his private life, was already exposed by Bao Tianxiao and Chen Diexian who, as Zhou mentioned, had written about this event and published them in newspapers. And Zhou himself announced that his own pillow talk would appear in the ''Pictorial Story''. Aware of his privacy under the public gaze, Zhou spotlighted the “curtain” as center stage, namely in the innermost space of the chamber; this is bold and unconventional. Of the marriage rituals and symbols familiar to the Chinese, those descriptions related to the wedding chamber are most erogenous and mysterious, arousing their erotic and voyeurist desire.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
In ''Six records of a floating life'' (Fusheng liu ji), a classical autobiography, Shen Fu (1763-?) vividly depicts, “I saw by the light of our wedding candles that Yun’s figure was as slim as before. When her veil was lifted we smiled at each other. And we had shared the ceremonial cup of wine and sat down together for the wedding banquet, I secretly took her small hand under the table. It was warm and it was soft, and my heart beat uncontrollably.” However, readers might be disappointed as there is no such details they expected. Yet to great writers, dealing with the first wedding night is a moment to play with readers’ expectation. For example, in one of Li Yu’s stories, after the bridegroom undresses the bride, he is shocked by the fact that she is a “stone woman” who lacks the sexual organ! In ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', when Baoyu lifts the bride’s veil, he finds Baocai instead Daiyu - he is cheated by his family seniors who makes the substitute; thus the dark side of traditional marriage system is unveiled and the tragic theme of the novel reaches its climax. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The narrator’s loving voice begins with: “My Phoenix Lady: This is the first night of our marriage, the first day to raise the curtain of our family life. Whether our chamber will be paradise or hell, the drama opens from the present; whether our life will be sad or happy, we will open our theater today.” The long and passionate pillow talk is lyrical and decorative in style, with verbal and imagery rhetorical devices such as the poetic couplets and parallel sentences, metaphors, and repetitions, blending the classical and Western-style vocabulary and grammar. The bridegroom says: <br />
<br />
From now on, you become a member of my family; your name Hu Fengjun is crowned with the surname Zhou. Since you stepped into the door of Zhou, naturally you will do something for his family. The domestic duty falls on us with weight; we should carry it together: the half of it is on my shoulder, the other half on your’s. We should become one heart in order to overcome innumerable difficulties ahead of us. My old mother needs your good service, the multiple household needs your great care. If sometimes I am worried, you should understand me, and care about me.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
The most important word for husband and wife is “love,” which comes from their mutual understanding and mutual care. If we love each other until the last day of our life, we will spend our whole life in a wonderland with flower and the moon. Every second of our time is gilded with honey and sugar; everywhere in this world is as beautiful as rose. At our ears we often hear the singing birds; before our eyes we often see the flowers in smile. In four seasons, we always have bright and fantastic landscapes around us; the sky looks embroidered, even from cruel storm and frost there grows out the splendid Spring.<br />
<br />
Therefore it is truly important for a couple to love each other, and nothing else is so important. If you have a plenty of money but no love, if you are so tightly fastened by the “red string” that you cannot escape from it, then although you are still husband and wife, how can you feel any happy? Since the ancient time, countless virtuous women were victimized as such. In this first day of our marriage, we should think of a way to make our love forever: each day we should let our hearts meet and mirror each other.<br />
<br />
夫妻之间最重要的词是“爱”，它来自于彼此的理解和关心。如果我们相爱直到生命的最后一天，我们将在一个有花有月的仙境度过我们的一生。我们的每一秒都充满了甜蜜与糖;世界上任何地方都像玫瑰一样美丽。我们经常听到鸟儿在耳边歌唱;我们经常看到微笑的花朵出现在眼前。在四季中，总是有明亮的和奇妙的风景在我们周围;天空看起来像绣了花一样，即使是残酷的风暴和霜冻也会带来灿烂的春天。<br />
<br />
因此，夫妻彼此相爱是非常重要的，没有什么比这更重要了。如果你们有很多钱却没有爱情，如果你们被那根“红线”拴得死死的，那么即使你们还是夫妻，你们怎么能感到幸福呢? 自古以来，有无数贤惠的妇女成为这样的受害者。在我们结婚的第一天，我们应该想办法让我们的爱永远:每一天我们应该让我们的心相遇，彼此关照。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 09:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
A reader of modern taste may frown at the rhetoric of excess and hyperbole, the naive self-indulgence, and the Chauvinist male voice in this early ''baihua'' prattle. But in this early modern phase, what most fascinates the contemporaries are its novelty and hybridity of diverse images and grammars; i.e. the unfamiliar is within the familiar, the modern within the traditional. Perry Link asserted that Butterfly fiction provides “psychological comfort” to the urban readers who feel the pressure of modernity. Yet, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” provides something more positive than the “psychological comfort”: the narrator’s persuasive voice throughout this pillow talk.<br />
<br />
具有现代品味的读者可能会对早期的白话闲聊中过分夸张的修辞、幼稚的自我放纵和沙文主义的男性声音感到不适。但在这个早期的现代阶段，最吸引同时代人的是它新奇和混杂的意象和语法;也就是说，熟悉之中带有陌生感，传统之中带有现代感。佩里·林克认为，蝴蝶小说为感到现代化压力的城市读者提供了“心理安慰”。然而，《九花帘幕》提供了比“心理安慰”更积极的东西：带有劝慰性的叙述者的语言贯穿了整个枕边谈话。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:40, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
具有现代品味的读者可能会对早期的白话闲聊中过分夸张的修辞、幼稚的自我放纵和大男子主义色彩的男性话语感到不适。但在这个早期的现代阶段，最吸引同时代人的是它新奇和混杂的意象和语法;也就是说，熟悉之中带有陌生感，传统之中带有现代感。佩里·林克认为，蝴蝶小说为感到现代化压力的城市读者提供了“心理安慰”。然而，《九花帘幕》提供了比“心理安慰”更积极的东西：带有劝慰性的叙述者的语言贯穿了整个枕边谈话。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:52, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Embedded in a kind of love philosophy mixed with late Ming discourse of passion (''qing'') and the Romantic influence from the West, this love talk asserts that true love is primarily based on mutual understanding and mutual compassion. A persuasive tone, rather than the didactic or authoritative, prevails the text, and when the persuasion itself it a crucial way to reach and fulfill true love and compassion, its effect depends on refined speech and aesthetic values. For instance, the use of rhythmic repetitions aims to be chantable and enchanting; this audio characteristic is discernibly linked to traditional poetry and drama. The variations of the parallel sentences, poetic couplet, idiomatic phrase and resonant words display the author’s grasp of the repertoire of traditional literature. The sentences “My old mother needs your good service, the multiple household needs your great care” resemble the “four-six” parallelism; the pair of colloquial phrase ''haohao'er'' (well, greatly) comes from vernacular drama or fiction. A contemporary reader might be excited by this Western-style couplet, “You are like the warm sunshine in the summer; I am the bright moon in the autumn.” Or readers may be fascinated by the fresh expression such as “We a pair of mandarin ducks were hit by the Cupiter’s arrow.”<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
Narrative strategies are organized around the poetics of persuasion. By the resonant repetitions and variations the narrator changes his manners and tones to make his linguistic performances most persuasive. The nuanced tones range from the stronger “you should,” to the milder “naturally you will” and to the asking “do you understand.” Apart from the prosaic sentences that function in describing things or reasoning the love sermon, the parallel sentences are divided into two kinds: one addresses melodiously to the bride and the other describes lyrically the fantastic scenes.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
In order to set role models for the bride, a gallery of world-famous women are introduced to add another dimension of the persuasive, mixed with eroticism and ethics, literary references of the East and West. Mrs. Tolstoy helps her husbands devote to and achieve in writing. Liang Hongyu, a legendary heroine who joins her husband to defeat the foreign invaders in thirteenth-century China. It is a persuasive way for a cultural balance in transnational traffic: while the latter a local patriot is internationalized, the former is internalized a la traditional “virtuous wife and good mother.” <br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
So far the kind of masculine persuasion is tinged with pedagogy and the sublime, what follows turns to be sweet and flattery. The narrator says he received a letter from his friend, in which the bride is likened to the beautiful Spring Goddess of Greek mythology, to the sweet Julie and the noble Botia, the heroines in Shakespeare’s plays. This symbolic showcase of female world celebrities, whether it be factual or imaginary, articulate to circulate and assimilate not only modern knowledge but refined taste for urban readers; at the same time, the author shows off his familiarity with the Western novelties necessarily acquired by this fashionable writing. Also noticeable is the intertextual traffic in the circulation and assimilation of cultural information occurred in everyday urban space. While the Julia and Botia are transplanted from Lin Shu’s classical translations onto his writing, Zhou popularizes the Western classics and meanwhile elevates the vernacular. One more tricky detail: all about these foreign literary women, as the narrator says, are from his friend’s letter in English, which adds this pillow talk a savor of exoticism and universality. By this Zhou plays out the fancy and fashion with a fashionable style in this fiction.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
Cinematic Representation and Republican Subjectivity<br />
In this story, the ''curtain'' crucially serves thematic and formal purposes. It is a piece of furniture that is decorative and ritualistic in the innermost space of the conjugal life, yet by infusing this interior curtain with a cinematic curtain, the narrator creates an illusion of a double curtain, which facilitated his double voice. His self is represented as an individual and collective being, and at the same time speaks to the private and public audience.<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
The phrases “raising the curtain” (''kaimu'') and “opening our theater” (''kaichang'') are cliches for something to start, but the term ''mu'' referring to the theatrical or cinematic curtain was new, after the oral drama and film were introduced from the West at the turn of the twentieth century. Zhou’s pronouncement of opening a theater addressed to the bride sounds happy for pronouncing their new family life; also it is theatrical as the narrator consequently conjures up a “paradise” within the curtain, where birds sing and flowers smile in the spring. Nevertheless, the repetition of theater at the outset of this ''qinghua'' addresses not only to his bride - the exclusive beholder inside the curtain, but also to an audience, namely this curtain faces the implied beholders. Readers are already aware from the prologue that the author predicts to show this pillow talk to his friends. The visual characteristic of the text is inscribed by the imagery title “In the Nine-Flower Curtain,” and by the metaphor of curtain the intimate space is turned into a theater under the public watch. Against a larger cultural canvas, as a kind of imported cultural material, the curtain was applied as a new decorum in urban spaces, such as art studio, or photograph studio. Consequently, it functioned in shaping modern perception about the relations between space, life-world and work of art.<br />
<br />
“拉开帷幕”（开幕）和“开放剧场”（开场）是老生常谈的话题，但“幕”指的是戏剧或电影的帷幕，是二十世纪初从西方引进话剧和电影之后的新词。周先生说要给新娘开戏院，这听起来像是在宣告他们新家生活的幸福，同时也是戏剧性的，因为叙述者由此在幕布内想象出一个“天堂”，在那里鸟语花香，春意盎然。然而，这段情话一开始就重复的桥段不仅是给新娘即帘子里的专属看客看的，也是给观众看的，换句话说这帘子面对的是隐含的看客。读者从序言中已经知道，作者预言要把这番枕边话给朋友看。文本的视觉特征是通过意象标题“九花帘中”来刻画的，通过帘子的隐喻，私密空间变成了公众注视下的剧场。在更大的文化背景下，幕布作为一种舶来的文化材料，以一种新的装饰品被应用于城市空间，如艺术工作室，或摄影工作室。因此，幕布在塑造现代人对空间、生活世界和艺术作品之间关系的认知方面发挥了作用。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:35, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201130_trans&diff=10613620201130 trans2020-11-28T11:10:05Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Xu Jing 许晶 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
A good example to illustrate this is the cuisine that is often still defined by national borders (but certainly also in even smaller regional units). The existence of Italian cuisine is undisputed, but you don't have to go to Italy to eat quite authentic Italian food. Of course, there have always been Europeanized variations of Chinese cuisine (e.g. with thickened sauces), and the Istanbul native who orders a kebab in Germany will be surprised that he is served flat bread and not a plate of cutlery.<br />
<br />
Eating habits, especially at breakfast, seem to be difficult to change, so that the author did not get used to the Chinese breakfast (rice soup with salty vegetable side dish) in China for years. <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
When Italian spaghetti with bolognese sauce was announced one lunchtime in the cafeteria of Beijing University, the joy was great, at least until the dish could be tasted. Obviously only the outward appearance had been preserved here, the appearance of the spaghetti largely corresponded to that which one can see in cookbooks. However, in terms of taste it was a catastrophe, the tomatoes used had obviously been understood by the cook not as vegetables but as fruit and the noodles had been overcooked for an extra long time.<br />
<br />
Also with the enterprises there are such cultures, German enterprises are considered e.g. in many countries as well organized. Even manufacturing processes for the same products often differ from country to country, but are increasingly standardized worldwide, especially when a company has a patented process in several countries.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
This can lead to interesting national solutions when the same task is set, namely to design a street cleaning vehicle:<br />
<br />
[[File:che1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Street cleaning vehicle a) China<br />
<br />
[[File:che2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Street cleaning vehicle b)<br />
<br />
Since the 1990s, the author has personally experienced the differences in working in a foreign Chinese software company in America (e.g. PC Express, later TwinBridge in Los Angeles), in a Chinese software company on the mainland (e.g. Suntendy, Beijing), in a German company in China and in a German-Chinese mixed company. These personal experiences flow into the present booklet.<br />
<br />
Thus, the term culture here is largely synonymous with tradition or philosophy, whereby tradition appears to be related to the past and philosophy often appears as reflected culture reduced to a few principles, and thus already consciously controlled and teleological. For these reasons, the author has chosen the term culture in the present context.<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Japanese production culture is known to us, the Chinese (here abbreviated CMPC) has hardly been investigated in literature, so this booklet has a pioneering character.<br />
<br />
In this booklet, the author draws on Geert Hofstede's comparative cultural model, which he discussed with him at the LMU in Munich on January 22, 2009, on fundamental observations on the Chinese economy from a macro perspective by Philip Huang, and on the results of a field study by Jianzhong Hong, Aino Pöyhönen, Kalevi Kyläheiku 1998-2000 (see bibliography). <br />
<br />
This booklet was prepared to be presented at the conference "Beyond Japan - Values and Attitudes of Asian Production Cultures" in autumn 2010. The author is grateful to Dirko Thomsen, AutoUni Wolfsburg, who invited the author to contribute to the conference.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
'''Approaches/Perspectives'''<br />
<br />
The distinction between craftsman culture and trader culture has been established for some time. This means that in an economy, more emphasis is placed on developing products that are as perfect as possible, and constantly improving them. A dealer culture places more value on the profit that is made between the cheapest possible purchase and the most expensive possible sale. This distinction becomes clear when we examine a typical case of complaint: <br />
<br />
If a customer complains a product in a craftsman culture, then the salesman is concerned, offers an error free exchange product or a financial compensation and reports the product error further, sends the equipment possibly in, with the goal of letting the error, if it should occur e.g. at several devices, in principle of letting the development department eliminate the error. <br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In a dealer culture the service and satisfaction of the customer is more important, here it is more important to see if the customer is angry and reacts accordingly to his complaint with apologies and compensation offers. Feedback to the manufacturer is of secondary importance. <br />
<br />
Here are some of the countries that fall under the relevant categories:<br />
<br />
Craftsmen's Culture Retailer Culture<br />
<br />
Germany, France Poland, USA, China, Korea<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made between production and design cultures. <br />
<br />
In the 19th and 20th centuries, a production culture developed in mechanical engineering in the USA, whereas in Germany a construction culture developed. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
The experience of rationalization in the U.S. with the pioneer Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) was quickly received in Germany, among other things by establishing chairs of business administration in Berlin in 1904, Aachen in 1908 and Hanover in 1910. Accordingly, I follow Kunze in 2008 when he rejects Kothes' assertion that German production culture before 1914 is backward.<br />
<br />
In Germany as a culture of craftsmen, a diversification of products developed early on, which was made possible by constantly optimizing the product. Even in teams, the focus is still on the highly qualified individual who does his part of the teamwork independently and assumes responsibility.<br />
<br />
在德国，弗雷德里克·温斯洛·泰勒率先在美国进行了合理化的各项工作，很快就为大众所接受，其中包括在1904年在柏林，1908年在亚琛以及1910年在汉诺威依次设立了工商管理部主任。因此，我认同库恩泽（Kunze)在2008年提出的观点，当时他对科斯关于1914年之前德国生产文化落后的看法是持反对意见的。<br />
<br />
在德国，作为一种工匠文化，产品在早期就注重多样性，并通过不断优化来实现。即使是在团队中，焦点仍是那些高素质的人，他们独立完成团队任务并承担相应的责任。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:21, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
In the USA, the goal is rather the production of a cost-effective mass product. Responsibility was delegated to teams and budget control was introduced to control these teams. However, this is more in keeping with the lawnmower principle and does not apply to the appropriateness of the individual special product or the individual employee.<br />
<br />
This can be illustrated in an overview:<br />
<br />
[[File:233.jpg]]<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The Japanese Production Culture''' <br />
<br />
After World War II, Japan did not have as many investments available as Germany, for example, through the Marshall Plan. Out of necessity, the Japanese economy therefore did what was possible, namely an optimization of existing machines, processes and personnel. This also resulted in the development of a special national production culture, the characteristics of which can be seen in an overview:<br />
<br />
[[File:566.jpg]]<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
Today, the Japanese production philosophy is considered the pacemaker for new production technologies and the benchmark for modern industrial nations. Former Porsche boss Wendelin Wiedeking is an admirer and imitator of the Toyota Production System: "Toyota is synonymous with consistency". It is the international standard by which the modernity of a factory is measured.<br />
<br />
The basic idea of the Japanese model was that storage costs were incurred because more was produced than purchased. So technologies were developed which ensured that the product was only (re)produced when the customer bought the product (production on demand). The higher costs of producing a single item are more than compensated by the savings in intermediate storage (and, in the case of slow-moving items, final storage) of products. This procedure is successfully used today, for example, in book production.<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
More important, however, is the idea that there should be as few production interruptions as possible, and if so, that these should be eliminated as quickly as possible. A typical phenomenon on the construction site is that work stops because a certain part / material to be installed has not been delivered on time. In production plants, a machine in the assembly line production breaks down and the whole production is stopped. This is where the Japanese philosophy comes into play, training the individual employee to the extent that he or she can repair minor defects on their own and assigning the responsibility to them to do so. For larger defects, a central team is available. <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
This motivates them to ensure that these smaller defects do not occur in the first place and not only repairs the defect, but also thinks of a way to ensure that this defect does not occur in the future, i.e. they not only repair the defect, but also the cause of the defect.<br />
<br />
With production on demand, interruptions in production would also be conceivable if demand were to decline. Ideally, production then adjusts, i.e. it runs correspondingly slower or faster, depending on how strong demand is at the moment. The most important thing is that production is uninterrupted and trouble-free.<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些较小的缺陷不会先出现，除了修复缺陷，还要想出一种防范此缺陷发生的方法，即，他们不仅修复缺陷，而且根除缺陷。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，生产也可能会中断。 理想情况下，生产会进行调整，即根据当前的需求量，生产速度相应地变慢或变快。最重要的是保证生产不间断且无故障。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些小缺陷不会第一时间出现，一旦出现，不仅要修复缺陷，而且要想出避免缺陷再次发生的办法，即：他们不仅要修复缺陷，而且要找出缺陷出现的原因。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，生产中断的情况可能会出现。 然而在理想情况下，产量会根据需求进行调整，即根据当前的需求量，生产速度相应地减慢或加快，最重要的是保证生产无间断且不发生任何故障。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The Japanese reward system works in a similar way for innovations introduced by individual employees involved in the production process. Here, it is important that the person who had the idea receives a relevant sum of money immediately and unbureaucratically, long before the idea is implemented.<br />
<br />
Another element are the quality circles or Kaizen teams. These are smaller working groups that are responsible for a small part of the production. They should meet once at the beginning and then regularly at least once a week to openly discuss suggestions for improvement. <br />
<br />
Recently, other Japanese elements of production culture have also been mentioned, such as multi-divisional structures and decentralization. They are also found in the American production culture.<br />
<br />
参与生产过程的员工可以提出自己的创新想法，日本的奖励制度与此类似。在这里，重要的是，在该想法实现之前，提出这个想法的人立即就得到一笔相关的钱，不需要重重审批。<br />
<br />
另一个要素是质量圈或是持续改善团队。这些是比较小的工作组，负责生产环节的一小部分。他们应该在一开始就碰个面，然后至少每周定期开一次会，公开讨论改进建议。<br />
<br />
最近，人们也提到了日本生产文化的其他因素，例如多部门结构和权力下放机制。它们也同样存在于美国的生产文化中。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:03, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本的奖励制度对参与生产过程的雇员个人提出的创新也有类似的作用。在这里，重要的是，有想法的人在想法实施之前很久就能立即无官僚主义地得到一笔相关的资金。<br />
<br />
另一个要素是质量圈或Kaizen小组。这些是较小的工作小组，负责生产的一小部分。他们应该在开始时开一次会，然后定期至少每周开一次会，公开讨论改进的建议。<br />
<br />
最近，日本生产文化的其他要素也被提及，如多部门结构和分权。美国的生产文化中也有这些内容。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 01:58, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
The Japanese production culture, whose optimization was born out of necessity, proved to be more competitive than the cultures of other countries, which is why it quickly became the model, even the epitome, of modern production culture, and in the 1960s and 1970s it began a worldwide triumphal march.<br />
<br />
'''China - Factory of the world''' <br />
<br />
Today, however, China has replaced Japan and the other classic industrial nations as the factory of the world.<br />
<br />
[[File:fangjieling.jpg]]<br />
<br />
It also leads the emerging markets worldwide.<br />
<br />
In the projection of economic performance, Goldmann/ Sachs sees China ahead of the USA, India and Germany.<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
[[File:6.jpg]]<br />
<br />
So China is today again (after the period 0 A.D. until about 1200 A.D.) the leading economy in the world. One of the characteristics of the Chinese production culture is its continuity. For thousands of years, China has been producing products such as silk, tea, porcelain, etc. without interruption. Even though Chinese production was not a world leader in the period 1200 to 2000 A.D., it remained at a roughly constant level for a long time before it caught up with the Industrial Revolution in a rapid development. Such a long production culture is without equal worldwide.<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
It is still important to bear in mind that China is once again growing to become the leading economic nation, but in this most populous country not all Chinese are yet benefiting equally from this leadership role. This is easy to see when comparing the absolute figures (e.g. GDP in country comparison or related to the growth of its own GDP) with the relative figures (GDP/capita). Here is one such comparison with the USA:<br />
<br />
[[File:7.jpg]]<br />
<br />
I would like to start my analysis of the importance of production culture with a few questions:<br />
<br />
Does the production culture have anything to do with the rapid increase? Is it perhaps the cause of the increase? <br />
<br />
Obviously, the Chinese production culture has not been an international model for modern production culture. Could the reason for this be the problem that the production culture is culture-specific? What other reasons could there be? Are these reasons justified?<br />
<br />
In order to find clues to answer these questions, the Chinese production culture is examined and defined below.<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
'''Genuity of Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
The Silk Road has been documented since about the 5th century BCE, but gene analysis proves that it was used to trade domesticated plants and animals in both directions already about 10 millenia BCE. There is also proof of cultural exchange through this trade road. The following products manufactured in China were traded on it:<br />
<br />
·Silk<br />
<br />
·Tea<br />
<br />
·Spices<br />
<br />
·Ceramics/Porcellain<br />
<br />
·Jade<br />
<br />
·Bronze<br />
<br />
·Lacquerware/Paints<br />
<br />
·Iron<br />
<br />
·Paper<br />
<br />
·Gunpowder<br />
<br />
·Furs etc. <br />
<br />
The Silk Road was of course used in both directions, gold, precious stones and for a long time glass were imported into China. If the New Silk Road can be built with rail roads, it will lower the costs and time of shipping several times compared to the current maritime container shipping.<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
With the world's largest merchant ships, junks, which could hold up to 4000 tons, China also dominated maritime trade for centuries. Already in the 3rd century B.C. the Emperor's Canal was built in China for inland navigation.<br />
<br />
[[File:gdf.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Previous picture: Chinese junk from the year 1804.[ John Barrow, „Travels in China: containing descriptions, observations, and comparisons, made and collected in the course of a short residence at the Imperial palace of Yuen-Min-Yuen, and on a subsequent journey through the country from Pekin to Canton“, Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12.1.2010, ISBN 9781153190947, 302 pp., p. 59.]<br />
<br />
[[File:gdf2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Ming period junk (14th century).<br />
<br />
In the period from the birth of Christ until 1200 A.D., China had the highest gross domestic product in the world. Only in 1200 was China overtaken by Western Europe.<br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
[[File:10.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Between 1200 and about 2000, China lagged far behind the West and was considered a developing country. Nevertheless, from 1700 until today, China has experienced the same population explosion as America and Europe.<br />
<br />
[[File:11.jpg]]<br />
<br />
While Europe ensured the food supply of the larger population at the end of the 18th century with the Industrial Revolution, China slept through this development and caught up with it in fast motion from 1900 with its first factories, from 1950 with centrally planned larger production units and from 2000 with private enterprises, at first mainly joint ventures, which led to an uneven development in the country.<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
The example of silk production in Japan and China already reveals the first differences in the production culture:<br />
<br />
In Japan, a loom was introduced that was copied thousands of times without a license, thus ensuring a nationwide standard. Silk from Japan was always woven in the same way, and buyers could always rely on the same product quality.<br />
<br />
In China there were various independent production facilities and regional traditions. So silk from China was of a variable quality.<br />
<br />
Another aspect of Chinese production culture is the ethnic component: <br />
<br />
·Western companies have better cards in China if they use Chinese middlemen. <br />
<br />
·Chinese companies that are active in Africa export their entire business model including employees, cook, buildings. <br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
Nevertheless, today's Chinese production culture is no longer genuine, but is also more strongly influenced by history than the Japanese Western culture.<br />
<br />
Even party schools at the beginning of the 21st century are commissioning business faculties of American universities to conduct management training.<br />
<br />
'''Made in China'''<br />
<br />
The label "Made in Germany" was originally a British origin label to distinguish itself from poor quality German goods. It was only later that the mark of Cain became a trademark due to the improvement in quality.<br />
<br />
"Made in China" stands for cheap products, low wages, poor quality, mass production and plagiarism, hierarchical management and an "ant-like" workforce.<br />
<br />
<br />
然而，如今中国的生产文化已不再封闭，比起日本受到西方文化的影响，中国受到历史影响的程度更深。甚至在21世纪初的党校也委托美国大学的商科对其进行管理培训。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”<br />
<br />
“德国制造”的标签原本是英国的标签，用来区别德国的劣质产品。直到后来，由于质量的提高，“德国制造”才成为商标。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”代表着廉价、低工资、劣质、大规模生产和剽窃、等级观念以及廉价劳动力。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 09:48, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，今天的中国生产文化不再纯正了，而且比日本的西方文化更受历史的影响。<br />
<br />
甚至连21世纪初的党校也委托美国大学的商学院进行管理培训。<br />
<br />
中国制造<br />
<br />
“德国制造”的标签原本是英国的标签，用来把本国的产品与德国的劣质产品区别开。直到后来，由于质量的提高，这个罪恶的标记才成为商标。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”代表着廉价产品、低工资、低质量、大规模生产、抄袭、等级管理以及像“蚁族”一样的廉价劳动力。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:21, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But in fact this is only an impression that applied to the first mass products in China; in the meantime the picture has changed.<br />
<br />
1 At the beginning of the 21st century, the labor market in China appears saturated for the first time. This is accompanied by extreme wage increases. In the meantime, one has to pay almost as much for a man-day of an engineer with comparable qualifications in China as for an engineer-man-day in western industrialized countries.<br />
<br />
2. The previously most important productive sector is being replaced by the service sector as the most important economic sector.<br />
<br />
3. Following the example of Western companies that have consistently introduced quality assurance in China, the proverbial poor quality of Chinese products is now a thing of the past. In many companies, quality assurance is now also practiced.<br />
<br />
但是实际上这个印象也只是停留在中国第一次大量生产的时候；在此期间的情形已经变了。<br />
<br />
1.在21世纪初，伴随着工资的极度增加，中国劳动市场第一次出现饱和。同时，支付给相对合格的一名中国工程师一天的工资和西方工业国家的是差不多的。<br />
<br />
2.之前最重要的生产部门现在已被作为经济领域中最重要的服务部门所取代。<br />
<br />
3.西方公司在中国一向都有质量保证的规则，中国也正在向西方学习。总所周知的劣质中国产品也已不再出现。在许多公司中，质量保证这一规则正在被实行。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:14, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但事实上，这只是对中国第一次大规模生产的早期印象而已；与此同时，情况在不断地变化。<br />
<br />
1 在21世纪初，中国的劳动市场第一次接近于饱和状态，这是由于工资的急剧增加。同时，一名合格的中国工程师的工资和西方工业国家的工资是差不多的。<br />
<br />
2 服务业逐渐替代了早些年最重要的生产部门作为重要的经济组成部分。<br />
<br />
<br />
3 中国现在也正在学习西方国家公司的质量保障规则，中国的产品很差这一传言已经成为了过去式了。如今在大部分的公司，质量保障这一规章用于实践。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:43, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
4. apart from the reproduction of products developed in the West, the first high-tech products that have been further developed in China (cell phones, notebooks, etc.) are already available.<br />
<br />
5. Chinese companies are now buying companies worldwide with the required know-how (notebook division of IBM => Lenovo, Volvo etc.).<br />
<br />
6. with a real ravenous appetite, Chinese managers devour bestsellers that explain Western management principles and apply them with playful curiosity and great zeal, such as team meetings. Meetings in Chinese companies are now more common (5 meetings/day) than in Germany (1-2 meetings/day).<br />
<br />
[[File:12.jpg]]<br />
<br />
4，除了复制西方的产品，中国也已经有了在国内进一步发展的第一批高科技产品（手机和笔记本电脑等）。<br />
<br />
5，中国公司如今正在全世界地购买一些掌握技术的公司（IBM笔记本部门=>联想‘沃尔沃等）。<br />
<br />
6，由于极大地需求，中国公司的管理人员几乎把那些介绍了西方管理规则的畅销书买完了，并且带着好奇心和热情把这些规则应用于实践，比如说西方比较盛行的小组会议。如今在中国的公司，开会的频率远远高于德国（中国一天5次会议，而德国一天1-2次会议）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:26, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.除了再生产西方的产品，中国进一步发展的第一批高科技产品（手机，笔记本电脑等）已经可以买到。<br />
<br />
5.中国公司现在正在世界各地收购具备所需技术的公司（IBM的笔记本部门--联想、沃尔沃等）。<br />
<br />
6.由于庞大的渴求，中国公司的管理人员读完了所有讲述西方管理细则的畅销书，并带着极大的好奇心和热情将这些细则运用于实践之中，例如，小组会议。如今相较于德国公司来说，小组会议在中国公司更加的普遍。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Characteristics of Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
'''Hierarchy'''<br />
<br />
Chinese companies are traditionally strictly hierarchical, with many levels. Authority gives face. As in other countries, functions are called together with the name as titles. According to Hofstede, the yardstick for hierarchy is the power distance index.<br />
<br />
'''Appreciation of age''' <br />
<br />
In addition to hierarchies based on professional positions, age also has a corresponding authority. Older people are seldom deported to retirement homes after their retirement, but live until death in the extended family, in which they fulfill tasks until the end. The neighborhood also takes care of the elderly people by involving them in work assignments (street cleaning, support for traffic regulation) depending on their readiness.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
The older brother automatically has a more prestigious position than the younger one. In Chinese, kinship terms are strictly separated into "older" or "younger". The preceding adjective "alter" in the confidential form of address is an honorific. <br />
<br />
In business life, too, older employees are respected because of their life experience (and possibly because of the large network of relationships to be expected). <br />
A positive side effect is that the experience remains in the company. New research also shows in the West: older employees are often underestimated, their experience must be used more and knowledge can be kept in the company.<br />
<br />
'''Concept of Face'''<br />
<br />
For the protection of the individual, there is the face concept, where everyone can preserve his or her honor, even if mistakes have been made or someone is inferior. For this purpose, unwritten rules (institutions) are observed in the company: No one criticizes the other person in front of others. If criticism must be exercised, then indirectly. A request is not rejected directly, there is no "No! The Chinese employees are particularly sensitive to the nuances, to the "maybe" and know how to classify it accordingly without being damaged.<br />
<br />
哥哥的地位自然比弟弟高。在汉语中，亲属称谓严格分为“长”和“幼”。前一个形容词“alter（改变）”在亲密形式中是一个敬语。<br />
在商业生活中，年长的员工也会因为他们的生活经历而受到尊重（也可能是因为他们所拥有的庞大关系网）。一个积极的副作用是这种经验仍然存在于公司。新的研究还显示，西方国家的老员工往往被低估，他们的经验必须得到更多的利用，知识才能留在公司。<br />
<br />
”面子的概念“<br />
面子这个概念是为了保护个人，每个人都可以维护自己的荣誉，即使是那些犯了错误的人或者是等级低的。为此，公司遵守不成文的规则（制度）：不要在大众面前批评别人。如果必须进行批评，那么就委婉间接的说出来。一个人的请求不会被直接拒绝，我们不会直接说“不！”中国人对此的细微差别可能会有相应的分类。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“面子的概念<br />
面子之所以存在，是为了自我保护，每个人都可以维护自己的荣誉，即使是那些犯了错误的人或者是等级低的也是如此。为此，公司有个不成文的规定：不要当众批评别人。如果必须要批评，那就婉约一点。我们不会直接拒绝别人的请求，不会直接说“不。”中国人对于这一观念极为敏感，他们“或许”知道怎样进行区分才能避免伤害。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 09:52, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
'''Incompetence of bosses leads to informal decision-making'''<br />
<br />
Traditionally, the position of General Manager, or even senior positions in Chinese companies, is preferably filled with people who can be trusted by those making the appointments. The greatest trust is given by a family relationship, somewhat less so in the case of friendship between families or between individuals, or by shared periods of life, such as being born in the same village, attending the same school, the same club, etc. Of course, professional qualifications also help to build trust, but this is only of secondary importance. <br />
<br />
The leadership positions of the largest state-owned enterprises in China are assigned by the party, and these positions are cobbled together with correspondingly deserving cadres. <br />
<br />
One consequence of this appointment policy is the widespread incompetence of leaders.<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
<br />
传统上，总经理的职位，甚至中国公司的高级职位，最好是由可以任命的人所信任的人。 家庭关系给人最大的信任，家庭之间或个人之间的友情或家庭生活的共同点（例如在同一个村庄出生，在同一所学校，在同一家具乐部等）则给予最大的信任。 当然，专业资格也有助于建立信任，但这仅是次要的。<br />
<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是由党派出的，这些职务与相应的应聘干部结合在一起。<br />
<br />
这项任命政策的结果是领导人普遍无能。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:56, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
传统上，中国公司的总经理职位，甚至是高级职位，最好都是那些能被任命者信任的人。最大的信任是由家庭关系给予的,或者是通过共同的生活阶段，例如出生在同一个村庄，在同一所学校，同一个俱乐部，等等。当然，职业资格也有助于建立信任，但这种信任不是特别重要。<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是党指定的，这些职位是由相应的干部结合而成的。<br />
这种任命政策的一个后果是领导普遍无能。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 09:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
In economic terms, this too is an emergency situation, especially for the bosses concerned, who are surrounded by more competent subordinates. In combination with the facial concept, the bosses thus have to hide their incompetence on the one hand and on the other hand want to keep their position, i.e. they are under enormous pressure to make the right decisions. This has led to an informal decision-making system. The boss discusses possible alternatives informally with the experts. In the end, he has obtained a broad opinion and makes the decision that seems best to him alone. The fact that the laurels are actually due to others remains unspoken; it increases the intensity of the personal relationships (renqing) of the people involved. Once the boss has made a decision and communicated it, the employees will implement it without contradiction due to the hierarchical structures.<br />
从经济角度来说，这也是一个紧急情况，尤其是对那些管理着更有能力的下属的老板们来说。因此，结合表层含义，一方面，老板们不得不隐藏自己的无能，另一方面又想保住自己的位置，也就是说，他们面临着做出正确决策的巨大压力。由此产生了一个非正式的决策体系。老板与专家非正式地讨论了可能的替代方案。最终，他获得了广泛的意见，并独自做出了对他来说最好的决定。桂冠实际上是别人的，这一事实仍未明说；它深厚了相关人员间的人情关系。一旦老板做出决定并传达给员工，员工就会执行，不会因为等级结构而产生矛盾。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
If a superior's decision is not considered correct, the subordinate may not address the boss. Rather, when the hierarchical structures do not apply (joint leisure activities or similar), an opportunity must be sought to indirectly point out the wrong decision to the boss.<br />
<br />
Meetings per day C > USA > D<br />
<br />
The frequency of meetings is much higher in China than in Germany. In the country comparison of four selected countries/regions the following order results:<br />
<br />
1. Hong Kong <br />
<br />
2. China<br />
<br />
3. USA<br />
<br />
4. Germany<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
'''Shapes of modern Chinese production culture and their causes'''<br />
<br />
[[File:13.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Modern Chinese production culture shows the following characteristics:<br />
<br />
1. in the area of know-how China lags behind the western industrial nations and Japan, which causes feelings of shame. Many Chinese feel that they are on the defensive and regard their country's relationship with the USA and Japan as the David's against Goliath. This results in a subjective legitimacy for broad-based industrial espionage with national interest and know-how theft.<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
'''2. Innovation'''<br />
<br />
China is traditionally known as an empire of inventions, so letterpress printing, gunpowder, porcelain etc. were invented long before similar inventions were made elsewhere in the world. However, these inventions were often not brought to serial production and were produced in masses, as for example in Europe, where gunpowder led to the production of handguns and cannons. It can be exaggerated to say that gunpowder was used instead for New Year's fireworks by the nobility. This shows the Chinese characteristic of a capacity for innovation with a simultaneous lack of diffusion in the market.<br />
<br />
The Industrial Revolution also largely passed China by. Since China, like Europe, was experiencing a population explosion due to better hygiene and medicine, but at the same time the automation of food production did not go beyond manufactories, China fell behind in its standard of living.<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
<br />
Traditionally, imitation has always been highly valued in China. A good copy was almost as important as the original. Thus, both the civil service examination system of previous centuries and today's school system were strongly oriented towards reproduction rather than creativity. One reason may be the enormous amount of characters that requires students to memorize for years.<br />
<br />
自古以来，模仿对中国来说十分重要。好的模仿同原型几乎地位相等。因此，前几个世纪的公务员考试制度和如今的学校系统都着重指向再生产而非创造。其中一个原因可能是学生在多年里需要记忆大量的人物。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 01:53, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从古至今，中国都十分重视效仿。好的副本与原本几乎同样重要。因此，先前世纪的公务员考试制度与现今学校系统都着重强调再生产而不是创新。其原因可能是学生们在几年里需要记的人物数不胜数。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 02:20, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自古以来，中国就十分重视模仿。好的模仿几乎和原创一样重要。因此，前几世纪的公务员考试和现在的学校体制都以再生产为导向而不是创造性。其中一个原因可能就是其要求学生花费数年时间去记大量的人物。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:20, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
The idea of copyright is also less rooted in China than in the West.<br />
<br />
When the Chinese were awakened from their sleep by the cannon thunder of the 1st Opium War, there was great regret that they had not carried out their own research and development. Although physical violence was disregarded, the foreigners were envied their technical superiority and since then they have propagated the idea of learning technology from foreigners and reproducing it in order to be able to defend their own cultural values and sovereignty more effectively. This feeling of envy gave rise to an extreme motivation to both imitate the superiority of others and ultimately to outdo them.<br />
<br />
中国的版权意识没有西方那么深刻。<br />
当中国人在第一次鸦片战争的炮声中惊醒时，他们非常遗憾没有自己的研发创造。国人虽然憎恨外国人的暴行，但仍旧羡慕他们的技术优势。从那以后，他们师夷长技，以便能够更有效地捍卫自己的文化价值观和国家主权。但这种嫉妒感催生了一种极端的动机，既模仿他人的优越感，最终在该方面又超越他人。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与西方相比，中国的版权观念不那么根深蒂固。<br />
当第一次鸦片战争的炮声把中国人从睡梦中惊醒的时候，他们没有进行自己的研究和开发是非常遗憾的。即使中国人可以忽略外国侵略者的暴力，但却羡慕他们的技术优势，从那时起，他们开始宣传向外国人学习技术并加以复制，以便能够更有效地捍卫自己的文化价值观和主权。这种嫉妒感产生了一种极端的动机，既模仿别人的优越感，又最终超越别人。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:59, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''3. Competition'''<br />
<br />
The toughest competition worldwide is in China. Successful products immediately find numerous imitators. As soon as an imitator can produce the product at more favorable conditions, the client switches to him. Together with state arbitrariness, this has resulted in the emergence of a typical Chinese type of company: The financial holding company as a family-owned enterprise with involvement in various industries. This enables a company to survive even if the sales market for a product suddenly collapses. In hardly any other country in the world do companies have to be as vigilant as in China, adapting products to changing customer requirements within the shortest possible time and always being one step ahead of the competition. New trends have to be recognized early and capacities have to be built up or reduced flexibly.<br />
<br />
Those who survive in this hard school are also prepared for more peaceful and fairer markets like those in Europe and America.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''4. State control'''<br />
<br />
The reform and opening policy since 1978 has led to a predominance of foreign companies in China at the end of the 20th century. In order to protect their own industry, laws were introduced obliging companies to provide a certain percentage of their production in China locally. As a result, Chinese suppliers had to be sought who were able to contribute parts to the production chain. This promoted local industry and also the transfer of know-how. <br />
<br />
At the same time, foreign suppliers were also forced to follow the large companies to China if they did not want to be replaced by a Chinese company. This accelerated the settlement of foreign companies in China.<br />
1978年以来的改革开放政策导致20世纪末外来企业占据了中国市场的主导地位。为了保护本国产业，中国出台了相关法律，要求外来企业必须在当地提供一定比例的产品。因此，他们必须寻找能够向生产链提供零部件的中国供应商。这促进了当地工业的发展，也促进了技术的转让。<br />
与此同时，外国供应商如果不想被中国公司取代，他们就必须跟随大公司来到中国。这加快了外国公司在中国的落户。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 10:53, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. 国家管控'''<br />
<br />
1978年改革开放以来，直到20世纪末，外来企业占据了中国市场的主导地位。为保护本国产业，中国出台了相关法律，要求外来企业生产产品必须有一定比例的当地产品。因此，这些公司必须寻找中国的供应商以为生产链提供零部件，这促进了当地产业发展和技术转让。<br />
<br />
与此同时，外国供应商如果不想被中国公司取代，他们就必须跟随大公司来到中国。这进一步加快了外国公司在中国的落户。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:44, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
However, legislation (like the joint venture laws) and court decisions favoured domestic companies. Also, China has built up a state capitalism that sponsors industry, supports domestic industry on the world market and helps financing overseas investment. Also, copyright infringement and industrial espionage (including civil-military alliance) supports the Chinese economy. Under the Trump administration, the USA has responded with a protectionist “America first” strategy.<br />
<br />
'''5. Legal system'''<br />
<br />
The legal system in China is not independent. It acts at the behest of the state.<br />
<br />
Western companies came to China with superior know-how and financial power. These companies were admired in China, but at the same time a feeling of disadvantage arose with regard to their own backward industry.<br />
<br />
然而，法规（例如，合资企业法）以及法庭判决都有利于国内企业。中国也已经建立起一种国家资本主义，用来资助企业、支持出于世界市场中的国内企业、为海外投资提供资助。除此之外，版权侵权法规和企业情报刺探（包括军民联合）都促使中国经济发展。在特朗普的治理下，美国提出了“美国第一”的保护主义策略，以此作为回应。<br />
<br />
'''5.法律体系'''<br />
<br />
中国的法律体系不是彼此独立，互不相关的。它是应整个国家的要求而实行的。<br />
西方公司带着先进的技术知识和强大的财政实力来到中国。中国欣赏这些公司，但是同时觉得这些公司会对自己国家落后的企业不利。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:03, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
As a counterbalance to this perceived weakness in relation to the large foreign corporations, the legislation was designed and the judiciary was urged to protect their own corporations.<br />
<br />
This puts Chinese partners in a better position when joint ventures are dissolved (often the know-how and capital goes to the owner).<br />
<br />
'''Necessity is the mother of invention'''<br />
<br />
The reason for the increase in efficiency, known worldwide as Japanese management culture or production culture, was the lack of money for new machines in Japan after World War II.<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
In China, another emergency situation is also the reason for developing a separate response to the challenges of the market: it is the professional incompetence of management personnel. This has grown historically. In China, management positions are primarily given to people who can be trusted. Traditionally, the most trustworthy people in China are family members or family members of old school friends, acquaintances who come from their own village and who have indulged in the same hobbies together (see Deng Xiaoping's Bridge round or the golf acquaintances in Western lobbying) etc. Loyalty to the party plays a secondary role. In principle, members of the Communist Party have it easier in business life, cadres even easier. Membership in the People's Liberation Army plays a similar role.<br />
<br />
在中国，另一种紧急情况也是制定单独应对市场挑战的原因:管理人员的专业能力不足。这随历史的发展不断涌现。在中国，管理职位主要由可信赖的人担任。传统上最值得信赖的人是家庭成员或老同学的家庭成员，来自自己村庄的熟人，有共同爱好的熟人(比如邓小平的桥牌圈或西方游说中一起打的高尔夫熟人)等等。对党的忠诚是次要的。原则上，共产党员做生意很容易做起来，共产党员干部就更容易。中国人民解放军的战友也扮演着类似的角色。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:24, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
在中国，另一种紧急情况也是制定单独应对市场挑战策略的原因:管理人员的专业能力不足。这种情况随历史的发展不断涌现。在中国，管理职位主要由可信赖的人担任。在中国传统中，最值得信赖的人是自己的或老同学的家人，同村的熟人和有共同爱好的熟人(比如邓小平的桥牌圈或在西方游说中一起打高尔夫的熟人)等等。对党的忠诚是次要的。原则上，共产党员很容易把生意做起来，共产党员干部就更容易。中国人民解放军的战友关系也起着类似的作用。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:54, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Professional competence often plays no role at all. But here, too, a generational change has taken place; the highest leadership cadres in the Central Committee often had no education or training at all in the Soviet Union at the beginning, were replaced by technocrats in the 1980s, and at the beginning of the 21st century many have an American university degree. <br />
<br />
In the business sector, the leadership positions of the largest Chinese state-owned enterprises are still awarded by the party to deserving cadres.<br />
<br />
The professional incompetence of the bosses represents a plight that must be countered in daily work with a sophisticated strategy if one does not want to be replaced by a more professionally competent boss.<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
This strategy consists of the following:<br />
<br />
·Avoiding the disclosure of own professional incompetence<br />
<br />
·Informal consultation and coordination with the actual experts in the company before each decision process<br />
<br />
·Announcement and representation of the decision by the boss alone, this decision may then also no longer be questioned<br />
<br />
This informal participation in the decision-making process is organized in a network which, however, in contrast to the Japanese model, is not lived out in team discussions, but rather through several face-to-face meetings between the boss and a different expert in each case, since if the boss sought the advice of a first expert in the presence of a second expert, he would lose face with the second expert. This network character is therefore very personal and usually consists of direct two-person relationships.<br />
<br />
该战略包括以下内容：<br />
<br />
·避免披露自己的职业能力不足<br />
<br />
·在每个决策过程之前，与公司的专家进行非正式协商和协调<br />
<br />
·由老板单独宣布和陈述决定后，这一决定也可能不再受到质疑<br />
<br />
这种非正式参与决策过程是在一个网络中组织的，然而，与日本模式不同的是，这种网络不是通过团队讨论，而是通过老板和不同专家之间的几次面对面会议来进行的，因为如果老板在第二位专家在场的情况下征求第一位专家的意见，他会在第二个专家面前丢脸。因此，这种人际网络特征非常私人，通常由直接的两人关系组成。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
该策略包括以下内容：<br />
<br />
·避免披露自己的职业能力不足<br />
<br />
·在每个决策过程之前，与公司真正的专家进行非正式的协商和协调<br />
<br />
·由老板单独宣布和陈述决定后，这一决定也可能不再受到质疑<br />
<br />
这种非正式参与决策过程是在一个网络中组织的，然而，与日本模式不同的是，这种网络不是通过团队讨论，而是通过老板和不同专家之间的几次面对面会议来进行的，因为如果老板在第二位专家在场的情况下征求第一位专家的意见，他会在第二个专家面前丢脸。因此，这种人际网络特征非常私人，通常由直接的两人关系组成。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:49, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
However, it is also possible to contact a third person who knows the second person, whereby the second person then only establishes contact and then withdraws.<br />
<br />
A further emergency in China is that due to the sleepy industrial revolution and the lack of information diffusion in the market, no research and development tradition of its own has been established to date. Instead of carrying out basic research for a long time, information about the state of the art of advanced competitors was obtained and attempts were made to copy and eventually outperform them. Only recently, due to enormous governmental support, e.g. in hybrid drive technology and electric motor technology, self-developed products have been created in China.<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
'''Changes in the Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
When the production site in China opened up to the global industry, the egalitarianism of the planned economy had already erased the tradition of quality assurance from the memory of the factory workers. In the decades before, they had been used to selling along with the scrap. The first factories, which produced goods in China due to the low labor costs, also delivered rejects accordingly. The foreign investors first had to reintroduce the quality assurance concept in China. Due to the strong competition in China and the orientation towards world market prices and standards, quality assurance has now been internalized in China.<br />
<br />
“中国生产文化的变化”<br />
<br />
当中国的生产基地向全球产业开放时，计划经济的平均主义使得工厂工人追求质量保证这一传统不复存在。在过去的几十年里，工人已经习惯了把废料一同出售。由于劳动力成本低廉，在中国生产商品的第一批工厂也相应地交付了废料。外国投资者须先重申质量保证的重要性，唤起中国生产商的重视。与此同时，由于中国市场的激烈竞争以及其对世界市场价格和标准的关注，质量保证在中国内部现已普及。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:28, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''中国生产文化的变化'''<br />
<br />
在中国生产基地向全球产业开放时，计划经济的平均主义已经从工厂工人的记忆中抹去了质量保证的传统。在过去的几十年中，它们已经习惯与废料一同出售。 由于劳动力成本低廉，在中国生产商品的第一批工厂也相应地交付了废品。 外国投资者首先必须在中国重申质量保证理念。 由于中国的激烈竞争以及对世界市场价格和标准的遵循，质量保证现已在中国内部化。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 06:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
The originally traditional lifelong relationship with the employer, as we also know it from Japan, has now been reversed. China currently has one of the highest employee turnover rates in the world, even higher than the already high rate in the USA.<br />
<br />
In the period 1950 to 1980, the production culture was characterized by blind fulfillment of plans; since 1980, production has been oriented to the market.<br />
Today, management concepts are as en vogue in China as political campaigns were in the past. They are read and discussed, but often misunderstood due to the lack of foreign language skills and context/background knowledge.<br />
<br />
通过日本我们可以知道，最初的传统终生雇佣关系现在已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于员工流动率本就很高的。<br />
<br />
在1950年至1980年期间，生产文化的特征是盲目地执行计划经济；自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。 如今，管理理念在中国就像过去的政治运动一样流行。 它们被阅读和讨论，但由于缺乏外语技能和语境背景知识而常常被误解。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 07:59, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
通过日本我们也可以知道，最初的传统终身雇佣关系现已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于员工流动率已经很高的美国。<br />
<br />
在20世纪50年代至80年代，生产文化的特点是盲目执行计划; 自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。如今，在中国，管理理念就像过去的政治运动一样流行。他们被阅读和讨论，但常因为缺乏外语技能和背景知识而被误解。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:42, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
Similar to the campaigns, the concepts are introduced with an eternal claim, but only last as long as a seasonal fashion. This type of management, which is based on current trends in management strategies, could also be called guerrilla management, following Sebastian Heilmann's concept of "guerrilla politics".<br />
<br />
In China, a culture of secrecy (ID badges, access restrictions), especially among high-tech companies, is prevalent, which is exactly the same as in America. In China, this culture was simply copied from the USA, certainly also due to the findings of Chinese industrial espionage abroad that know-how, e.g. in German companies, is often insufficiently protected against access by third parties.<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
'''Roles in the Chinese production culture''' <br />
<br />
The central role in the Chinese production and management culture is played by the boss. This can also be seen in the comparatively high values of China's Power Distance Index.<br />
<br />
The specific behavior of the boss in the decision making process has already been explained above.<br />
<br />
In the following, the difference in the relationship between the boss and his subordinates in China and Germany will be described.<br />
<br />
The team member in Germany expects a target for the overall project and the specification of the assigned subarea within the project, feels responsible for the timely achievement of his own and the team goal and wants to find the way to this goal independently. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
It would like to be little supervised and communicates intensively with the other team members. The team leader in Germany is rather a primus inter pares, who has a small area of responsibility as a specialist and is responsible for coordination. The success is always a success of the team.<br />
<br />
In China, the boss has a much higher position than the other team members. He gives each team member the individual goal and the individual steps to reach this goal. He closely monitors the progress and cares for the team members, also regarding job satisfaction and in private matters. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
He expects a feedback only to him and no exchange of information between the team members. If the input of the first team member is a prerequisite for the work of the second team member, the boss himself forwards the intermediate / work results of the first to the second team member. <br />
<br />
The role of the employee in China is determined by the following characteristics: He cultivates a culture of error, in which it is important not to make any mistakes of his own, and in case mistakes are made, to correct them if possible without being noticed and in case they are noticed, to at least not immediately admit the guilt. <br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In all these behaviours, the principle of face awareness applies.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the loyalty of employees to an employer in China is extremely low at the beginning of the 21st century. For a few yuan a month, workers change employers. Headhunters intercept employees at the factory gate, ask about the salary and offer correspondingly more. <br />
<br />
The paid passing on of information, especially about customers, suppliers, purchase prices and patents, is also considered a trivial offence. <br />
Chinese companies communicate less and employees are more demotivated. This is mainly due to the high production pressure, as case studies by Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku 2006 show (see list of literature in the appendix).<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
'''The Intermezzo of Socialism from 1949-1979'''<br />
<br />
In the phase of socialism, the centrally planned economy applied in it blossomed as follows:<br />
<br />
When the news reached the top, there was a culture of whitewashing.<br />
<br />
The breakup of the unions made the culture of co-determination in companies even more informal.<br />
<br />
'''Gaming in the Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
In China, playful experimentation is a core element of the production culture. In this way, individual management elements, but also entire foreign production philosophies can be tried out in a playful way.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
One of the main differences between young people in China and those in the West is that, even as young adults, they can still play hilariously without making themselves look ridiculous to others. The joy of playing is particularly unrestrained if the ambition is there to copy a foreign product as similar as possible or even to surpass it and also to implement, for example, a new management concept or a production philosophy. <br />
<br />
New rules of the game are accepted very quickly. The introduction of a reward system (''incentives'') for long service has led to a situation in China where it is always calculated when a change is worthwhile.<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
Sustainable concepts can only be introduced if the benefits of the concept are clear. Other concepts with no discernible added value, such as alignment with the American corporate philosophy on mergers and acquisitions, are forgotten just as quickly as they were introduced, and people return to old habits.<br />
<br />
'''Effects on the company''' <br />
<br />
In China today, we find a modern production culture that is international but has its Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
It has positive and negative effects on the company:<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
'''Positive effects of the Chinese management and production culture (CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
·Networks<br />
<br />
·the preferential treatment of Chinese companies (e.g. in tenders, competition, within corporate groups such as joint ventures)<br />
<br />
·playful enthusiasm for technology<br />
<br />
·Brutality, which in turn promotes competition<br />
<br />
'''Negative effects of the Chinese management and production culture (CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
·through their distortion of competition <br />
<br />
·by promoting incompetence in management positions<br />
<br />
·through their priority of personal rather than non-cash benefits, which is fundamentally negative for the production culture <br />
<br />
·through rituals/conventions (face, criticism, status etc.)<br />
<br />
·intransparent state sponsoring and corruption<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The fundamental difference of the free trade zone established by China, Japan, Australia and other Asian Pacific countries in 2020 from suggestions of free trade zones involving the US or the EU is, that state-sponsoring and corruption are not restricted. Therefore China benefits most of this new free trade zone.<br />
<br />
'''Where is modern Chinese management and production culture (CMPC) an international role model?'''<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
The Chinese management and production culture (CMPC), as explained in the previous chapters, has its own characteristics that distinguish it from, for example, the Japanese or American management and production culture. Nevertheless, the CMPC is successful and manages the world's largest production market. Elements of the Japanese production culture have been successfully used worldwide to modernize production facilities. Can Chinese elements also lead to global success?<br />
<br />
The following 5 elements appear at least compatible on the international market:<br />
<br />
'''1. informal decision making through horizontal and vertical network management'''<br />
<br />
In China, important and unimportant decisions are seldom made by competent committees or officials, but rather are investigated informally.<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The hierarchical position in the company of those involved in the decision-making process is irrelevant, only their professional competence. Questioning the most competent is possible because this questioning is completely detached from the honor and reward system, but takes place in a parallel world, the so-called personal relationship system (Chinese: guanxi 关系). Due to this decoupling, the responsible decision-maker does not mind questioning other, not responsible but more competent colleagues/employees/outsiders. At the same time, the colleague/employee/external is motivated to give the best possible decision support, since he can score points in the parallel world.<br />
<br />
The results are well-founded and accepted decisions.<br />
<br />
参与决策过程的人在公司中的等级地位无关紧要，只有他们的专业能力。对最有能力的人提出质疑是可能的，因为这种质疑完全脱离了荣誉和奖励系统，而是发生在一个平行的世界，即所谓的个人关系系统中。由于这种脱钩，负责任的决策者并不介意质疑其他不负责任但更有能力的同事/员工/外人。同时，同事/员工/外部人员也有动力给予尽可能好的决策支持，因为他可以在平行世界中得分。<br />
<br />
结果是有理有据，被接受的决策。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 01:57, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
'''2. playfully trying out new forms of production and management (attention: hermeneutics/sustainability)'''<br />
<br />
The play instinct in people up to old age is socially sanctioned. In phases when there is little to do in the office, a Mahjong or Go board or cards are taken out as a matter of course. Similarly, new methods, often imported from the West or Japan, are tried out with playful zeal. An incentive system, for example, challenges colleagues to earn as much capital as possible in the form of incentives in as short a time as possible. It is not unusual for hit lists to be posted in the office, so that colleagues encourage each other. <br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
But it is important to pay attention to three aspects:<br />
<br />
1. the actual goals should be achieved without neglecting other aspects of the work or even worsening the overall result, because the colleagues are addicted to the urge to play. The introduction of new management or production strategies is nothing new for Chinese employees, they know this from political or education-oriented campaigns (e.g. traffic education). <br />
<br />
The second aspect that must be kept in mind is the understanding of the corresponding philosophies. For this it is important, for example, when importing Western management culture into China, that the correct Chinese term is first found for the fashionable e.g. English expression. <br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Terms that are translated incorrectly or not at all lead to success messages that a new system has been introduced, with what was understood by it being introduced instead. <br />
<br />
A third aspect that must be considered in this context is sustainability. Many new concepts that have been introduced are forgotten after a few weeks and the old rut has returned. Only individual, often senior employees still remember the newly introduced things and occasionally refer back to them without being able to enforce them on their employees.<br />
<br />
翻译不正确或根本没有翻译的术语会带来成功信息，即引入了一个新系统，而引入了该系统所理解的内容。<br />
<br />
在这情形下必须考虑的第三个方面是可持续性。许多引入的新概念在几周后就被遗忘而老一套又回来了。只有个别的，通常是高级员工还记得新引进的东西，偶尔也会提到，但不能强加在他们的员工身上。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
翻译错误或根本没有翻译的术语也会有所成果，其引入了一个新系统，并引入了该系统所理解的内容。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:45, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
在这种情况下，可持续性是必须考虑的第三个方面。许多引入的新概念在几周后就为人们所遗忘，取而代之的是重蹈覆辙的老一套概念。只有个别人，通常是高层还记得新引进的东西，他们偶尔也会提起，但却无法强迫他们的员工也记得。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:45, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
A process description system that is integrated into the daily work routine (e.g. daily used computer work surface) is useful here, where the employees make or execute decisions and processes in the given paths.<br />
<br />
All in all, the playful approach reduces fear of contact with new things, the daily work routine is varied and the employees gain further qualifications.<br />
<br />
'''3. speed and flexibility in product development'''<br />
<br />
One of the hallmarks of the Chinese manufacturing industry is the speed at which products are cribbed and developed further, or at which they react to changing customer requirements or market conditions.<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
The ambition that Chinese product developers put into developing solutions for specific requirements is comparable to the play instinct described above.<br />
<br />
他希望中国的产品开发人员为特定需求开发解决方案，这一雄心壮志与上述游戏本能不相上下。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This high speed and flexibility strengthens the competitiveness of Chinese companies. Western companies can learn these qualities by locating in China and thus benefit from these experiences in the comparatively sluggish production location in their home countries.<br />
<br />
这种高速和灵活性增强了中国企业的竞争力。西方企业可以在中国开公司来学习这些品质，从经验中获益，与本国相对迟缓的生产环境来说。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
这种高速和灵活性增强了中国企业的竞争力。处在本国相对迟缓的生产环境下的西方企业可以落户中国来学习这些品质，并从这些经验中获益。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 11:07, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. focusing on personal competence instead of things or functions'''<br />
<br />
4注重个人能力而不是事物或职能--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Interesting and certainly typical Chinese is the fixation on people instead of the thing.<br />
<br />
有趣的是，中国人是典型的对人不对事。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
有趣无疑的是，大凡中国人都对人不对事。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 11:50, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
[[File:majuan]]<br />
An original feature is the logistics. As this picture illustrates, existing primitive means are exploited to the utmost. Admirable is the matter-of-course way in which the extremes are mastered.<br />
<br />
For a long time, production capacity in China grew faster than logistics. Only at the beginning of the 21st century are delivery services and infrastructure (highways, high-speed train connections, etc.) catching up.<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
'''The Freedom of Intellectual Exchange'''<br />
<br />
Starting to work on the modern Chinese literary essay in the 1990s, I published my Ph.D. thesis ''The History of the Chinese Essay'' in 1998. Because it was written in German, I hoped since then to raise interest in this subject in the anglophone world, too. With this volume in hand, this wish has become true. Some of the topics I dealt with in my thesis like the development of the genre, biblio-biographies of several essayists etc., are elaborated here extensively by my collegues in English and more detailed than I could do it in my first ground work in German. <br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Moreover, this collection documents the lively discussion, which started among sinologists in the last years of the 20th century.<br />
<br />
I remember quite clearly, how the idea of the conference was born during a meal at the Boston AAS conference hotel with King-Fai Tam. Leo Ou-fan Lee had helped to bring both of us together, knowing that we shared a seemingly specialized hobby, the modern Chinese essay. King-Fai was preparing two collection of essay translations, one with essays from mainland China and one from Taiwan. The first is scheduled for publication. I prepared another collection of essays with both, Chinese original and English translation, published by The University Press Bochum half a year ago. The common intention of both of us is to make more Chinese essays available in English translations. <br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
King-Fai Tam and me are both fascinated of the idea of promoting this long time neglected genre and to find out more about its characteristics and the reasons of its success in the 1920s and 1930s as well as in the 1980s and 1990s. On a napkin, we outlined an AAS panel, an international conference and a volume with essays on the essay. All of these ideas are now becoming real more or less in the way we planned it: The AAS panel became an NEAAS panel at Yale, the conference took place in August 25-27, 2000 at the Academy of Euro-Asian Economy and Culture in Achern, in the Black Forest, Germany. <br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
14 scholars of Chinese literature, from the States, Taiwan, the United Kingdom and Germany took part. All of them share the fascination of the phenomenon of the essay. Language was no barrier: The conference was conducted in English with the exception of a few papers in Chinese with English abstracts.<br />
<br />
The collection of essays on the essay are the conference proceedings in hand, this book contains extended versions of the conference papers. It was published by The University Press Bochum in December 2000. More important is the fact, that through this opportunity, we now have lively email discussions and a website with updated information on the Chinese essay.<br />
<br />
来自中国大陆、台湾、英国以及德国的14位研究中国文学的学者参加了此次会议。他们都分享了论文中令人着迷的表达。语言没有边界：大会虽用英文举行，但也破例宣读了部分含有英文摘要的中文论文。<br />
<br />
按照大会的流程，这些论文中的一部分会组成一本文集。这本文集中的文章都是大会论文的修改版，在2000年由波鸿大学出版社出版。更重要的是，通过这一契机，如今我们能进行实时邮件讨论，并且能在网站上看到不断更新的中文论文。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
来自美国、中国台湾、英国和德国的14位中国文学领域的学者都参加了此次会议。他们都分享了论文中有趣的现象。语言无边界：大会除了部分论文是含有英文摘要的中文论文之外，其余都是用英文展开的。<br />
<br />
会议过程中的论文选集发到人们手中，这本文集中的文章都是大会论文的修改版。在2000年12月由波鸿大学出版社出版。更重要的是，通过这一契机，如今我们能借助邮件展开激烈的讨论，并且能在网站上获取不断更新的中文论文。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Here I would like to take the opportunity to thank the members of the organizing committee Charles Laughlin, Xinmin Liu, King-Fai Tam, and Alexandra Wagner for their great help. I very much enjoyed the discussions via email.<br />
<br />
A common philosophy stands behind the whole project: We want to share information, help each other and do not care about language barriers. Everybody can contribute in English or Chinese, some of us like me being non-native English speakers.<br />
<br />
We encourage the reader to make use of the large margins for personal notes in the awareness of pursuing a tradition dating back to the very origins of essay writing. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Having most of the conference papers in hand with this book, everybody is welcomed to give a feed back. This kind of free intellectual exchange I first experienced in the States when Leo Ou-fan Lee invited me to stay from 1998-1999 as a visiting scholar at the Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations at Harvard University.<br />
<br />
The contributors to this volume can only introduce and draw the attention of the readers to this Chinese genre, the joy of reading remains to the reader himself.<br />
<br />
M.W.<br />
<br />
这本书中含有大部分会议所用论文，因此，欢迎每位与会者给出反馈。我第一次进行这种自由的学术交流是在美国，当时李欧梵邀请我作为访问学者到哈佛大学东亚语言与文明系学习，时长为1998到1999年。这期期刊的撰写者只能吸引中国读者的注意力，但阅读的乐趣得靠读者自己领会。<br />
<br />
M.W.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 03:28, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
''The Flourishing of the Chinese Essay''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the periods of accelerated modernization, the Western-influenced one (1920s/30s) and the one of liberated economical actors (1980/90s), was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines and book series that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists. The emergence of this media show a clear trend: the essay is a genre of overwhelming and increasing interest among Chinese authors and readers.<br />
<br />
There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
·The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ Donald Hall, The Contemporary Essay (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984) xiii. In this textbook, Hall has chosen a wide range of contemporary American essayists. In his introduction, Hall applies for clear writing, and active reading.]; <br />
<br />
·the increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
·a revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
Because of its increasing importance, the essay can now be assigned its proper place in the canon of contemporary genres and in the history of literature.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the last two decades of the 20th century, the essay has been the main communication medium between the discourse of the intelligentsia and the mass of readers of daily newspapers. Therefore we have a genre which transports ideas of the elite in small pieces and common language and functions as the link between mass and elite culture.<br />
<br />
December 2000<br />
<br />
20世纪最后20年中，小品文成了知识分子和那些读日报的普罗大众沟通的主要媒介，由此，这种文学体裁开始以小篇幅和通用语将精英分子的思想传播开来，成为了大众文化和精英文化间的纽带。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
在二十世纪最后二十年中，小品文成了知识分子话语圈和日报读者群的主要沟通媒介。因此，我们拥有了一种文学体裁，这种体裁能用小篇幅传播精英分子的思想，也能充当大众文化和精英文化之间的纽带。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:43, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Keynote: “Let us Assign the Essay its Proper Place in Chinese Literature!”'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. We are used to the established narratives of C.T. Hsia, Průšek, and Anderson, which let Chinese literature appear overshadowed by its elder brother, fiction. The latter has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularization of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement.<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly: <br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
•The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history. The impact of the essay genre, with its direct language, its connection to life, and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers, was larger than the indirect effects of fiction or poetry.<br />
<br />
•The essay also reflects trends in society better than poetry and fiction. Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem, which is limited in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
•The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, and does not require the large amount of time spent on reading novels. The essay itself is a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
•The volume of essay production exceeds the volume of xiaoshuo production.<br />
<br />
Can the picture of Chinese literature remain unchanged if we take the essay into consideration? As stated above, there is a large contrast between the true value and the current valuing of the essay. Let us assign the essay its proper place!<br />
<br />
•与诗歌相比，论文占人口的比例更大，不需要花大量时间阅读小说。论文本身是一种高度现实的类型，即使不仅仅是今天的类型。<br />
<br />
•论文的产量超过小说的产量。<br />
<br />
如果考虑到这篇论文，中国文学的图画能否保持不变？ 如上所述，论文的真实价值与当前价值之间存在很大的反差。让我们为论文分配适当的位置！--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 09:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 09:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
'''The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90); whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
<br />
'''未知的体裁'''<br />
<br />
由20世纪选集和文集讲述的文学历史叙事所绘画出的中国文学图景并不完整：即散文体裁的缺失。长期以来，人们有意（马古烈 1949，施密特·格林策 1990）或无意地(麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90）忽视了这种体裁的优点：然而，自从五四运动确立主叙事、民国初期重视小说文学和创作通俗化以来，散文的兄长--小说就一直受到珍视。现代选集会让读者相信，诗歌、小说和戏剧的三足鼎立才是中国现代文学作品的支柱。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 06:10, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
···未知体裁···<br />
20世纪的选集和文集所记叙的文学史，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景：散文的体裁是缺乏的。长期以来，散文作为一种功利性文体被忽视（马格里斯1949年，施寒微1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年）；而它的兄长--小说，自民国初年重视小说文学和写作白话化以来，在五四运动确立的总叙事之后，一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信，诗歌、小说、戏剧三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:12, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
20世纪文学选集对于中国文学史的叙述是不完整的，其中缺失了散文这一体裁。长期起来，人们有意（马古烈 1949，施密特·格林策 1990）或无意地(麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90）地忽视了这一出色的体裁，但与此同时，由于五四运动树立起了以叙事为主的创作风格，到民国初期发展为重视小说体裁和通俗化创作，散文的兄长--小说，则一直受到重视。而现代文选则告诉读者，诗歌、小说和戏剧的三足鼎立才是中国现代文学的支柱。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
Two times in the 20th century the Chinese essay was flourishing, first in the 1920s and 1930s, then in the 1980s and 1990s. <br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'', see works of Laughlin, Klaschka). The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文丛书 (essay bookseries). <br />
<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging ''xiangtu'' literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
<br />
The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political ''zawen'' of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). <br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996 (see Denton). The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of ''novel'' and ''opera'' in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lives, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
-The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao, etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his zawen), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang'' lu derived).<br />
<br />
Let us assign the essay its proper place<br />
The consequence which must be derived from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! <br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature<br />
I will name a few points to illustrate what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Pršek and Anderson.<br />
<br />
<br />
“杂文”制作量超过“小说”制作量：从十九世纪七十年代起，中国报纸（申报，时报等等。梁启超认为报纸的作用既自由又权威：一方面，他认为新闻媒体是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他赞成审查制度。）作为20世纪初期的大众传播媒介，报纸以序列化形式仅展示一个或两个虚构的故事，不过它发明了杂文专栏，如“杂感 ”（鲁迅从中发展了他的杂文），和“ 随笔”或“ 随想”（从其中衍生出像巴金的《穗香路》这样的著名收藏）。<br />
<br />
让我们为杂文指定适当的位置<br />
<br />
必须从以上提出的杂文价值与评价之间的对比中得出以下结论：让我们为散文指定适当的位置！<br />
<br />
重新考虑杂文将会改写中国文学的历史<br />
<br />
我仅举几例来说明杂文对中国文学的贡献，迄今为止，由于C.T. Hsia, Prçšek and Anderson等人的叙述，小说的光芒盖过了杂文。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 04:12, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the yuanyang hudie pai played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
In the following, I will name two aspects (chronologically sorted by past, and modern times) to promote the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
<br />
1. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned<br />
How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay both in China and the West are notes written in the margins of books, as well as letters and travel notes saved. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality and subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber.''<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference[ This is older than the ones referred to in Morohashi, 5:529a / sequential page counting 5167a, and in the The Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language, vol. 73c / s.p.c. 6137c.] this far for the term sanwen that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù. 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatells, is limited. Luo Dajing 14:Baihai:1). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
从一开始，人们就认为散文的价值低于诗歌:最古老的参考文献[这比在Morohashi, 5:529a /连续页数5167a，和在中国语言的百科词典，第73卷/ s.p.c. 6137c中提到的更古老。)“散文”这个术语,我发现是罗大经提出(?- 1248年之后):“詩騷妙天下,而散文頗覺瑣碎局促”。诗歌以一种美妙的方式感化人类，散文则是不连贯的杂谈，影响有限。罗大经 14: Baihai: 1)。罗大经提出的另一种质疑则更为正式:与具有高度艺术性和百年历史的诗歌创作传统相比，在他看来，直接的、通常是白话的散文没有什么价值。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 09:19, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge. The reorganization originated from the observations of Copernicus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Ages.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of ''san'' 散 as to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
<br />
During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written in the paper margins originated the ''biji'' 筆記 (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming dynasty. The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as ''a genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences. Until now, the Chinese pre-''Honglou meng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
<br />
Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the “Eight legged essay” as as appealing and intoxicating as the “pleasure of doing opium.” (Zhou Zuoren 1932c, 148).<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, 71).<br />
<br />
Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''wen yi zai dao'' 文以載道 (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xin wenti'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
<br />
但他也认为这是一种在现代作品中流行的体裁，如洋八股和党八股（吴志辉，71）。<br />
理学强调文以载道。如果从体裁的角度重新解读这一措辞，我们可以说，当时的散文已被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
梁启超受西方语言的影响，发展了一种新文体，但这种文体在报纸成为大众传媒之前就开始流行起来，语言也变成了白话。<br />
--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 12:40, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但他也认为这是一种在现代作品中流行的体裁，如洋八股和党八股（吴志辉，71）。<br />
理学强调文以载道。如果从体裁的角度重新解读这一措辞，我们可以说，当时的散文已被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
受西方语言的影响，梁启超发展了一种新文体，但这种文体在报纸成为大众传媒媒介之前就流行起来，新文体的语言也变成了白话。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
'''2. The essay as the medium of modernity'''<br />
<br />
The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. It was short, dealt with reality, there was no limitation regarding the contents, therefore it was also capable of documenting and spreading the ideas about the best form of society. It was simply the best form to transport the thoughts of the intellectual leaders of the time to the public and to create a public sphere. Imagine the May Fourth Movement without essays! Most of Lu Xun's work consists out of essays!<br />
<br />
Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming “needs” of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is “a genre of self-reflection”. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays.<br />
<br />
I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).(文献 无需翻译)<br />
<br />
但是从本质上说，这篇论文在形式和内容上设定了新的界限，因此不仅脱离了意识形态限制，而且在其中建立了自己的批判亚文化。这篇文章不仅是我们今天讨论的媒介和社会政治背景的记录，还是关于作家在不断变化的环境中寻找定位的个人奋斗的记录，因为这篇文章是“反思类型”。有些文章甚至像左派意识形态之一一样破坏了主叙述，通常只是将其与主观经验，现实或艺术联系起来去面对。<br />
<br />
如果我们考虑论文的话，会对文学的整体理解发生了变化，如果我们既看作者的小说诗歌作品，又看他们的论文的话，对单一作者的观点也会改变。<br />
<br />
我想提到文学的另一种立场，强调文学对生活的影响，特别是在革命前夕对生活的影响。按照这种观点，所有文学都是政治性的（詹姆森）。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:17, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
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'''The Aesthetic of Marginalism and the Impact of the West on the Chinese Essay'''<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
Chinese and Western essays derived from the notes in the margins of books. With this step from the private to the public sphere, we find the impact of subjectivity and individualism on literature. The origin of the essay has influenced the later essay tradition in its ephemeral, subjective, marginal character; its claim for understatement; the conversational and colloquial style of expression; and its eclecticism. The essay itself often deals with one subject, but this topic is looked on from different perspectives.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
The aesthetic of marginalism, invented by Schlette in 1977 and further developed by Pfeiffer and others in 1996, proves helpful for understanding the character of the essay. Following its methodological perspective, marginalism grants the essayist a distant view of the text body itself from the margins of the book. This enables the essayist to think unorthodoxly, the condition ''sine qua non'' of critique and protest. <br />
<br />
In my paper, I use the concept of marginalism to explain the rhetorical means of digression in Lu Xun's essays. Lu Xun seems to digress: 1) on purpose for rhetorical effects; 2) going off-target for arts’ sake; 3) as an experiment; 4) for its own sake with socio-critical side blows; 5) as understatement with surprising effects. Further I will show marginalism in the founder of Western essayism, Montaigne, and the Chinese scholar Qian Zhongshu.<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
As for the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, both traditions are relevant: The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations, starting from 1907. From this, there first developed a Chinese essay tradition which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology. Later, the Chinese essay’s own proponents succumbed to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history alone. The legendary authors of the May Fourth movement considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition.<br />
<br />
中国散文是源于本土传统？还是产自西方翻译？这个问题一直是个争议。但无论如何，这两种说法本身就具关联性：自1907年起直至现在，中国散文的体裁形式主要出自西方的散文译本。从这一点来看，中国散文自发展伊始就一直在语言、形式和术语上借鉴西方模式。后来，中国散文的推行者无奈只能仅仅诉诸于中国历史来证明中国本土散文的渊源。五四运动中涌现的传奇作家认为英语散文是中国散文的起源。但之后其中一些作家改变观念，通过证明中国散文自成一家来支撑自己的散文理论。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
Wherever on earth human beings developed a high culture, the written language was its essence. Early traces we find in the pictograms of the Near East, Latin America and China. The more the characters remind of the ontological world, the more the written language itself was an object of cult. From the Chinese we know the use of characters in the tortoise shell oracles, from the Germans in sacrificial stones. Later, with the improvement of writing material, the first rolls were created, either from papyrus (Egypt), pergament (Europe) or bamboo (China). Due to the expensive material, written rolls were reserved to wealthier people. The texts were reduced to the documentation of important things.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
For the first time, it was possible not only to document events and therefore to extend the human mind and memory, but to communicate complex information from one author to another or more readers. At this stage, the first reading notes were written. Due to the lack of the precious writing material, the margins of the rolls were used. Still today we find these notes as well as on early European (for example ancient Greek) rolls as well as on Chinese ones. These notes were personal thoughts about the text, explanations of places and events maybe unknown to third readers, interpretations of unclear text passages, alternatives to seemingly miswritten characters, sometimes only marks for structuring the texts, which were used as school textsoles to teach reading, too. <br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Some notes were intended for other readers, and from this in Europe and China the tradition of commentary developed. Other notes were of a private nature, personal comments to the text, not written down for other people. And both, in Europe as in China, the same evolution took place, when the authors of the notes discovered, that the notes were worth collecting. From these collections of notes they compiled short essays. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality and subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
The names given to these essays reminded of their origin. In Europe they were called “marginal notes,” “marginalia,” in China “brush notes” (''biji'' 筆記, or occasional notes). They were flourishing in the Ming dynasty. They could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as ''a genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynasty, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
All these terms for the essay, and also the term “essay” itself, which means “try, attempt,” invented by Montaigne, reflect the ephemeral, subjective, marginal character of the essay. The term itself carried the claim for understatement, which is substantial especially when you want to express subjective, individual thoughts, in order not to seem schoolmasterly to the reader.<br />
<br />
这些文章的名字使人想起了它们的起源。在欧洲，它们被称为“旁注”、“边注”，在中国被称为“笔记”（biji筆記，或临时记录）。它们在明朝盛极一时。它们可以是私人的史料、轶事、谈话和沉思。然而，作为一种特有的体裁，人们有散文意识的时候已经是清朝过后了，当时已有大量的散文选集被编撰出来。<br />
所有这些散文术语，以及蒙田创造出的“随笔”这个词本身，即“尝试，试图”，都反映出散文短暂的、主观的、边缘化的特点。这个词本身就带有轻描淡写的意思，尤其是当你想表达主观的个人想法时又为了不让读者觉得自己很有学究气的时候就更显得具有实质性。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
From this origin, different characteristics of the essay came, which are still valid for essays today. One is the conversational style of expression, which comes while you create the sentences from the notes the very moment you are writing them down. From Greek philosophers we know that they sat relaxed in the yard, while one person was reading them their notes from the margins of the books which the philosopher transformed into sentences orally, while another person wrote it down. This also explains the colloquial character of the essays. In fact, the whole development of ideas was based on a conversation in mind with the author of the original role, and many Greek philosophical schools knew about the importance of dialogues for the development of thoughts.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
Another characteristic of the essay is its eclecticism. While reading an original text, the educated scholar constantly thinks of quotations and links to other works. Therefore many notes consist out of references to other works. The essay itself therefore often deals with one subject, but is looked on from different perspectives.<br />
<br />
In 1977 Heinz Robert Schlette developed the aesthetic of marginalism, in 1996 Klaus-Peter Pfeiffer developed this concept further. It proves helpful for the understanding of the character of the essay. In its methodological understanding, marginalism grants the essayist a distant view from the margins of the book to the text body itself. Following Schlette, marginalism is only possible where dissident thinking is possible. Marginalism is the private sphere left to the reader during the reading process.<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
It is the condition sine qua non of critique and protest. A marginalist reader is one, who reads a text critically. Also Montaigne saw himself as a marginalist (Ulke, 31 - 38).<br />
<br />
Let us now use the concept of marginalism to look on the 20th century Chinese essay. I choose here the example of Lu Xuns' essays. One of Lu Xun's rhethorical means in his essays is the digression. The digression is closely related to marginalism and essayism: <br />
<br />
In some of his essays, Lu Xun digresses from his actual subject. This phenomenon increases in his later work. Following Wilpert, digression is one possible expression of conscious scepticism and a warning signal, that something is wrong.<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Walf 1996 in his article “Marginalism in the Daoism” portrays the margi¬na¬lis¬m as an aesthetic, which in China are linked close to the tradition of scepticism of Wang Chong (27 - 97). As a youth, Lu Xun was optimistic about the impact of literature on society. He soon lost this optimism, as documented in “Preface to ‘Call to Arms’” (Lu Xun 1922b). Finally, he became a sceptic regarding the possibilities of literature to change society.<br />
<br />
1, digression on purpose<br />
<br />
In 1926, in his essay on “Wuchang, the Ghost of Perishable Life” (Lu Xun 1926b) Lu Xun digressed to contemporary critic on his contemporary Chen Xiying. In “Illustrations of 24 Examples of Children Piety” (Lu Xun 1926a), he protested against the slogan “Down with the colloquial language”. Lu Xun uses here historiographical and autobio¬gra¬phical essays for appeals of daily-political value.<br />
<br />
沃夫1996年在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，这在中国与王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。他很快就失去了这种乐观，正如鲁迅在他的《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学改变社会的可能性产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在他的文章《武昌，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)中转移了对他同时代的陈希英的当代批评。在《24个孩子虔诚的例子的插图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他抗议“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用史学和自传体散文来呼吁日常政治的价值。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 08:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1996年沃夫在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，在中国，这种边缘主义与王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。但这种乐观很快就消失不见，，正如鲁迅在他的《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学能否改变社会产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在他的文章《武昌，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)中改变了对他同时代的陈希英的当代批评。在《24个孩子虔诚的例子的插图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他抗议“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用史学和自传体散文来呼吁日常政治的价值.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:51, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
2, not targeted digression<br />
<br />
In May 1927, Lu Xun starts his “Morning Blossoms Picked at Dusk - Afterword,” continues to write it until July 11 (Lu Xun 1928b). It becomes a full-length essay, which again describes historiographically the character of the servant of the underworld Huo Wuchang and Si Youfen. <br />
<br />
3, Marginalism as experiment<br />
In the essay “What the Youth Should Read” (Lu Xun 1919), the actual essay does not appear in the text body, but in the footnote. On a questionnaire Lu Xun answers the question about recommended literature shortly, that he never paid attention to this and therefore could not recommend anything. But he makes a footnote, where he starts writing freely. The subject of the questionnaire with the essay in the footnote corresponds parodistically to the classical “discussion” of a “subject”.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
4, Marginalismus for its own sake with sociocritical side blows<br />
<br />
In 1924, Lu Xun writes the consciously trivial essay “My Moustache” (Lu Xun 1924). In this essay, he makes fun of the things, other people are interpreting into the shape of his moustache. After that, he writes the even more trivial essay “From the Moustache to the Teeth” (Lu Xun 1925a), where he mocks about the fact, that the readers are reproaching him with banality.<br />
<br />
5, Marginalism as understatement with surprising effect<br />
<br />
Montaigne, too, consciously introduces his essays with understatement. Lu Xun wraps explosive contents into essays, which are titled with marginal headers: In the essay “Idle Thoughts at the End of Spring” he compares the paralyzing effect of Confucianism with the poison of a dangerous wasp (Lu Xun 1925b).<br />
<br />
4、社会批判的一面打击了边缘主义<br />
<br />
1924年，鲁迅写了一篇自觉琐碎的散文《我的胡子》（鲁迅1924）。在这篇文章中，他调侃的事情，别人都在解读成他的胡子形状。在那之后，他写了一篇更为琐碎的文章《从胡子到牙齿》（鲁迅1925a），他嘲笑读者指责他平庸的事实。<br />
<br />
5、边缘主义是一种效果惊人的轻描淡写<br />
<br />
蒙田也有意识地低调地介绍他的文章。鲁迅把爆炸性的内容包装成随笔，这些文章的标题是边缘标题：在《春末闲思》一文中，他把儒家思想的麻痹作用比作危险黄蜂的毒药（鲁迅1925b）。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:39, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4、边缘主义本身就带有社会批判的一面<br />
<br />
1924年，鲁迅写了一篇自觉琐碎的散文《我的胡子》（鲁迅1924）。在这篇文章中，他取笑的事情，别人都解读成他的胡子形状。在那之后，他写了一篇更为琐碎的文章《从胡子到牙齿》（鲁迅1925a），他嘲笑读者指责他平庸的事实。<br />
<br />
5、边缘主义是效果惊人的轻描淡写<br />
<br />
蒙田也有意识地低调地介绍他的文章。鲁迅把爆炸性的内容包装成随笔，这些文章的标题是边缘标题：在《春末闲思》一文中，他把儒家思想的麻痹作用比作危险黄蜂的毒药（鲁迅1925b）。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 06:14, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
In “Casual Remarks under the Shine of a Lamp” he assumes the Chinese people, that they wanted to be slaves forever, in history as well as in the future (Lu Xun 1925c). In the autobiographical essay “Lightweight Reminiscences” he explains his decision to go to study in Japan (Lu Xun 1926c).<br />
<br />
Another example for the awareness of the origin of the essay is Qian Zhongshu's essay collection ''Marginalia of Life'', Shanghai 1941. In it, Qian mocks about human failures, like hypocrisy, humorlessness and groups of people like guards of morality, charlatans, literary reviewers, etc. (see Ba Ping, 1168 - 1173).<br />
<br />
'''Questioning the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
<br />
散文起源认识的另一例子是1941年钱锺书在上海发表的“围城”散文集。文中，他嘲讽人类的失败，比如伪善，缺乏幽默感，以及一群如道德卫士，江湖骗子和文学评论员等的人。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:45, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在《灯光下的随评》中，他认为中国人想成为永远的奴隶，不论是在过去还是在未来(Lu Xun 1925c)。在自传体散文《轻量回忆》中，鲁迅表明他决意去日本学习(Lu Xun 1926c)。关于这种意识的起源在文章中的体现，另一例子是1941年钱锺书在上海发表的散文集《写在人生边上》。文中，他嘲讽人类的失败，如伪善，缺乏幽默感，以及一群人如道德卫士、江湖骗子、文学批评家等等。(see Ba Ping, 1168 - 1173) 质疑中文文章的真实性--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
To solve the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Washington Irving's essays by Lin Shu 1907, Joseph Addison's by Ma/Gan 1911). The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations (for Chinese translations of English essays in the 1980s and 1990s see appendix). First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only.<br />
<br />
为了解决有关中国文论是起源于本土传统还是受西方翻译影响的争议，人们认为这两种传统有相通之处：从1907年开始，西方翻译就通过中文翻译引入文学改革运动的作家们的文论，（1907年林纾翻译的华盛顿欧文的文论，1911年马/甘翻译的约瑟夫·艾迪生的文论）。 该类型的当前形式主要是基于西方文论翻译的影响（有关20世纪80年代和90年代英语论文的中文翻译，请参见附录）。 首先发展了中国散文传统，有意识地在语言，形式和术语上依赖西方模式，其拥护者很快屈从于仅从中国历史中继承中国文论传统的诱惑。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:00, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Pršek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition. <br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition: for example, Lu Xun with his theory “'Zhankai' shuo yu 'mengya' lun “展開”說與“萌芽”論” (Theory of “Starting” and “Blossoming”) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin Dynasty (265-420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the biji (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his “Gonganpai yu Yingguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合 成”論” (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the Engli¬sh Essay).<br />
<br />
后来，其中有些作家转变了自己的想法，他们通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证据，来支持散文中本人的理论：比如，鲁迅及其理论——“展开”说与”萌芽“论——视金朝（265-420）散文中的斗争性和批判性特征为中国“散文之父”；另外，周作人首先研究英国散文（1921），随后研究明朝笔记，但是他仍然尝试将英国散文融入自己公安派与“英国小说‘合成’论”之中。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 07:31, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1934, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1932].<br />
<br />
Wang Zengqi in 1993 regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays. The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
<br />
五四运动时期的许多作家都可以被称为传奇，他们演绎着个人的观点对叙述史实有多大的影响。所以作家都认为英文文章是中文文章的鼻祖：周作人，1921，鲁迅，1934，无政府主义者以及后来的国民党吴稚晖（1932）。<br />
<br />
汪曾祺1993年写到他感到很遗憾五四运动时期文学作品里的中国传统文化没有留下，当代文学作品中也没有体现，中国文学主要是用来学习的，人们主要是通过查阅其来证明其中的理论。你可以找到每一时期每个话题的例子，因为文章海纳百川。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 09:30, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
五四运动时期的传奇作家可以告诉我们个人观点对史实阐述而产生的影响有多大。这些作家都认为英国散文是中国散文的鼻祖：周作人，1921，鲁迅，1934，无政府主义者以及后来的国民党吴稚晖（1932）。<br />
<br />
汪曾祺1993年写到他感到很遗憾，在五四运动时期文学作品中中国传统文化没有占据一席之地，在当代文学作品中也没有得到传承。中国文学适合用来学习研究，因为人们可以通过查阅来证明文章中的理论。正是因为文章海纳百川，所以你可以找到任何时期任何话题的范例。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 07:45, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
'''Formation of Modern Subjectivity and Essay:''' <br />
<br />
'''Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain”'''<br />
<br />
'''Jianhua Chen'''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
How to define the modern Chinese essay? Is it modern because of using ''baihua''? Does it start from its naming of ''sanwen''? While scholars identified its origins with May Fourth literature, the complicated trends of literary modernity in the first two decades of the 20th century was neglected. Relating Zhou Shoujuan, a major figure in the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school, to his contribution to the formation of modern Chinese essay has to encounter the problems of literary canons in modern China. <br />
<br />
Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” (''Jiuhua zhang li'') reveals that this 1917 vernacular “pillow talk” (''qinghua'') in the wedding night came out of chaotic conditions of literary genre before the generic system of poetry, fiction, prose, and drama is established in the May Fourth period.<br />
<br />
如何界定现代汉语散文?是因为使用了“百花”才变得现代吗?它是从“三文”的名字开始的吗?虽然学者们将其根源归结为五四文学，但20世纪头20年文学现代性的复杂趋势却被忽视了。把鸳鸯蝴蝶派的主要人物周瘦娟与他对中国现代散文形成的贡献联系起来，必然会遇到中国现代文学经典的问题。<br />
<br />
周瘦娟的《九花帘》揭示了这段1917年《新婚之夜》中的白话“枕边话”（“清华”）是在“五四”时期诗歌、小说、散文、戏剧的通俗体系建立之前，从文学体裁的混乱状态中走出来的。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:01, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
如何界定中国现代散文?是因为使用了“白话”才成为现代散文吗?“散文”这一名字出现就有了现代散文吗?当学者们将其根源归结于五四文学，便忽视了20世纪前20年文学现代化的复杂趋势。鸳鸯蝴蝶派的重要人物周瘦娟对中国现代散文的形成作出了重要贡献，但仍面临着现代中国文学经典的问题。<br />
周寿鹃的《九花帐里》揭示了在五四时期诗歌、小说、散文、戏剧等整体体系尚未建立之前，1917年出版的《新婚夜》中的白话“情话”是在文学体裁混乱的情况下产生的。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:56, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Obsessed with first person narratives it hybridizes diary, love-letter, autobiography, and journalist reportage. I will argue that this Butterflies obsession with subjective genres in the early 20th-century lays a foundation for the growth of modern Chinese essay. <br />
<br />
The theatrical devices used in this work create a double self in the narrative space - the self as a performer and the self in the beholders’ gaze. This paper emphasizes that the rhetoric of theatricality is indebted to the repertoires of traditional poetry and drama, which become unavailable when the New Literature triumphs in the 1920s. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, I will elaborate how the theatricality helps to construct an early Republican subjectivity based on the divisions between the individual, family and nation-building.<br />
<br />
痴迷于第一人称叙事，它杂糅了日记、情书、自传和记者报道。我将认为，《蝴蝶》在20世纪初对主观文体的这种痴迷，为中国现代散文的成长奠定了基础。<br />
这部作品所使用的戏剧手段在叙事空间中创造了一个双重的自我--作为表演者的自我和观看者目光中的自我。本文强调，戏剧性的修辞是依赖于传统诗歌和戏剧的剧目，而当新文学在20世纪20年代取得胜利时，这些剧目就变得不可用了。<br />
此外，我还将阐述戏剧性如何帮助建构一种基于个人、家庭和国家建设之间划分的早期民国主体性。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:10, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
由于痴迷于第一人称的叙述，它混合了日记，情诗，自传和新闻报道这些体裁。我认为 20世纪初对《蝴蝶》这种主观体裁的痴迷为中国现代散文打下了基础。<br />
作品中的戏剧手段在叙述空间中创造出了双重自我- 身为表演者的自我和旁观者眼中的自我。本文强调戏剧性的修辞得益于传统诗歌和戏剧，当20世纪20年代新文学成为主流时传统诗歌和戏剧就退出了舞台。<br />
此外，我将阐述戏剧性如何帮助建立一种基于个人、家庭和国家建设划分之上的早期的民国主体性。 --[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 07:44, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
''Twilight is that moment of the day that foreshadows''<br />
<br />
''the night of forgetting, but that seems to slow time itself,''<br />
<br />
''an in-between state in which the last light of the day may''<br />
<br />
''still play out its ultimate marvels.'' <br />
<br />
Andreas Huyssen. ''Twilight Memories''<br />
<br />
By way of tackling the origins of modern Chinese ''sanwen'', this paper opens up a zone of “twilight memories” of literary modernity early in the twentieth century, which has recently haunted the field of modern Chinese literature. In terms of modern Chinese ''essay'' or ''prose'', how do we define this genre? Is it modern because it uses ''baihua''? Does its ''modern'' start from being called ''sanwen''? How was the May Fourth generic system established? And what were its consequences to literary history? <br />
<br />
Andreas Huyssen, Twilight Memories: Making Time in a Culture of Amnesia (New York and London: Routledge, 1995) 3（文献 无需翻译）<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, searching for Chinese literary modernities other than May Fourth have continued with rigor. In this vital current of scholarly reflections on Chinese literary modernities, prominent are Milena Dolezelova-Velingerova’s emphasis on late Qing origins of modern Chinese literature (“The Origins of Modern Chinese Literature,” in Merle Goldman, ed., Modern Chinese Literature in the May Fourth Era (Cambridge and Mass.: Harvard University Press 1977) 17-36; The Turn of the Century Novel (Toronto University Press, 1981), Perry Link’s path-breaking study of the Mandarin ducks and Butterflies fiction (Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies: Popular Fiction in Early Twentieth Century China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981)), Liu Ts’un-yan’s advocacy of “Middle-blow Fiction” (Chinese Middle-blow Fiction: From the Ch’ing and Early Republican Era (Hong Kong: The Chinese University, 1984)), and recently David Wang’s exciting and sophisticate interpretation of late 19th-century novels (Fin-de-Siecle Splendor: Repressed Modernities of Late Qing Fiction, 1848-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997)). In a larger context, approximately in the same period, this basically north American academia has interacted the rapidly changed literary criticism in China - from the theories and practices of “rewriting literary history” with a revision of “twentieth-century Chinese literature” (Chen Guoqiu, ed., Zhongguo wenxueshi de xingsi (Reflections on the history of Chinese literature) (Hong Kong: Sanlian shudian, 1993).（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
“黄昏是一天中有预兆的时刻”<br />
“遗忘之夜，却似乎延缓了时间本身，”<br />
“一种中间的状态，在这种状态下，可能是白天的最后一丝阳光”<br />
“仍在上演它的终极奇迹。”<br />
Andreas Huyssen。<br />
《暮光之城》的记忆”<br />
本文通过对中国现代“散文”起源的探究，开辟了20世纪初文学现代性的“朦胧记忆”区，这一“朦胧记忆”区最近一直困扰着中国现代文学领域。从现代汉语的“文章”或“散文”来看，我们如何定义这一体裁?它之所以现代是因为它使用了“白话”吗?它的“现代”是从被称为“散文”开始的吗?五四通用制度是如何建立的?它对文学史的影响是什么?<br />
自20世纪80年代以来，对“五四”以外的中国文学现代性的探索一直在继续。<br />
在对中国文学现代性的学术反思中，最突出的是Milena Dolezelova-Velingerova对晚清中国现代文学起源的强调(“现代中国文学的起源”，Merle Goldman, ed.，《五四时期的现代中国文学》17-36;世纪之交的小说，Perry Link对鸳鸯蝴蝶小说的开创性研究(《鸳鸯蝴蝶:二十世纪初中国的通俗小说》)，刘子彦对“中庸小说”的倡导，以及最近王大卫对19世纪晚期小说的激动人心的、复杂的解读。在一个更大的背景下，大约在同一时期，这一基本上是北美的学术界从“重写文学史”的理论和实践与《二十世纪中国文学》(陈国秋主编，《中国文学》)的修订，相互影响了迅速变化的中国文学批评。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:29, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
With these questions, our inquiry into the formation of modern sanwen is inevitably engaged with a process of canon formation, and perhaps this is the appropriate genre by which we can trace the birth of modern subjectivity. In analyiss of Zhou Shoujuan’s (1894-1968) “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” (Jiuhua zhang li), a vernacular autobiographical fiction published in 1917, I will reveal no more than a historical chaos of literature in which a subjectivity was constructed with complex strands in fusion and contestation. This subjectivity owed much to first person narratives Zhou had intensely experimented in his earlier writings; its double voice was not only helped by the traditional theatricality and poetics, but also linked to the modern spatial perception of cinematic representation.<br />
<br />
有了这些问题，我们对现代散文形成的探究就必然涉及到一个经典形成的过程，也许这正是我们追溯现代主体性诞生的合适体裁。通过对周寿娟（1894-1968）1917年出版的白话自传体小说《九花帘幕》的分析，我将揭示一场文学的历史混沌，在这种混沌中，用融合和争鸣的复杂线索建构了一种主体性。这种主观性在很大程度上得益于周作人在早期作品中所做的大量实验，它的双重声音不仅得益于传统的戏剧性和诗学，而且与现代电影表现的空间感知有关。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
随着这些问题的出现，我们对现代散文形成的探究就必然涉及到一个经典形成的过程，也许这正是我们追溯现代主体性诞生的合适体裁。通过对周瘦娟（1894-1968）1917年出版的白话自传体小说《九花帘幕》的分析，我将揭示的不过是一场文学的历史混乱，在这种混乱中，主体性是由复杂的线在融合和争鸣中建构起来的。这种主观性在很大程度上得益于周作人在早期作品中所做的大量实验，它的双重声音不仅得益于传统的戏剧性和诗学，而且与现代电影表现的空间感知有关。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:27, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
To set the terms from the outset, the ''sanwen'' will be treated historically as a canonical category grown out of the May Fourth literature. The term ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction, small talk) by which Zhou’s work was categorized will also be historicized. Immune from the modern generic system, it was transitionally intertwined with prose, fiction, drama, and other subgenres in the repertoire of traditional literature. My analysis of the work in question aims at revealing literary modernity of the period in its own terms, rather than redeem Zhou, a key figure of the so-called “Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school” (''Yuanyang hudie pai''), for his contribution to the birth of modern essay. Nor will I provide a generic definition of modern essay other than open up a new terrain to inquire different genealogies of literary modernity.<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
'''Literary Modernization: Generic and Canonical'''<br />
<br />
One of the spectacles in the literary arena of late 1990s China was the revival of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies (hereafter Butterfly) literature. Along with countless reprints of Butterfly fiction commercially catering to the post-socialist urban readers, there were sympathetic academic reappraisals that apparently challenged the May Fourth canon. Since the 1980s, the rapidly changed landscape of literary criticism marked a transformation of the critical codes from “revolutionary literature” to “literary modernity.” “Pure literature” (''chun wenxue''), a core value of literary modernity, was developed by a new generation of literary critics and academics and was ambiguously engaged with the post-socialist conditions: on the one hand, literary criticism was academically institutionalized and practiced with certain intellectual authorities; on the other hand, the “pure literature” was suspicious of its modernist poetics which implied a subversive force to the status quo.<br />
<br />
In recent few years around a dozen of scholarly-edited series of Butterfly literature appeared, not to mention other numerous compilations for commercial purpose. To mention a few: Fan Boqun, ed., Zhongguo jin xiandai tongsu zuojia pingzhuan congshu (Nanjing: Nanjing chubanshe, 1994); Fan Boqun and Fan Zijiang, eds., Yuanyang hudie-Libailiu pai jingdian xiaoshuo wenku (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1996); Wei Shaochang, ed., Yuanyang hudie pai libai liu xiaoshuo. (Tianjin: Chunfeng wenyi chubanshe, 1997); Yu Runqi, ed., Qingmo minchu xiaoshuo shuxi (Beijing: Zhongguo wenlian chuban gongsi, 1997). （文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
Today, the difference between May Fourth and Butterfly was not discussed in terms of “revolutionary vs. reactionary” or “progressive vs. backward,” but rather in terms of ''ya'' (elitism, elegance) vs. ''su'' (populism, commonality). While the Butterfly scholarship carved out a critical space in the name of “popular,” the price was high: their proteges can only be canonized through the codes of May Fourth literary modernity. If what underlay the literary modernity, - the premises of progressive history or of national literature - remained unquestionable, then Butterflies can only be considered inferior.<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
For example, in his recent reevaluation of ''Yuanyang hudie pai'', Wei Shaochang, whose pathbreaking bibliography of Butterfly published in the early 1960s made a study of this school possible, affectionately called this term “a beautiful cap” (''meili de maozi''). Yet this metaphor implies a re-justification of the “cap” imposed on it by the May Fourth writers. Accordingly, Wei maintained that even the best Butterfly works, despite their accomplishments, fail to compete with Lu Xun, Mao Dun and other modern literary giants in terms of intellectual and aesthetic qualities. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, until recently scholarly interests in Butterfly never went beyond fiction.<br />
<br />
See Wei Shaochang, Wo kan Yuanyang hudie pai (My view of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies literature) (Taiwan: Commercial Press, 1992) 1-11. One month ago, the first international conference on Butterfly school was held at Suzhou University, China, and one of its designed events was to celebrate the publication of A History of Modern Chinese Popular Literature, an enormous and enduring project fulfilled by the Chinese department of the host university. With a massive masquerade of Butterfly literature from the late Qing to Republican era (1,500,000 characters), this book boldly claims a new theory that the modern Chinese literature is constituted by a “pair of wings” - May Fourth and Butterfly. In this revision, the literary histories heretofore are invalid since they missed the other half - the popular literature. Thus, a new correct history of modern Chinese literature was called for. Impressively, this theory was unanimously accepted by all the participants, including notable May Fourth scholars Jia Zhifang, Yan Jiayan, and Qian Gurong. Nevertheless, this acceptance seemed more theoretical than practical, more sympathetic than critical. The problem remained unsolved and more crucial to the future of Butterfly scholarship: How to evaluate Butterfly in terms of aesthetic values? During the conference, the debates over the term “tongsu” (popular), by which the Butterfly was labeled, revealed certain anxiety. This anxiety had some reason: if Butterfly is limited to the popular, it would be inferior to the “pure literature” (chun wenxue), and, of course, ultimately it would be subject to the elite - May Fourth. In other words, if this popular “wing” is not strong enough, the double wing theory itself would hardly hold. The hidden core of the debates is that the May Fourth canon continues to dominate the field of literary criticism.(文献，无需翻译)<br />
<br />
<br />
例如，早在1960年代初魏绍昌发表了具有开创性的鸳鸯蝴蝶派书目，使这一派别的研究成为可能。最近他对“鸳鸯蝴蝶派”重新进行了评价，将其亲切地称为“美丽的帽子”。然而，这种隐喻却暗示着五四作家对鸳鸯蝴蝶派扣上“帽子”的再一次辩护。因此，魏先生坚称，哪怕是取得成功的最出色的鸳蝶派作品，论才智，论美学，他们都无法与鲁迅，茅盾和其他现代文学巨人媲美。<br />
此外，到目前为止，人们对鸳蝶派的学术兴趣从未超越小说。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 11:10, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
In 1997, a new claim for Butterfly essay arose when an eight-volume series ''The Compendium of Essays by Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school'' (Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi) was published. Implicitly, by the term ''daxi'' in the title, this series contended with the May Fourth canon, as it reminded one of the well-known ''Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi'' (The Compendium of Modern Chinese Literature) in ten volumes published in 1935, which became a monumental for the May Fourth literature. In his introduction, Yuan Jin, chief-editor of this ''Compendium of Butterfly Essay'', asserts that prior to the May Fourth period Butterflies had greatly achieved in essay writings. <br />
<br />
Yuan Jin, Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi: 1909-1949 (Shanghai: Dongfang chuban zhongxin, 1997) 3-4. （文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
Although after the 1920s most of them gradually accepted the new concept of ''sanwen'' used by May Fourth writers, they wrote in both vernacular and classical, and their essays still inherited the traditional literature, specifically the styles of ''xiaopin'' and ''biji''. Emphatic on their thematic and aesthetic characteristics as “representing quotidian life, the private feelings and tastes,” Yuan suggests that the Butterfly essay has its own literary and cultural roots. <br />
<br />
The ''Compendium of New Literature'' serves a linkage ''par excellence'', for it displays how a canon is formed by defining a genre.<br />
<br />
尽管在20世纪20年代以后，他们大多数都逐渐接受了五四作家用的“散文”这个新概念，他们既用白话文也用文言文写作，他们的文章仍然继承着传统文学，尤其是“小品”和“笔记”的风格。袁强调这些文章的主题和美学要素“体现着现代生活，私人感情，和品位，”他认为蝴蝶散文的文学性和文化都有着自己的来源。<br />
《新文学纲要》起着连接伟大作品的作用，它体现了经典是如何通过定义一种文学流派而形成的。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 07:29, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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虽然20世纪20年代以后，他们中的大多数人逐渐接受了“五四”作家有关“散文”的新观念，但他们既用白话文也用文言文写作，他们的文章仍然继承传统文学，特别是“小品”和“笔记”的风格。袁着重指出，《蝴蝶随笔》具有“代表日常生活、私人情感和情趣”的主题和审美特征，并认为《蝴蝶随笔》有其独特的文学和文化根源。《新文学纲要》起着连接“卓越”的作用，因为它展示了经典作品是如何通过定义一种流派而形成的。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 05:08, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
<br />
As the view that the form of modern Chinese essay was born from May Fourth literary movement was still prevailing, it is necessary to see how this modern myth was made. At least, a kind of authentic definition of modern essay was explicated by Yu Dafu (1896-1945) and Zhou Zuoren (1885-1968) in their introductions to the ''sanwen'' anthologies they separately compiled for the ''Compendium''.<br />
<br />
At the time, almost two decades had elapsed since the May Fourth movement. And the New Culture, as incessantly embracing diverse isms from the West on the one hand and tortured by national and intellectual crises on the other, became more ideologically charged and consequently split into antagonistic camps.<br />
<br />
For example, Fan Peisong. Zhongguo xiandai sanwen shi (A History of Modern Chinese Essay) (Nanjing: Jiangsu jiaoyu chubanshe, 1993) 3. The first sentence: “The history of modern Chinese essay opened its curtain when the May Fourth new cultural movement started.”（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
有观点任务中国现代散文的形式诞生于五四文学运动，这一观点仍然盛行，该现代迷思是如何产生的值得一看。至少，郁达夫（1896-1945）和周作人（1885-1968）在他们各自为《纲要》编撰的“散文”选集时，于引言部分给予了现代散文一个真正的定义。<br />
<br />
当时，五四运动已经过去了近二十年。新文化运动一方面不断地接受来自西方的各种主义，另一方面又受到民族和知识危机的折磨，更受意识形态的控制，并因此分裂成对立的阵营。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 08:26, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
<br />
As for these invited editors, their relationships (for example, between Hu Shi and Lu Xun, or between Mao Dun and Yu Dafu) were ruined by political arguments, or by personal quarrels and insults. All these, however, did not prevent them from being together to make a new literary myth. It was unlikely that they would return to the old days, yet this tremendous project certainly offered each of them a role of literary master in reshaping the May Fourth history.<br />
<br />
至于这些被邀请的编辑，他们的关系（如胡适与鲁迅的关系，茅盾与郁达夫的关系），则毁于政治争论，或个人的争吵与侮辱。然而，所有这些，都不妨碍他们在一起创造新的文学神话。他们不可能再回到从前，然而这个巨大的工程无疑给他们每个人提供了作为文学大师重塑五四历史的机会。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:06, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
至于这些被邀请的编辑，他们的关系(例如胡适和鲁迅的关系，茅顿和郁达夫的关系)被政治争论、个人争吵和侮辱所破坏。然而，这一切并没有阻止他们共同创造一个新的文学神话。他们不太可能回到过去的日子，但这个宏大的计划无疑让他们每个人都成为了重塑五四历史的文学大师。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:30, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
<br />
Compromises were necessary, yet, as a matter of fact, the ''Compendium'' cannot be easily assessed as a whole, for all the works included were miscellaneous and conflicted in content and form. As most editors claimed, using ''baihua'' is the hallmark for the new literature, but there was some flaw in their consensus of excluding the Butterfly School and the Shanghai School (''haipai''), for both schools also wrote in ''baihua''; rather, the exclusions implied moral bias against urbanism. It was no wonder that a great collective effort was made to reconstruct the conception of new, which itself was authoritative, at least theoretically, inbred with the ideas of progressive history, humanistic universality, and the utopian future.<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
<br />
Thus, traced back to the moment of revolutionary departure, the new literature was portrayed as a myth of rootless origins, a timeless creation, isolated from the past; accordingly, the series presented their self-portraits as literary revolutionaries and cultural iconoclasts. In defining the modern essay, Yu Dafu can hardly figure out where the term ''sanwen'' comes from, left with a vague notion that it probably comes from the translation of the English term “prose.”<br />
<br />
As Yu stressed in his introduction, the greatest contribution the ''sanwen'' genre makes to May Fourth literature is the free expression of individualism.<br />
<br />
<br />
因此，追溯到革命离开的那一刻，新文学被描绘成一个无根起源的神话，一个与过去隔离的永恒的创造；在此基础上，以文学革命者和文化偶像派的形象展现了他们的自我形象 .在界定现代散文时，郁达夫很难找出“三文”这个词的来源，留下了一个模糊的概念，即它可能来自于英语“散文”这个词的翻译。<br />
<br />
正如余在导言中强调的那样，“三文”体裁对五四文学的最大贡献就是个人主义的自由表达。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:55, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，追溯到革命离开的那一刻，新文学被描绘成一个无根源的神话，一个与过去隔绝的永恒的创造；因此，这一系列作品呈现了他们作为文学革命者和文化偶像破坏者的自画像。郁达夫在定义现代散文时，很难弄清楚“三文”这个词的来源，只留下一个模糊的概念，认为它可能来自英语“散文”一词的翻译 <br />
<br />
正如俞正声在引言中所强调的那样，“三文”体裁对五四文学的最大贡献就是个人主义的自由表达。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:43, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
<br />
He is fascinated by this new and independent genre, with its multiple modes of representation and creative linguistic capacities distinct from those of fiction, poetry and drama. It is no accident that as a novelist well known for his autobiographical fiction displaying his sentimental, decadent and masochist personae, Yu believes that the essay should be a kind of self-writing in nature. In the same vein, Zhou Zuoren asserts that the modern essay was born from the linguistic shift from ''wenyan'' to ''baihua'', which of course should be attributed to the May Fourth literary achievement. He also gives the highest credit to this genre for its casualty, fluidity and flexibility - its specific capabilities of expressing the author’s own material and spiritual world.<br />
<br />
他着迷于这一新的独立的文体，其多样的表现方式和创造性的语言能力不同于小说、诗歌和戏剧。作为一个以表现自己感伤、颓废、受虐倾向的自传体小说而闻名的小说家，自然而然地，郁达夫会认为散文本质上应该是一种自我的书写。周作人同样认为，现代散文是在“文言”向“白话”的语言转换中诞生的，这当然要归功于“五四”的文学成就。他还高度赞扬了这一体裁的随意性、流动性和灵活性——这些特质可以表达出作者的物质和精神世界。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:11, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他着迷于这一新的独立文体，其具有不同于小说、诗歌和戏剧的多种表现方式和创造性的语言能力。绝非偶然，作为一个以自传体小说表现自己多愁善感、颓废和受虐倾向而著称的小说家，郁达夫认为，散文在本质上应该是一种自我的书写。同样，周作人断言，现代散文诞生于从“文言文”到“白话文”的转变，这当然应该归功于五四文学的成就。他还对这一文体的随意性、流动性和灵活性--表达作者自身物质世界和精神世界的特殊能力给予了最高的评价。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 01:42, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
<br />
In exalting the sanwen for its charismatic power, both Zhou and Yu exhibit a kind of anxiety, symbolically related to their status not only as masters of modern essay but, more interestingly, as spokesmen of May Fourth individualism. Their anxiety were charged with different motivation and rhetoric, however, for in the mid-1930s, their political and cultural stands were in stark contrast. More pessimistic to China’s internal and external crises, Zhou retreated from the revolutionary frontier of New Culture and turned to cultural conservatism. On the other hand, Yu was more inclined toward the Left Wing radicalism to redeem himself from his early decadent proclivity.<br />
<br />
在赞扬散文的魅力时，周作人和郁达夫都表现出一种焦虑，这是由于他们不仅是现代散文大师，更有趣的是，他们是五四个人主义的发言人。 然而，他们的焦虑来源于不同的动机和言辞，因为在20世纪30年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。周作人对中国内忧外患更加悲观，因此他从新文化革命的前沿退隐，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，郁达夫为了弥补自己早期的颓废倾向，所以更倾向于左翼激进主义。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:33, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
周瑜在提升三文的魅力时，表现出一种焦虑，象征着他们不仅是现代散文的大师，更有趣的是，他们是五四个人主义的代言人。他们的焦虑带有不同的动机和言辞，但在 1930 年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。对中国的内外危机更加悲观的是，周从新文化的革命前沿退缩，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，余更倾向于左翼激进主义，以弥补自己早期的堕落倾向。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在赞扬散文的魅力力量时，周和郁都表现出一种焦虑，这象征着他们不仅是现代散文大师，更有趣的是，他们是“五四”个人主义的代言人。然而，他们的焦虑被归咎于不同的动机和言辞，因为在20世纪30年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。周对中国内忧外患更加悲观，从新文化革命的前沿退隐，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，为了弥补自己早期的颓废倾向，俞正声更倾向于左翼激进主义。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:03, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
<br />
While characterizing the modern essay in social and ideological context, Yu emphasized the essayists’ responsibility to search for a harmony between the individual, nature and society. Moreover, he pointed out that May Fourth writers have endured an intellectual ordeal as they had first embraced the individuality and finally discovered the necessity to connect it to society and collectivity thanks to their moral conscience awakened by the bloody May Thirtieth incident. In contrast, Zhou showed a strong tendency of aestheticism and nihilism when claiming that he dislikes discussing ''sanwen'' in terms of history, political partisanship or any new isms.<br />
<br />
在描述社会和意识形态背景下的现代论文的特点时，于强调了论文家在个人，自然与社会之间寻求和谐的责任。 此外，他指出，“五四”作家首先接受了个性，然后由于血腥的“五月三十号”事件唤醒了他们的道德良心，最终发现了将其与社会和集体联系起来的必要性，因此经受了一次智力考验。 相比之下，周声称自己不喜欢在历史，政治党派或任何新思想上讨论“三文”时，表现出强烈的唯美主义和虚无主义倾向。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:59, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Yu Dafu. “Daoyan,” in Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi - Sanwen er ji (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu chuban gongsi, 1935) 1-19.（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
<br />
Despite their different views, they actually shared the historical perspective in discussing the development and characteristics of modern essay, and neither of them could see beyond their own historical limits. In their reinterpreting the ''new'' literature, the history of form was encoded by the new ideology. First of all, integral with the canonical codes and process, the Compendium definitively presented the modern generic division of ''xiaoshuo'', ''shige'', ''xiju'', and ''sanwen''. Lydia Liu called this four-way division a “self-colonizing project” as these terms were perfectly translatable into “fiction,” “poetry,” “drama,” and “familiar essay,” respectively, in English. Historically, as she pointed out, the canonization of these “translated” norms of literary form radically subverted the classical canon as the legitimate source of meaning for Chinese culture and literature.<br />
<br />
尽管他们意见分歧，但在讨论现代论文的发展和其特点时，他们历史观点其实一样的，他们都无法超越自己的历史束缚。 在他们重新解释“新”文学时，形式的历史是由新意识形态编码的。 首先，与规范代码和过程集成在一起，该纲要明确地提出了“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏局”和“散文”的现代通用划分。 吕迪亚·刘（Lydia Liu）将此四分方式称为“自我殖民化项目”，因为这些术语完美地翻译成英语中的“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏剧”和“熟悉的论文”。 正如她所指出的那样，从历史上看，对这些文学形式“已译”规范的规范化从根本上颠覆了经典规范作为中国文化和文学意义的合法来源。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:45, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
尽管意见存在分歧，但在讨论现代论文的发展和其特点时，他们历史观点其实一样的，这些文章都无法超越自身的历史束缚。 他们在重新解释“新”文学时指出，形式的历史是由新意识形态编码而成的。 首先，该纲要将规范代码和过程融合在一起，明确地提出了“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏局”和“散文”的现代通用划分。 吕迪亚·刘（Lydia Liu）将这四种方式称为“自我殖民化项目”，这是因为这些术语能完美对应英语中的“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏剧”和“熟悉的论文”。 正如她所指出的那样，从历史上看，对这些文学形式的翻译标准规范化从根本上颠覆了经典规范作为中国文化和文学意义的合法来源。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Both Yu and Zhou took this modernized generic system for granted. The genre of essay, according to Zhou, represents the finest achievement of New Literature thanks to its capacities to represent widest scopes of life and individual emotions and reflections, with multiple, sophisticate techniques and styles, yet it is succeeded lastly compared to fiction and drama. Zhou’s discontent can be heard when he traced the tradition of modern essay back to the late Ming ''xiaopin wen'', a move showing his pro-tradition revision that was arguable within the May Fourth camp. But he treated ''sanwen'' as an integral part in the system of four genres, and his discussion of formal problems was restricted by this systemic framework.<br />
<br />
郁达夫和周作人都视这种现代化的通用体系为理所当然。在周看来，散文这种文体代表着新文学的最好成就。因为散文能够以多样的，复杂的技巧和风格体现广阔的生活视野和个人的情感与思考，它最终与小说和戏剧相比也是成功的。周的不满可以从他追溯现代散文传统到晚明时期的小品文的中寻迹。此举表明了他对传统的修正，也引发了五四阵营中的争论。但他将散文视为四种文体体系中的一个重要组成部分，对形式问题的探讨就受到了这一体系框架的制约。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 10:55, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
郁和周都认为这种现代化的通用体系是理所当然的。 在周看来，散文代表着新文学的最佳成就，这是因为散文能够以多样，复杂的技巧和风格，展现最广泛的生活画面和个人情感和思考，最终与小说和戏剧相比较也是成功的。 周的不满体现在他追溯现代散文的传统至明晚期的“小品文”，此举表明他亲传统的修正，在五四阵营中是有争议的。 但是他将“散文”视为锶中文体系中不可或缺的一部分，他对形式问题的讨论受到这种系统框架的制约。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 08:11, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
It was with this canon of modernized generic division that both Zhou and Yu described sanwen in rational terms, defining its linguistic and literary features in order to assert its superiority to other genres. This assertion was grounded on the legitimacy of the generic system and ultimately verified the system as a scientific and organic whole. In characterizing ''sanwen''’s representational capacities, Zhou used three terms: narrating, reasoning, and expressing emotions. More elaborate was Yu’s characterization with four terms, each of which was matched with an English equivalent in parenthesis – “description,” “narration,” “exposition,” and “persuasion” or “argumentation.” A slightly variant explication was allowed when he at the same time showed his favor to other categorical terms such as the reasoning, lyricism, description, and narration.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
Here Zhou’s notion of ''meiwen'' (beautiful essay) invites our special attention as it is involved with his historical speculation of the genre, which nonetheless suggests something else. Citing his published articles in chronological order, Zhou shows how he had tirelessly explored ''sanwen'' as a new form and at the same time elaborated his own theory of the genre. As he says he still cherishes his original idea that essay should be as perfect as ''meiwen'', which he had advocated as early as the late 1910s. This historical tracing seemed not only to review his insights from the mirror of history, as a matter of fact it aimed at reshaping his politics of “aesthetic essay” in the new cultural situation.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, Zhou’s historicity in the 1935 introduction might reveal more about his painstaking search for the ideal concept of literature if he had drawn deeper from his memory. As early as 1908, he wrote a long essay, whose importance was manifested by its title “On the Significance and Mission of Writing and the Mistakes in Recent Chinese Literary Criticism” (Lun wenzhang zhi yiyi ji qi shiming, yin ji Zhongguo jinshi lunwen zhi deshi). It reveals his initial idea of ''meiwen'' as he had already talked about it, yet the fact that it was neglected by Zhou in 1935 might be more revelatory, for in 1908 what he really argued for was the term ''wenzhang'' (literature) rather than ''meiwen''. In other words, the excavation of Zhou’s literary past repressed by himself opens up a zone of “twilight memories” to serve my purpose.<br />
<br />
然而，如果周能从自己的记忆中汲取更多的话，他在1935年序言中的历史性可能会更多地揭示出他对文学理想的苦苦追寻。早在1908年，他就写了一篇题为《论写作的意义和使命及中国近代文学批评中的错误》的长文，他的重要性就体现在这篇长文上。正如他之前所说，这本书揭示了他对“文学性”的最初想法，但更具有启示性的是，这本书在1935年被周忽视了，因为在1908年，他真正主张的是“文学”一词，而不是“美文”。换句话说，对曾为周所压抑的文学的挖掘，打开了一个“朦胧记忆”的区域，为我的目的服务。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，如果周能回忆起更多细节的话，他在1935年所作序言中的历史性可能会更多地揭示出他对理想化文学概念的苦苦追寻。早在1908年，他就写了一篇题为《论文章之义以及其使命及中国近代文学批评中的错误》的长文，其重要性正如标题所言。这本书揭示了他对美文的最初想法，但令人惊喜的是，周的这一观点早在1935年提出过，但却未得到重视。因为在1908年，他真正主张的是“文学”一词，而不是“美文”。换句话说，对周树人文学经历的挖掘为我展现了一块“暮光记忆”的区域，对本篇文章的论述大有裨益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:07, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
The essay shows how he intensely seeks a legitimate idea of literature between the terms of ''wenzhang, wenxue, and xiaoshuo'', or in a sense it epitomizes a battlefield of naming literature at the time. While sharing the contemporary intellectual consensus that literary discourse is one of the most viable medium to reshape national spirit, Zhou attempts to construct a system of literature by glorifying the idea of ''wenzhang'' which he identifies with the Latin word ''literature''. The ideal of wenzhang is embodied by artistic and affectionate expressions in archaic style (no wonder this essay was written in classical language). In order to enthrone his concept of ''wenzhang'' as a kind of new authentic classicism, he annotates the term by deriving from Western literary theories on the one hand, and on the other he combatively denounces other influential terms such as ''wenxue'' or ''xiaoshuo''.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
Paradoxically, Zhou criticizes Liang Qichao’s notion of ''xiaoshuo'' for its utilitarian bent, yet he embraces it to such an extent that he equates it with the ''wenzhang'', lest it should be furnished with true sincerity in describing reality so as to move human emotions. The terms ''sanwen'' and ''meiwen'' do appear, once for each, and yet were casually treated; the former means trivial and lack of aesthetic quality, and the latter is less than a concept.<br />
<br />
矛盾的是，周批评梁启超“小说”的功利主义倾向，却又欣然接受，甚至将小说与文章相提并论，惟恐文章在描写现实时表现出真诚，从而打动人心。“散文”和“美文”这两个词确实各自出现过一次，但却被随意对待;前者意味着琐碎和缺乏审美品质，后者则称不上是一个概念。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:54, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Lydia Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity China, 1900-1937 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995) 235.<br />
<br />
Charles A. Laughlin excellently analyzed Zhou Zuoren's advocacy of late Ming xiaopin and its tension within the May Fourth literary theory in his paper "Legacies of Leisure: Late Imperial Influences on the 20th Century Chinese Essay" held at the essay conference in Achern (Germany) in August 25-27, 2000.<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren, “Daoyan”, in Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi, Sanwen yi ji (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu gongsi, 1935) 1-14.<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren, “Lun wenzhang zhi yiyi ji qi shiming, yin ji Zhongguo jinshi lunwen zhi deshi.” In Wang Yunxi, Wu Guoping, and Huang Lin, eds., Zhongguo wenlun xuan, jindai juan (Selections of Chinese literary criticism, The modern period) (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1996) 689-725.<br />
（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
Obviously, the text, with his idea and style, looked outmoded by 1935. He had lost the battle of naming. The contestation of these terms resulted in the establishment of literary hierarchy consisted by the concepts of ''wenxue'' that meant literature in general sense, and the genres of ''xiaoshuo'' and ''sanwen'' as its major constituents. While forgetting his past as a neo-classicist, Zhou’s memory was effected by the canonical process of modern division of genres. Nevertheless, dimly echoing his early neo-classical vision he rebelled against the literary division while identifying the “beautiful essay” with late Ming ''xiaopin wen'', though in the end he must remain as a modern master essayist, filled with agony and nostalgia.<br />
<br />
显然，1935年时，再回首他的这篇文章，从思想和风格来看，都已经过时了。周作人已经输掉了这场命名之战。关于这些术语的论战，直接促成了文学分层。而文学分层主要是由“文学”概念构成，并且还主要包含“小说”和“散文”这两个体裁。周作人虽然业已忘却他身为新古典主义作家的过去，不过他的思维还是受到了现代体裁划分的经典过程影响。不过，在用明朝晚期的“小品文”来判别“优美的散文”同时，简单地重复周作人反对文学层次划分的早期新古典主义思想，他也还是满腹悲伤与思乡，哪怕最终他必须捍卫自己现代散文大师的身份。<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
'''Search for New Form and Subject'''<br />
<br />
While the Poetry Revolution (''shijie geming''), Prose Revolution (''wenjie geming'') and Fiction Revolution (''xiaoshuojie geming''), launched by Liang Qichao from 1899 to 1902, signified that Chinese literature entered the modern epoch, the division of literary genres emerged. The most influential and controversial was the Fiction Revolution, for it was traditionally despised yet directly linked with the mass politics that loomed at the threshold of the century. In his famous essay “On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People” (Lun xiaoshuo yu qunzhi zhi guanxi), Liang claimed that “fiction is the crowning glory of literature,” and that the “new fiction” should embody a new national soul. This intellectual subservience to populism was not whimsical, rather the subversion of poetic reign within the hierarchy of traditional genres served a metaphor for the collapse of traditional value system.<br />
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寻求新形式、新主旨<br />
梁启超在1899年至1902年发动的诗界革命、文界革命和小说界革命，预示着中国文学开启了现代化的纪元，不同的文学体裁开始出现。小说界革命是影响力最大的，也最受争议，因为它历来受到鄙视，但与降临于世纪之初的群众政治有着直接联系。梁在其著名文章《论小说与群治之关系》中声称“小说是文学的无上光荣”，“新小说”应该体现一种新的民族魂。这对于有民粹主义倾向的知识分子来说，不是在异想天开，相反，它颠覆了诗歌在传统体裁等级制度下的统治地位，象征着传统价值体系的崩塌。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:32, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
As Ted Huters explicated, the transformation of prose theories in late Qing period resulted in the ascendancy of the status of “writing” (''wen'') that is closer to the modern conception of “literature” (''wenxue''). Yet, the Fiction Revolution changed the generic course drastically. Widely anticipated for its superiority in mass education, the concept of xiaoshuo was elevated to the ontological level, as important as that of ''wen''. Although the Prose Revolution carried with it the power of “new prose style” (''xin wenti'') invented by Liang himself, it could hardly compete with the Fiction Revolution. While the “new prose style” was limited in its modes of expression, the literary contours were more vibrant with the movement of ''xiaoshuo''. Put it simply, in this period, what determined the formation of modern essay were the theory and practice of ''xiaoshuo'' rather than those of ''wen''.<br />
<br />
正如胡志德（Ted Huters）所阐明的那样，清末时期的散文理论导致“文”地位的上升，更接近于现代的“文学”概念。然而，小说革命彻底改变了通用路线。由于小说在大众教育的地位显著，小说的概念已提升到本体论的水平，与“文”的地位同等重要。虽然散文革命有梁启超提出的“新文体”，但其地位还是难以与小说革命相媲美。“新文体”在表达方式上受限，但其文学轮廓比小说革命更加鲜明。简而言之，在这个时期，决定现代散文形成的原因是小说理论和实践的出现，而非“文”理论和实践的提出。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, literary tradition was reinvented by the notion of new fiction. Contrary to Liang’s expectation, ''xin xiaoshuo'' was still entangled with its tradition; selected and combined by new rules, the tradition offered ''new fiction'' possibilities to adopt literary techniques from the West. Perhaps Liang and his followers created this ambiguity, as the ''xiaoshuo'' came from the Japanese translation of Western “fiction” or “novel” and at the same time it was mixed with traditional popular genres of drama and ''tanci'' (musical and performing story-telling). Ironically, while claiming for its capacities to represent the human realms with “complexity, penetration, vividness, and thoroughness” (''quzhe touda, linli jingzhi''), it was also offered with almost a full range of traditional literary genres for choice.<br />
<br />
实际上，文学传统是由新小说的概念再创的。与梁启超的期望相反，“新小说”仍然与其传统相联系；通过新规则的选择与结合，这一传统为“新小说”提供了接受西方文学技法的可能性。也许梁启超和他的追随者创造了这种模棱两可，因为“小说”来自于日本对西方"fiction“或"novel"的翻译，与此同时，它又混合了传统的流行戏剧和”弹词“（音乐和表演故事）。具有讽刺意味的是，尽管它以”复杂,渗透，生动，彻底“宣称人类领域的能力，它也出于自己的喜爱得到了一种全方位的传统文学种类。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:42, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
There was a tension within the “new fiction” between its lofty mission to save China and its tradition of “small talk” - fiction for popular desires. The pendulum did not go back to the “small talk” until the mid-1910s when a new wave of urban periodicals surged, this time catering to intimate space and individual pleasure. This was the time of despair and expectation, of reshaping the public and private spheres, full of conflicts between tradition and modernity in terms of social norms of love, marriage and family. New interests in romances were accompanied with the aspiration for first person narratives from the West, such as memoir, love-letter, diary, and confession. It was no accident that popular magazines and newspapers were saturated with the sad love stories, among which Xu Zhenya’s (1889-1937) ''Yu li hun'' (Jade Pearl Spirit) became a bestseller in 1914. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
This weird combination - a tragic romance interwoven with the author’s memory of youth and the style of archaic parallelism - seemed to attract more the refined reading public. Wu Shuangre (1884-1934), a writer also known for tragic romance, redefined the ''xiaoshuo'' as the “opposite to the big discourse (''dashuo''),” his emphasis on the ''smallness'' of fiction was urged by new desire and social needs.<br />
<br />
这种怪异的组合-悲剧性的浪漫情怀与作者对青年的记忆和古老的平行主义风格交织在一起-这似乎吸引了更多精准的读者。 吴双热（1884-1934），又是一位以悲剧性的浪漫闻名的作家，将“小说”重新定义为“与大话语（“大说”）相对”，新的欲望和社会需求促使他强调小说的“小”。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:11, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种奇怪的组合-悲剧性的浪漫故事与作者对青春的记忆和古老的平行主义风格交织在一起-似乎吸引了更多精准的读者。吴双热（1884-1934），一位以悲剧性浪漫闻名的作家，将“小说”重新定义为“大篇幅（大说）的对立面”，他受到新欲的望和社会需求的敦促，强调小说的“小”。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:05, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
Zhou’s intellectual background behind his critique of Liang Qichao and Lin Shu should not be ignored. Influenced by Zhang Taiyan whom Zhou and his brother Zhou Shuren (later Lu Xun) followed during their stay in Japan, Zhou’s archaic vision of literature was based on the conviction that learning from the West by deriving from the Chinese past with deeper and wider scopes can prevent from the danger of populism and mass politics. <br />
<br />
Liang Qichao, “On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People.” Trans. Gek Nai Cheng, in Kirk Denton, ed., Modern Chinese Literary Thought, 74-81.<br />
<br />
Theodore Huters, “From Writing to Literature: The Development of Late Qing Theories of Prose.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 47 (1987) 51-90.<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
周批判梁启超和林纾背后的知识背景不容忽视。周和他的兄弟周树人(后来的鲁迅)在日本期间跟随张太炎，受张太炎的影响，周对文学的陈旧看法是建立在这样一种信念之上的，即从更深更广的范围借鉴中国的过去，学习西方，以此防止出现民粹主义和大众政治的危险。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 06:08, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
See, “Zhongguo weiyi zhi wenxue bao Xin xiaoshuo” (The only literary magazine New Fiction in China). Xinmin congbao 14 (1902). When the New Fiction magazine was inaugurated in 1902, Liang and his colleagues lent its representational capacities the widest scopes of lifeworld and the richest literary resources, though in the name of “Western fiction.” The genres include popular song, rhythmic expressions such as drama and musicala storytelling.<br />
<br />
<br />
参见《中国文学史》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民同保14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们以“西方小说”的名义，将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。<br />
<br />
参见《中国唯意志文学报新小说》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民从报14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志创刊时，梁启超和他的同事们虽然打着 "西洋小说 "的旗号，将其代表能力赋予了全世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。体裁包括流行歌曲、戏剧等韵律性的表现形式和音乐剧故事。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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参见《中国文学史》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民同保14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们虽以“西方小说”的名义，但将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
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Zhou meticulously experimented with first person narratives in the mid-1910s. In the wake of collapse of traditional values, literature became a vent for repressed psychology, and meanwhile functioned in reordering the structures of feelings and perceptions that purported to pave a way to rebuilding national spirituality. Therefore, intellectual anxiety was attached to seeking new literary genres. At the time, Zhou was spotlighted on the literary arena with ''Saturday'' (Libailiu), a weekly popular magazine aimed to entertain and educate urban readers mainly by the principles of literary pleasure aimed to articulate and regulate desires of everyday life and consumer psychology. This boom of urban print culture signified an inversion to the previous Fiction Revolution devoted to patriotism and national ethos; its representations focused more on the private realms and individuals, revealing a clearer character of the “small talk.” In this sense, Zhou’s intense uses of first person narratives were a necessity for him to represent a kind of the autonomous individual in urban space as an integral part of the periodical culture.<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
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“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” appeared in 1917, in the ''Pictorial Story'' (Xiaoshuo huabao) edited by Bao Tianxiao, who announced from the outset that this monthly fiction magazine aims to promote the ''baihua'' fiction. In a history of Chinese literature published in late-1950s, this story was picked out as a typical Butterfly work: “[it is] empty and poor in its content, full of meaningless words and sentences.” However, this biased criticism neglected the fact that this short story was a pioneering ''baihua'' fiction, which appeared in a fiction magazine, which advocated the ''baihua'' prior to the May Fourth movement! 、<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
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Indeed, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was labeled as ''xiaoshuo'', but the notion of ''xiaoshuo'' in the teens ambiguously crossed the boundaries of old and new, and Zhou had barely the idea of modern ''sanwen''. Rather, shown by the story mixed with the elements of poetry, prose and drama, his understanding of ''xiaoshuo'' was conventional and transitional. Interestingly, some critic conceived that the notion of ''sanwen'' was stemmed from ''xiaoshuo''. In 1914, Cheng Zhi’s essay “Miscellaneous Remarks on Fiction” (Xiaoshuo conghua) holds that nowadays only ''xiaoshuo'' can do what literature can do; it is so important and enchanting that it can fulfill the task of literature while artistically expressing human emotions and aesthetic thoughts. Since all literary expressions, according to him, appeal to optic and audio perceptions, ''xiaoshuo'' contains both ''sanwen'' (prosaic) and ''yunwen'' (rhythmic) texts. The former can be the vernacular or literary language; the latter includes romance drama and rhythmic story-telling. As the chart intricately shows, the ''sanwen'' is sandwiched: on one side it grows out of the trunk of ''xiaoshuo'', and on other side it bifurcates its own branches of literary and vernacular languages. We cannot decide to what extent this concept of ''sanwen'' can be related to that of the May Fourth generic system, yet its connotations were still valid in the Butterfly use after the 1920s. <br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
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The chaotic conditions of literary genres opened up new possibilities, and “In the Nine-Flower Curtain,” as a kind of self-representation, exhibited Zhou’s obsession with subjective writings, blended with the elements of dairy, love-letter, confession, and fictional autobiography. Here, I only briefly show Zhou’s devotion to two kinds of the first person narratives - autobiography and lover-letter. These forms adopted by Zhou, no matter it belongs to the concept of ''xiaoshuo'' at the time or more to the ''sanwen'' in today’s standard, had a specific charm of lyricism and sensuality that most appealed to him. One type referred to the subgenre of autobiography - amorous memoirs - a colorful branch in Ming-Qing erotic-sentimental tradition, represented by Mao Xiang’s ''Memoirs of the Plum Shadow Studio'' (Ying mei an yiyu) and Jiang Tan’s ''Reminiscences of the Autumn Lamp'' (Qiu deng suoyi). These texts were included in an anthology titled ''Selections of Memoirs'' (Yiyu xuan) Zhou edited and published in 1920s. <br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
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Another inspiration came from Washington Irving, whom Zhou considered a literary genius. He highly praised Irving’s ''Sketch-Book'' for its “creativity and uniqueness”; he appreciated most “Westminster Abbey,” “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” “The Broken Heart” and “RipVan Winkle.” Interestingly, Zhou understoods Irving through the window of Chinese literary past. He translated the ''Sketch-Book'' into the form of ''biji'', with his comments saturated with the classical poetics: “His writings are secluded and flagrant, limped and stretching far (''youxin danyuan''), like violets in flower-shrubes; they are also delicate and charming, drifting aloof (''qingqian piaoyi''), like a pen thrown into the sky becomes a capricious dragon.” <br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
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Zhou’s mania for love-letters evinces his pursuit of the fashion, chic and commercial, in contrast to his literati personality immersed in the erotic-sentimental poetics. Raoul Findeisen rightly pointed out that the genre of love-letter enhances to codify the heterosexual love in modern Chinese literature. This form was introduced into China hand in hand with the assimilation of Western-style customs and the idea of free communication between man and woman. At least in 1911, ''qingshu'' as a translated term for “love-letter” appeared in a funny essay “Ji qingshu zhi xinfa” (A new way to send a love-letter) in ''Shenbao''. As a piece of passionate ''qinghua'', “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” should be connected to Zhou’s “Qingshu hua” (On love-letter), a series of essays he contributed to ''Shenbao'' in 1919. These essays talk about the world famous love stories of Napoleon, Byron, Hugo, and many others, and specifically about how they wrote love-letters. For example, amidst wars Napoleon never forgot to write to Josephine; Zhou translated his words: “I am begging you to receive my thousand kisses, and don’t give me back any of your’s, otherwise my blood will boil.” Also with great zeal he talks about how Hugo wrote 120 letters to his fiancee Adele Forcher. <br />
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==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
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Known as master of the “sad love story” in the mid-1910s, he wrote numerous short stories which appeared in around a dozen periodicals and newspapers; among them a number of first person narratives were in best quality. While breaking with the traditional love discourse and modes of romance, his love stories depicted new urban subjects in newly formed public spaces such as the public park, tramcar, medical clinic, and movie theater. Most noticeable is his ''Short Stories from Famous European and American Writers'' (Oumei mingjia dianpian xiaoshuo congkan) published in 1917, revealing his ways of dealing with the personal pronounces under chaotic conditions. Among fifty stories included, twenty-six stories belong to first person narrative. Interestingly, in all the eight vernacular texts the first person pronoun is ''wo'', and in the rest eighteen stories in classical language, the first person pronouns are variantly used between ''yu'', ''yu'' and ''wu''.<br />
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作为1910年代中期描写爱情悲剧的大师，他写了许多短篇故事，并发表在众多期刊和报纸上；其中，那些以第一人称的角度叙述的故事是最好的。他打破了传统爱情故事的语言和抒情方式，他的爱情故事描述了发生在公园、电车、诊所、电影院等新式公共空间的新的城镇主体。更惹人注意的是，他的译作《欧美名家短篇小说丛刊》在1917年出版，揭示了他在嘈杂的环境中处理个人观点的方式。书中所包含的50个故事，其中26个从第一人称的角度进行叙述。有趣的是，在8篇用方言写的文本中，第一人称的代词用的是“wo”，在剩下的18篇用古典语言写的故事中，第一人称的代词多用“yu”“yu”和“wu”。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:05, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
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This selection of ''wo'' for the vernacular seemed identical to the establishment of “I” as the male subjectivity in May Fourth literature, but they bore different logic of modernity. Perhaps there was another kind of “translated modernity” in Zhou: the vernacular ''wo'' is not the absolute in the whole anthology. Zhou’s selected uses of the personal pronouns include not only the first person pronouns but the second and third person pronouns, showing a chaotic state of literary subject. He is more plural and playful while experimenting with both the vernacular and the classical, and one is not subject to the other. Fascinated by multiple possibilities in the new literary situations, he was more concerned with ways of using different first person pronouns to suit different modes and styles of representations, in accordance with his own linguistic sensitivity and capability. <br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
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Fan Boqun pointed out that Zhou contributed to modern literature in its early phase by experimenting with psychological forms such as diary, epistoral fiction, and that his creative writings were indebted to his translation. See, “Zhu, bian, yi jie jing de ‘wenzi laogong’: Zhou Shoujuan pingzhuan” (A literary laboror in his refined achievements of writing, editing and translating: A biography of Zhou Shoujuan), in Fan Boqun, ed., Zhongguo jin xiandai tongsu zuojia pingzhuan congshu (A series of modern Chinese popular writers) vol. 4, 177. If this was a late credit to Zhou, there had been another one about his 1917 translation of Famous European and American Short Stories. In the early 1960s he wrote to his daughter revealing the fact that his 1917 translation was praised by Lu Xun and awarded by the Republican Education Bureau, and that he did not know this until he had read Zhou Zuoren’s memoir in the early 1950s. This information was revealed after his literary career was criticized as a reactionary current against the new literature.<br />
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范伯群（Fan Boqun）指出，周小川（Zhou Xiaochuan）对现代文学的早期贡献在于心理文学方面，例如日记、书信体小说等，同时，他的翻译对其创作贡献极大。见“朱，卞，易节经得‘文子劳公'：《周守隽（Zhou Shoujuan)评传》”（文学工作者，在写作、编辑、翻译方面取得卓越成就:《周守隽传》），范伯群编:《中国现代通俗作家丛书》第4卷，177页。如果说这本书是周小川迟来的荣誉的话，那么他1917年翻译的欧美著名短篇小说就是他的另一荣耀。上世纪60年代初他给女儿写的信中表明，他1917年的译作受到了鲁迅的赞赏和民国教育局的嘉奖，但是这一点还是他在上世纪50年代初读周作人的回忆录中知晓的。他的文学生涯被批判为反对新文学的反动潮流后，这一信息才透露出来的。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:35, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
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Lydia Liu deals with the use of first person pronoun wo that designates “I” as a central issue of “translated modernity” in modern Chinese literature. Along with wo becoming the only victor in the contests of first person pronouns through heavy traffic of transnational cultures, the male vernacular subjectivity is established (see Lydia Liu, 154-55).<br />
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The Poetics of Persuasion“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was the author’s “love talk” (''qinghua'') to his bride in the first night of marriage, a passionate confession of his bitter past, with sentiment and self-esteem, and meanwhile he expresses his love and hope for their conjugal life in the future. The narrative begins with a third person account of how the author’s wedding ceremony was held in ''Yeshiyuan'', one of famous public parks in the city, and how in the night his friends gathered in the wedding chamber making fun of the new couple.<br />
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莉迪亚·刘指明“I”的第一人称代词“我”的运用作为现代中国文学中翻译现代化的核心问题。随着wo成为通过跨国文化在阻力很大的前进路线上第一人称代词竞赛的唯一胜利者，男性白话主体性得到了确立（见莉迪亚·刘，154-55）。<br />
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《九花帐里》是作者在新婚夜晚对他新娘的情话,他充满激情,带有情绪和自尊地忏悔着他痛苦的过去，同时表达了他对未来夫妻生活的爱和希望。故事以第三人称开始叙述，描述了作者在城市著名的公园之一，也是园的婚礼是如何举行的，在新婚夜里他的朋友聚在新房里如何打趣这对新人的。 --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:13, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
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This brief opening is like the “prologue” in premodern vernacular stories, a device originated from thirteen-century drama. By this convention a stage is set for the drama of the pillow talk, predicting his theatricality. Nevertheless, with the phrase “Zhou Shoujuan says” at the very beginning, the tradition is inverted, for in old days, fiction writing is not a respectful job and the author’s name never appeared. While the vernacular storytellers were too humble to claim his authorship, literati were too proud to do so. Perhaps it was Lin Shu who self-consciously broke with the tradition as he signed his name on the novels he translated.<br />
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这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，这种手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，为枕边话的戏剧性搭建了一个舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，一开始就用“周守娟说”这句话来颠覆了传统，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么尊贵的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，但文人却为之骄傲。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:04, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，这种手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，为枕边话的戏剧性搭建了一个舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，有了开头的 "周寿娟说 "这句话，这个传统就被颠覆了，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么尊贵的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，文人却骄傲得不敢。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。<br />
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这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，其手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，作者为枕边话剧搭建了舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，有了开头 "周寿娟说 "这句话，这个传统就被颠覆了，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么体面的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，文人却骄傲得不屑。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:52, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
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This self-referential information at the outset is more than a self-promotion: it sets a tone of respectfulness and expectation, evoking a blissful and jubilant atmosphere for what follows. Moreover, the voice from a famous writer suggests new semantics of love and new ways of expressing love. Of course, the marriage is a new chapter in his life; it was the fashion to have a Western-style wedding (''wenming jiehun'') in a public park. The guests are celebrities, novelist, journalists and print entrepreneurs, such as Bao Tianxiao, Chen Diexian, Ding Song, indicative of a newly born social stratum recognized by the urban public.<br />
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这种自我参照的信息在一开始就不仅仅是自我推销:它设定了尊重和期待的基调，为接下来的事情唤起一种幸福和欢乐的氛围。此外，一位著名作家的声音暗示了爱的新语义和表达爱的新方式。当然，婚姻是他人生的新篇章;在公园举行西式婚礼是当时的时尚。受邀的嘉宾有名人、小说家、记者和报业大亨，如鲍天晓、陈蝶仙、丁松等，他们代表着城市公认的新生社会阶层。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
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When Zhou promises to satisfy his friends’ curiosity about what he said to the bride “inside the curtain” in the first night, he deliberately shifts the scene from the backdrop to the main tableau - the curtain. His wedding, albeit part of his private life, was already exposed by Bao Tianxiao and Chen Diexian who, as Zhou mentioned, had written about this event and published them in newspapers. And Zhou himself announced that his own pillow talk would appear in the ''Pictorial Story''. Aware of his privacy under the public gaze, Zhou spotlighted the “curtain” as center stage, namely in the innermost space of the chamber; this is bold and unconventional. Of the marriage rituals and symbols familiar to the Chinese, those descriptions related to the wedding chamber are most erogenous and mysterious, arousing their erotic and voyeurist desire.<br />
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==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
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In ''Six records of a floating life'' (Fusheng liu ji), a classical autobiography, Shen Fu (1763-?) vividly depicts, “I saw by the light of our wedding candles that Yun’s figure was as slim as before. When her veil was lifted we smiled at each other. And we had shared the ceremonial cup of wine and sat down together for the wedding banquet, I secretly took her small hand under the table. It was warm and it was soft, and my heart beat uncontrollably.” However, readers might be disappointed as there is no such details they expected. Yet to great writers, dealing with the first wedding night is a moment to play with readers’ expectation. For example, in one of Li Yu’s stories, after the bridegroom undresses the bride, he is shocked by the fact that she is a “stone woman” who lacks the sexual organ! In ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', when Baoyu lifts the bride’s veil, he finds Baocai instead Daiyu - he is cheated by his family seniors who makes the substitute; thus the dark side of traditional marriage system is unveiled and the tragic theme of the novel reaches its climax. <br />
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==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
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The narrator’s loving voice begins with: “My Phoenix Lady: This is the first night of our marriage, the first day to raise the curtain of our family life. Whether our chamber will be paradise or hell, the drama opens from the present; whether our life will be sad or happy, we will open our theater today.” The long and passionate pillow talk is lyrical and decorative in style, with verbal and imagery rhetorical devices such as the poetic couplets and parallel sentences, metaphors, and repetitions, blending the classical and Western-style vocabulary and grammar. The bridegroom says: <br />
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From now on, you become a member of my family; your name Hu Fengjun is crowned with the surname Zhou. Since you stepped into the door of Zhou, naturally you will do something for his family. The domestic duty falls on us with weight; we should carry it together: the half of it is on my shoulder, the other half on your’s. We should become one heart in order to overcome innumerable difficulties ahead of us. My old mother needs your good service, the multiple household needs your great care. If sometimes I am worried, you should understand me, and care about me.<br />
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==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
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The most important word for husband and wife is “love,” which comes from their mutual understanding and mutual care. If we love each other until the last day of our life, we will spend our whole life in a wonderland with flower and the moon. Every second of our time is gilded with honey and sugar; everywhere in this world is as beautiful as rose. At our ears we often hear the singing birds; before our eyes we often see the flowers in smile. In four seasons, we always have bright and fantastic landscapes around us; the sky looks embroidered, even from cruel storm and frost there grows out the splendid Spring.<br />
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Therefore it is truly important for a couple to love each other, and nothing else is so important. If you have a plenty of money but no love, if you are so tightly fastened by the “red string” that you cannot escape from it, then although you are still husband and wife, how can you feel any happy? Since the ancient time, countless virtuous women were victimized as such. In this first day of our marriage, we should think of a way to make our love forever: each day we should let our hearts meet and mirror each other.<br />
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夫妻之间最重要的词是“爱”，它来自于彼此的理解和关心。如果我们相爱直到生命的最后一天，我们将在一个有花有月的仙境度过我们的一生。我们的每一秒都充满了甜蜜与糖;世界上任何地方都像玫瑰一样美丽。我们经常听到鸟儿在耳边歌唱;我们经常看到微笑的花朵出现在眼前。在四季中，总是有明亮的和奇妙的风景在我们周围;天空看起来像绣了花一样，即使是残酷的风暴和霜冻也会带来灿烂的春天。<br />
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因此，夫妻彼此相爱是非常重要的，没有什么比这更重要了。如果你们有很多钱却没有爱情，如果你们被那根“红线”拴得死死的，那么即使你们还是夫妻，你们怎么能感到幸福呢? 自古以来，有无数贤惠的妇女成为这样的受害者。在我们结婚的第一天，我们应该想办法让我们的爱永远:每一天我们应该让我们的心相遇，彼此关照。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 09:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
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A reader of modern taste may frown at the rhetoric of excess and hyperbole, the naive self-indulgence, and the Chauvinist male voice in this early ''baihua'' prattle. But in this early modern phase, what most fascinates the contemporaries are its novelty and hybridity of diverse images and grammars; i.e. the unfamiliar is within the familiar, the modern within the traditional. Perry Link asserted that Butterfly fiction provides “psychological comfort” to the urban readers who feel the pressure of modernity. Yet, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” provides something more positive than the “psychological comfort”: the narrator’s persuasive voice throughout this pillow talk.<br />
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具有现代品味的读者可能会对早期的白话闲聊中过分夸张的修辞、幼稚的自我放纵和沙文主义的男性声音感到不适。但在这个早期的现代阶段，最吸引同时代人的是它新奇和混杂的意象和语法;也就是说，熟悉之中带有陌生感，传统之中带有现代感。佩里·林克认为，蝴蝶小说为感到现代化压力的城市读者提供了“心理安慰”。然而，《九花帘幕》提供了比“心理安慰”更积极的东西：带有劝慰性的叙述者的语言贯穿了整个枕边谈话。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:40, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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具有现代品味的读者可能会对早期的白话闲聊中过分夸张的修辞、幼稚的自我放纵和大男子主义色彩的男性话语感到不适。但在这个早期的现代阶段，最吸引同时代人的是它新奇和混杂的意象和语法;也就是说，熟悉之中带有陌生感，传统之中带有现代感。佩里·林克认为，蝴蝶小说为感到现代化压力的城市读者提供了“心理安慰”。然而，《九花帘幕》提供了比“心理安慰”更积极的东西：带有劝慰性的叙述者的语言贯穿了整个枕边谈话。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:52, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Embedded in a kind of love philosophy mixed with late Ming discourse of passion (''qing'') and the Romantic influence from the West, this love talk asserts that true love is primarily based on mutual understanding and mutual compassion. A persuasive tone, rather than the didactic or authoritative, prevails the text, and when the persuasion itself it a crucial way to reach and fulfill true love and compassion, its effect depends on refined speech and aesthetic values. For instance, the use of rhythmic repetitions aims to be chantable and enchanting; this audio characteristic is discernibly linked to traditional poetry and drama. The variations of the parallel sentences, poetic couplet, idiomatic phrase and resonant words display the author’s grasp of the repertoire of traditional literature. The sentences “My old mother needs your good service, the multiple household needs your great care” resemble the “four-six” parallelism; the pair of colloquial phrase ''haohao'er'' (well, greatly) comes from vernacular drama or fiction. A contemporary reader might be excited by this Western-style couplet, “You are like the warm sunshine in the summer; I am the bright moon in the autumn.” Or readers may be fascinated by the fresh expression such as “We a pair of mandarin ducks were hit by the Cupiter’s arrow.”<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
Narrative strategies are organized around the poetics of persuasion. By the resonant repetitions and variations the narrator changes his manners and tones to make his linguistic performances most persuasive. The nuanced tones range from the stronger “you should,” to the milder “naturally you will” and to the asking “do you understand.” Apart from the prosaic sentences that function in describing things or reasoning the love sermon, the parallel sentences are divided into two kinds: one addresses melodiously to the bride and the other describes lyrically the fantastic scenes.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
In order to set role models for the bride, a gallery of world-famous women are introduced to add another dimension of the persuasive, mixed with eroticism and ethics, literary references of the East and West. Mrs. Tolstoy helps her husbands devote to and achieve in writing. Liang Hongyu, a legendary heroine who joins her husband to defeat the foreign invaders in thirteenth-century China. It is a persuasive way for a cultural balance in transnational traffic: while the latter a local patriot is internationalized, the former is internalized a la traditional “virtuous wife and good mother.” <br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
So far the kind of masculine persuasion is tinged with pedagogy and the sublime, what follows turns to be sweet and flattery. The narrator says he received a letter from his friend, in which the bride is likened to the beautiful Spring Goddess of Greek mythology, to the sweet Julie and the noble Botia, the heroines in Shakespeare’s plays. This symbolic showcase of female world celebrities, whether it be factual or imaginary, articulate to circulate and assimilate not only modern knowledge but refined taste for urban readers; at the same time, the author shows off his familiarity with the Western novelties necessarily acquired by this fashionable writing. Also noticeable is the intertextual traffic in the circulation and assimilation of cultural information occurred in everyday urban space. While the Julia and Botia are transplanted from Lin Shu’s classical translations onto his writing, Zhou popularizes the Western classics and meanwhile elevates the vernacular. One more tricky detail: all about these foreign literary women, as the narrator says, are from his friend’s letter in English, which adds this pillow talk a savor of exoticism and universality. By this Zhou plays out the fancy and fashion with a fashionable style in this fiction.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
Cinematic Representation and Republican Subjectivity<br />
In this story, the ''curtain'' crucially serves thematic and formal purposes. It is a piece of furniture that is decorative and ritualistic in the innermost space of the conjugal life, yet by infusing this interior curtain with a cinematic curtain, the narrator creates an illusion of a double curtain, which facilitated his double voice. His self is represented as an individual and collective being, and at the same time speaks to the private and public audience.<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
The phrases “raising the curtain” (''kaimu'') and “opening our theater” (''kaichang'') are cliches for something to start, but the term ''mu'' referring to the theatrical or cinematic curtain was new, after the oral drama and film were introduced from the West at the turn of the twentieth century. Zhou’s pronouncement of opening a theater addressed to the bride sounds happy for pronouncing their new family life; also it is theatrical as the narrator consequently conjures up a “paradise” within the curtain, where birds sing and flowers smile in the spring. Nevertheless, the repetition of theater at the outset of this ''qinghua'' addresses not only to his bride - the exclusive beholder inside the curtain, but also to an audience, namely this curtain faces the implied beholders. Readers are already aware from the prologue that the author predicts to show this pillow talk to his friends. The visual characteristic of the text is inscribed by the imagery title “In the Nine-Flower Curtain,” and by the metaphor of curtain the intimate space is turned into a theater under the public watch. Against a larger cultural canvas, as a kind of imported cultural material, the curtain was applied as a new decorum in urban spaces, such as art studio, or photograph studio. Consequently, it functioned in shaping modern perception about the relations between space, life-world and work of art.<br />
<br />
“拉开帷幕”（开幕）和“开放剧场”（开场）是老生常谈的话题，但“幕”指的是戏剧或电影的帷幕，是二十世纪初从西方引进话剧和电影之后的新词。周先生说要给新娘开戏院，这听起来像是在宣告他们新家生活的幸福，同时也是戏剧性的，因为叙述者由此在幕布内想象出一个“天堂”，在那里鸟语花香，春意盎然。然而，这段情话一开始就重复的桥段不仅是给新娘即帘子里的专属看客看的，也是给观众看的，换句话说这帘子面对的是隐含的看客。读者从序言中已经知道，作者预言要把这番枕边话给朋友看。文本的视觉特征是通过意象标题“九花帘中”来刻画的，通过帘子的隐喻，私密空间变成了公众注视下的剧场。在更大的文化背景下，幕布作为一种舶来的文化材料，以一种新的装饰品被应用于城市空间，如艺术工作室，或摄影工作室。因此，幕布在塑造现代人对空间、生活世界和艺术作品之间关系的认知方面发挥了作用。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:35, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201130_trans&diff=10612420201130 trans2020-11-28T09:57:28Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Xu Jing 许晶 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
A good example to illustrate this is the cuisine that is often still defined by national borders (but certainly also in even smaller regional units). The existence of Italian cuisine is undisputed, but you don't have to go to Italy to eat quite authentic Italian food. Of course, there have always been Europeanized variations of Chinese cuisine (e.g. with thickened sauces), and the Istanbul native who orders a kebab in Germany will be surprised that he is served flat bread and not a plate of cutlery.<br />
<br />
Eating habits, especially at breakfast, seem to be difficult to change, so that the author did not get used to the Chinese breakfast (rice soup with salty vegetable side dish) in China for years. <br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
When Italian spaghetti with bolognese sauce was announced one lunchtime in the cafeteria of Beijing University, the joy was great, at least until the dish could be tasted. Obviously only the outward appearance had been preserved here, the appearance of the spaghetti largely corresponded to that which one can see in cookbooks. However, in terms of taste it was a catastrophe, the tomatoes used had obviously been understood by the cook not as vegetables but as fruit and the noodles had been overcooked for an extra long time.<br />
<br />
Also with the enterprises there are such cultures, German enterprises are considered e.g. in many countries as well organized. Even manufacturing processes for the same products often differ from country to country, but are increasingly standardized worldwide, especially when a company has a patented process in several countries.<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
This can lead to interesting national solutions when the same task is set, namely to design a street cleaning vehicle:<br />
<br />
[[File:che1.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Street cleaning vehicle a) China<br />
<br />
[[File:che2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Street cleaning vehicle b)<br />
<br />
Since the 1990s, the author has personally experienced the differences in working in a foreign Chinese software company in America (e.g. PC Express, later TwinBridge in Los Angeles), in a Chinese software company on the mainland (e.g. Suntendy, Beijing), in a German company in China and in a German-Chinese mixed company. These personal experiences flow into the present booklet.<br />
<br />
Thus, the term culture here is largely synonymous with tradition or philosophy, whereby tradition appears to be related to the past and philosophy often appears as reflected culture reduced to a few principles, and thus already consciously controlled and teleological. For these reasons, the author has chosen the term culture in the present context.<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
Japanese production culture is known to us, the Chinese (here abbreviated CMPC) has hardly been investigated in literature, so this booklet has a pioneering character.<br />
<br />
In this booklet, the author draws on Geert Hofstede's comparative cultural model, which he discussed with him at the LMU in Munich on January 22, 2009, on fundamental observations on the Chinese economy from a macro perspective by Philip Huang, and on the results of a field study by Jianzhong Hong, Aino Pöyhönen, Kalevi Kyläheiku 1998-2000 (see bibliography). <br />
<br />
This booklet was prepared to be presented at the conference "Beyond Japan - Values and Attitudes of Asian Production Cultures" in autumn 2010. The author is grateful to Dirko Thomsen, AutoUni Wolfsburg, who invited the author to contribute to the conference.<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
'''Approaches/Perspectives'''<br />
<br />
The distinction between craftsman culture and trader culture has been established for some time. This means that in an economy, more emphasis is placed on developing products that are as perfect as possible, and constantly improving them. A dealer culture places more value on the profit that is made between the cheapest possible purchase and the most expensive possible sale. This distinction becomes clear when we examine a typical case of complaint: <br />
<br />
If a customer complains a product in a craftsman culture, then the salesman is concerned, offers an error free exchange product or a financial compensation and reports the product error further, sends the equipment possibly in, with the goal of letting the error, if it should occur e.g. at several devices, in principle of letting the development department eliminate the error. <br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In a dealer culture the service and satisfaction of the customer is more important, here it is more important to see if the customer is angry and reacts accordingly to his complaint with apologies and compensation offers. Feedback to the manufacturer is of secondary importance. <br />
<br />
Here are some of the countries that fall under the relevant categories:<br />
<br />
Craftsmen's Culture Retailer Culture<br />
<br />
Germany, France Poland, USA, China, Korea<br />
<br />
Another distinction is made between production and design cultures. <br />
<br />
In the 19th and 20th centuries, a production culture developed in mechanical engineering in the USA, whereas in Germany a construction culture developed. <br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
The experience of rationalization in the U.S. with the pioneer Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) was quickly received in Germany, among other things by establishing chairs of business administration in Berlin in 1904, Aachen in 1908 and Hanover in 1910. Accordingly, I follow Kunze in 2008 when he rejects Kothes' assertion that German production culture before 1914 is backward.<br />
<br />
In Germany as a culture of craftsmen, a diversification of products developed early on, which was made possible by constantly optimizing the product. Even in teams, the focus is still on the highly qualified individual who does his part of the teamwork independently and assumes responsibility.<br />
<br />
在德国，弗雷德里克·温斯洛·泰勒率先在美国进行了合理化的各项工作，很快就为大众所接受，其中包括在1904年在柏林，1908年在亚琛以及1910年在汉诺威依次设立了工商管理部主任。因此，我认同库恩泽（Kunze)在2008年提出的观点，当时他对科斯关于1914年之前德国生产文化落后的看法是持反对意见的。<br />
<br />
在德国，作为一种工匠文化，产品在早期就注重多样性，并通过不断优化来实现。即使是在团队中，焦点仍是那些高素质的人，他们独立完成团队任务并承担相应的责任。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 09:21, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
In the USA, the goal is rather the production of a cost-effective mass product. Responsibility was delegated to teams and budget control was introduced to control these teams. However, this is more in keeping with the lawnmower principle and does not apply to the appropriateness of the individual special product or the individual employee.<br />
<br />
This can be illustrated in an overview:<br />
<br />
[[File:233.jpg]]<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
'''The Japanese Production Culture''' <br />
<br />
After World War II, Japan did not have as many investments available as Germany, for example, through the Marshall Plan. Out of necessity, the Japanese economy therefore did what was possible, namely an optimization of existing machines, processes and personnel. This also resulted in the development of a special national production culture, the characteristics of which can be seen in an overview:<br />
<br />
[[File:566.jpg]]<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
Today, the Japanese production philosophy is considered the pacemaker for new production technologies and the benchmark for modern industrial nations. Former Porsche boss Wendelin Wiedeking is an admirer and imitator of the Toyota Production System: "Toyota is synonymous with consistency". It is the international standard by which the modernity of a factory is measured.<br />
<br />
The basic idea of the Japanese model was that storage costs were incurred because more was produced than purchased. So technologies were developed which ensured that the product was only (re)produced when the customer bought the product (production on demand). The higher costs of producing a single item are more than compensated by the savings in intermediate storage (and, in the case of slow-moving items, final storage) of products. This procedure is successfully used today, for example, in book production.<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
More important, however, is the idea that there should be as few production interruptions as possible, and if so, that these should be eliminated as quickly as possible. A typical phenomenon on the construction site is that work stops because a certain part / material to be installed has not been delivered on time. In production plants, a machine in the assembly line production breaks down and the whole production is stopped. This is where the Japanese philosophy comes into play, training the individual employee to the extent that he or she can repair minor defects on their own and assigning the responsibility to them to do so. For larger defects, a central team is available. <br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
This motivates them to ensure that these smaller defects do not occur in the first place and not only repairs the defect, but also thinks of a way to ensure that this defect does not occur in the future, i.e. they not only repair the defect, but also the cause of the defect.<br />
<br />
With production on demand, interruptions in production would also be conceivable if demand were to decline. Ideally, production then adjusts, i.e. it runs correspondingly slower or faster, depending on how strong demand is at the moment. The most important thing is that production is uninterrupted and trouble-free.<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些较小的缺陷不会先出现，除了修复缺陷，还要想出一种防范此缺陷发生的方法，即，他们不仅修复缺陷，而且根除缺陷。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，生产也可能会中断。 理想情况下，生产会进行调整，即根据当前的需求量，生产速度相应地变慢或变快。最重要的是保证生产不间断且无故障。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这促使他们确保这些小缺陷不会第一时间出现，一旦出现，不仅要修复缺陷，而且要想出避免缺陷再次发生的办法，即：他们不仅要修复缺陷，而且要找出缺陷出现的原因。<br />
<br />
在按需生产的情况下，如果需求下降，生产中断的情况可能会出现。 然而在理想情况下，产量会根据需求进行调整，即根据当前的需求量，生产速度相应地减慢或加快，最重要的是保证生产无间断且不发生任何故障。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The Japanese reward system works in a similar way for innovations introduced by individual employees involved in the production process. Here, it is important that the person who had the idea receives a relevant sum of money immediately and unbureaucratically, long before the idea is implemented.<br />
<br />
Another element are the quality circles or Kaizen teams. These are smaller working groups that are responsible for a small part of the production. They should meet once at the beginning and then regularly at least once a week to openly discuss suggestions for improvement. <br />
<br />
Recently, other Japanese elements of production culture have also been mentioned, such as multi-divisional structures and decentralization. They are also found in the American production culture.<br />
<br />
参与生产过程的员工可以提出自己的创新想法，日本的奖励制度与此类似。在这里，重要的是，在该想法实现之前，提出这个想法的人立即就得到一笔相关的钱，不需要重重审批。<br />
<br />
另一个要素是质量圈或是持续改善团队。这些是比较小的工作组，负责生产环节的一小部分。他们应该在一开始就碰个面，然后至少每周定期开一次会，公开讨论改进建议。<br />
<br />
最近，人们也提到了日本生产文化的其他因素，例如多部门结构和权力下放机制。它们也同样存在于美国的生产文化中。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:03, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
日本的奖励制度对参与生产过程的雇员个人提出的创新也有类似的作用。在这里，重要的是，有想法的人在想法实施之前很久就能立即无官僚主义地得到一笔相关的资金。<br />
<br />
另一个要素是质量圈或Kaizen小组。这些是较小的工作小组，负责生产的一小部分。他们应该在开始时开一次会，然后定期至少每周开一次会，公开讨论改进的建议。<br />
<br />
最近，日本生产文化的其他要素也被提及，如多部门结构和分权。美国的生产文化中也有这些内容。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 01:58, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
The Japanese production culture, whose optimization was born out of necessity, proved to be more competitive than the cultures of other countries, which is why it quickly became the model, even the epitome, of modern production culture, and in the 1960s and 1970s it began a worldwide triumphal march.<br />
<br />
'''China - Factory of the world''' <br />
<br />
Today, however, China has replaced Japan and the other classic industrial nations as the factory of the world.<br />
<br />
[[File:fangjieling.jpg]]<br />
<br />
It also leads the emerging markets worldwide.<br />
<br />
In the projection of economic performance, Goldmann/ Sachs sees China ahead of the USA, India and Germany.<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
[[File:6.jpg]]<br />
<br />
So China is today again (after the period 0 A.D. until about 1200 A.D.) the leading economy in the world. One of the characteristics of the Chinese production culture is its continuity. For thousands of years, China has been producing products such as silk, tea, porcelain, etc. without interruption. Even though Chinese production was not a world leader in the period 1200 to 2000 A.D., it remained at a roughly constant level for a long time before it caught up with the Industrial Revolution in a rapid development. Such a long production culture is without equal worldwide.<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
It is still important to bear in mind that China is once again growing to become the leading economic nation, but in this most populous country not all Chinese are yet benefiting equally from this leadership role. This is easy to see when comparing the absolute figures (e.g. GDP in country comparison or related to the growth of its own GDP) with the relative figures (GDP/capita). Here is one such comparison with the USA:<br />
<br />
[[File:7.jpg]]<br />
<br />
I would like to start my analysis of the importance of production culture with a few questions:<br />
<br />
Does the production culture have anything to do with the rapid increase? Is it perhaps the cause of the increase? <br />
<br />
Obviously, the Chinese production culture has not been an international model for modern production culture. Could the reason for this be the problem that the production culture is culture-specific? What other reasons could there be? Are these reasons justified?<br />
<br />
In order to find clues to answer these questions, the Chinese production culture is examined and defined below.<br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
'''Genuity of Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
The Silk Road has been documented since about the 5th century BCE, but gene analysis proves that it was used to trade domesticated plants and animals in both directions already about 10 millenia BCE. There is also proof of cultural exchange through this trade road. The following products manufactured in China were traded on it:<br />
<br />
·Silk<br />
<br />
·Tea<br />
<br />
·Spices<br />
<br />
·Ceramics/Porcellain<br />
<br />
·Jade<br />
<br />
·Bronze<br />
<br />
·Lacquerware/Paints<br />
<br />
·Iron<br />
<br />
·Paper<br />
<br />
·Gunpowder<br />
<br />
·Furs etc. <br />
<br />
The Silk Road was of course used in both directions, gold, precious stones and for a long time glass were imported into China. If the New Silk Road can be built with rail roads, it will lower the costs and time of shipping several times compared to the current maritime container shipping.<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
With the world's largest merchant ships, junks, which could hold up to 4000 tons, China also dominated maritime trade for centuries. Already in the 3rd century B.C. the Emperor's Canal was built in China for inland navigation.<br />
<br />
[[File:gdf.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Previous picture: Chinese junk from the year 1804.[ John Barrow, „Travels in China: containing descriptions, observations, and comparisons, made and collected in the course of a short residence at the Imperial palace of Yuen-Min-Yuen, and on a subsequent journey through the country from Pekin to Canton“, Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12.1.2010, ISBN 9781153190947, 302 pp., p. 59.]<br />
<br />
[[File:gdf2.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Ming period junk (14th century).<br />
<br />
In the period from the birth of Christ until 1200 A.D., China had the highest gross domestic product in the world. Only in 1200 was China overtaken by Western Europe.<br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
[[File:10.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Between 1200 and about 2000, China lagged far behind the West and was considered a developing country. Nevertheless, from 1700 until today, China has experienced the same population explosion as America and Europe.<br />
<br />
[[File:11.jpg]]<br />
<br />
While Europe ensured the food supply of the larger population at the end of the 18th century with the Industrial Revolution, China slept through this development and caught up with it in fast motion from 1900 with its first factories, from 1950 with centrally planned larger production units and from 2000 with private enterprises, at first mainly joint ventures, which led to an uneven development in the country.<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
The example of silk production in Japan and China already reveals the first differences in the production culture:<br />
<br />
In Japan, a loom was introduced that was copied thousands of times without a license, thus ensuring a nationwide standard. Silk from Japan was always woven in the same way, and buyers could always rely on the same product quality.<br />
<br />
In China there were various independent production facilities and regional traditions. So silk from China was of a variable quality.<br />
<br />
Another aspect of Chinese production culture is the ethnic component: <br />
<br />
·Western companies have better cards in China if they use Chinese middlemen. <br />
<br />
·Chinese companies that are active in Africa export their entire business model including employees, cook, buildings. <br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
Nevertheless, today's Chinese production culture is no longer genuine, but is also more strongly influenced by history than the Japanese Western culture.<br />
<br />
Even party schools at the beginning of the 21st century are commissioning business faculties of American universities to conduct management training.<br />
<br />
'''Made in China'''<br />
<br />
The label "Made in Germany" was originally a British origin label to distinguish itself from poor quality German goods. It was only later that the mark of Cain became a trademark due to the improvement in quality.<br />
<br />
"Made in China" stands for cheap products, low wages, poor quality, mass production and plagiarism, hierarchical management and an "ant-like" workforce.<br />
<br />
<br />
然而，如今中国的生产文化已不再封闭，比起日本受到西方文化的影响，中国受到历史影响的程度更深。甚至在21世纪初的党校也委托美国大学的商科对其进行管理培训。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”<br />
<br />
“德国制造”的标签原本是英国的标签，用来区别德国的劣质产品。直到后来，由于质量的提高，“德国制造”才成为商标。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”代表着廉价、低工资、劣质、大规模生产和剽窃、等级观念以及廉价劳动力。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 09:48, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，今天的中国生产文化不再纯正了，而且比日本的西方文化更受历史的影响。<br />
<br />
甚至连21世纪初的党校也委托美国大学的商学院进行管理培训。<br />
<br />
中国制造<br />
<br />
“德国制造”的标签原本是英国的标签，用来把本国的产品与德国的劣质产品区别开。直到后来，由于质量的提高，这个罪恶的标记才成为商标。<br />
<br />
“中国制造”代表着廉价产品、低工资、低质量、大规模生产、抄袭、等级管理以及像“蚁族”一样的廉价劳动力。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 14:21, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
But in fact this is only an impression that applied to the first mass products in China; in the meantime the picture has changed.<br />
<br />
1 At the beginning of the 21st century, the labor market in China appears saturated for the first time. This is accompanied by extreme wage increases. In the meantime, one has to pay almost as much for a man-day of an engineer with comparable qualifications in China as for an engineer-man-day in western industrialized countries.<br />
<br />
2. The previously most important productive sector is being replaced by the service sector as the most important economic sector.<br />
<br />
3. Following the example of Western companies that have consistently introduced quality assurance in China, the proverbial poor quality of Chinese products is now a thing of the past. In many companies, quality assurance is now also practiced.<br />
<br />
但是实际上这个印象也只是停留在中国第一次大量生产的时候；在此期间的情形已经变了。<br />
<br />
1.在21世纪初，伴随着工资的极度增加，中国劳动市场第一次出现饱和。同时，支付给相对合格的一名中国工程师一天的工资和西方工业国家的是差不多的。<br />
<br />
2.之前最重要的生产部门现在已被作为经济领域中最重要的服务部门所取代。<br />
<br />
3.西方公司在中国一向都有质量保证的规则，中国也正在向西方学习。总所周知的劣质中国产品也已不再出现。在许多公司中，质量保证这一规则正在被实行。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:14, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但事实上，这只是对中国第一次大规模生产的早期印象而已；与此同时，情况在不断地变化。<br />
<br />
1 在21世纪初，中国的劳动市场第一次接近于饱和状态，这是由于工资的急剧增加。同时，一名合格的中国工程师的工资和西方工业国家的工资是差不多的。<br />
<br />
2 服务业逐渐替代了早些年最重要的生产部门作为重要的经济组成部分。<br />
<br />
<br />
3 中国现在也正在学习西方国家公司的质量保障规则，中国的产品很差这一传言已经成为了过去式了。如今在大部分的公司，质量保障这一规章用于实践。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:43, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
4. apart from the reproduction of products developed in the West, the first high-tech products that have been further developed in China (cell phones, notebooks, etc.) are already available.<br />
<br />
5. Chinese companies are now buying companies worldwide with the required know-how (notebook division of IBM => Lenovo, Volvo etc.).<br />
<br />
6. with a real ravenous appetite, Chinese managers devour bestsellers that explain Western management principles and apply them with playful curiosity and great zeal, such as team meetings. Meetings in Chinese companies are now more common (5 meetings/day) than in Germany (1-2 meetings/day).<br />
<br />
[[File:12.jpg]]<br />
<br />
4，除了复制西方的产品，中国也已经有了在国内进一步发展的第一批高科技产品（手机和笔记本电脑等）。<br />
<br />
5，中国公司如今正在全世界地购买一些掌握技术的公司（IBM笔记本部门=>联想‘沃尔沃等）。<br />
<br />
6，由于极大地需求，中国公司的管理人员几乎把那些介绍了西方管理规则的畅销书买完了，并且带着好奇心和热情把这些规则应用于实践，比如说西方比较盛行的小组会议。如今在中国的公司，开会的频率远远高于德国（中国一天5次会议，而德国一天1-2次会议）。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 12:26, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4.除了再生产西方的产品，中国进一步发展的第一批高科技产品（手机，笔记本电脑等）已经可以买到。<br />
<br />
5.中国公司现在正在世界各地收购具备所需技术的公司（IBM的笔记本部门--联想、沃尔沃等）。<br />
<br />
6.由于庞大的渴求，中国公司的管理人员读完了所有讲述西方管理细则的畅销书，并带着极大的好奇心和热情将这些细则运用于实践之中，例如，小组会议。如今相较于德国公司来说，小组会议在中国公司更加的普遍。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
'''Characteristics of Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
'''Hierarchy'''<br />
<br />
Chinese companies are traditionally strictly hierarchical, with many levels. Authority gives face. As in other countries, functions are called together with the name as titles. According to Hofstede, the yardstick for hierarchy is the power distance index.<br />
<br />
'''Appreciation of age''' <br />
<br />
In addition to hierarchies based on professional positions, age also has a corresponding authority. Older people are seldom deported to retirement homes after their retirement, but live until death in the extended family, in which they fulfill tasks until the end. The neighborhood also takes care of the elderly people by involving them in work assignments (street cleaning, support for traffic regulation) depending on their readiness.<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
The older brother automatically has a more prestigious position than the younger one. In Chinese, kinship terms are strictly separated into "older" or "younger". The preceding adjective "alter" in the confidential form of address is an honorific. <br />
<br />
In business life, too, older employees are respected because of their life experience (and possibly because of the large network of relationships to be expected). <br />
A positive side effect is that the experience remains in the company. New research also shows in the West: older employees are often underestimated, their experience must be used more and knowledge can be kept in the company.<br />
<br />
'''Concept of Face'''<br />
<br />
For the protection of the individual, there is the face concept, where everyone can preserve his or her honor, even if mistakes have been made or someone is inferior. For this purpose, unwritten rules (institutions) are observed in the company: No one criticizes the other person in front of others. If criticism must be exercised, then indirectly. A request is not rejected directly, there is no "No! The Chinese employees are particularly sensitive to the nuances, to the "maybe" and know how to classify it accordingly without being damaged.<br />
<br />
哥哥的地位自然比弟弟高。在汉语中，亲属称谓严格分为“长”和“幼”。前一个形容词“alter（改变）”在亲密形式中是一个敬语。<br />
在商业生活中，年长的员工也会因为他们的生活经历而受到尊重（也可能是因为他们所拥有的庞大关系网）。一个积极的副作用是这种经验仍然存在于公司。新的研究还显示，西方国家的老员工往往被低估，他们的经验必须得到更多的利用，知识才能留在公司。<br />
<br />
”面子的概念“<br />
面子这个概念是为了保护个人，每个人都可以维护自己的荣誉，即使是那些犯了错误的人或者是等级低的。为此，公司遵守不成文的规则（制度）：不要在大众面前批评别人。如果必须进行批评，那么就委婉间接的说出来。一个人的请求不会被直接拒绝，我们不会直接说“不！”中国人对此的细微差别可能会有相应的分类。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 08:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“面子的概念<br />
面子之所以存在，是为了自我保护，每个人都可以维护自己的荣誉，即使是那些犯了错误的人或者是等级低的也是如此。为此，公司有个不成文的规定：不要当众批评别人。如果必须要批评，那就婉约一点。我们不会直接拒绝别人的请求，不会直接说“不。”中国人对于这一观念极为敏感，他们“或许”知道怎样进行区分才能避免伤害。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 09:52, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
'''Incompetence of bosses leads to informal decision-making'''<br />
<br />
Traditionally, the position of General Manager, or even senior positions in Chinese companies, is preferably filled with people who can be trusted by those making the appointments. The greatest trust is given by a family relationship, somewhat less so in the case of friendship between families or between individuals, or by shared periods of life, such as being born in the same village, attending the same school, the same club, etc. Of course, professional qualifications also help to build trust, but this is only of secondary importance. <br />
<br />
The leadership positions of the largest state-owned enterprises in China are assigned by the party, and these positions are cobbled together with correspondingly deserving cadres. <br />
<br />
One consequence of this appointment policy is the widespread incompetence of leaders.<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
<br />
传统上，总经理的职位，甚至中国公司的高级职位，最好是由可以任命的人所信任的人。 家庭关系给人最大的信任，家庭之间或个人之间的友情或家庭生活的共同点（例如在同一个村庄出生，在同一所学校，在同一家具乐部等）则给予最大的信任。 当然，专业资格也有助于建立信任，但这仅是次要的。<br />
<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是由党派出的，这些职务与相应的应聘干部结合在一起。<br />
<br />
这项任命政策的结果是领导人普遍无能。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 03:56, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
老板的无能导致非正式的决策<br />
传统上，中国公司的总经理职位，甚至是高级职位，最好都是那些能被任命者信任的人。最大的信任是由家庭关系给予的,或者是通过共同的生活阶段，例如出生在同一个村庄，在同一所学校，同一个俱乐部，等等。当然，职业资格也有助于建立信任，但这种信任不是特别重要。<br />
中国最大的国有企业的领导职务是党指定的，这些职位是由相应的干部结合而成的。<br />
这种任命政策的一个后果是领导普遍无能。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 09:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
In economic terms, this too is an emergency situation, especially for the bosses concerned, who are surrounded by more competent subordinates. In combination with the facial concept, the bosses thus have to hide their incompetence on the one hand and on the other hand want to keep their position, i.e. they are under enormous pressure to make the right decisions. This has led to an informal decision-making system. The boss discusses possible alternatives informally with the experts. In the end, he has obtained a broad opinion and makes the decision that seems best to him alone. The fact that the laurels are actually due to others remains unspoken; it increases the intensity of the personal relationships (renqing) of the people involved. Once the boss has made a decision and communicated it, the employees will implement it without contradiction due to the hierarchical structures.<br />
从经济角度来说，这也是一个紧急情况，尤其是对那些管理着更有能力的下属的老板们来说。因此，结合表层含义，一方面，老板们不得不隐藏自己的无能，另一方面又想保住自己的位置，也就是说，他们面临着做出正确决策的巨大压力。由此产生了一个非正式的决策体系。老板与专家非正式地讨论了可能的替代方案。最终，他获得了广泛的意见，并独自做出了对他来说最好的决定。桂冠实际上是别人的，这一事实仍未明说；它深厚了相关人员间的人情关系。一旦老板做出决定并传达给员工，员工就会执行，不会因为等级结构而产生矛盾。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
If a superior's decision is not considered correct, the subordinate may not address the boss. Rather, when the hierarchical structures do not apply (joint leisure activities or similar), an opportunity must be sought to indirectly point out the wrong decision to the boss.<br />
<br />
Meetings per day C > USA > D<br />
<br />
The frequency of meetings is much higher in China than in Germany. In the country comparison of four selected countries/regions the following order results:<br />
<br />
1. Hong Kong <br />
<br />
2. China<br />
<br />
3. USA<br />
<br />
4. Germany<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
'''Shapes of modern Chinese production culture and their causes'''<br />
<br />
[[File:13.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Modern Chinese production culture shows the following characteristics:<br />
<br />
1. in the area of know-how China lags behind the western industrial nations and Japan, which causes feelings of shame. Many Chinese feel that they are on the defensive and regard their country's relationship with the USA and Japan as the David's against Goliath. This results in a subjective legitimacy for broad-based industrial espionage with national interest and know-how theft.<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
'''2. Innovation'''<br />
<br />
China is traditionally known as an empire of inventions, so letterpress printing, gunpowder, porcelain etc. were invented long before similar inventions were made elsewhere in the world. However, these inventions were often not brought to serial production and were produced in masses, as for example in Europe, where gunpowder led to the production of handguns and cannons. It can be exaggerated to say that gunpowder was used instead for New Year's fireworks by the nobility. This shows the Chinese characteristic of a capacity for innovation with a simultaneous lack of diffusion in the market.<br />
<br />
The Industrial Revolution also largely passed China by. Since China, like Europe, was experiencing a population explosion due to better hygiene and medicine, but at the same time the automation of food production did not go beyond manufactories, China fell behind in its standard of living.<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
<br />
Traditionally, imitation has always been highly valued in China. A good copy was almost as important as the original. Thus, both the civil service examination system of previous centuries and today's school system were strongly oriented towards reproduction rather than creativity. One reason may be the enormous amount of characters that requires students to memorize for years.<br />
<br />
自古以来，模仿对中国来说十分重要。好的模仿同原型几乎地位相等。因此，前几个世纪的公务员考试制度和如今的学校系统都着重指向再生产而非创造。其中一个原因可能是学生在多年里需要记忆大量的人物。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 01:53, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从古至今，中国都十分重视效仿。好的副本与原本几乎同样重要。因此，先前世纪的公务员考试制度与现今学校系统都着重强调再生产而不是创新。其原因可能是学生们在几年里需要记的人物数不胜数。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 02:20, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
自古以来，中国就十分重视模仿。好的模仿几乎和原创一样重要。因此，前几世纪的公务员考试和现在的学校体制都以再生产为导向而不是创造性。其中一个原因可能就是其要求学生花费数年时间去记大量的人物。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 11:20, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
The idea of copyright is also less rooted in China than in the West.<br />
<br />
When the Chinese were awakened from their sleep by the cannon thunder of the 1st Opium War, there was great regret that they had not carried out their own research and development. Although physical violence was disregarded, the foreigners were envied their technical superiority and since then they have propagated the idea of learning technology from foreigners and reproducing it in order to be able to defend their own cultural values and sovereignty more effectively. This feeling of envy gave rise to an extreme motivation to both imitate the superiority of others and ultimately to outdo them.<br />
<br />
中国的版权意识没有西方那么深刻。<br />
当中国人在第一次鸦片战争的炮声中惊醒时，他们非常遗憾没有自己的研发创造。国人虽然憎恨外国人的暴行，但仍旧羡慕他们的技术优势。从那以后，他们师夷长技，以便能够更有效地捍卫自己的文化价值观和国家主权。但这种嫉妒感催生了一种极端的动机，既模仿他人的优越感，最终在该方面又超越他人。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与西方相比，中国的版权观念不那么根深蒂固。<br />
当第一次鸦片战争的炮声把中国人从睡梦中惊醒的时候，他们没有进行自己的研究和开发是非常遗憾的。即使中国人可以忽略外国侵略者的暴力，但却羡慕他们的技术优势，从那时起，他们开始宣传向外国人学习技术并加以复制，以便能够更有效地捍卫自己的文化价值观和主权。这种嫉妒感产生了一种极端的动机，既模仿别人的优越感，又最终超越别人。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:59, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
'''3. Competition'''<br />
<br />
The toughest competition worldwide is in China. Successful products immediately find numerous imitators. As soon as an imitator can produce the product at more favorable conditions, the client switches to him. Together with state arbitrariness, this has resulted in the emergence of a typical Chinese type of company: The financial holding company as a family-owned enterprise with involvement in various industries. This enables a company to survive even if the sales market for a product suddenly collapses. In hardly any other country in the world do companies have to be as vigilant as in China, adapting products to changing customer requirements within the shortest possible time and always being one step ahead of the competition. New trends have to be recognized early and capacities have to be built up or reduced flexibly.<br />
<br />
Those who survive in this hard school are also prepared for more peaceful and fairer markets like those in Europe and America.<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
'''4. State control'''<br />
<br />
The reform and opening policy since 1978 has led to a predominance of foreign companies in China at the end of the 20th century. In order to protect their own industry, laws were introduced obliging companies to provide a certain percentage of their production in China locally. As a result, Chinese suppliers had to be sought who were able to contribute parts to the production chain. This promoted local industry and also the transfer of know-how. <br />
<br />
At the same time, foreign suppliers were also forced to follow the large companies to China if they did not want to be replaced by a Chinese company. This accelerated the settlement of foreign companies in China.<br />
1978年以来的改革开放政策导致20世纪末外来企业占据了中国市场的主导地位。为了保护本国产业，中国出台了相关法律，要求外来企业必须在当地提供一定比例的产品。因此，他们必须寻找能够向生产链提供零部件的中国供应商。这促进了当地工业的发展，也促进了技术的转让。<br />
与此同时，外国供应商如果不想被中国公司取代，他们就必须跟随大公司来到中国。这加快了外国公司在中国的落户。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 10:53, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. 国家管控'''<br />
<br />
1978年改革开放以来，直到20世纪末，外来企业占据了中国市场的主导地位。为保护本国产业，中国出台了相关法律，要求外来企业生产产品必须有一定比例的当地产品。因此，这些公司必须寻找中国的供应商以为生产链提供零部件，这促进了当地产业发展和技术转让。<br />
<br />
与此同时，外国供应商如果不想被中国公司取代，他们就必须跟随大公司来到中国。这进一步加快了外国公司在中国的落户。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:44, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
However, legislation (like the joint venture laws) and court decisions favoured domestic companies. Also, China has built up a state capitalism that sponsors industry, supports domestic industry on the world market and helps financing overseas investment. Also, copyright infringement and industrial espionage (including civil-military alliance) supports the Chinese economy. Under the Trump administration, the USA has responded with a protectionist “America first” strategy.<br />
<br />
'''5. Legal system'''<br />
<br />
The legal system in China is not independent. It acts at the behest of the state.<br />
<br />
Western companies came to China with superior know-how and financial power. These companies were admired in China, but at the same time a feeling of disadvantage arose with regard to their own backward industry.<br />
<br />
然而，法规（例如，合资企业法）以及法庭判决都有利于国内企业。中国也已经建立起一种国家资本主义，用来资助企业、支持出于世界市场中的国内企业、为海外投资提供资助。除此之外，版权侵权法规和企业情报刺探（包括军民联合）都促使中国经济发展。在特朗普的治理下，美国提出了“美国第一”的保护主义策略，以此作为回应。<br />
<br />
'''5.法律体系'''<br />
<br />
中国的法律体系不是彼此独立，互不相关的。它是应整个国家的要求而实行的。<br />
西方公司带着先进的技术知识和强大的财政实力来到中国。中国欣赏这些公司，但是同时觉得这些公司会对自己国家落后的企业不利。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 05:03, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
As a counterbalance to this perceived weakness in relation to the large foreign corporations, the legislation was designed and the judiciary was urged to protect their own corporations.<br />
<br />
This puts Chinese partners in a better position when joint ventures are dissolved (often the know-how and capital goes to the owner).<br />
<br />
'''Necessity is the mother of invention'''<br />
<br />
The reason for the increase in efficiency, known worldwide as Japanese management culture or production culture, was the lack of money for new machines in Japan after World War II.<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
In China, another emergency situation is also the reason for developing a separate response to the challenges of the market: it is the professional incompetence of management personnel. This has grown historically. In China, management positions are primarily given to people who can be trusted. Traditionally, the most trustworthy people in China are family members or family members of old school friends, acquaintances who come from their own village and who have indulged in the same hobbies together (see Deng Xiaoping's Bridge round or the golf acquaintances in Western lobbying) etc. Loyalty to the party plays a secondary role. In principle, members of the Communist Party have it easier in business life, cadres even easier. Membership in the People's Liberation Army plays a similar role.<br />
<br />
在中国，另一种紧急情况也是制定单独应对市场挑战的原因:管理人员的专业能力不足。这随历史的发展不断涌现。在中国，管理职位主要由可信赖的人担任。传统上最值得信赖的人是家庭成员或老同学的家庭成员，来自自己村庄的熟人，有共同爱好的熟人(比如邓小平的桥牌圈或西方游说中一起打的高尔夫熟人)等等。对党的忠诚是次要的。原则上，共产党员做生意很容易做起来，共产党员干部就更容易。中国人民解放军的战友也扮演着类似的角色。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 09:24, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
在中国，另一种紧急情况也是制定单独应对市场挑战策略的原因:管理人员的专业能力不足。这种情况随历史的发展不断涌现。在中国，管理职位主要由可信赖的人担任。在中国传统中，最值得信赖的人是自己的或老同学的家人，同村的熟人和有共同爱好的熟人(比如邓小平的桥牌圈或在西方游说中一起打高尔夫的熟人)等等。对党的忠诚是次要的。原则上，共产党员很容易把生意做起来，共产党员干部就更容易。中国人民解放军的战友关系也起着类似的作用。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 15:54, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Professional competence often plays no role at all. But here, too, a generational change has taken place; the highest leadership cadres in the Central Committee often had no education or training at all in the Soviet Union at the beginning, were replaced by technocrats in the 1980s, and at the beginning of the 21st century many have an American university degree. <br />
<br />
In the business sector, the leadership positions of the largest Chinese state-owned enterprises are still awarded by the party to deserving cadres.<br />
<br />
The professional incompetence of the bosses represents a plight that must be countered in daily work with a sophisticated strategy if one does not want to be replaced by a more professionally competent boss.<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
This strategy consists of the following:<br />
<br />
·Avoiding the disclosure of own professional incompetence<br />
<br />
·Informal consultation and coordination with the actual experts in the company before each decision process<br />
<br />
·Announcement and representation of the decision by the boss alone, this decision may then also no longer be questioned<br />
<br />
This informal participation in the decision-making process is organized in a network which, however, in contrast to the Japanese model, is not lived out in team discussions, but rather through several face-to-face meetings between the boss and a different expert in each case, since if the boss sought the advice of a first expert in the presence of a second expert, he would lose face with the second expert. This network character is therefore very personal and usually consists of direct two-person relationships.<br />
<br />
该战略包括以下内容：<br />
<br />
·避免披露自己的职业能力不足<br />
<br />
·在每个决策过程之前，与公司的专家进行非正式协商和协调<br />
<br />
·由老板单独宣布和陈述决定后，这一决定也可能不再受到质疑<br />
<br />
这种非正式参与决策过程是在一个网络中组织的，然而，与日本模式不同的是，这种网络不是通过团队讨论，而是通过老板和不同专家之间的几次面对面会议来进行的，因为如果老板在第二位专家在场的情况下征求第一位专家的意见，他会在第二个专家面前丢脸。因此，这种人际网络特征非常私人，通常由直接的两人关系组成。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 05:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
该策略包括以下内容：<br />
<br />
·避免披露自己的职业能力不足<br />
<br />
·在每个决策过程之前，与公司真正的专家进行非正式的协商和协调<br />
<br />
·由老板单独宣布和陈述决定后，这一决定也可能不再受到质疑<br />
<br />
这种非正式参与决策过程是在一个网络中组织的，然而，与日本模式不同的是，这种网络不是通过团队讨论，而是通过老板和不同专家之间的几次面对面会议来进行的，因为如果老板在第二位专家在场的情况下征求第一位专家的意见，他会在第二个专家面前丢脸。因此，这种人际网络特征非常私人，通常由直接的两人关系组成。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:49, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
However, it is also possible to contact a third person who knows the second person, whereby the second person then only establishes contact and then withdraws.<br />
<br />
A further emergency in China is that due to the sleepy industrial revolution and the lack of information diffusion in the market, no research and development tradition of its own has been established to date. Instead of carrying out basic research for a long time, information about the state of the art of advanced competitors was obtained and attempts were made to copy and eventually outperform them. Only recently, due to enormous governmental support, e.g. in hybrid drive technology and electric motor technology, self-developed products have been created in China.<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
'''Changes in the Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
When the production site in China opened up to the global industry, the egalitarianism of the planned economy had already erased the tradition of quality assurance from the memory of the factory workers. In the decades before, they had been used to selling along with the scrap. The first factories, which produced goods in China due to the low labor costs, also delivered rejects accordingly. The foreign investors first had to reintroduce the quality assurance concept in China. Due to the strong competition in China and the orientation towards world market prices and standards, quality assurance has now been internalized in China.<br />
<br />
“中国生产文化的变化”<br />
<br />
当中国的生产基地向全球产业开放时，计划经济的平均主义使得工厂工人追求质量保证这一传统不复存在。在过去的几十年里，工人已经习惯了把废料一同出售。由于劳动力成本低廉，在中国生产商品的第一批工厂也相应地交付了废料。外国投资者须先重申质量保证的重要性，唤起中国生产商的重视。与此同时，由于中国市场的激烈竞争以及其对世界市场价格和标准的关注，质量保证在中国内部现已普及。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 13:28, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''中国生产文化的变化'''<br />
<br />
在中国生产基地向全球产业开放时，计划经济的平均主义已经从工厂工人的记忆中抹去了质量保证的传统。在过去的几十年中，它们已经习惯与废料一同出售。 由于劳动力成本低廉，在中国生产商品的第一批工厂也相应地交付了废品。 外国投资者首先必须在中国重申质量保证理念。 由于中国的激烈竞争以及对世界市场价格和标准的遵循，质量保证现已在中国内部化。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 06:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
The originally traditional lifelong relationship with the employer, as we also know it from Japan, has now been reversed. China currently has one of the highest employee turnover rates in the world, even higher than the already high rate in the USA.<br />
<br />
In the period 1950 to 1980, the production culture was characterized by blind fulfillment of plans; since 1980, production has been oriented to the market.<br />
Today, management concepts are as en vogue in China as political campaigns were in the past. They are read and discussed, but often misunderstood due to the lack of foreign language skills and context/background knowledge.<br />
<br />
通过日本我们可以知道，最初的传统终生雇佣关系现在已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于员工流动率本就很高的。<br />
<br />
在1950年至1980年期间，生产文化的特征是盲目地执行计划经济；自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。 如今，管理理念在中国就像过去的政治运动一样流行。 它们被阅读和讨论，但由于缺乏外语技能和语境背景知识而常常被误解。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 07:59, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
通过日本我们也可以知道，最初的传统终身雇佣关系现已被颠覆。中国是目前世界上员工流动率最高的国家之一，甚至高于员工流动率已经很高的美国。<br />
<br />
在20世纪50年代至80年代，生产文化的特点是盲目执行计划; 自1980年以来，生产一直面向市场。如今，在中国，管理理念就像过去的政治运动一样流行。他们被阅读和讨论，但常因为缺乏外语技能和背景知识而被误解。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:42, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
Similar to the campaigns, the concepts are introduced with an eternal claim, but only last as long as a seasonal fashion. This type of management, which is based on current trends in management strategies, could also be called guerrilla management, following Sebastian Heilmann's concept of "guerrilla politics".<br />
<br />
In China, a culture of secrecy (ID badges, access restrictions), especially among high-tech companies, is prevalent, which is exactly the same as in America. In China, this culture was simply copied from the USA, certainly also due to the findings of Chinese industrial espionage abroad that know-how, e.g. in German companies, is often insufficiently protected against access by third parties.<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
'''Roles in the Chinese production culture''' <br />
<br />
The central role in the Chinese production and management culture is played by the boss. This can also be seen in the comparatively high values of China's Power Distance Index.<br />
<br />
The specific behavior of the boss in the decision making process has already been explained above.<br />
<br />
In the following, the difference in the relationship between the boss and his subordinates in China and Germany will be described.<br />
<br />
The team member in Germany expects a target for the overall project and the specification of the assigned subarea within the project, feels responsible for the timely achievement of his own and the team goal and wants to find the way to this goal independently. <br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
It would like to be little supervised and communicates intensively with the other team members. The team leader in Germany is rather a primus inter pares, who has a small area of responsibility as a specialist and is responsible for coordination. The success is always a success of the team.<br />
<br />
In China, the boss has a much higher position than the other team members. He gives each team member the individual goal and the individual steps to reach this goal. He closely monitors the progress and cares for the team members, also regarding job satisfaction and in private matters. <br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
He expects a feedback only to him and no exchange of information between the team members. If the input of the first team member is a prerequisite for the work of the second team member, the boss himself forwards the intermediate / work results of the first to the second team member. <br />
<br />
The role of the employee in China is determined by the following characteristics: He cultivates a culture of error, in which it is important not to make any mistakes of his own, and in case mistakes are made, to correct them if possible without being noticed and in case they are noticed, to at least not immediately admit the guilt. <br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
In all these behaviours, the principle of face awareness applies.<br />
<br />
As mentioned above, the loyalty of employees to an employer in China is extremely low at the beginning of the 21st century. For a few yuan a month, workers change employers. Headhunters intercept employees at the factory gate, ask about the salary and offer correspondingly more. <br />
<br />
The paid passing on of information, especially about customers, suppliers, purchase prices and patents, is also considered a trivial offence. <br />
Chinese companies communicate less and employees are more demotivated. This is mainly due to the high production pressure, as case studies by Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku 2006 show (see list of literature in the appendix).<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
'''The Intermezzo of Socialism from 1949-1979'''<br />
<br />
In the phase of socialism, the centrally planned economy applied in it blossomed as follows:<br />
<br />
When the news reached the top, there was a culture of whitewashing.<br />
<br />
The breakup of the unions made the culture of co-determination in companies even more informal.<br />
<br />
'''Gaming in the Chinese production culture'''<br />
<br />
In China, playful experimentation is a core element of the production culture. In this way, individual management elements, but also entire foreign production philosophies can be tried out in a playful way.<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
One of the main differences between young people in China and those in the West is that, even as young adults, they can still play hilariously without making themselves look ridiculous to others. The joy of playing is particularly unrestrained if the ambition is there to copy a foreign product as similar as possible or even to surpass it and also to implement, for example, a new management concept or a production philosophy. <br />
<br />
New rules of the game are accepted very quickly. The introduction of a reward system (''incentives'') for long service has led to a situation in China where it is always calculated when a change is worthwhile.<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
Sustainable concepts can only be introduced if the benefits of the concept are clear. Other concepts with no discernible added value, such as alignment with the American corporate philosophy on mergers and acquisitions, are forgotten just as quickly as they were introduced, and people return to old habits.<br />
<br />
'''Effects on the company''' <br />
<br />
In China today, we find a modern production culture that is international but has its Chinese characteristics. <br />
<br />
It has positive and negative effects on the company:<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
'''Positive effects of the Chinese management and production culture (CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
·Networks<br />
<br />
·the preferential treatment of Chinese companies (e.g. in tenders, competition, within corporate groups such as joint ventures)<br />
<br />
·playful enthusiasm for technology<br />
<br />
·Brutality, which in turn promotes competition<br />
<br />
'''Negative effects of the Chinese management and production culture (CMPC)'''<br />
<br />
·through their distortion of competition <br />
<br />
·by promoting incompetence in management positions<br />
<br />
·through their priority of personal rather than non-cash benefits, which is fundamentally negative for the production culture <br />
<br />
·through rituals/conventions (face, criticism, status etc.)<br />
<br />
·intransparent state sponsoring and corruption<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
The fundamental difference of the free trade zone established by China, Japan, Australia and other Asian Pacific countries in 2020 from suggestions of free trade zones involving the US or the EU is, that state-sponsoring and corruption are not restricted. Therefore China benefits most of this new free trade zone.<br />
<br />
'''Where is modern Chinese management and production culture (CMPC) an international role model?'''<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
The Chinese management and production culture (CMPC), as explained in the previous chapters, has its own characteristics that distinguish it from, for example, the Japanese or American management and production culture. Nevertheless, the CMPC is successful and manages the world's largest production market. Elements of the Japanese production culture have been successfully used worldwide to modernize production facilities. Can Chinese elements also lead to global success?<br />
<br />
The following 5 elements appear at least compatible on the international market:<br />
<br />
'''1. informal decision making through horizontal and vertical network management'''<br />
<br />
In China, important and unimportant decisions are seldom made by competent committees or officials, but rather are investigated informally.<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The hierarchical position in the company of those involved in the decision-making process is irrelevant, only their professional competence. Questioning the most competent is possible because this questioning is completely detached from the honor and reward system, but takes place in a parallel world, the so-called personal relationship system (Chinese: guanxi 关系). Due to this decoupling, the responsible decision-maker does not mind questioning other, not responsible but more competent colleagues/employees/outsiders. At the same time, the colleague/employee/external is motivated to give the best possible decision support, since he can score points in the parallel world.<br />
<br />
The results are well-founded and accepted decisions.<br />
<br />
参与决策过程的人在公司中的等级地位无关紧要，只有他们的专业能力。对最有能力的人提出质疑是可能的，因为这种质疑完全脱离了荣誉和奖励系统，而是发生在一个平行的世界，即所谓的个人关系系统中。由于这种脱钩，负责任的决策者并不介意质疑其他不负责任但更有能力的同事/员工/外人。同时，同事/员工/外部人员也有动力给予尽可能好的决策支持，因为他可以在平行世界中得分。<br />
<br />
结果是有理有据，被接受的决策。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 01:57, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
'''2. playfully trying out new forms of production and management (attention: hermeneutics/sustainability)'''<br />
<br />
The play instinct in people up to old age is socially sanctioned. In phases when there is little to do in the office, a Mahjong or Go board or cards are taken out as a matter of course. Similarly, new methods, often imported from the West or Japan, are tried out with playful zeal. An incentive system, for example, challenges colleagues to earn as much capital as possible in the form of incentives in as short a time as possible. It is not unusual for hit lists to be posted in the office, so that colleagues encourage each other. <br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
But it is important to pay attention to three aspects:<br />
<br />
1. the actual goals should be achieved without neglecting other aspects of the work or even worsening the overall result, because the colleagues are addicted to the urge to play. The introduction of new management or production strategies is nothing new for Chinese employees, they know this from political or education-oriented campaigns (e.g. traffic education). <br />
<br />
The second aspect that must be kept in mind is the understanding of the corresponding philosophies. For this it is important, for example, when importing Western management culture into China, that the correct Chinese term is first found for the fashionable e.g. English expression. <br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Terms that are translated incorrectly or not at all lead to success messages that a new system has been introduced, with what was understood by it being introduced instead. <br />
<br />
A third aspect that must be considered in this context is sustainability. Many new concepts that have been introduced are forgotten after a few weeks and the old rut has returned. Only individual, often senior employees still remember the newly introduced things and occasionally refer back to them without being able to enforce them on their employees.<br />
<br />
翻译不正确或根本没有翻译的术语会带来成功信息，即引入了一个新系统，而引入了该系统所理解的内容。<br />
<br />
在这情形下必须考虑的第三个方面是可持续性。许多引入的新概念在几周后就被遗忘而老一套又回来了。只有个别的，通常是高级员工还记得新引进的东西，偶尔也会提到，但不能强加在他们的员工身上。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:40, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
翻译错误或根本没有翻译的术语也会有所成果，其引入了一个新系统，并引入了该系统所理解的内容。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:45, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
在这种情况下，可持续性是必须考虑的第三个方面。许多引入的新概念在几周后就为人们所遗忘，取而代之的是重蹈覆辙的老一套概念。只有个别人，通常是高层还记得新引进的东西，他们偶尔也会提起，但却无法强迫他们的员工也记得。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:45, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
A process description system that is integrated into the daily work routine (e.g. daily used computer work surface) is useful here, where the employees make or execute decisions and processes in the given paths.<br />
<br />
All in all, the playful approach reduces fear of contact with new things, the daily work routine is varied and the employees gain further qualifications.<br />
<br />
'''3. speed and flexibility in product development'''<br />
<br />
One of the hallmarks of the Chinese manufacturing industry is the speed at which products are cribbed and developed further, or at which they react to changing customer requirements or market conditions.<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
The ambition that Chinese product developers put into developing solutions for specific requirements is comparable to the play instinct described above.<br />
<br />
他希望中国的产品开发人员为特定需求开发解决方案，这一雄心壮志与上述游戏本能不相上下。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
This high speed and flexibility strengthens the competitiveness of Chinese companies. Western companies can learn these qualities by locating in China and thus benefit from these experiences in the comparatively sluggish production location in their home countries.<br />
<br />
这种高速和灵活性增强了中国企业的竞争力。西方企业可以在中国开公司来学习这些品质，从经验中获益，与本国相对迟缓的生产环境来说。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
这种高速和灵活性增强了中国企业的竞争力。处在本国相对迟缓的生产环境下的西方企业可以落户中国来学习这些品质，并从这些经验中获益。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 11:07, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''4. focusing on personal competence instead of things or functions'''<br />
<br />
4注重个人能力而不是事物或职能--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Interesting and certainly typical Chinese is the fixation on people instead of the thing.<br />
<br />
有趣的是，中国人是典型的对人不对事。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:37, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
有趣无疑的是，大凡中国人都对人不对事。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 11:50, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
[[File:majuan]]<br />
An original feature is the logistics. As this picture illustrates, existing primitive means are exploited to the utmost. Admirable is the matter-of-course way in which the extremes are mastered.<br />
<br />
For a long time, production capacity in China grew faster than logistics. Only at the beginning of the 21st century are delivery services and infrastructure (highways, high-speed train connections, etc.) catching up.<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
'''The Freedom of Intellectual Exchange'''<br />
<br />
Starting to work on the modern Chinese literary essay in the 1990s, I published my Ph.D. thesis ''The History of the Chinese Essay'' in 1998. Because it was written in German, I hoped since then to raise interest in this subject in the anglophone world, too. With this volume in hand, this wish has become true. Some of the topics I dealt with in my thesis like the development of the genre, biblio-biographies of several essayists etc., are elaborated here extensively by my collegues in English and more detailed than I could do it in my first ground work in German. <br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Moreover, this collection documents the lively discussion, which started among sinologists in the last years of the 20th century.<br />
<br />
I remember quite clearly, how the idea of the conference was born during a meal at the Boston AAS conference hotel with King-Fai Tam. Leo Ou-fan Lee had helped to bring both of us together, knowing that we shared a seemingly specialized hobby, the modern Chinese essay. King-Fai was preparing two collection of essay translations, one with essays from mainland China and one from Taiwan. The first is scheduled for publication. I prepared another collection of essays with both, Chinese original and English translation, published by The University Press Bochum half a year ago. The common intention of both of us is to make more Chinese essays available in English translations. <br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
King-Fai Tam and me are both fascinated of the idea of promoting this long time neglected genre and to find out more about its characteristics and the reasons of its success in the 1920s and 1930s as well as in the 1980s and 1990s. On a napkin, we outlined an AAS panel, an international conference and a volume with essays on the essay. All of these ideas are now becoming real more or less in the way we planned it: The AAS panel became an NEAAS panel at Yale, the conference took place in August 25-27, 2000 at the Academy of Euro-Asian Economy and Culture in Achern, in the Black Forest, Germany. <br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
14 scholars of Chinese literature, from the States, Taiwan, the United Kingdom and Germany took part. All of them share the fascination of the phenomenon of the essay. Language was no barrier: The conference was conducted in English with the exception of a few papers in Chinese with English abstracts.<br />
<br />
The collection of essays on the essay are the conference proceedings in hand, this book contains extended versions of the conference papers. It was published by The University Press Bochum in December 2000. More important is the fact, that through this opportunity, we now have lively email discussions and a website with updated information on the Chinese essay.<br />
<br />
来自中国大陆、台湾、英国以及德国的14位研究中国文学的学者参加了此次会议。他们都分享了论文中令人着迷的表达。语言没有边界：大会虽用英文举行，但也破例宣读了部分含有英文摘要的中文论文。<br />
<br />
按照大会的流程，这些论文中的一部分会组成一本文集。这本文集中的文章都是大会论文的修改版，在2000年由波鸿大学出版社出版。更重要的是，通过这一契机，如今我们能进行实时邮件讨论，并且能在网站上看到不断更新的中文论文。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
来自美国、中国台湾、英国和德国的14位中国文学领域的学者都参加了此次会议。他们都分享了论文中有趣的现象。语言无边界：大会除了部分论文是含有英文摘要的中文论文之外，其余都是用英文展开的。<br />
<br />
会议过程中的论文选集发到人们手中，这本文集中的文章都是大会论文的修改版。在2000年12月由波鸿大学出版社出版。更重要的是，通过这一契机，如今我们能借助邮件展开激烈的讨论，并且能在网站上获取不断更新的中文论文。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:40, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Here I would like to take the opportunity to thank the members of the organizing committee Charles Laughlin, Xinmin Liu, King-Fai Tam, and Alexandra Wagner for their great help. I very much enjoyed the discussions via email.<br />
<br />
A common philosophy stands behind the whole project: We want to share information, help each other and do not care about language barriers. Everybody can contribute in English or Chinese, some of us like me being non-native English speakers.<br />
<br />
We encourage the reader to make use of the large margins for personal notes in the awareness of pursuing a tradition dating back to the very origins of essay writing. <br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Having most of the conference papers in hand with this book, everybody is welcomed to give a feed back. This kind of free intellectual exchange I first experienced in the States when Leo Ou-fan Lee invited me to stay from 1998-1999 as a visiting scholar at the Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations at Harvard University.<br />
<br />
The contributors to this volume can only introduce and draw the attention of the readers to this Chinese genre, the joy of reading remains to the reader himself.<br />
<br />
M.W.<br />
<br />
这本书中含有大部分会议所用论文，因此，欢迎每位与会者给出反馈。我第一次进行这种自由的学术交流是在美国，当时李欧梵邀请我作为访问学者到哈佛大学东亚语言与文明系学习，时长为1998到1999年。这期期刊的撰写者只能吸引中国读者的注意力，但阅读的乐趣得靠读者自己领会。<br />
<br />
M.W.--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 03:28, 28 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
''The Flourishing of the Chinese Essay''<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler<br />
<br />
The flourishing of essay publication in the periods of accelerated modernization, the Western-influenced one (1920s/30s) and the one of liberated economical actors (1980/90s), was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines and book series that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists. The emergence of this media show a clear trend: the essay is a genre of overwhelming and increasing interest among Chinese authors and readers.<br />
<br />
There are three reasons for the increase in Chinese essay production and popularity in the mid-1990s: <br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
·The giddy-paced nature of current Chinese society with its demands for diverting and short texts: “[...] we live in an age of exposition”[ Donald Hall, The Contemporary Essay (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984) xiii. In this textbook, Hall has chosen a wide range of contemporary American essayists. In his introduction, Hall applies for clear writing, and active reading.]; <br />
<br />
·the increasing consciousness of individuality for which the essay is the most direct form of subjective expression, even more direct than the poem with its metrical and formal demands; <br />
<br />
·a revival of interest in discussing socio-political issues through the medium of the essay, as was the case in the 1920s/30s.<br />
Because of its increasing importance, the essay can now be assigned its proper place in the canon of contemporary genres and in the history of literature.<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
In the last two decades of the 20th century, the essay has been the main communication medium between the discourse of the intelligentsia and the mass of readers of daily newspapers. Therefore we have a genre which transports ideas of the elite in small pieces and common language and functions as the link between mass and elite culture.<br />
<br />
December 2000<br />
<br />
20世纪最后20年中，小品文成了知识分子和那些读日报的普罗大众沟通的主要媒介，由此，这种文学体裁开始以小篇幅和通用语将精英分子的思想传播开来，成为了大众文化和精英文化间的纽带。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:02, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
在二十世纪最后二十年中，小品文成了知识分子话语圈和日报读者群的主要沟通媒介。因此，我们拥有了一种文学体裁，这种体裁能用小篇幅传播精英分子的思想，也能充当大众文化和精英文化之间的纽带。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 03:43, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
'''Keynote: “Let us Assign the Essay its Proper Place in Chinese Literature!”'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. We are used to the established narratives of C.T. Hsia, Průšek, and Anderson, which let Chinese literature appear overshadowed by its elder brother, fiction. The latter has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularization of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement.<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly: <br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
•The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history. The impact of the essay genre, with its direct language, its connection to life, and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers, was larger than the indirect effects of fiction or poetry.<br />
<br />
•The essay also reflects trends in society better than poetry and fiction. Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem, which is limited in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
•The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, and does not require the large amount of time spent on reading novels. The essay itself is a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
•The volume of essay production exceeds the volume of xiaoshuo production.<br />
<br />
Can the picture of Chinese literature remain unchanged if we take the essay into consideration? As stated above, there is a large contrast between the true value and the current valuing of the essay. Let us assign the essay its proper place!<br />
<br />
•与诗歌相比，论文占人口的比例更大，不需要花大量时间阅读小说。论文本身是一种高度现实的类型，即使不仅仅是今天的类型。<br />
<br />
•论文的产量超过小说的产量。<br />
<br />
如果考虑到这篇论文，中国文学的图画能否保持不变？ 如上所述，论文的真实价值与当前价值之间存在很大的反差。让我们为论文分配适当的位置！--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 09:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 09:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
'''The unknown genre'''<br />
<br />
The literary-historical narrative told by anthologies and collections of the 20th century has drawn an incomplete picture of Chinese literature: The genre of the essay was lacking. The genre has been neglected for a long time as a genre of merit (Margouliès 1949, Schmidt-Glintzer 1990) or overlooked (McNaughton 1974, Leiden 1988-90); whereas its elder brother, fiction, has been prized ever since the valuing of fictional literature and the vernacularisation of writing in early Republican China, which followed from the master narrative established by the May 4th movement. Modern anthologies would have the reader believe that a triumvirate of poetry, fiction and drama forms the backbone of modern Chinese literary output.<br />
<br />
'''未知的体裁'''<br />
<br />
由20世纪选集和文集讲述的文学历史叙事所绘画出的中国文学图景并不完整：即散文体裁的缺失。长期以来，人们有意（马古烈 1949，施密特·格林策 1990）或无意地(麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90）忽视了这种体裁的优点：然而，自从五四运动确立主叙事、民国初期重视小说文学和创作通俗化以来，散文的兄长--小说就一直受到珍视。现代选集会让读者相信，诗歌、小说和戏剧的三足鼎立才是中国现代文学作品的支柱。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 06:10, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
···未知体裁···<br />
20世纪的选集和文集所记叙的文学史，勾勒出一幅不完整的中国文学图景：散文的体裁是缺乏的。长期以来，散文作为一种功利性文体被忽视（马格里斯1949年，施寒微1990年）或被忽略（麦克诺顿1974年，莱顿1988-90年）；而它的兄长--小说，自民国初年重视小说文学和写作白话化以来，在五四运动确立的总叙事之后，一直受到重视。现代选本会让读者相信，诗歌、小说、戏剧三驾马车构成了中国现代文学创作的主干。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:12, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
20世纪文学选集对于中国文学史的叙述是不完整的，其中缺失了散文这一体裁。长期起来，人们有意（马古烈 1949，施密特·格林策 1990）或无意地(麦克诺顿 1974，莱顿 1988-90）地忽视了这一出色的体裁，但与此同时，由于五四运动树立起了以叙事为主的创作风格，到民国初期发展为重视小说体裁和通俗化创作，散文的兄长--小说，则一直受到重视。而现代文选则告诉读者，诗歌、小说和戏剧的三足鼎立才是中国现代文学的支柱。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 07:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
Two times in the 20th century the Chinese essay was flourishing, first in the 1920s and 1930s, then in the 1980s and 1990s. <br />
<br />
Analysis reveals a general increase in essay publication after 1979 with two peaks immediately after the 'Cultural Revolution'. The publications apparently reaching a new height in 1990. The first increase came about in the 1920s and 1930s, after which the essay's role was eclipsed by the genre of the report (''baogao wenxue'', see works of Laughlin, Klaschka). The flourishing of essay publication in the 1920/30s and 1980/90s was helped in part by the appearance of new magazines that existed chiefly as vehicles for contemporary essayists, and numerous ''sanwen congshu'' 散文丛书 (essay bookseries). <br />
<br />
The increase in essay production right after the clear-cutting of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ has been the backlog of demand, which is reflected in 1 million copies of essay collections being printed between 1980 and 1982 - only counting the collections contained in a sampling of 130 ‘representative’ books I was able to collect for a survey.<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Thanks to the work of some major Chinese editors, the whole essay culture was compiled from magazines and newspapers and was published in a flood of anthologies since the 1970s. This boom is comparable to the cultural fever of undigging ''xiangtu'' literature, which rose in Taiwan in front of the background of the movement of self-identification and independance.<br />
<br />
Let me name a few reasons, why the essay in fact is as abundant as its prose brother, fiction, and its lyrical sister, poetry, and why it must be valued as highly:<br />
<br />
The essay had a direct impact on Chinese society throughout history (the reform ideas from the end of the Qing dynasty through the May Fourth period with the literary theorethical pieces and the daily political ''zawen'' of Lu Xun, until today are mostly presented in essay form). <br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
The impact on literary reflection and theory is shown in the collection ''Modern Chinese Literary Thought'' 1996 (see Denton). The effect of the essay genre with its direct language, its connection to life (e.g. its role in the coming to terms with the cultural revolution), and its direct access to the individual reader through newspapers. This impact is larger than the indirect one of fiction or poetry. The poem is the genre of retreat from social life, from political issues and time references.<br />
<br />
Hu Shi argues, that ''poetry'' is most important in the process of modernity, since poetry rises emotions. But it relies also on images and on linguistic rhythm. Liang Qichao stresses the role of ''novel'' and ''opera'' in the changing society. But ''sanwen'' is able to name things, it reflects life, caleidoscopic. Modern subjectivity is constructed with the tool of ''sanwen''.<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
The essay also reflects trends in the society better than poetry and fiction: Individualism is expressed in the essay more directly than in the poem with its limitation in content and form. Ephemerality is reflected in the short form of the essay, which may be read in the subway on the way to work, where poems may not be so spontaneously enjoyed.<br />
<br />
- The essay reaches a larger part of the population than poetry, the amount of time spended on reading novels goes back, too. The essay itself a genre of high actuality, if not simply the genre of today.<br />
<br />
- The essay tells us more about an author and his time than fiction or poetry, because in this genre, we encounter the author himself without metrical restrictions. We look trough authentic eyes on his contemporary society. Many authors turned to essay writing in the later periods of their lives, like Lu Xun, Ba Jin, and Wang Meng.<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
-The volume of ''essay'' production exceeds the volume of ''xiaoshuo'' production: Chinese newspapers since the 1870s on[ Shenbao, Shibao, etc. Liang Qichao sees the role of the newspaper both as liberal and authoritative: He understands the press as an institution to control the government, on the other hand he favors censorship.] and as a mass media from the early 20th century presented only one or two fictional stories in a serialized form, but invented essay columns like ''zagan'' (from which Lu Xun developed his zawen), ''suibi'' or ''suixiang'' (from which famous collections like Ba Jin's ''Suixiang'' lu derived).<br />
<br />
Let us assign the essay its proper place<br />
The consequence which must be derived from the above presented contrast between value and valuing of the essay is: Let us assign the essay its proper place! <br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature<br />
I will name a few points to illustrate what the essay can contribute to the picture of Chinese Literature, which so far is overshadowed by fiction through the narrative of C.T. Hsia, Pršek and Anderson.<br />
<br />
<br />
“杂文”制作量超过“小说”制作量：从十九世纪七十年代起，中国报纸（申报，时报等等。梁启超认为报纸的作用既自由又权威：一方面，他认为新闻媒体是控制政府的机构，另一方面，他赞成审查制度。）作为20世纪初期的大众传播媒介，报纸以序列化形式仅展示一个或两个虚构的故事，不过它发明了杂文专栏，如“杂感 ”（鲁迅从中发展了他的杂文），和“ 随笔”或“ 随想”（从其中衍生出像巴金的《穗香路》这样的著名收藏）。<br />
<br />
让我们为杂文指定适当的位置<br />
<br />
必须从以上提出的杂文价值与评价之间的对比中得出以下结论：让我们为散文指定适当的位置！<br />
<br />
重新考虑杂文将会改写中国文学的历史<br />
<br />
我仅举几例来说明杂文对中国文学的贡献，迄今为止，由于C.T. Hsia, Prçšek and Anderson等人的叙述，小说的光芒盖过了杂文。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 04:12, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
We are used to established narratives, like the emergence and success of the May-Fourth literature. But this view neglects the role, that for example the yuanyang hudie pai played in the choir of different voices in the awoken intellectual debate in the beginning of this century. The May-Fourth group at that time was one voice among many and only succeeded because of its agitation and polemic in the public sphere, so we have to use new means to assign the Chinese essay its proper place. We learn from simplifiying narratives, that it is absolutely necessary to differentiate, and to reconstruct the complex time background. Having understood Chinese literature as determined by the development of fiction and poetry only, a broader understanding will change the whole appearance of Chinese literature. A scholarly endeavour is the use of modern literary theories in the approach to this genre.<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
In the following, I will name two aspects (chronologically sorted by past, and modern times) to promote the argument, that the taking into consideration of the essay will rewrite the history of Chinese literature and change our current understanding of it.<br />
<br />
1. The classical and premodern essay documents Chinese philosophy, early subjectivity and still, a native Chinese tradition is questioned<br />
How is the Chinese essay to be positioned historically, how did it emerge, what is its generic background? Generically, the ancestors of the essay both in China and the West are notes written in the margins of books, as well as letters and travel notes saved. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality and subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber.''<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
From the very beginning, the essay was valued lower than poetry: the oldest reference[ This is older than the ones referred to in Morohashi, 5:529a / sequential page counting 5167a, and in the The Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Chinese Language, vol. 73c / s.p.c. 6137c.] this far for the term sanwen that I found is Luo Dajing's 羅大經 (? - after 1248) statement from 1240: “Shī sāomiào tiānxià, ér sǎnwén pōjué suǒsuì júcù. 詩騷妙天下，而散文頗覺瑣碎局促。” (Poetry is moving mankind in a wonderful way, prose inquires into incoherent bagatells, is limited. Luo Dajing 14:Baihai:1). Another reproach Luo Dajing mentions, is a formal one: In comparison to the highly artistic and century-long tradition of poetic writing, the direct and often vernacular langage of the essay in his eyes had less value.<br />
<br />
从一开始，人们就认为散文的价值低于诗歌:最古老的参考文献[这比在Morohashi, 5:529a /连续页数5167a，和在中国语言的百科词典，第73卷/ s.p.c. 6137c中提到的更古老。)“散文”这个术语,我发现是罗大经提出(?- 1248年之后):“詩騷妙天下,而散文頗覺瑣碎局促”。诗歌以一种美妙的方式感化人类，散文则是不连贯的杂谈，影响有限。罗大经 14: Baihai: 1)。罗大经提出的另一种质疑则更为正式:与具有高度艺术性和百年历史的诗歌创作传统相比，在他看来，直接的、通常是白话的散文没有什么价值。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 09:19, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
In the West, a real 'art of the essaywriting' came up in the late 16th century as a medium for the newly reorganized knowledge. The reorganization originated from the observations of Copernicus, which destroyed the whole conception of the world of the Middle Ages.<br />
<br />
In China, particularly the debates on Buddhism in the 4th and 5th century A.D. saw the origination of a tradition of letters. The Chinese tradition of the ''sanwen'' 散文 (essay) however, in the understanding of ''san'' 散 as to dispel, leisure, loose, relaxed, irregular, independant style, free prose, can be seen not before the detachment from the dialogue - or aphorism, which is still visible in the philosophical ''Lunyu''. Xunzi delivered the prototype of the later essay with his philosophical treatises.<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
They are an early form of philosophical didactical essays, in which general theorems are derived not only from quotations of the canonized classical works, but for the first time also from his own individual experience. The individuality is still a main characteristic of the essay today.<br />
<br />
During the dynasties the essay manifested itself further in certain subcategories: From reading-notes written in the paper margins originated the ''biji'' 筆記 (occasional notes), flourishing in the Ming dynasty. The marginalism is a link between Western and Chinese tradition of early essays. Occasional notes could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as ''a genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynastie, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
Taking into consideration the social-historical background draws a different picture of the old society than short stories and novels: Essays are much closer to real life, since they express individual problems and experiences. Until now, the Chinese pre-''Honglou meng'' individual literature spoke only through the indirect language of poems to us. Rediscovering the essays, we have a splendid source of opinions, social-historical pictures etc.<br />
<br />
Premodern essay literature consists of much more than its most well-known example, the formally restrictive ''baguwen''. Lu Xun himself wrote some of his essays in ''baguwen'' style, but on the other hand took it as a synonym for the ancient society. Zhou Zuoren saw the rhythm of the language of the “Eight legged essay” as as appealing and intoxicating as the “pleasure of doing opium.” (Zhou Zuoren 1932c, 148).<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
But he considered it also as a prevalent genre implicit in the modern writings as ''yang bagu'' (westernized bagu) and ''dang bagu'' (party-line bagu) (borrowing from Wu Zhihui, 71).<br />
<br />
Neo-Confucianism stressed ''wen'' (prose) as the most important tool to transmit the ''dao'' (way): ''wen yi zai dao'' 文以載道 (Literature as the carrier of the way). If we reinterprete this diction in the perspective of genre, we can say, that the essay then has been regarded as an important tool to express truth, subjectivity and Self.<br />
<br />
Liang Qichao developed a ''xin wenti'' 新文體 (new prose style), which was influenced by Western languages, but the essay became popular not before the newspapers became mass media, and the language changed into ''baihua''.<br />
<br />
但他也认为这是一种在现代作品中流行的体裁，如洋八股和党八股（吴志辉，71）。<br />
理学强调文以载道。如果从体裁的角度重新解读这一措辞，我们可以说，当时的散文已被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
梁启超受西方语言的影响，发展了一种新文体，但这种文体在报纸成为大众传媒之前就开始流行起来，语言也变成了白话。<br />
--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 12:40, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
但他也认为这是一种在现代作品中流行的体裁，如洋八股和党八股（吴志辉，71）。<br />
理学强调文以载道。如果从体裁的角度重新解读这一措辞，我们可以说，当时的散文已被视为表达真理、主体性和自我的重要工具。<br />
受西方语言的影响，梁启超发展了一种新文体，但这种文体在报纸成为大众传媒媒介之前就流行起来，新文体的语言也变成了白话。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:25, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
'''2. The essay as the medium of modernity'''<br />
<br />
The essay was ''the'' genre of the modernizing society of the early 20th century. It was short, dealt with reality, there was no limitation regarding the contents, therefore it was also capable of documenting and spreading the ideas about the best form of society. It was simply the best form to transport the thoughts of the intellectual leaders of the time to the public and to create a public sphere. Imagine the May Fourth Movement without essays! Most of Lu Xun's work consists out of essays!<br />
<br />
Many writers had to define and often redefine their position and self-understanding in reaction to war and warlordism and later in the modernizing society, often burying their own ideals, in the larger perspective for the seeming “needs” of society, which also claimed the author to be one of its products.<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
But from its very nature, the essay set new boundaries in form and content, and therefore not only survived the ideological restrictions, but also established its own critical subculture within. The essay was not only a medium of discussion and a documentation of the social-political background for us today, but also a documentation of the personal struggle of the writers finding a position in a changing environment, since the essay is “a genre of self-reflection”. Some essays even deconstructed master narratives like the one of leftist ideology, often simply by confronting it with subjective experience, reality or art. <br />
<br />
Not only the understanding of literature as a whole changes if we take into consideration the essay, also the view of single authors shifts, if we see not only their novels or poems, but also their essays.<br />
<br />
I want to mention another position on literature, which stresses the impact of literature on life, especially on the eve of revolutions - following this view, all literature is political (Jameson).(文献 无需翻译)<br />
<br />
但是从本质上说，这篇论文在形式和内容上设定了新的界限，因此不仅脱离了意识形态限制，而且在其中建立了自己的批判亚文化。这篇文章不仅是我们今天讨论的媒介和社会政治背景的记录，还是关于作家在不断变化的环境中寻找定位的个人奋斗的记录，因为这篇文章是“反思类型”。有些文章甚至像左派意识形态之一一样破坏了主叙述，通常只是将其与主观经验，现实或艺术联系起来去面对。<br />
<br />
如果我们考虑论文的话，会对文学的整体理解发生了变化，如果我们既看作者的小说诗歌作品，又看他们的论文的话，对单一作者的观点也会改变。<br />
<br />
我想提到文学的另一种立场，强调文学对生活的影响，特别是在革命前夕对生活的影响。按照这种观点，所有文学都是政治性的（詹姆森）。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 14:17, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
'''The Aesthetic of Marginalism and the Impact of the West on the Chinese Essay'''<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
Chinese and Western essays derived from the notes in the margins of books. With this step from the private to the public sphere, we find the impact of subjectivity and individualism on literature. The origin of the essay has influenced the later essay tradition in its ephemeral, subjective, marginal character; its claim for understatement; the conversational and colloquial style of expression; and its eclecticism. The essay itself often deals with one subject, but this topic is looked on from different perspectives.<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
The aesthetic of marginalism, invented by Schlette in 1977 and further developed by Pfeiffer and others in 1996, proves helpful for understanding the character of the essay. Following its methodological perspective, marginalism grants the essayist a distant view of the text body itself from the margins of the book. This enables the essayist to think unorthodoxly, the condition ''sine qua non'' of critique and protest. <br />
<br />
In my paper, I use the concept of marginalism to explain the rhetorical means of digression in Lu Xun's essays. Lu Xun seems to digress: 1) on purpose for rhetorical effects; 2) going off-target for arts’ sake; 3) as an experiment; 4) for its own sake with socio-critical side blows; 5) as understatement with surprising effects. Further I will show marginalism in the founder of Western essayism, Montaigne, and the Chinese scholar Qian Zhongshu.<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
As for the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, both traditions are relevant: The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations, starting from 1907. From this, there first developed a Chinese essay tradition which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology. Later, the Chinese essay’s own proponents succumbed to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history alone. The legendary authors of the May Fourth movement considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay. Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition.<br />
<br />
中国散文是源于本土传统？还是产自西方翻译？这个问题一直是个争议。但无论如何，这两种说法本身就具关联性：自1907年起直至现在，中国散文的体裁形式主要出自西方的散文译本。从这一点来看，中国散文自发展伊始就一直在语言、形式和术语上借鉴西方模式。后来，中国散文的推行者无奈只能仅仅诉诸于中国历史来证明中国本土散文的渊源。五四运动中涌现的传奇作家认为英语散文是中国散文的起源。但之后其中一些作家改变观念，通过证明中国散文自成一家来支撑自己的散文理论。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:23, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
Wherever on earth human beings developed a high culture, the written language was its essence. Early traces we find in the pictograms of the Near East, Latin America and China. The more the characters remind of the ontological world, the more the written language itself was an object of cult. From the Chinese we know the use of characters in the tortoise shell oracles, from the Germans in sacrificial stones. Later, with the improvement of writing material, the first rolls were created, either from papyrus (Egypt), pergament (Europe) or bamboo (China). Due to the expensive material, written rolls were reserved to wealthier people. The texts were reduced to the documentation of important things.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
For the first time, it was possible not only to document events and therefore to extend the human mind and memory, but to communicate complex information from one author to another or more readers. At this stage, the first reading notes were written. Due to the lack of the precious writing material, the margins of the rolls were used. Still today we find these notes as well as on early European (for example ancient Greek) rolls as well as on Chinese ones. These notes were personal thoughts about the text, explanations of places and events maybe unknown to third readers, interpretations of unclear text passages, alternatives to seemingly miswritten characters, sometimes only marks for structuring the texts, which were used as school textsoles to teach reading, too. <br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Some notes were intended for other readers, and from this in Europe and China the tradition of commentary developed. Other notes were of a private nature, personal comments to the text, not written down for other people. And both, in Europe as in China, the same evolution took place, when the authors of the notes discovered, that the notes were worth collecting. From these collections of notes they compiled short essays. These notes differed from the canonized literature through its informal style, its expression of individuality and subjectivity, a much earlier document for subjectivity than the first autobiographical Chinese novel, ''The Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
The names given to these essays reminded of their origin. In Europe they were called “marginal notes,” “marginalia,” in China “brush notes” (''biji'' 筆記, or occasional notes). They were flourishing in the Ming dynasty. They could contain private historical notes, anecdotes, communications and contemplations. However, the consciousness of the essay as ''a genre of its own'' originated in China not before the Qing 清 dynasty, when numerous essay anthologies were compiled.<br />
<br />
All these terms for the essay, and also the term “essay” itself, which means “try, attempt,” invented by Montaigne, reflect the ephemeral, subjective, marginal character of the essay. The term itself carried the claim for understatement, which is substantial especially when you want to express subjective, individual thoughts, in order not to seem schoolmasterly to the reader.<br />
<br />
这些文章的名字使人想起了它们的起源。在欧洲，它们被称为“旁注”、“边注”，在中国被称为“笔记”（biji筆記，或临时记录）。它们在明朝盛极一时。它们可以是私人的史料、轶事、谈话和沉思。然而，作为一种特有的体裁，人们有散文意识的时候已经是清朝过后了，当时已有大量的散文选集被编撰出来。<br />
所有这些散文术语，以及蒙田创造出的“随笔”这个词本身，即“尝试，试图”，都反映出散文短暂的、主观的、边缘化的特点。这个词本身就带有轻描淡写的意思，尤其是当你想表达主观的个人想法时又为了不让读者觉得自己很有学究气的时候就更显得具有实质性。--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 02:12, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
From this origin, different characteristics of the essay came, which are still valid for essays today. One is the conversational style of expression, which comes while you create the sentences from the notes the very moment you are writing them down. From Greek philosophers we know that they sat relaxed in the yard, while one person was reading them their notes from the margins of the books which the philosopher transformed into sentences orally, while another person wrote it down. This also explains the colloquial character of the essays. In fact, the whole development of ideas was based on a conversation in mind with the author of the original role, and many Greek philosophical schools knew about the importance of dialogues for the development of thoughts.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
Another characteristic of the essay is its eclecticism. While reading an original text, the educated scholar constantly thinks of quotations and links to other works. Therefore many notes consist out of references to other works. The essay itself therefore often deals with one subject, but is looked on from different perspectives.<br />
<br />
In 1977 Heinz Robert Schlette developed the aesthetic of marginalism, in 1996 Klaus-Peter Pfeiffer developed this concept further. It proves helpful for the understanding of the character of the essay. In its methodological understanding, marginalism grants the essayist a distant view from the margins of the book to the text body itself. Following Schlette, marginalism is only possible where dissident thinking is possible. Marginalism is the private sphere left to the reader during the reading process.<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
It is the condition sine qua non of critique and protest. A marginalist reader is one, who reads a text critically. Also Montaigne saw himself as a marginalist (Ulke, 31 - 38).<br />
<br />
Let us now use the concept of marginalism to look on the 20th century Chinese essay. I choose here the example of Lu Xuns' essays. One of Lu Xun's rhethorical means in his essays is the digression. The digression is closely related to marginalism and essayism: <br />
<br />
In some of his essays, Lu Xun digresses from his actual subject. This phenomenon increases in his later work. Following Wilpert, digression is one possible expression of conscious scepticism and a warning signal, that something is wrong.<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Walf 1996 in his article “Marginalism in the Daoism” portrays the margi¬na¬lis¬m as an aesthetic, which in China are linked close to the tradition of scepticism of Wang Chong (27 - 97). As a youth, Lu Xun was optimistic about the impact of literature on society. He soon lost this optimism, as documented in “Preface to ‘Call to Arms’” (Lu Xun 1922b). Finally, he became a sceptic regarding the possibilities of literature to change society.<br />
<br />
1, digression on purpose<br />
<br />
In 1926, in his essay on “Wuchang, the Ghost of Perishable Life” (Lu Xun 1926b) Lu Xun digressed to contemporary critic on his contemporary Chen Xiying. In “Illustrations of 24 Examples of Children Piety” (Lu Xun 1926a), he protested against the slogan “Down with the colloquial language”. Lu Xun uses here historiographical and autobio¬gra¬phical essays for appeals of daily-political value.<br />
<br />
沃夫1996年在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，这在中国与王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。他很快就失去了这种乐观，正如鲁迅在他的《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学改变社会的可能性产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在他的文章《武昌，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)中转移了对他同时代的陈希英的当代批评。在《24个孩子虔诚的例子的插图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他抗议“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用史学和自传体散文来呼吁日常政治的价值。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 08:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1996年沃夫在他的文章《道家的边缘主义》中将边缘主义描绘为一种美学，在中国，这种边缘主义与王充(27 - 97)的怀疑主义传统密切相关。青年时期，鲁迅对文学和社会的影响持乐观态度。但这种乐观很快就消失不见，，正如鲁迅在他的《呐喊》序言中所描述的那样。最后，他对文学能否改变社会产生了怀疑。<br />
1.故意离题<br />
1926年，鲁迅在他的文章《武昌，生命的幽灵》(鲁迅1926b)中改变了对他同时代的陈希英的当代批评。在《24个孩子虔诚的例子的插图》(鲁迅1926a)中，他抗议“打倒白话”的口号。鲁迅在这里使用史学和自传体散文来呼吁日常政治的价值.--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:51, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
2, not targeted digression<br />
<br />
In May 1927, Lu Xun starts his “Morning Blossoms Picked at Dusk - Afterword,” continues to write it until July 11 (Lu Xun 1928b). It becomes a full-length essay, which again describes historiographically the character of the servant of the underworld Huo Wuchang and Si Youfen. <br />
<br />
3, Marginalism as experiment<br />
In the essay “What the Youth Should Read” (Lu Xun 1919), the actual essay does not appear in the text body, but in the footnote. On a questionnaire Lu Xun answers the question about recommended literature shortly, that he never paid attention to this and therefore could not recommend anything. But he makes a footnote, where he starts writing freely. The subject of the questionnaire with the essay in the footnote corresponds parodistically to the classical “discussion” of a “subject”.<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
4, Marginalismus for its own sake with sociocritical side blows<br />
<br />
In 1924, Lu Xun writes the consciously trivial essay “My Moustache” (Lu Xun 1924). In this essay, he makes fun of the things, other people are interpreting into the shape of his moustache. After that, he writes the even more trivial essay “From the Moustache to the Teeth” (Lu Xun 1925a), where he mocks about the fact, that the readers are reproaching him with banality.<br />
<br />
5, Marginalism as understatement with surprising effect<br />
<br />
Montaigne, too, consciously introduces his essays with understatement. Lu Xun wraps explosive contents into essays, which are titled with marginal headers: In the essay “Idle Thoughts at the End of Spring” he compares the paralyzing effect of Confucianism with the poison of a dangerous wasp (Lu Xun 1925b).<br />
<br />
4、社会批判的一面打击了边缘主义<br />
<br />
1924年，鲁迅写了一篇自觉琐碎的散文《我的胡子》（鲁迅1924）。在这篇文章中，他调侃的事情，别人都在解读成他的胡子形状。在那之后，他写了一篇更为琐碎的文章《从胡子到牙齿》（鲁迅1925a），他嘲笑读者指责他平庸的事实。<br />
<br />
5、边缘主义是一种效果惊人的轻描淡写<br />
<br />
蒙田也有意识地低调地介绍他的文章。鲁迅把爆炸性的内容包装成随笔，这些文章的标题是边缘标题：在《春末闲思》一文中，他把儒家思想的麻痹作用比作危险黄蜂的毒药（鲁迅1925b）。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:39, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
4、边缘主义本身就带有社会批判的一面<br />
<br />
1924年，鲁迅写了一篇自觉琐碎的散文《我的胡子》（鲁迅1924）。在这篇文章中，他取笑的事情，别人都解读成他的胡子形状。在那之后，他写了一篇更为琐碎的文章《从胡子到牙齿》（鲁迅1925a），他嘲笑读者指责他平庸的事实。<br />
<br />
5、边缘主义是效果惊人的轻描淡写<br />
<br />
蒙田也有意识地低调地介绍他的文章。鲁迅把爆炸性的内容包装成随笔，这些文章的标题是边缘标题：在《春末闲思》一文中，他把儒家思想的麻痹作用比作危险黄蜂的毒药（鲁迅1925b）。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 06:14, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
In “Casual Remarks under the Shine of a Lamp” he assumes the Chinese people, that they wanted to be slaves forever, in history as well as in the future (Lu Xun 1925c). In the autobiographical essay “Lightweight Reminiscences” he explains his decision to go to study in Japan (Lu Xun 1926c).<br />
<br />
Another example for the awareness of the origin of the essay is Qian Zhongshu's essay collection ''Marginalia of Life'', Shanghai 1941. In it, Qian mocks about human failures, like hypocrisy, humorlessness and groups of people like guards of morality, charlatans, literary reviewers, etc. (see Ba Ping, 1168 - 1173).<br />
<br />
'''Questioning the genuiness of the Chinese essay'''<br />
<br />
散文起源认识的另一例子是1941年钱锺书在上海发表的“围城”散文集。文中，他嘲讽人类的失败，比如伪善，缺乏幽默感，以及一群如道德卫士，江湖骗子和文学评论员等的人。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 09:45, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在《灯光下的随评》中，他认为中国人想成为永远的奴隶，不论是在过去还是在未来(Lu Xun 1925c)。在自传体散文《轻量回忆》中，鲁迅表明他决意去日本学习(Lu Xun 1926c)。关于这种意识的起源在文章中的体现，另一例子是1941年钱锺书在上海发表的散文集《写在人生边上》。文中，他嘲讽人类的失败，如伪善，缺乏幽默感，以及一群人如道德卫士、江湖骗子、文学批评家等等。(see Ba Ping, 1168 - 1173) 质疑中文文章的真实性--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 02:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
To solve the dispute on whether the Chinese essay grew out of a native tradition or was influenced by Western translations, one finds both traditions relevant: The occidental essay was introduced to the writers of the literature reform movement from 1907 on by translations in Chinese (Washington Irving's essays by Lin Shu 1907, Joseph Addison's by Ma/Gan 1911). The current form of the genre is mostly based on the influence of Western essay translations (for Chinese translations of English essays in the 1980s and 1990s see appendix). First developed a Chinese essay tradition, which consciously leaned upon the Western model in language, form and terminology, its own proponents succumbed soon to the temptation to derive a tradition of the Chinese essay from Chinese history only.<br />
<br />
为了解决有关中国文论是起源于本土传统还是受西方翻译影响的争议，人们认为这两种传统有相通之处：从1907年开始，西方翻译就通过中文翻译引入文学改革运动的作家们的文论，（1907年林纾翻译的华盛顿欧文的文论，1911年马/甘翻译的约瑟夫·艾迪生的文论）。 该类型的当前形式主要是基于西方文论翻译的影响（有关20世纪80年代和90年代英语论文的中文翻译，请参见附录）。 首先发展了中国散文传统，有意识地在语言，形式和术语上依赖西方模式，其拥护者很快屈从于仅从中国历史中继承中国文论传统的诱惑。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 01:00, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
A seemingly unbroken Chinese tradition of the native Chinese ''wenyan sanwen'' is presented in Chinese textbooks (Yu Zaichun 1978-82, Li Xishang 1985).<br />
Still, the value of the native tradition of essay writing and the role of the Western influence upon it is discussed controversially among the scholars. Some admit that Western impact played a key role in what we understand as Chinese essays nowadays: Wang Bin 1992, Fan Peisong 1993; for Western impact in general see Pršek 1964, Gálik 1966, McDougall 1971. Other scholars think that Western influence is overestimated - Denton 1996 showed that the theoretical background was missing for understanding Western theories of literature in China, - and recommended that we understand the essay first by its national tradition. <br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Later, some of these authors changed their minds to support their own theories on the essay by looking for proof of a native Chinese essay tradition: for example, Lu Xun with his theory “'Zhankai' shuo yu 'mengya' lun “展開”說與“萌芽”論” (Theory of “Starting” and “Blossoming”) came to see the fighting and critical character of the essay of the Jin Dynasty (265-420) as the 'father' of the Chinese essay, and Zhou Zuoren first the English essay (1921) and later the biji (occasional notes) of the Ming, although he still tried to integrate the English essay in his “Gonganpai yu Yingguo xiaopin 'hecheng' lun 公安派與英國小品“合 成”論” (Theory of the Synthesis of the Gongan School and the Engli¬sh Essay).<br />
<br />
后来，其中有些作家转变了自己的想法，他们通过寻找中国本土散文传统的证据，来支持散文中本人的理论：比如，鲁迅及其理论——“展开”说与”萌芽“论——视金朝（265-420）散文中的斗争性和批判性特征为中国“散文之父”；另外，周作人首先研究英国散文（1921），随后研究明朝笔记，但是他仍然尝试将英国散文融入自己公安派与“英国小说‘合成’论”之中。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 07:31, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
How far personal opinion may influence the narrative of historical facts can be seen by the example of the legendary authors of the May Fourth movement. All of them considered the English essay as the father of the Chinese essay: Zhou Zuoren 1921, Lu Xun 1934, the anarchist and later member of the Guomindang Wu Zhihui [1932].<br />
<br />
Wang Zengqi in 1993 regrets that the national Chinese tradition of the essay at the time of the 'May Fourth Movement' has not been taken up again and has not continued in contemporary essays. The Chinese essay is an accommodating object of study, because one may look to it to prove any theory of the essay. One can find examples for each topic in almost every period, simply because the essay has a wide range of subjects.<br />
<br />
五四运动时期的许多作家都可以被称为传奇，他们演绎着个人的观点对叙述史实有多大的影响。所以作家都认为英文文章是中文文章的鼻祖：周作人，1921，鲁迅，1934，无政府主义者以及后来的国民党吴稚晖（1932）。<br />
<br />
汪曾祺1993年写到他感到很遗憾五四运动时期文学作品里的中国传统文化没有留下，当代文学作品中也没有体现，中国文学主要是用来学习的，人们主要是通过查阅其来证明其中的理论。你可以找到每一时期每个话题的例子，因为文章海纳百川。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 09:30, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
五四运动时期的传奇作家可以告诉我们个人观点对史实阐述而产生的影响有多大。这些作家都认为英国散文是中国散文的鼻祖：周作人，1921，鲁迅，1934，无政府主义者以及后来的国民党吴稚晖（1932）。<br />
<br />
汪曾祺1993年写到他感到很遗憾，在五四运动时期文学作品中中国传统文化没有占据一席之地，在当代文学作品中也没有得到传承。中国文学适合用来学习研究，因为人们可以通过查阅来证明文章中的理论。正是因为文章海纳百川，所以你可以找到任何时期任何话题的范例。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 07:45, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
'''Formation of Modern Subjectivity and Essay:''' <br />
<br />
'''Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain”'''<br />
<br />
'''Jianhua Chen'''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
How to define the modern Chinese essay? Is it modern because of using ''baihua''? Does it start from its naming of ''sanwen''? While scholars identified its origins with May Fourth literature, the complicated trends of literary modernity in the first two decades of the 20th century was neglected. Relating Zhou Shoujuan, a major figure in the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school, to his contribution to the formation of modern Chinese essay has to encounter the problems of literary canons in modern China. <br />
<br />
Zhou Shoujuan’s “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” (''Jiuhua zhang li'') reveals that this 1917 vernacular “pillow talk” (''qinghua'') in the wedding night came out of chaotic conditions of literary genre before the generic system of poetry, fiction, prose, and drama is established in the May Fourth period.<br />
<br />
如何界定现代汉语散文?是因为使用了“百花”才变得现代吗?它是从“三文”的名字开始的吗?虽然学者们将其根源归结为五四文学，但20世纪头20年文学现代性的复杂趋势却被忽视了。把鸳鸯蝴蝶派的主要人物周瘦娟与他对中国现代散文形成的贡献联系起来，必然会遇到中国现代文学经典的问题。<br />
<br />
周瘦娟的《九花帘》揭示了这段1917年《新婚之夜》中的白话“枕边话”（“清华”）是在“五四”时期诗歌、小说、散文、戏剧的通俗体系建立之前，从文学体裁的混乱状态中走出来的。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:01, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
如何界定中国现代散文?是因为使用了“白话”才成为现代散文吗?“散文”这一名字出现就有了现代散文吗?当学者们将其根源归结于五四文学，便忽视了20世纪前20年文学现代化的复杂趋势。鸳鸯蝴蝶派的重要人物周瘦娟对中国现代散文的形成作出了重要贡献，但仍面临着现代中国文学经典的问题。<br />
周寿鹃的《九花帐里》揭示了在五四时期诗歌、小说、散文、戏剧等整体体系尚未建立之前，1917年出版的《新婚夜》中的白话“情话”是在文学体裁混乱的情况下产生的。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:56, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Obsessed with first person narratives it hybridizes diary, love-letter, autobiography, and journalist reportage. I will argue that this Butterflies obsession with subjective genres in the early 20th-century lays a foundation for the growth of modern Chinese essay. <br />
<br />
The theatrical devices used in this work create a double self in the narrative space - the self as a performer and the self in the beholders’ gaze. This paper emphasizes that the rhetoric of theatricality is indebted to the repertoires of traditional poetry and drama, which become unavailable when the New Literature triumphs in the 1920s. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, I will elaborate how the theatricality helps to construct an early Republican subjectivity based on the divisions between the individual, family and nation-building.<br />
<br />
痴迷于第一人称叙事，它杂糅了日记、情书、自传和记者报道。我将认为，《蝴蝶》在20世纪初对主观文体的这种痴迷，为中国现代散文的成长奠定了基础。<br />
这部作品所使用的戏剧手段在叙事空间中创造了一个双重的自我--作为表演者的自我和观看者目光中的自我。本文强调，戏剧性的修辞是依赖于传统诗歌和戏剧的剧目，而当新文学在20世纪20年代取得胜利时，这些剧目就变得不可用了。<br />
此外，我还将阐述戏剧性如何帮助建构一种基于个人、家庭和国家建设之间划分的早期民国主体性。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 11:10, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
由于痴迷于第一人称的叙述，它混合了日记，情诗，自传和新闻报道这些体裁。我认为 20世纪初对《蝴蝶》这种主观体裁的痴迷为中国现代散文打下了基础。<br />
作品中的戏剧手段在叙述空间中创造出了双重自我- 身为表演者的自我和旁观者眼中的自我。本文强调戏剧性的修辞得益于传统诗歌和戏剧，当20世纪20年代新文学成为主流时传统诗歌和戏剧就退出了舞台。<br />
此外，我将阐述戏剧性如何帮助建立一种基于个人、家庭和国家建设划分之上的早期的民国主体性。 --[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 07:44, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
''Twilight is that moment of the day that foreshadows''<br />
<br />
''the night of forgetting, but that seems to slow time itself,''<br />
<br />
''an in-between state in which the last light of the day may''<br />
<br />
''still play out its ultimate marvels.'' <br />
<br />
Andreas Huyssen. ''Twilight Memories''<br />
<br />
By way of tackling the origins of modern Chinese ''sanwen'', this paper opens up a zone of “twilight memories” of literary modernity early in the twentieth century, which has recently haunted the field of modern Chinese literature. In terms of modern Chinese ''essay'' or ''prose'', how do we define this genre? Is it modern because it uses ''baihua''? Does its ''modern'' start from being called ''sanwen''? How was the May Fourth generic system established? And what were its consequences to literary history? <br />
<br />
Andreas Huyssen, Twilight Memories: Making Time in a Culture of Amnesia (New York and London: Routledge, 1995) 3（文献 无需翻译）<br />
<br />
Since the 1980s, searching for Chinese literary modernities other than May Fourth have continued with rigor. In this vital current of scholarly reflections on Chinese literary modernities, prominent are Milena Dolezelova-Velingerova’s emphasis on late Qing origins of modern Chinese literature (“The Origins of Modern Chinese Literature,” in Merle Goldman, ed., Modern Chinese Literature in the May Fourth Era (Cambridge and Mass.: Harvard University Press 1977) 17-36; The Turn of the Century Novel (Toronto University Press, 1981), Perry Link’s path-breaking study of the Mandarin ducks and Butterflies fiction (Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies: Popular Fiction in Early Twentieth Century China (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981)), Liu Ts’un-yan’s advocacy of “Middle-blow Fiction” (Chinese Middle-blow Fiction: From the Ch’ing and Early Republican Era (Hong Kong: The Chinese University, 1984)), and recently David Wang’s exciting and sophisticate interpretation of late 19th-century novels (Fin-de-Siecle Splendor: Repressed Modernities of Late Qing Fiction, 1848-1911 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997)). In a larger context, approximately in the same period, this basically north American academia has interacted the rapidly changed literary criticism in China - from the theories and practices of “rewriting literary history” with a revision of “twentieth-century Chinese literature” (Chen Guoqiu, ed., Zhongguo wenxueshi de xingsi (Reflections on the history of Chinese literature) (Hong Kong: Sanlian shudian, 1993).（文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
“黄昏是一天中有预兆的时刻”<br />
“遗忘之夜，却似乎延缓了时间本身，”<br />
“一种中间的状态，在这种状态下，可能是白天的最后一丝阳光”<br />
“仍在上演它的终极奇迹。”<br />
Andreas Huyssen。<br />
《暮光之城》的记忆”<br />
本文通过对中国现代“散文”起源的探究，开辟了20世纪初文学现代性的“朦胧记忆”区，这一“朦胧记忆”区最近一直困扰着中国现代文学领域。从现代汉语的“文章”或“散文”来看，我们如何定义这一体裁?它之所以现代是因为它使用了“白话”吗?它的“现代”是从被称为“散文”开始的吗?五四通用制度是如何建立的?它对文学史的影响是什么?<br />
自20世纪80年代以来，对“五四”以外的中国文学现代性的探索一直在继续。<br />
在对中国文学现代性的学术反思中，最突出的是Milena Dolezelova-Velingerova对晚清中国现代文学起源的强调(“现代中国文学的起源”，Merle Goldman, ed.，《五四时期的现代中国文学》17-36;世纪之交的小说，Perry Link对鸳鸯蝴蝶小说的开创性研究(《鸳鸯蝴蝶:二十世纪初中国的通俗小说》)，刘子彦对“中庸小说”的倡导，以及最近王大卫对19世纪晚期小说的激动人心的、复杂的解读。在一个更大的背景下，大约在同一时期，这一基本上是北美的学术界从“重写文学史”的理论和实践与《二十世纪中国文学》(陈国秋主编，《中国文学》)的修订，相互影响了迅速变化的中国文学批评。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:29, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
With these questions, our inquiry into the formation of modern sanwen is inevitably engaged with a process of canon formation, and perhaps this is the appropriate genre by which we can trace the birth of modern subjectivity. In analyiss of Zhou Shoujuan’s (1894-1968) “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” (Jiuhua zhang li), a vernacular autobiographical fiction published in 1917, I will reveal no more than a historical chaos of literature in which a subjectivity was constructed with complex strands in fusion and contestation. This subjectivity owed much to first person narratives Zhou had intensely experimented in his earlier writings; its double voice was not only helped by the traditional theatricality and poetics, but also linked to the modern spatial perception of cinematic representation.<br />
<br />
有了这些问题，我们对现代散文形成的探究就必然涉及到一个经典形成的过程，也许这正是我们追溯现代主体性诞生的合适体裁。通过对周寿娟（1894-1968）1917年出版的白话自传体小说《九花帘幕》的分析，我将揭示一场文学的历史混沌，在这种混沌中，用融合和争鸣的复杂线索建构了一种主体性。这种主观性在很大程度上得益于周作人在早期作品中所做的大量实验，它的双重声音不仅得益于传统的戏剧性和诗学，而且与现代电影表现的空间感知有关。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 07:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
<br />
随着这些问题的出现，我们对现代散文形成的探究就必然涉及到一个经典形成的过程，也许这正是我们追溯现代主体性诞生的合适体裁。通过对周瘦娟（1894-1968）1917年出版的白话自传体小说《九花帘幕》的分析，我将揭示的不过是一场文学的历史混乱，在这种混乱中，主体性是由复杂的线在融合和争鸣中建构起来的。这种主观性在很大程度上得益于周作人在早期作品中所做的大量实验，它的双重声音不仅得益于传统的戏剧性和诗学，而且与现代电影表现的空间感知有关。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 11:27, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
To set the terms from the outset, the ''sanwen'' will be treated historically as a canonical category grown out of the May Fourth literature. The term ''xiaoshuo'' (fiction, small talk) by which Zhou’s work was categorized will also be historicized. Immune from the modern generic system, it was transitionally intertwined with prose, fiction, drama, and other subgenres in the repertoire of traditional literature. My analysis of the work in question aims at revealing literary modernity of the period in its own terms, rather than redeem Zhou, a key figure of the so-called “Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school” (''Yuanyang hudie pai''), for his contribution to the birth of modern essay. Nor will I provide a generic definition of modern essay other than open up a new terrain to inquire different genealogies of literary modernity.<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
'''Literary Modernization: Generic and Canonical'''<br />
<br />
One of the spectacles in the literary arena of late 1990s China was the revival of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies (hereafter Butterfly) literature. Along with countless reprints of Butterfly fiction commercially catering to the post-socialist urban readers, there were sympathetic academic reappraisals that apparently challenged the May Fourth canon. Since the 1980s, the rapidly changed landscape of literary criticism marked a transformation of the critical codes from “revolutionary literature” to “literary modernity.” “Pure literature” (''chun wenxue''), a core value of literary modernity, was developed by a new generation of literary critics and academics and was ambiguously engaged with the post-socialist conditions: on the one hand, literary criticism was academically institutionalized and practiced with certain intellectual authorities; on the other hand, the “pure literature” was suspicious of its modernist poetics which implied a subversive force to the status quo.<br />
<br />
In recent few years around a dozen of scholarly-edited series of Butterfly literature appeared, not to mention other numerous compilations for commercial purpose. To mention a few: Fan Boqun, ed., Zhongguo jin xiandai tongsu zuojia pingzhuan congshu (Nanjing: Nanjing chubanshe, 1994); Fan Boqun and Fan Zijiang, eds., Yuanyang hudie-Libailiu pai jingdian xiaoshuo wenku (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1996); Wei Shaochang, ed., Yuanyang hudie pai libai liu xiaoshuo. (Tianjin: Chunfeng wenyi chubanshe, 1997); Yu Runqi, ed., Qingmo minchu xiaoshuo shuxi (Beijing: Zhongguo wenlian chuban gongsi, 1997). （文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
Today, the difference between May Fourth and Butterfly was not discussed in terms of “revolutionary vs. reactionary” or “progressive vs. backward,” but rather in terms of ''ya'' (elitism, elegance) vs. ''su'' (populism, commonality). While the Butterfly scholarship carved out a critical space in the name of “popular,” the price was high: their proteges can only be canonized through the codes of May Fourth literary modernity. If what underlay the literary modernity, - the premises of progressive history or of national literature - remained unquestionable, then Butterflies can only be considered inferior.<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
For example, in his recent reevaluation of ''Yuanyang hudie pai'', Wei Shaochang, whose pathbreaking bibliography of Butterfly published in the early 1960s made a study of this school possible, affectionately called this term “a beautiful cap” (''meili de maozi''). Yet this metaphor implies a re-justification of the “cap” imposed on it by the May Fourth writers. Accordingly, Wei maintained that even the best Butterfly works, despite their accomplishments, fail to compete with Lu Xun, Mao Dun and other modern literary giants in terms of intellectual and aesthetic qualities. <br />
<br />
Furthermore, until recently scholarly interests in Butterfly never went beyond fiction.<br />
<br />
See Wei Shaochang, Wo kan Yuanyang hudie pai (My view of the Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies literature) (Taiwan: Commercial Press, 1992) 1-11. One month ago, the first international conference on Butterfly school was held at Suzhou University, China, and one of its designed events was to celebrate the publication of A History of Modern Chinese Popular Literature, an enormous and enduring project fulfilled by the Chinese department of the host university. With a massive masquerade of Butterfly literature from the late Qing to Republican era (1,500,000 characters), this book boldly claims a new theory that the modern Chinese literature is constituted by a “pair of wings” - May Fourth and Butterfly. In this revision, the literary histories heretofore are invalid since they missed the other half - the popular literature. Thus, a new correct history of modern Chinese literature was called for. Impressively, this theory was unanimously accepted by all the participants, including notable May Fourth scholars Jia Zhifang, Yan Jiayan, and Qian Gurong. Nevertheless, this acceptance seemed more theoretical than practical, more sympathetic than critical. The problem remained unsolved and more crucial to the future of Butterfly scholarship: How to evaluate Butterfly in terms of aesthetic values? During the conference, the debates over the term “tongsu” (popular), by which the Butterfly was labeled, revealed certain anxiety. This anxiety had some reason: if Butterfly is limited to the popular, it would be inferior to the “pure literature” (chun wenxue), and, of course, ultimately it would be subject to the elite - May Fourth. In other words, if this popular “wing” is not strong enough, the double wing theory itself would hardly hold. The hidden core of the debates is that the May Fourth canon continues to dominate the field of literary criticism.(文献，无需翻译)<br />
<br />
“<br />
例如，早在1960年代初魏绍昌发表了具有开创性的鸳鸯蝴蝶派书目，使这一派别的研究成为可能。最近他对“鸳鸯蝴蝶派”重新进行了评价，将其亲切地称为“美丽的帽子”。然而，这种隐喻却暗示着五四作家对鸳鸯蝴蝶派扣上“帽子”的再一次辩护。因此，魏先生坚称，哪怕是取得成功的最出色的鸳蝶派作品，论才智，论美学，他们都无法与鲁迅，茅盾和其他现代文学巨人媲美。<br />
此外，到目前为止，人们对鸳蝶派的学术兴趣从未超越小说。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 09:57, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
<br />
In 1997, a new claim for Butterfly essay arose when an eight-volume series ''The Compendium of Essays by Mandarin Ducks and Butterflies school'' (Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi) was published. Implicitly, by the term ''daxi'' in the title, this series contended with the May Fourth canon, as it reminded one of the well-known ''Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi'' (The Compendium of Modern Chinese Literature) in ten volumes published in 1935, which became a monumental for the May Fourth literature. In his introduction, Yuan Jin, chief-editor of this ''Compendium of Butterfly Essay'', asserts that prior to the May Fourth period Butterflies had greatly achieved in essay writings. <br />
<br />
Yuan Jin, Yuanyang hudie pai sanwen daxi: 1909-1949 (Shanghai: Dongfang chuban zhongxin, 1997) 3-4. （文献，无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
<br />
Although after the 1920s most of them gradually accepted the new concept of ''sanwen'' used by May Fourth writers, they wrote in both vernacular and classical, and their essays still inherited the traditional literature, specifically the styles of ''xiaopin'' and ''biji''. Emphatic on their thematic and aesthetic characteristics as “representing quotidian life, the private feelings and tastes,” Yuan suggests that the Butterfly essay has its own literary and cultural roots. <br />
<br />
The ''Compendium of New Literature'' serves a linkage ''par excellence'', for it displays how a canon is formed by defining a genre.<br />
<br />
尽管在20世纪20年代以后，他们大多数都逐渐接受了五四作家用的“散文”这个新概念，他们既用白话文也用文言文写作，他们的文章仍然继承着传统文学，尤其是“小品”和“笔记”的风格。袁强调这些文章的主题和美学要素“体现着现代生活，私人感情，和品位，”他认为蝴蝶散文的文学性和文化都有着自己的来源。<br />
《新文学纲要》起着连接伟大作品的作用，它体现了经典是如何通过定义一种文学流派而形成的。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 07:29, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
虽然20世纪20年代以后，他们中的大多数人逐渐接受了“五四”作家有关“散文”的新观念，但他们既用白话文也用文言文写作，他们的文章仍然继承传统文学，特别是“小品”和“笔记”的风格。袁着重指出，《蝴蝶随笔》具有“代表日常生活、私人情感和情趣”的主题和审美特征，并认为《蝴蝶随笔》有其独特的文学和文化根源。《新文学纲要》起着连接“卓越”的作用，因为它展示了经典作品是如何通过定义一种流派而形成的。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 05:08, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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As the view that the form of modern Chinese essay was born from May Fourth literary movement was still prevailing, it is necessary to see how this modern myth was made. At least, a kind of authentic definition of modern essay was explicated by Yu Dafu (1896-1945) and Zhou Zuoren (1885-1968) in their introductions to the ''sanwen'' anthologies they separately compiled for the ''Compendium''.<br />
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At the time, almost two decades had elapsed since the May Fourth movement. And the New Culture, as incessantly embracing diverse isms from the West on the one hand and tortured by national and intellectual crises on the other, became more ideologically charged and consequently split into antagonistic camps.<br />
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For example, Fan Peisong. Zhongguo xiandai sanwen shi (A History of Modern Chinese Essay) (Nanjing: Jiangsu jiaoyu chubanshe, 1993) 3. The first sentence: “The history of modern Chinese essay opened its curtain when the May Fourth new cultural movement started.”（文献，无需翻译）<br />
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有观点任务中国现代散文的形式诞生于五四文学运动，这一观点仍然盛行，该现代迷思是如何产生的值得一看。至少，郁达夫（1896-1945）和周作人（1885-1968）在他们各自为《纲要》编撰的“散文”选集时，于引言部分给予了现代散文一个真正的定义。<br />
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当时，五四运动已经过去了近二十年。新文化运动一方面不断地接受来自西方的各种主义，另一方面又受到民族和知识危机的折磨，更受意识形态的控制，并因此分裂成对立的阵营。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 08:26, 26 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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As for these invited editors, their relationships (for example, between Hu Shi and Lu Xun, or between Mao Dun and Yu Dafu) were ruined by political arguments, or by personal quarrels and insults. All these, however, did not prevent them from being together to make a new literary myth. It was unlikely that they would return to the old days, yet this tremendous project certainly offered each of them a role of literary master in reshaping the May Fourth history.<br />
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至于这些被邀请的编辑，他们的关系（如胡适与鲁迅的关系，茅盾与郁达夫的关系），则毁于政治争论，或个人的争吵与侮辱。然而，所有这些，都不妨碍他们在一起创造新的文学神话。他们不可能再回到从前，然而这个巨大的工程无疑给他们每个人提供了作为文学大师重塑五四历史的机会。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 07:06, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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至于这些被邀请的编辑，他们的关系(例如胡适和鲁迅的关系，茅顿和郁达夫的关系)被政治争论、个人争吵和侮辱所破坏。然而，这一切并没有阻止他们共同创造一个新的文学神话。他们不太可能回到过去的日子，但这个宏大的计划无疑让他们每个人都成为了重塑五四历史的文学大师。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 08:30, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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Compromises were necessary, yet, as a matter of fact, the ''Compendium'' cannot be easily assessed as a whole, for all the works included were miscellaneous and conflicted in content and form. As most editors claimed, using ''baihua'' is the hallmark for the new literature, but there was some flaw in their consensus of excluding the Butterfly School and the Shanghai School (''haipai''), for both schools also wrote in ''baihua''; rather, the exclusions implied moral bias against urbanism. It was no wonder that a great collective effort was made to reconstruct the conception of new, which itself was authoritative, at least theoretically, inbred with the ideas of progressive history, humanistic universality, and the utopian future.<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
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Thus, traced back to the moment of revolutionary departure, the new literature was portrayed as a myth of rootless origins, a timeless creation, isolated from the past; accordingly, the series presented their self-portraits as literary revolutionaries and cultural iconoclasts. In defining the modern essay, Yu Dafu can hardly figure out where the term ''sanwen'' comes from, left with a vague notion that it probably comes from the translation of the English term “prose.”<br />
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As Yu stressed in his introduction, the greatest contribution the ''sanwen'' genre makes to May Fourth literature is the free expression of individualism.<br />
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因此，追溯到革命离开的那一刻，新文学被描绘成一个无根起源的神话，一个与过去隔离的永恒的创造；在此基础上，以文学革命者和文化偶像派的形象展现了他们的自我形象 .在界定现代散文时，郁达夫很难找出“三文”这个词的来源，留下了一个模糊的概念，即它可能来自于英语“散文”这个词的翻译。<br />
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正如余在导言中强调的那样，“三文”体裁对五四文学的最大贡献就是个人主义的自由表达。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:55, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，追溯到革命离开的那一刻，新文学被描绘成一个无根源的神话，一个与过去隔绝的永恒的创造；因此，这一系列作品呈现了他们作为文学革命者和文化偶像破坏者的自画像。郁达夫在定义现代散文时，很难弄清楚“三文”这个词的来源，只留下一个模糊的概念，认为它可能来自英语“散文”一词的翻译 <br />
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正如俞正声在引言中所强调的那样，“三文”体裁对五四文学的最大贡献就是个人主义的自由表达。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 11:43, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
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He is fascinated by this new and independent genre, with its multiple modes of representation and creative linguistic capacities distinct from those of fiction, poetry and drama. It is no accident that as a novelist well known for his autobiographical fiction displaying his sentimental, decadent and masochist personae, Yu believes that the essay should be a kind of self-writing in nature. In the same vein, Zhou Zuoren asserts that the modern essay was born from the linguistic shift from ''wenyan'' to ''baihua'', which of course should be attributed to the May Fourth literary achievement. He also gives the highest credit to this genre for its casualty, fluidity and flexibility - its specific capabilities of expressing the author’s own material and spiritual world.<br />
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他着迷于这一新的独立的文体，其多样的表现方式和创造性的语言能力不同于小说、诗歌和戏剧。作为一个以表现自己感伤、颓废、受虐倾向的自传体小说而闻名的小说家，自然而然地，郁达夫会认为散文本质上应该是一种自我的书写。周作人同样认为，现代散文是在“文言”向“白话”的语言转换中诞生的，这当然要归功于“五四”的文学成就。他还高度赞扬了这一体裁的随意性、流动性和灵活性——这些特质可以表达出作者的物质和精神世界。--[[User:Yang Yi|Yang Yi]] ([[User talk:Yang Yi|talk]]) 12:11, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他着迷于这一新的独立文体，其具有不同于小说、诗歌和戏剧的多种表现方式和创造性的语言能力。绝非偶然，作为一个以自传体小说表现自己多愁善感、颓废和受虐倾向而著称的小说家，郁达夫认为，散文在本质上应该是一种自我的书写。同样，周作人断言，现代散文诞生于从“文言文”到“白话文”的转变，这当然应该归功于五四文学的成就。他还对这一文体的随意性、流动性和灵活性--表达作者自身物质世界和精神世界的特殊能力给予了最高的评价。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 01:42, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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In exalting the sanwen for its charismatic power, both Zhou and Yu exhibit a kind of anxiety, symbolically related to their status not only as masters of modern essay but, more interestingly, as spokesmen of May Fourth individualism. Their anxiety were charged with different motivation and rhetoric, however, for in the mid-1930s, their political and cultural stands were in stark contrast. More pessimistic to China’s internal and external crises, Zhou retreated from the revolutionary frontier of New Culture and turned to cultural conservatism. On the other hand, Yu was more inclined toward the Left Wing radicalism to redeem himself from his early decadent proclivity.<br />
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在赞扬散文的魅力时，周作人和郁达夫都表现出一种焦虑，这是由于他们不仅是现代散文大师，更有趣的是，他们是五四个人主义的发言人。 然而，他们的焦虑来源于不同的动机和言辞，因为在20世纪30年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。周作人对中国内忧外患更加悲观，因此他从新文化革命的前沿退隐，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，郁达夫为了弥补自己早期的颓废倾向，所以更倾向于左翼激进主义。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 01:33, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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周瑜在提升三文的魅力时，表现出一种焦虑，象征着他们不仅是现代散文的大师，更有趣的是，他们是五四个人主义的代言人。他们的焦虑带有不同的动机和言辞，但在 1930 年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。对中国的内外危机更加悲观的是，周从新文化的革命前沿退缩，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，余更倾向于左翼激进主义，以弥补自己早期的堕落倾向。--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 08:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在赞扬散文的魅力力量时，周和郁都表现出一种焦虑，这象征着他们不仅是现代散文大师，更有趣的是，他们是“五四”个人主义的代言人。然而，他们的焦虑被归咎于不同的动机和言辞，因为在20世纪30年代中期，他们的政治和文化立场形成了鲜明的对比。周对中国内忧外患更加悲观，从新文化革命的前沿退隐，转向文化保守主义。另一方面，为了弥补自己早期的颓废倾向，俞正声更倾向于左翼激进主义。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 09:03, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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While characterizing the modern essay in social and ideological context, Yu emphasized the essayists’ responsibility to search for a harmony between the individual, nature and society. Moreover, he pointed out that May Fourth writers have endured an intellectual ordeal as they had first embraced the individuality and finally discovered the necessity to connect it to society and collectivity thanks to their moral conscience awakened by the bloody May Thirtieth incident. In contrast, Zhou showed a strong tendency of aestheticism and nihilism when claiming that he dislikes discussing ''sanwen'' in terms of history, political partisanship or any new isms.<br />
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在描述社会和意识形态背景下的现代论文的特点时，于强调了论文家在个人，自然与社会之间寻求和谐的责任。 此外，他指出，“五四”作家首先接受了个性，然后由于血腥的“五月三十号”事件唤醒了他们的道德良心，最终发现了将其与社会和集体联系起来的必要性，因此经受了一次智力考验。 相比之下，周声称自己不喜欢在历史，政治党派或任何新思想上讨论“三文”时，表现出强烈的唯美主义和虚无主义倾向。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:59, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Yu Dafu. “Daoyan,” in Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi - Sanwen er ji (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu chuban gongsi, 1935) 1-19.（文献，无需翻译）<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
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Despite their different views, they actually shared the historical perspective in discussing the development and characteristics of modern essay, and neither of them could see beyond their own historical limits. In their reinterpreting the ''new'' literature, the history of form was encoded by the new ideology. First of all, integral with the canonical codes and process, the Compendium definitively presented the modern generic division of ''xiaoshuo'', ''shige'', ''xiju'', and ''sanwen''. Lydia Liu called this four-way division a “self-colonizing project” as these terms were perfectly translatable into “fiction,” “poetry,” “drama,” and “familiar essay,” respectively, in English. Historically, as she pointed out, the canonization of these “translated” norms of literary form radically subverted the classical canon as the legitimate source of meaning for Chinese culture and literature.<br />
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尽管他们意见分歧，但在讨论现代论文的发展和其特点时，他们历史观点其实一样的，他们都无法超越自己的历史束缚。 在他们重新解释“新”文学时，形式的历史是由新意识形态编码的。 首先，与规范代码和过程集成在一起，该纲要明确地提出了“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏局”和“散文”的现代通用划分。 吕迪亚·刘（Lydia Liu）将此四分方式称为“自我殖民化项目”，因为这些术语完美地翻译成英语中的“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏剧”和“熟悉的论文”。 正如她所指出的那样，从历史上看，对这些文学形式“已译”规范的规范化从根本上颠覆了经典规范作为中国文化和文学意义的合法来源。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 09:45, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管意见存在分歧，但在讨论现代论文的发展和其特点时，他们历史观点其实一样的，这些文章都无法超越自身的历史束缚。 他们在重新解释“新”文学时指出，形式的历史是由新意识形态编码而成的。 首先，该纲要将规范代码和过程融合在一起，明确地提出了“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏局”和“散文”的现代通用划分。 吕迪亚·刘（Lydia Liu）将这四种方式称为“自我殖民化项目”，这是因为这些术语能完美对应英语中的“小说”，“诗歌”，“戏剧”和“熟悉的论文”。 正如她所指出的那样，从历史上看，对这些文学形式的翻译标准规范化从根本上颠覆了经典规范作为中国文化和文学意义的合法来源。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 03:50, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
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Both Yu and Zhou took this modernized generic system for granted. The genre of essay, according to Zhou, represents the finest achievement of New Literature thanks to its capacities to represent widest scopes of life and individual emotions and reflections, with multiple, sophisticate techniques and styles, yet it is succeeded lastly compared to fiction and drama. Zhou’s discontent can be heard when he traced the tradition of modern essay back to the late Ming ''xiaopin wen'', a move showing his pro-tradition revision that was arguable within the May Fourth camp. But he treated ''sanwen'' as an integral part in the system of four genres, and his discussion of formal problems was restricted by this systemic framework.<br />
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郁达夫和周作人都视这种现代化的通用体系为理所当然。在周看来，散文这种文体代表着新文学的最好成就。因为散文能够以多样的，复杂的技巧和风格体现广阔的生活视野和个人的情感与思考，它最终与小说和戏剧相比也是成功的。周的不满可以从他追溯现代散文传统到晚明时期的小品文的中寻迹。此举表明了他对传统的修正，也引发了五四阵营中的争论。但他将散文视为四种文体体系中的一个重要组成部分，对形式问题的探讨就受到了这一体系框架的制约。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 10:55, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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郁和周都认为这种现代化的通用体系是理所当然的。 在周看来，散文代表着新文学的最佳成就，这是因为散文能够以多样，复杂的技巧和风格，展现最广泛的生活画面和个人情感和思考，最终与小说和戏剧相比较也是成功的。 周的不满体现在他追溯现代散文的传统至明晚期的“小品文”，此举表明他亲传统的修正，在五四阵营中是有争议的。 但是他将“散文”视为锶中文体系中不可或缺的一部分，他对形式问题的讨论受到这种系统框架的制约。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 08:11, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
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It was with this canon of modernized generic division that both Zhou and Yu described sanwen in rational terms, defining its linguistic and literary features in order to assert its superiority to other genres. This assertion was grounded on the legitimacy of the generic system and ultimately verified the system as a scientific and organic whole. In characterizing ''sanwen''’s representational capacities, Zhou used three terms: narrating, reasoning, and expressing emotions. More elaborate was Yu’s characterization with four terms, each of which was matched with an English equivalent in parenthesis – “description,” “narration,” “exposition,” and “persuasion” or “argumentation.” A slightly variant explication was allowed when he at the same time showed his favor to other categorical terms such as the reasoning, lyricism, description, and narration.<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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Here Zhou’s notion of ''meiwen'' (beautiful essay) invites our special attention as it is involved with his historical speculation of the genre, which nonetheless suggests something else. Citing his published articles in chronological order, Zhou shows how he had tirelessly explored ''sanwen'' as a new form and at the same time elaborated his own theory of the genre. As he says he still cherishes his original idea that essay should be as perfect as ''meiwen'', which he had advocated as early as the late 1910s. This historical tracing seemed not only to review his insights from the mirror of history, as a matter of fact it aimed at reshaping his politics of “aesthetic essay” in the new cultural situation.<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
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Nevertheless, Zhou’s historicity in the 1935 introduction might reveal more about his painstaking search for the ideal concept of literature if he had drawn deeper from his memory. As early as 1908, he wrote a long essay, whose importance was manifested by its title “On the Significance and Mission of Writing and the Mistakes in Recent Chinese Literary Criticism” (Lun wenzhang zhi yiyi ji qi shiming, yin ji Zhongguo jinshi lunwen zhi deshi). It reveals his initial idea of ''meiwen'' as he had already talked about it, yet the fact that it was neglected by Zhou in 1935 might be more revelatory, for in 1908 what he really argued for was the term ''wenzhang'' (literature) rather than ''meiwen''. In other words, the excavation of Zhou’s literary past repressed by himself opens up a zone of “twilight memories” to serve my purpose.<br />
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然而，如果周能从自己的记忆中汲取更多的话，他在1935年序言中的历史性可能会更多地揭示出他对文学理想的苦苦追寻。早在1908年，他就写了一篇题为《论写作的意义和使命及中国近代文学批评中的错误》的长文，他的重要性就体现在这篇长文上。正如他之前所说，这本书揭示了他对“文学性”的最初想法，但更具有启示性的是，这本书在1935年被周忽视了，因为在1908年，他真正主张的是“文学”一词，而不是“美文”。换句话说，对曾为周所压抑的文学的挖掘，打开了一个“朦胧记忆”的区域，为我的目的服务。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:24, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，如果周能回忆起更多细节的话，他在1935年所作序言中的历史性可能会更多地揭示出他对理想化文学概念的苦苦追寻。早在1908年，他就写了一篇题为《论文章之义以及其使命及中国近代文学批评中的错误》的长文，其重要性正如标题所言。这本书揭示了他对美文的最初想法，但令人惊喜的是，周的这一观点早在1935年提出过，但却未得到重视。因为在1908年，他真正主张的是“文学”一词，而不是“美文”。换句话说，对周树人文学经历的挖掘为我展现了一块“暮光记忆”的区域，对本篇文章的论述大有裨益。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 02:07, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
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The essay shows how he intensely seeks a legitimate idea of literature between the terms of ''wenzhang, wenxue, and xiaoshuo'', or in a sense it epitomizes a battlefield of naming literature at the time. While sharing the contemporary intellectual consensus that literary discourse is one of the most viable medium to reshape national spirit, Zhou attempts to construct a system of literature by glorifying the idea of ''wenzhang'' which he identifies with the Latin word ''literature''. The ideal of wenzhang is embodied by artistic and affectionate expressions in archaic style (no wonder this essay was written in classical language). In order to enthrone his concept of ''wenzhang'' as a kind of new authentic classicism, he annotates the term by deriving from Western literary theories on the one hand, and on the other he combatively denounces other influential terms such as ''wenxue'' or ''xiaoshuo''.<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
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Paradoxically, Zhou criticizes Liang Qichao’s notion of ''xiaoshuo'' for its utilitarian bent, yet he embraces it to such an extent that he equates it with the ''wenzhang'', lest it should be furnished with true sincerity in describing reality so as to move human emotions. The terms ''sanwen'' and ''meiwen'' do appear, once for each, and yet were casually treated; the former means trivial and lack of aesthetic quality, and the latter is less than a concept.<br />
<br />
矛盾的是，周批评梁启超“小说”的功利主义倾向，却又欣然接受，甚至将小说与文章相提并论，惟恐文章在描写现实时表现出真诚，从而打动人心。“散文”和“美文”这两个词确实各自出现过一次，但却被随意对待;前者意味着琐碎和缺乏审美品质，后者则称不上是一个概念。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 04:54, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
Lydia Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity China, 1900-1937 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995) 235.<br />
<br />
Charles A. Laughlin excellently analyzed Zhou Zuoren's advocacy of late Ming xiaopin and its tension within the May Fourth literary theory in his paper "Legacies of Leisure: Late Imperial Influences on the 20th Century Chinese Essay" held at the essay conference in Achern (Germany) in August 25-27, 2000.<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren, “Daoyan”, in Zhongguo xin wenxue daxi, Sanwen yi ji (Shanghai: Liangyou tushu gongsi, 1935) 1-14.<br />
<br />
Zhou Zuoren, “Lun wenzhang zhi yiyi ji qi shiming, yin ji Zhongguo jinshi lunwen zhi deshi.” In Wang Yunxi, Wu Guoping, and Huang Lin, eds., Zhongguo wenlun xuan, jindai juan (Selections of Chinese literary criticism, The modern period) (Nanjing: Jiangsu wenyi chubanshe, 1996) 689-725.<br />
（文献无需翻译）<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
Obviously, the text, with his idea and style, looked outmoded by 1935. He had lost the battle of naming. The contestation of these terms resulted in the establishment of literary hierarchy consisted by the concepts of ''wenxue'' that meant literature in general sense, and the genres of ''xiaoshuo'' and ''sanwen'' as its major constituents. While forgetting his past as a neo-classicist, Zhou’s memory was effected by the canonical process of modern division of genres. Nevertheless, dimly echoing his early neo-classical vision he rebelled against the literary division while identifying the “beautiful essay” with late Ming ''xiaopin wen'', though in the end he must remain as a modern master essayist, filled with agony and nostalgia.<br />
<br />
显然，1935年时，再回首他的这篇文章，从思想和风格来看，都已经过时了。周作人已经输掉了这场命名之战。关于这些术语的论战，直接促成了文学分层。而文学分层主要是由“文学”概念构成，并且还主要包含“小说”和“散文”这两个体裁。周作人虽然业已忘却他身为新古典主义作家的过去，不过他的思维还是受到了现代体裁划分的经典过程影响。不过，在用明朝晚期的“小品文”来判别“优美的散文”同时，简单地重复周作人反对文学层次划分的早期新古典主义思想，他也还是满腹悲伤与思乡，哪怕最终他必须捍卫自己现代散文大师的身份。<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
'''Search for New Form and Subject'''<br />
<br />
While the Poetry Revolution (''shijie geming''), Prose Revolution (''wenjie geming'') and Fiction Revolution (''xiaoshuojie geming''), launched by Liang Qichao from 1899 to 1902, signified that Chinese literature entered the modern epoch, the division of literary genres emerged. The most influential and controversial was the Fiction Revolution, for it was traditionally despised yet directly linked with the mass politics that loomed at the threshold of the century. In his famous essay “On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People” (Lun xiaoshuo yu qunzhi zhi guanxi), Liang claimed that “fiction is the crowning glory of literature,” and that the “new fiction” should embody a new national soul. This intellectual subservience to populism was not whimsical, rather the subversion of poetic reign within the hierarchy of traditional genres served a metaphor for the collapse of traditional value system.<br />
<br />
寻求新形式、新主旨<br />
梁启超在1899年至1902年发动的诗界革命、文界革命和小说界革命，预示着中国文学开启了现代化的纪元，不同的文学体裁开始出现。小说界革命是影响力最大的，也最受争议，因为它历来受到鄙视，但与降临于世纪之初的群众政治有着直接联系。梁在其著名文章《论小说与群治之关系》中声称“小说是文学的无上光荣”，“新小说”应该体现一种新的民族魂。这对于有民粹主义倾向的知识分子来说，不是在异想天开，相反，它颠覆了诗歌在传统体裁等级制度下的统治地位，象征着传统价值体系的崩塌。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 01:32, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
As Ted Huters explicated, the transformation of prose theories in late Qing period resulted in the ascendancy of the status of “writing” (''wen'') that is closer to the modern conception of “literature” (''wenxue''). Yet, the Fiction Revolution changed the generic course drastically. Widely anticipated for its superiority in mass education, the concept of xiaoshuo was elevated to the ontological level, as important as that of ''wen''. Although the Prose Revolution carried with it the power of “new prose style” (''xin wenti'') invented by Liang himself, it could hardly compete with the Fiction Revolution. While the “new prose style” was limited in its modes of expression, the literary contours were more vibrant with the movement of ''xiaoshuo''. Put it simply, in this period, what determined the formation of modern essay were the theory and practice of ''xiaoshuo'' rather than those of ''wen''.<br />
<br />
正如胡志德（Ted Huters）所阐明的那样，清末时期的散文理论导致“文”地位的上升，更接近于现代的“文学”概念。然而，小说革命彻底改变了通用路线。由于小说在大众教育的地位显著，小说的概念已提升到本体论的水平，与“文”的地位同等重要。虽然散文革命有梁启超提出的“新文体”，但其地位还是难以与小说革命相媲美。“新文体”在表达方式上受限，但其文学轮廓比小说革命更加鲜明。简而言之，在这个时期，决定现代散文形成的原因是小说理论和实践的出现，而非“文”理论和实践的提出。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 14:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
As a matter of fact, literary tradition was reinvented by the notion of new fiction. Contrary to Liang’s expectation, ''xin xiaoshuo'' was still entangled with its tradition; selected and combined by new rules, the tradition offered ''new fiction'' possibilities to adopt literary techniques from the West. Perhaps Liang and his followers created this ambiguity, as the ''xiaoshuo'' came from the Japanese translation of Western “fiction” or “novel” and at the same time it was mixed with traditional popular genres of drama and ''tanci'' (musical and performing story-telling). Ironically, while claiming for its capacities to represent the human realms with “complexity, penetration, vividness, and thoroughness” (''quzhe touda, linli jingzhi''), it was also offered with almost a full range of traditional literary genres for choice.<br />
<br />
实际上，文学传统是由新小说的概念再创的。与梁启超的期望相反，“新小说”仍然与其传统相联系；通过新规则的选择与结合，这一传统为“新小说”提供了接受西方文学技法的可能性。也许梁启超和他的追随者创造了这种模棱两可，因为“小说”来自于日本对西方"fiction“或"novel"的翻译，与此同时，它又混合了传统的流行戏剧和”弹词“（音乐和表演故事）。具有讽刺意味的是，尽管它以”复杂,渗透，生动，彻底“宣称人类领域的能力，它也出于自己的喜爱得到了一种全方位的传统文学种类。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 07:42, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
There was a tension within the “new fiction” between its lofty mission to save China and its tradition of “small talk” - fiction for popular desires. The pendulum did not go back to the “small talk” until the mid-1910s when a new wave of urban periodicals surged, this time catering to intimate space and individual pleasure. This was the time of despair and expectation, of reshaping the public and private spheres, full of conflicts between tradition and modernity in terms of social norms of love, marriage and family. New interests in romances were accompanied with the aspiration for first person narratives from the West, such as memoir, love-letter, diary, and confession. It was no accident that popular magazines and newspapers were saturated with the sad love stories, among which Xu Zhenya’s (1889-1937) ''Yu li hun'' (Jade Pearl Spirit) became a bestseller in 1914. <br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
This weird combination - a tragic romance interwoven with the author’s memory of youth and the style of archaic parallelism - seemed to attract more the refined reading public. Wu Shuangre (1884-1934), a writer also known for tragic romance, redefined the ''xiaoshuo'' as the “opposite to the big discourse (''dashuo''),” his emphasis on the ''smallness'' of fiction was urged by new desire and social needs.<br />
<br />
这种怪异的组合-悲剧性的浪漫情怀与作者对青年的记忆和古老的平行主义风格交织在一起-这似乎吸引了更多精准的读者。 吴双热（1884-1934），又是一位以悲剧性的浪漫闻名的作家，将“小说”重新定义为“与大话语（“大说”）相对”，新的欲望和社会需求促使他强调小说的“小”。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 03:11, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种奇怪的组合-悲剧性的浪漫故事与作者对青春的记忆和古老的平行主义风格交织在一起-似乎吸引了更多精准的读者。吴双热（1884-1934），一位以悲剧性浪漫闻名的作家，将“小说”重新定义为“大篇幅（大说）的对立面”，他受到新欲的望和社会需求的敦促，强调小说的“小”。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:05, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
Zhou’s intellectual background behind his critique of Liang Qichao and Lin Shu should not be ignored. Influenced by Zhang Taiyan whom Zhou and his brother Zhou Shuren (later Lu Xun) followed during their stay in Japan, Zhou’s archaic vision of literature was based on the conviction that learning from the West by deriving from the Chinese past with deeper and wider scopes can prevent from the danger of populism and mass politics. <br />
<br />
Liang Qichao, “On the Relationship Between Fiction and the Government of the People.” Trans. Gek Nai Cheng, in Kirk Denton, ed., Modern Chinese Literary Thought, 74-81.<br />
<br />
Theodore Huters, “From Writing to Literature: The Development of Late Qing Theories of Prose.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 47 (1987) 51-90.<br />
（参考文献不用翻译）<br />
<br />
周批判梁启超和林纾背后的知识背景不容忽视。周和他的兄弟周树人(后来的鲁迅)在日本期间跟随张太炎，受张太炎的影响，周对文学的陈旧看法是建立在这样一种信念之上的，即从更深更广的范围借鉴中国的过去，学习西方，以此防止出现民粹主义和大众政治的危险。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 06:08, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
See, “Zhongguo weiyi zhi wenxue bao Xin xiaoshuo” (The only literary magazine New Fiction in China). Xinmin congbao 14 (1902). When the New Fiction magazine was inaugurated in 1902, Liang and his colleagues lent its representational capacities the widest scopes of lifeworld and the richest literary resources, though in the name of “Western fiction.” The genres include popular song, rhythmic expressions such as drama and musicala storytelling.<br />
<br />
<br />
参见《中国文学史》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民同保14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们以“西方小说”的名义，将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。<br />
<br />
参见《中国唯意志文学报新小说》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民从报14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志创刊时，梁启超和他的同事们虽然打着 "西洋小说 "的旗号，将其代表能力赋予了全世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。体裁包括流行歌曲、戏剧等韵律性的表现形式和音乐剧故事。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
参见《中国文学史》。（中国唯一的文学杂志《新小说》）。 新民同保14（1902）。 1902年，《新小说》（New Fiction）杂志发行时，梁和他的同事们虽以“西方小说”的名义，但将其代表能力赋予了世界最广泛的领域和最丰富的文学资源。 种类包括流行歌曲，有节奏的表现形式，例如戏剧和音乐剧故事。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 14:27, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
Zhou meticulously experimented with first person narratives in the mid-1910s. In the wake of collapse of traditional values, literature became a vent for repressed psychology, and meanwhile functioned in reordering the structures of feelings and perceptions that purported to pave a way to rebuilding national spirituality. Therefore, intellectual anxiety was attached to seeking new literary genres. At the time, Zhou was spotlighted on the literary arena with ''Saturday'' (Libailiu), a weekly popular magazine aimed to entertain and educate urban readers mainly by the principles of literary pleasure aimed to articulate and regulate desires of everyday life and consumer psychology. This boom of urban print culture signified an inversion to the previous Fiction Revolution devoted to patriotism and national ethos; its representations focused more on the private realms and individuals, revealing a clearer character of the “small talk.” In this sense, Zhou’s intense uses of first person narratives were a necessity for him to represent a kind of the autonomous individual in urban space as an integral part of the periodical culture.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” appeared in 1917, in the ''Pictorial Story'' (Xiaoshuo huabao) edited by Bao Tianxiao, who announced from the outset that this monthly fiction magazine aims to promote the ''baihua'' fiction. In a history of Chinese literature published in late-1950s, this story was picked out as a typical Butterfly work: “[it is] empty and poor in its content, full of meaningless words and sentences.” However, this biased criticism neglected the fact that this short story was a pioneering ''baihua'' fiction, which appeared in a fiction magazine, which advocated the ''baihua'' prior to the May Fourth movement! 、<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
Indeed, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was labeled as ''xiaoshuo'', but the notion of ''xiaoshuo'' in the teens ambiguously crossed the boundaries of old and new, and Zhou had barely the idea of modern ''sanwen''. Rather, shown by the story mixed with the elements of poetry, prose and drama, his understanding of ''xiaoshuo'' was conventional and transitional. Interestingly, some critic conceived that the notion of ''sanwen'' was stemmed from ''xiaoshuo''. In 1914, Cheng Zhi’s essay “Miscellaneous Remarks on Fiction” (Xiaoshuo conghua) holds that nowadays only ''xiaoshuo'' can do what literature can do; it is so important and enchanting that it can fulfill the task of literature while artistically expressing human emotions and aesthetic thoughts. Since all literary expressions, according to him, appeal to optic and audio perceptions, ''xiaoshuo'' contains both ''sanwen'' (prosaic) and ''yunwen'' (rhythmic) texts. The former can be the vernacular or literary language; the latter includes romance drama and rhythmic story-telling. As the chart intricately shows, the ''sanwen'' is sandwiched: on one side it grows out of the trunk of ''xiaoshuo'', and on other side it bifurcates its own branches of literary and vernacular languages. We cannot decide to what extent this concept of ''sanwen'' can be related to that of the May Fourth generic system, yet its connotations were still valid in the Butterfly use after the 1920s. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
The chaotic conditions of literary genres opened up new possibilities, and “In the Nine-Flower Curtain,” as a kind of self-representation, exhibited Zhou’s obsession with subjective writings, blended with the elements of dairy, love-letter, confession, and fictional autobiography. Here, I only briefly show Zhou’s devotion to two kinds of the first person narratives - autobiography and lover-letter. These forms adopted by Zhou, no matter it belongs to the concept of ''xiaoshuo'' at the time or more to the ''sanwen'' in today’s standard, had a specific charm of lyricism and sensuality that most appealed to him. One type referred to the subgenre of autobiography - amorous memoirs - a colorful branch in Ming-Qing erotic-sentimental tradition, represented by Mao Xiang’s ''Memoirs of the Plum Shadow Studio'' (Ying mei an yiyu) and Jiang Tan’s ''Reminiscences of the Autumn Lamp'' (Qiu deng suoyi). These texts were included in an anthology titled ''Selections of Memoirs'' (Yiyu xuan) Zhou edited and published in 1920s. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
Another inspiration came from Washington Irving, whom Zhou considered a literary genius. He highly praised Irving’s ''Sketch-Book'' for its “creativity and uniqueness”; he appreciated most “Westminster Abbey,” “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow,” “The Broken Heart” and “RipVan Winkle.” Interestingly, Zhou understoods Irving through the window of Chinese literary past. He translated the ''Sketch-Book'' into the form of ''biji'', with his comments saturated with the classical poetics: “His writings are secluded and flagrant, limped and stretching far (''youxin danyuan''), like violets in flower-shrubes; they are also delicate and charming, drifting aloof (''qingqian piaoyi''), like a pen thrown into the sky becomes a capricious dragon.” <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
Zhou’s mania for love-letters evinces his pursuit of the fashion, chic and commercial, in contrast to his literati personality immersed in the erotic-sentimental poetics. Raoul Findeisen rightly pointed out that the genre of love-letter enhances to codify the heterosexual love in modern Chinese literature. This form was introduced into China hand in hand with the assimilation of Western-style customs and the idea of free communication between man and woman. At least in 1911, ''qingshu'' as a translated term for “love-letter” appeared in a funny essay “Ji qingshu zhi xinfa” (A new way to send a love-letter) in ''Shenbao''. As a piece of passionate ''qinghua'', “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” should be connected to Zhou’s “Qingshu hua” (On love-letter), a series of essays he contributed to ''Shenbao'' in 1919. These essays talk about the world famous love stories of Napoleon, Byron, Hugo, and many others, and specifically about how they wrote love-letters. For example, amidst wars Napoleon never forgot to write to Josephine; Zhou translated his words: “I am begging you to receive my thousand kisses, and don’t give me back any of your’s, otherwise my blood will boil.” Also with great zeal he talks about how Hugo wrote 120 letters to his fiancee Adele Forcher. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
Known as master of the “sad love story” in the mid-1910s, he wrote numerous short stories which appeared in around a dozen periodicals and newspapers; among them a number of first person narratives were in best quality. While breaking with the traditional love discourse and modes of romance, his love stories depicted new urban subjects in newly formed public spaces such as the public park, tramcar, medical clinic, and movie theater. Most noticeable is his ''Short Stories from Famous European and American Writers'' (Oumei mingjia dianpian xiaoshuo congkan) published in 1917, revealing his ways of dealing with the personal pronounces under chaotic conditions. Among fifty stories included, twenty-six stories belong to first person narrative. Interestingly, in all the eight vernacular texts the first person pronoun is ''wo'', and in the rest eighteen stories in classical language, the first person pronouns are variantly used between ''yu'', ''yu'' and ''wu''.<br />
<br />
作为1910年代中期描写爱情悲剧的大师，他写了许多短篇故事，并发表在众多期刊和报纸上；其中，那些以第一人称的角度叙述的故事是最好的。他打破了传统爱情故事的语言和抒情方式，他的爱情故事描述了发生在公园、电车、诊所、电影院等新式公共空间的新的城镇主体。更惹人注意的是，他的译作《欧美名家短篇小说丛刊》在1917年出版，揭示了他在嘈杂的环境中处理个人观点的方式。书中所包含的50个故事，其中26个从第一人称的角度进行叙述。有趣的是，在8篇用方言写的文本中，第一人称的代词用的是“wo”，在剩下的18篇用古典语言写的故事中，第一人称的代词多用“yu”“yu”和“wu”。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 04:05, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
This selection of ''wo'' for the vernacular seemed identical to the establishment of “I” as the male subjectivity in May Fourth literature, but they bore different logic of modernity. Perhaps there was another kind of “translated modernity” in Zhou: the vernacular ''wo'' is not the absolute in the whole anthology. Zhou’s selected uses of the personal pronouns include not only the first person pronouns but the second and third person pronouns, showing a chaotic state of literary subject. He is more plural and playful while experimenting with both the vernacular and the classical, and one is not subject to the other. Fascinated by multiple possibilities in the new literary situations, he was more concerned with ways of using different first person pronouns to suit different modes and styles of representations, in accordance with his own linguistic sensitivity and capability. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
Fan Boqun pointed out that Zhou contributed to modern literature in its early phase by experimenting with psychological forms such as diary, epistoral fiction, and that his creative writings were indebted to his translation. See, “Zhu, bian, yi jie jing de ‘wenzi laogong’: Zhou Shoujuan pingzhuan” (A literary laboror in his refined achievements of writing, editing and translating: A biography of Zhou Shoujuan), in Fan Boqun, ed., Zhongguo jin xiandai tongsu zuojia pingzhuan congshu (A series of modern Chinese popular writers) vol. 4, 177. If this was a late credit to Zhou, there had been another one about his 1917 translation of Famous European and American Short Stories. In the early 1960s he wrote to his daughter revealing the fact that his 1917 translation was praised by Lu Xun and awarded by the Republican Education Bureau, and that he did not know this until he had read Zhou Zuoren’s memoir in the early 1950s. This information was revealed after his literary career was criticized as a reactionary current against the new literature.<br />
<br />
范伯群（Fan Boqun）指出，周小川（Zhou Xiaochuan）对现代文学的早期贡献在于心理文学方面，例如日记、书信体小说等，同时，他的翻译对其创作贡献极大。见“朱，卞，易节经得‘文子劳公'：《周守隽（Zhou Shoujuan)评传》”（文学工作者，在写作、编辑、翻译方面取得卓越成就:《周守隽传》），范伯群编:《中国现代通俗作家丛书》第4卷，177页。如果说这本书是周小川迟来的荣誉的话，那么他1917年翻译的欧美著名短篇小说就是他的另一荣耀。上世纪60年代初他给女儿写的信中表明，他1917年的译作受到了鲁迅的赞赏和民国教育局的嘉奖，但是这一点还是他在上世纪50年代初读周作人的回忆录中知晓的。他的文学生涯被批判为反对新文学的反动潮流后，这一信息才透露出来的。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 15:35, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
Lydia Liu deals with the use of first person pronoun wo that designates “I” as a central issue of “translated modernity” in modern Chinese literature. Along with wo becoming the only victor in the contests of first person pronouns through heavy traffic of transnational cultures, the male vernacular subjectivity is established (see Lydia Liu, 154-55).<br />
<br />
The Poetics of Persuasion“In the Nine-Flower Curtain” was the author’s “love talk” (''qinghua'') to his bride in the first night of marriage, a passionate confession of his bitter past, with sentiment and self-esteem, and meanwhile he expresses his love and hope for their conjugal life in the future. The narrative begins with a third person account of how the author’s wedding ceremony was held in ''Yeshiyuan'', one of famous public parks in the city, and how in the night his friends gathered in the wedding chamber making fun of the new couple.<br />
<br />
莉迪亚·刘指明“I”的第一人称代词“我”的运用作为现代中国文学中翻译现代化的核心问题。随着wo成为通过跨国文化在阻力很大的前进路线上第一人称代词竞赛的唯一胜利者，男性白话主体性得到了确立（见莉迪亚·刘，154-55）。<br />
<br />
《九花帐里》是作者在新婚夜晚对他新娘的情话,他充满激情,带有情绪和自尊地忏悔着他痛苦的过去，同时表达了他对未来夫妻生活的爱和希望。故事以第三人称开始叙述，描述了作者在城市著名的公园之一，也是园的婚礼是如何举行的，在新婚夜里他的朋友聚在新房里如何打趣这对新人的。 --[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 04:13, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
This brief opening is like the “prologue” in premodern vernacular stories, a device originated from thirteen-century drama. By this convention a stage is set for the drama of the pillow talk, predicting his theatricality. Nevertheless, with the phrase “Zhou Shoujuan says” at the very beginning, the tradition is inverted, for in old days, fiction writing is not a respectful job and the author’s name never appeared. While the vernacular storytellers were too humble to claim his authorship, literati were too proud to do so. Perhaps it was Lin Shu who self-consciously broke with the tradition as he signed his name on the novels he translated.<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，这种手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，为枕边话的戏剧性搭建了一个舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，一开始就用“周守娟说”这句话来颠覆了传统，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么尊贵的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，但文人却为之骄傲。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 09:04, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，这种手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，为枕边话的戏剧性搭建了一个舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，有了开头的 "周寿娟说 "这句话，这个传统就被颠覆了，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么尊贵的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，文人却骄傲得不敢。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。<br />
<br />
这种简短的开场白就像前现代白话故事中的 "序幕"，其手法源于十三世纪的戏剧。通过这个惯例，作者为枕边话剧搭建了舞台，预示着他的戏剧性。不过，有了开头 "周寿娟说 "这句话，这个传统就被颠覆了，因为在旧社会，写小说并不是什么体面的工作，作者的名字从来没有出现过。白话故事家谦虚得不敢宣称自己的作者身份，文人却骄傲得不屑。也许是林纾自觉地打破了传统，他在自己翻译的小说上签上了自己的名字。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 03:52, 28 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
This self-referential information at the outset is more than a self-promotion: it sets a tone of respectfulness and expectation, evoking a blissful and jubilant atmosphere for what follows. Moreover, the voice from a famous writer suggests new semantics of love and new ways of expressing love. Of course, the marriage is a new chapter in his life; it was the fashion to have a Western-style wedding (''wenming jiehun'') in a public park. The guests are celebrities, novelist, journalists and print entrepreneurs, such as Bao Tianxiao, Chen Diexian, Ding Song, indicative of a newly born social stratum recognized by the urban public.<br />
<br />
这种自我参照的信息在一开始就不仅仅是自我推销:它设定了尊重和期待的基调，为接下来的事情唤起一种幸福和欢乐的氛围。此外，一位著名作家的声音暗示了爱的新语义和表达爱的新方式。当然，婚姻是他人生的新篇章;在公园举行西式婚礼是当时的时尚。受邀的嘉宾有名人、小说家、记者和报业大亨，如鲍天晓、陈蝶仙、丁松等，他们代表着城市公认的新生社会阶层。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 02:21, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
When Zhou promises to satisfy his friends’ curiosity about what he said to the bride “inside the curtain” in the first night, he deliberately shifts the scene from the backdrop to the main tableau - the curtain. His wedding, albeit part of his private life, was already exposed by Bao Tianxiao and Chen Diexian who, as Zhou mentioned, had written about this event and published them in newspapers. And Zhou himself announced that his own pillow talk would appear in the ''Pictorial Story''. Aware of his privacy under the public gaze, Zhou spotlighted the “curtain” as center stage, namely in the innermost space of the chamber; this is bold and unconventional. Of the marriage rituals and symbols familiar to the Chinese, those descriptions related to the wedding chamber are most erogenous and mysterious, arousing their erotic and voyeurist desire.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
In ''Six records of a floating life'' (Fusheng liu ji), a classical autobiography, Shen Fu (1763-?) vividly depicts, “I saw by the light of our wedding candles that Yun’s figure was as slim as before. When her veil was lifted we smiled at each other. And we had shared the ceremonial cup of wine and sat down together for the wedding banquet, I secretly took her small hand under the table. It was warm and it was soft, and my heart beat uncontrollably.” However, readers might be disappointed as there is no such details they expected. Yet to great writers, dealing with the first wedding night is a moment to play with readers’ expectation. For example, in one of Li Yu’s stories, after the bridegroom undresses the bride, he is shocked by the fact that she is a “stone woman” who lacks the sexual organ! In ''Dream of the Red Chamber'', when Baoyu lifts the bride’s veil, he finds Baocai instead Daiyu - he is cheated by his family seniors who makes the substitute; thus the dark side of traditional marriage system is unveiled and the tragic theme of the novel reaches its climax. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The narrator’s loving voice begins with: “My Phoenix Lady: This is the first night of our marriage, the first day to raise the curtain of our family life. Whether our chamber will be paradise or hell, the drama opens from the present; whether our life will be sad or happy, we will open our theater today.” The long and passionate pillow talk is lyrical and decorative in style, with verbal and imagery rhetorical devices such as the poetic couplets and parallel sentences, metaphors, and repetitions, blending the classical and Western-style vocabulary and grammar. The bridegroom says: <br />
<br />
From now on, you become a member of my family; your name Hu Fengjun is crowned with the surname Zhou. Since you stepped into the door of Zhou, naturally you will do something for his family. The domestic duty falls on us with weight; we should carry it together: the half of it is on my shoulder, the other half on your’s. We should become one heart in order to overcome innumerable difficulties ahead of us. My old mother needs your good service, the multiple household needs your great care. If sometimes I am worried, you should understand me, and care about me.<br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
The most important word for husband and wife is “love,” which comes from their mutual understanding and mutual care. If we love each other until the last day of our life, we will spend our whole life in a wonderland with flower and the moon. Every second of our time is gilded with honey and sugar; everywhere in this world is as beautiful as rose. At our ears we often hear the singing birds; before our eyes we often see the flowers in smile. In four seasons, we always have bright and fantastic landscapes around us; the sky looks embroidered, even from cruel storm and frost there grows out the splendid Spring.<br />
<br />
Therefore it is truly important for a couple to love each other, and nothing else is so important. If you have a plenty of money but no love, if you are so tightly fastened by the “red string” that you cannot escape from it, then although you are still husband and wife, how can you feel any happy? Since the ancient time, countless virtuous women were victimized as such. In this first day of our marriage, we should think of a way to make our love forever: each day we should let our hearts meet and mirror each other.<br />
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夫妻之间最重要的词是“爱”，它来自于彼此的理解和关心。如果我们相爱直到生命的最后一天，我们将在一个有花有月的仙境度过我们的一生。我们的每一秒都充满了甜蜜与糖;世界上任何地方都像玫瑰一样美丽。我们经常听到鸟儿在耳边歌唱;我们经常看到微笑的花朵出现在眼前。在四季中，总是有明亮的和奇妙的风景在我们周围;天空看起来像绣了花一样，即使是残酷的风暴和霜冻也会带来灿烂的春天。<br />
<br />
因此，夫妻彼此相爱是非常重要的，没有什么比这更重要了。如果你们有很多钱却没有爱情，如果你们被那根“红线”拴得死死的，那么即使你们还是夫妻，你们怎么能感到幸福呢? 自古以来，有无数贤惠的妇女成为这样的受害者。在我们结婚的第一天，我们应该想办法让我们的爱永远:每一天我们应该让我们的心相遇，彼此关照。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 09:57, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
A reader of modern taste may frown at the rhetoric of excess and hyperbole, the naive self-indulgence, and the Chauvinist male voice in this early ''baihua'' prattle. But in this early modern phase, what most fascinates the contemporaries are its novelty and hybridity of diverse images and grammars; i.e. the unfamiliar is within the familiar, the modern within the traditional. Perry Link asserted that Butterfly fiction provides “psychological comfort” to the urban readers who feel the pressure of modernity. Yet, “In the Nine-Flower Curtain” provides something more positive than the “psychological comfort”: the narrator’s persuasive voice throughout this pillow talk.<br />
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具有现代品味的读者可能会对早期的白话闲聊中过分夸张的修辞、幼稚的自我放纵和沙文主义的男性声音感到不适。但在这个早期的现代阶段，最吸引同时代人的是它新奇和混杂的意象和语法;也就是说，熟悉之中带有陌生感，传统之中带有现代感。佩里·林克认为，蝴蝶小说为感到现代化压力的城市读者提供了“心理安慰”。然而，《九花帘幕》提供了比“心理安慰”更积极的东西：带有劝慰性的叙述者的语言贯穿了整个枕边谈话。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 12:40, 26 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
具有现代品味的读者可能会对早期的白话闲聊中过分夸张的修辞、幼稚的自我放纵和大男子主义色彩的男性话语感到不适。但在这个早期的现代阶段，最吸引同时代人的是它新奇和混杂的意象和语法;也就是说，熟悉之中带有陌生感，传统之中带有现代感。佩里·林克认为，蝴蝶小说为感到现代化压力的城市读者提供了“心理安慰”。然而，《九花帘幕》提供了比“心理安慰”更积极的东西：带有劝慰性的叙述者的语言贯穿了整个枕边谈话。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 09:52, 27 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Embedded in a kind of love philosophy mixed with late Ming discourse of passion (''qing'') and the Romantic influence from the West, this love talk asserts that true love is primarily based on mutual understanding and mutual compassion. A persuasive tone, rather than the didactic or authoritative, prevails the text, and when the persuasion itself it a crucial way to reach and fulfill true love and compassion, its effect depends on refined speech and aesthetic values. For instance, the use of rhythmic repetitions aims to be chantable and enchanting; this audio characteristic is discernibly linked to traditional poetry and drama. The variations of the parallel sentences, poetic couplet, idiomatic phrase and resonant words display the author’s grasp of the repertoire of traditional literature. The sentences “My old mother needs your good service, the multiple household needs your great care” resemble the “four-six” parallelism; the pair of colloquial phrase ''haohao'er'' (well, greatly) comes from vernacular drama or fiction. A contemporary reader might be excited by this Western-style couplet, “You are like the warm sunshine in the summer; I am the bright moon in the autumn.” Or readers may be fascinated by the fresh expression such as “We a pair of mandarin ducks were hit by the Cupiter’s arrow.”<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
Narrative strategies are organized around the poetics of persuasion. By the resonant repetitions and variations the narrator changes his manners and tones to make his linguistic performances most persuasive. The nuanced tones range from the stronger “you should,” to the milder “naturally you will” and to the asking “do you understand.” Apart from the prosaic sentences that function in describing things or reasoning the love sermon, the parallel sentences are divided into two kinds: one addresses melodiously to the bride and the other describes lyrically the fantastic scenes.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
In order to set role models for the bride, a gallery of world-famous women are introduced to add another dimension of the persuasive, mixed with eroticism and ethics, literary references of the East and West. Mrs. Tolstoy helps her husbands devote to and achieve in writing. Liang Hongyu, a legendary heroine who joins her husband to defeat the foreign invaders in thirteenth-century China. It is a persuasive way for a cultural balance in transnational traffic: while the latter a local patriot is internationalized, the former is internalized a la traditional “virtuous wife and good mother.” <br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
So far the kind of masculine persuasion is tinged with pedagogy and the sublime, what follows turns to be sweet and flattery. The narrator says he received a letter from his friend, in which the bride is likened to the beautiful Spring Goddess of Greek mythology, to the sweet Julie and the noble Botia, the heroines in Shakespeare’s plays. This symbolic showcase of female world celebrities, whether it be factual or imaginary, articulate to circulate and assimilate not only modern knowledge but refined taste for urban readers; at the same time, the author shows off his familiarity with the Western novelties necessarily acquired by this fashionable writing. Also noticeable is the intertextual traffic in the circulation and assimilation of cultural information occurred in everyday urban space. While the Julia and Botia are transplanted from Lin Shu’s classical translations onto his writing, Zhou popularizes the Western classics and meanwhile elevates the vernacular. One more tricky detail: all about these foreign literary women, as the narrator says, are from his friend’s letter in English, which adds this pillow talk a savor of exoticism and universality. By this Zhou plays out the fancy and fashion with a fashionable style in this fiction.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
Cinematic Representation and Republican Subjectivity<br />
In this story, the ''curtain'' crucially serves thematic and formal purposes. It is a piece of furniture that is decorative and ritualistic in the innermost space of the conjugal life, yet by infusing this interior curtain with a cinematic curtain, the narrator creates an illusion of a double curtain, which facilitated his double voice. His self is represented as an individual and collective being, and at the same time speaks to the private and public audience.<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
The phrases “raising the curtain” (''kaimu'') and “opening our theater” (''kaichang'') are cliches for something to start, but the term ''mu'' referring to the theatrical or cinematic curtain was new, after the oral drama and film were introduced from the West at the turn of the twentieth century. Zhou’s pronouncement of opening a theater addressed to the bride sounds happy for pronouncing their new family life; also it is theatrical as the narrator consequently conjures up a “paradise” within the curtain, where birds sing and flowers smile in the spring. Nevertheless, the repetition of theater at the outset of this ''qinghua'' addresses not only to his bride - the exclusive beholder inside the curtain, but also to an audience, namely this curtain faces the implied beholders. Readers are already aware from the prologue that the author predicts to show this pillow talk to his friends. The visual characteristic of the text is inscribed by the imagery title “In the Nine-Flower Curtain,” and by the metaphor of curtain the intimate space is turned into a theater under the public watch. Against a larger cultural canvas, as a kind of imported cultural material, the curtain was applied as a new decorum in urban spaces, such as art studio, or photograph studio. Consequently, it functioned in shaping modern perception about the relations between space, life-world and work of art.<br />
<br />
“拉开帷幕”（开幕）和“开放剧场”（开场）是老生常谈的话题，但“幕”指的是戏剧或电影的帷幕，是二十世纪初从西方引进话剧和电影之后的新词。周先生说要给新娘开戏院，这听起来像是在宣告他们新家生活的幸福，同时也是戏剧性的，因为叙述者由此在幕布内想象出一个“天堂”，在那里鸟语花香，春意盎然。然而，这段情话一开始就重复的桥段不仅是给新娘即帘子里的专属看客看的，也是给观众看的，换句话说这帘子面对的是隐含的看客。读者从序言中已经知道，作者预言要把这番枕边话给朋友看。文本的视觉特征是通过意象标题“九花帘中”来刻画的，通过帘子的隐喻，私密空间变成了公众注视下的剧场。在更大的文化背景下，幕布作为一种舶来的文化材料，以一种新的装饰品被应用于城市空间，如艺术工作室，或摄影工作室。因此，幕布在塑造现代人对空间、生活世界和艺术作品之间关系的认知方面发挥了作用。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 03:35, 27 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201123_trans&diff=10524320201123 trans2020-11-22T06:07:48Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Xu Jia 徐佳 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
History of Chinese Studies <br />
<br />
国际汉学史<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler 吳漠汀 (Witten/Herdecke University, Peking Normal University 德國維籐大學，中國北京師範大學)<br />
<br />
Abstract: The roots of Chinese Studies lie as early as Chinese people started to reflect on parts of Chinese culture, which was as early as Chinese culture emerged. Especially foreign people defined Chinese culture distinctly in separation of their own culture, like ancient Greek philosophers and early delegations from the Roman Empire.<br />
<br />
摘要：汉学的根源可以追溯到中国人开始对中国文化进行反思的时候，也可以追溯到中国文化出现之初。尤其是一些外国人，如古希腊哲学家和罗马帝国的早期代表团，他们定义下的中国文化是与自己本土文化完全分开的。<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
From the very beginning, Western Scholars of Chinese Studies were closely cooperating with Chinese partners, so that Chinese Studies cannot be limited to Overseas Chinese Studies. Merchants went beyond their trade business and created travel reports and first translations of Chinese literature. Missionaries for the first time studied systematically the Chinese language and culture, translated the Chinese Classics and Four Books into Latin.<br />
起初，研究汉学的西方学者与中国伙伴密切合作，所以汉学研究并不局限于海外汉学研究。商人不仅从事商业贸易，撰写旅行游记，并且首次翻译了中国文学。传教士第一次系统研究了中国语言和文化，将中国文学名著和四书译成拉丁语。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 01:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
Their idealized descriptions of China stimulated the Chinoisérie and the positive reception of China among philosophers of the enlightenment, which saw China as a secular empire. Then, the China-image turned to the worse with Western scholars ascribing China a static nature creating the so-called “Great Divergence”.<br />
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他们对中国的理想化描述促进中国风形成以及促使启蒙哲学家对中国的积极接受，这种变化已然是把中国看作一个世俗帝国。随后，中国形象恶化，西方学者把中国定性为静态，形成了所谓的“大分流”。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
This narrative was challenged in the early 1980s with the start of the Opening and Reform Policy. Finally colleges and professorships were established first in the West and then in China. Today, Chinese Studies in the West and in China are enriching each other and are inseparably connected.<br />
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Key Words: Chinese Studies, Sinology, Hanxue, Guoxue, delegations, philosophers, merchants, travel reports, translations, missionaries, enlightenment, Chinoisérie, Great Divergence<br />
上世纪80年代初，随着改革开放政策的开始，这种说法受到了挑战。最后，学院和教授职位首先在西方建立，然后在中国。今天，西方的中国学与中国的中国学相互 促进，密不可分。<br />
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关键词:汉学、汉学、汉学、国学、代表团、哲学家、商人、游记、翻译、传教士、启蒙、中国文化、大分流--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 08:07, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Definition 定義<br />
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Chinese Studies, also called Sinology (in German: Sinologie) or China Studies (in German: Chinawissenschaften, Chinakunde), is the academic discipline to study China in its geography, history, society, culture(s), language(s), literature(s) etc. It is mainly divided into the study of ancient and premodern China and of modern and contemporary China.<br />
定义 Definition<br />
汉语研究是一门研究中国地理、历史、社会、文化、语言等的学术科目，人们也称之为汉学（德语叫做 Sinologie）或者叫中国研究（德语叫做 Chinawissenschaften,Chinakunde）。汉语研究主要分为中国古代和近代研究，以及中国现当代研究。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 03:40, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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定义 <br />
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汉语研究也称作汉学（德语叫做 Sinologie）或中文研究（德语叫做 Chinawissenschaften,Chinakunde），这是一门研究中国地理、历史、社会、文化、语言等各方面的学科，并主要分为中国古代研究、中国近代研究，以及中国现当代研究。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 03:17, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In the Chinese language, internationally the term “Hanxue” is used (first used in Japan as kangaku漢學/汉学, parallely to the term “Hanyu” 漢語/汉语 for Chinese). The term is not meant discriminative against non-Han minorities, since we have terms like “Hanyu” or “Germanic Studies” (the Germans were an ethnic tribe of many in todays Deutschland). In Chinese, domestically more often the terms “guoxue” 國學/国学 or “Zhongguo xue” 中國學 etc. are used.<br />
在中文里，“汉学”这一词在国际上被广泛使用（它最早在日本被称为汉学，类似中文被称为“汉语”)。这一词语并不意味着排斥非汉人的少数群体，因为我们也有类似于“汉语” 或“日耳曼研究” （日耳曼人是指在当今德国占数较多的一个的民族)的词语。中国国内“国学”或“中国学”等词更为广泛使用。By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:44, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
There is a trend to divide Chinese Studies in sub disciplines dealing with traditional or modern China, while the term “Sinology” is more often applied to the traditional part. In quantity, scholars dealing with traditional China become less and those dealing with modern or contemporary China more. Of course, there are other exotic terms for phenomena related to China or Chinese people, like the term “Tang People Street” 唐人街 for Chinatowns.<br />
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汉语研究之下往往又分为不同的子学科，致力于研究中国古代或现代，然而“汉学”这一术语更适用于中国古代。在数量上，研究中国古代的学者越来越少，而研究中国现代或当代的学者则越来越多。当然，还存在一些与中国或中国人相关现象的外来词，如“Tang People Street” 即唐人街。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:10, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
Some Chinese scholars interpret the term “Hanxue” as reserved for the study of China by foreigners, implying often that the real “guoxue” could only be conducted by Chinese scholars, arguing you need to grow up in China in order to understand it. However, confronted with the case of overseas Chinese scholars or Western scholars growing up and working in China, the limitation of this racist distinction becomes obvious. <br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
Although in history we have rare examples of foreigners who were able to study China without Chinese partners (starting with language teachers) or without visiting the country, and Chinese Studies today often is conducted by mixed teams of domestic and foreign scholars.<br />
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尽管有史以来，外国人不结交中国伙伴或是没去过中国就研究中国的例子鲜少出现。如今研究中国的通常都是都是由国内外学者组成的团队。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:39, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虽然在历史上，我们很少有外国人能够在没有中国伙伴的情况下(这些伙伴开始会是语言教师)或在没有访问过中国的情况下研究中国的例子，但如今的中国研究往往是由国内外学者以混合团队的形式进行的。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:45, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管在历史上我们很少有外国人能够在没有中国伙伴（从语言老师开始）或没有访问中国的情况下来中国学习的例子，但是今天的中国研究通常由国内外学者组成的混合团队进行。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
The discipline itself, as established at universities, had a natural focus on language and literature (philology). Today, we have a broad range of sub disciplines like Chinese literature [epigraphy], language, culture, philosophy/ethics/aesthetics, history, political science, sociology, economy) 中国文学[金石学]，语言，文化，哲学、伦理学、美学、历史、政治学、社会学、经济学<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
Emergence<br />
Although the first university professorships as we know them today were established only in the 1814, we find the origins of Chinese Studies in early descriptions of China by philosophers. That the empires knew early about each other is proven by delegations, exchanged even two thousand years ago between the Roman Empire and China.<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
Later we have records and first translations of travelling merchants (Marco Polo lived in the 13th century and travelled on land and by ship) and then by missionaries (starting with the 16th century). Later we have western philosophers (like Leibniz) and reports in journals dedicated to China.<br />
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后来，我们有了旅行商人的记录和第一批翻译作品（13世纪的马可·波罗（Marco Polo）在陆地和海上旅行），然后有了传教士（从16世纪开始）。 再后来，我们有了西方哲学家（例如莱布尼兹（Leibniz）），他们在研究中国的期刊上进行报道。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:33, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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后来出现了行商的记载和第一批翻译作品（13世纪的马可·波罗（Marco Polo）在陆地和海上航行），之后出现了传教士（始于16世纪）。 再后来，出现了西方哲学家（例如莱布尼兹（Leibniz）），以及他们探索中国所留下来的有关记载。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 08:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The first scholarly view on China had the Christian missionaries, who studied Chinese language and culture in China. Therefore, the first translations of Chinese classics were done into Latin. The term “sinology” since the Latin term “sina” for China seems to point to the Qin Dynastie since 221 BCE. The main purpose of the missionaries was to baptize and therefore they also translated the bible into Chinese and reported on the so far mostly unknown China to Europe, reports which met a huge interest and demand in Europe.<br />
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基督教传教士是最早对中国持有学术观点的人，他们在中国研究中国语言和文化。因此，第一批翻译的中国经典著作也就翻译成了拉丁文。汉学“sinology”一词源于拉丁语中的“sina”，意指公元前221年以来的秦朝。传教士的主要目的是施洗，因此他们也将《圣经》翻译成中文，并向欧洲报道迄今几乎不为人知的中国，这些报道满足了欧洲巨大的兴趣和需求。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:23, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Resources 资源<br />
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There are a lot of national histories of Chinese Studies so far, but no detailed international or global history (see references).<br />
The Overseas Chinese Studies Center 海外漢學研究中心 at Peking Foreign Language University 北京外語大學 under the leadership of Zhang Xiping張西平 has been renamed in the 2010s to Research Center for the Study of Chinese Culture 中國文化研究中心#. Here a list of works on the History of Sinology:<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
First contacts: Trade (without written documents)<br />
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Genetic evidence shows that there were trade relations from Mesopotamia to Europe and China as early as 11000 BCE (cows, horses) and 10000 BCE (crops). <br />
China very early became an export region, as we can trace the genes of animals back to China 10000 BCE (pigs), 8000 BCE (chicken), and of silk cloth 5000 BCE.<br />
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首次接触：贸易（无书面文件）<br />
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基因证据表明：早在公元前11000年了，美索不达米亚就和欧洲，中国有牛羊贸易关系，公元前10000年，就有了农作物贸易关系。追溯到公元前1000年的猪和公元前8000年的鸡身上的动物基因，以及公元前5000年的丝绸来看，中国很早就是个出口地区了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 02:03, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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首次接触：贸易(无书面文件)<br />
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遗传证据表明，早在公元前11000年(出现如像牛、马等动物贸易)和公元前10000年(出现农作物的贸易)，美索不达米亚与欧洲和中国之间就有贸易关系。追溯到公元前10000年猪的贸易和公元前8000年鸡的贸易，从中发现的动物基因，以及公元前5000年所交易的丝绸来看，中国很早就成为了一个出口地区。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:18, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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遗传学证据显示，早在公元前11000年美索不达米亚就和欧洲就有了牛马贸易往来；早在公元前10000年，美索不达米亚就和中国有了作物贸易往来。追溯动物基因，我们可以发现，公元前10000年中国就有了猪，公元前8000年就有了鸡，公元前5000年就有了丝绸。因此，中国很早就成为了商品出口地区。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:28, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The Emergence of Chinese Studies: Philosophers<br />
Aristotle (384-322 BC) writes in the 4th century BC: “Those who live in a cold climate and in Europe are full of spirit, but wanting in intelligence and skill; and therefore they retain comparative freedom, but have no political organization, and are incapable of ruling over others. Whereas the natives of Asia are intelligent and inventive, but they are wanting in spirit, and therefore they are always in a state of subjection and slavery.”[ Aristoteles: Politeia, Book VII, Part VII, translated by Benjamin Jowett, http://evans-experientialism. freewebspace.com/aristotle_politics07.htm, last visited Dec 5, 2010. In German: „Die Völkerschaften nämlich, welche innerhalb der kalten Gegenden in Europa wohnen, sind zwar voll Muth, aber weniger mit Geist und Kunstfertigkeit begabt. Daher behaupten sie zwar leichter ihre Freiheit, aber sie sind zur Bildung staatsbürgerlicher Gemeinwesen untüchtig [...]. Die Völkerschaften Asiens dagegen sind klugen und kunstfertigen Geistes, aber ohne Muth. Daher leben sie in Unterwürfigkeit und Sklaverei.“, from: Aristoteles: Werke. Griechisch und Deutsch, vol. 6, ed. by Franz Susemihl, Aalen 1978 (Reprint of the edition Leipzig 1879), p. 409.]<br />
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汉学的起源：哲学家<br />
亚里士多德（公元前384年-公元前322年）在公元前4世纪写道：“那些生活在欧洲寒冷地区的人们精气神十足但是缺乏智慧和技巧；所以虽然他们保留了相对的自由，却没有政治组织，也没有管理的能力。然而，亚洲人聪明且富有创造力，但是他们缺乏勇气，所以他们总是顺从和被奴役。” [ 亚里士多德：《政治学》，第七卷，第七部分，由本杰明·乔伊特翻译，http://evans-experientialism. freewebspace.com/aristotle_politics07.htm，最近一次访问日期2010年12月5日。德语原文为： „Die Völkerschaften nämlich, welche innerhalb der kalten Gegenden in Europa wohnen, sind zwar voll Muth, aber weniger mit Geist und Kunstfertigkeit begabt. Daher behaupten sie zwar leichter ihre Freiheit, aber sie sind zur Bildung staatsbürgerlicher Gemeinwesen untüchtig [...]. Die Völkerschaften Asiens dagegen sind klugen und kunstfertigen Geistes, aber ohne Muth. Daher leben sie in Unterwürfigkeit und Sklaverei.“，引自：《亚里士多德作品集-希腊人和德国人》，第六卷，由Franz Susemihl, Aalen在1978年出版（1879年在莱比锡再版），第409页。]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:39, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
The Emergence of Religious Missions with the Study of China as a by-product<br />
Between 1593-1607 the Spanish Dominican mission in Manila operated a press and produced 4 books on Christian belief. <br />
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1593-1607西班牙多明我会使团在马尼拉经营的出版社出版了4本基于基督教信仰的书<br />
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In 1583 the influential Jesuit Matteo Ricci arrived in Canton and spent the rest of his life in China.<br />
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1583利玛窦（耶稣会会士）抵达广州，在中国度过余生。<br />
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宗教传教的出现<br />
1593年至1607年间，西班牙多米尼加使团在马尼拉经营的出版社出版了4本基于基督教信仰的书。<br />
1583年，颇具影响力的耶稣会士利玛窦（Matteo Ricci），抵达广州，在中国度过余生。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 09:30, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
Interest by European emperors in the beginning of the 18th century<br />
In France, the study of China and the Chinese language began with the patronage of Louis XIV. In 1711, he appointed a young Chinese, Arcadio Huang to catalog the royal collection of Chinese texts. Huang was assisted by Étienne Fourmont, who published a Chinese grammar in 1742.<br />
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在法国，对中国和中国语言的研究始于路易十四的赞助。在1711，他任命了一位年轻的中国人Arcadio Huang对皇家藏书的中文文本进行目录整理。黄的助手艾蒂安Fourmont，在1742年发表了一本中国语法书。<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1732 a missionary priest of the Sacred Congregation "De propaganda fide" from the kingdom of Naples, Matteo Ripa (1692–1746), created in Naples the first Sinology School of the European Continent: the "Chinese Institute", the first nucleus of what would become today's Università degli studi di Napoli L'Orientale, or Naples Eastern University. Ripa had worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the imperial court of the Kangxi Emperor between 1711 and 1723. Ripa returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, all teachers of their native language and formed the Institute sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to teach Chinese to missionaries and thus advance the propagation of Christianity in China.<br />
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1732年，来自那不勒斯的传布信仰圣部的传教牧师Matteo Ripa马国贤（1692–1746），在那不勒斯创建了欧洲大陆的第一个汉学学校：“中国学院”，它后来成为了今天的那不勒斯东方大学。马国贤曾在1711和1723之间担任康熙皇帝的宫廷画家和雕刻师。马国贤从中国回到那不勒斯时，带回了四个年轻的中国基督徒。他们都是汉语教师，组建了学院，在教皇克莱门特十二世的批准下向牧师们教授中文，从而推进了基督教在中国的传播。<br />
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1732年，那不勒斯王国“圣公会”的传教士马国贤（Matteo Ripa)在那不勒斯创建了欧洲大陆第一所汉学学校“中国学院”，即后来的那不勒斯东方大学。马国贤曾在1711至1723年间担任康熙皇帝的宫廷画师和雕刻师。当他回国的时候，他带回了四个年轻的中国基督徒。他们在教皇克莱门特的授意下，组建学院、担任汉语教师，向牧师们教授中文，从而推进了基督教在中国的传播。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:45, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1732年，那不勒斯王国“传信部”的传教士马国贤（Matteo Ripa)在那不勒斯建立了欧洲大陆第一所汉学学校“中国学院”，即当今的那不勒斯东方大学。马国贤曾在1711至1723年间担任康熙皇帝的宫廷画师和雕刻师。在回到那不勒斯时，他带了四个年轻的中国基督徒。在教皇克莱门特十二世的授意下，他们组建学院，担任汉语教师，向牧师们教授中文，从而推进了基督教在中国的传播。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
Chinoiserie<br />
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Chinese objects of art as symbols of Chinese cultural tradition early spread to Europe, reaching the peak in the 18th century during the period of Chinoisérie“中国风”. Fascinated Collectors saved several artefacts for following generations. Their selection criteria allow to approach the guiding aesthetic principles behind their fascination. European imitations of these artefacts show in their similarities and differences to the originals and to the own cultural traditions the principles they followed to catch the reason for the experienced exoticism during the consumption of the cultural goods. Imitated imitated Chinese-style architecture, imitated Chinese paintings and imitated characters in paintings, tattoos and design, reveal what principles Westerners believed to guide Chinese traditional art.<br />
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作为中国传统文化象征的中国艺术品很早就传播到了欧洲，在“中国风”时期达到了顶峰。对此十分着迷的收藏家们为后人保存了几件文物。他们的选择标准很接近他们所欣赏的指导性美学原则。欧洲的工艺模仿品表明了他们自己的文化传统和原型的相似性和差异性，他们遵循的原则符合在文化商品的消费过程中对异国情调的体验。在绘画、纹身和设计方面的模仿特点、模仿中国风格的建筑和仿作的中国画，揭示了西方人眼里的中国传统艺术的指导原则。<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
Europe: Enlightened Philosophers end of the 18th century 欧洲：第18世紀末的启蒙哲学家<br />
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During the enlightenment process in Europe, philosophers in their search for a vision of a world without religious control, discovered China and wanted to understand it as a secular ideal alternative to Europe. (Leibniz: Novissima Sinica, The Orphan of Zhao, Voltaire: wrote play “L'orphelin de la Chine” portrait of Confucius, Giambattista Vico.<br />
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启蒙哲学家在欧洲汉学（莱布尼茨：《中国近事》，伏尔泰：《赵氏孤儿》、孔子肖像，维柯。<br />
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1789-… Enlightened philosophers: Saw China as an enlightened kingdom with ethics instead of church and religion<br />
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1789…启蒙哲学家：看到中国作为一个有伦理的开明王国而不是教会和宗教伦理<br />
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一个不受宗教控制的世界时<br />
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在欧洲的启蒙运动中，哲学家们在寻找一个不受宗教控制的世界时，了解到了中国这一国度，并将其视为欧洲脱离世俗的替代品。（莱尼兹：诺威西玛·辛尼卡，《赵氏孤儿》，伏尔泰：写下孔子朱安·巴蒂斯塔·维柯的剧本《中国的左撇子》。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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一个不受宗教控制的世界时<br />
在欧洲启蒙运动的进程中，哲学家们在寻找一个不受宗教控制的世界时，发现了中国，并希望可以将其视为欧洲脱离世俗理想替代品。莱尼兹：诺威西玛·辛尼卡，《赵氏孤儿》，伏尔泰：写下孔子朱安·巴蒂斯塔·维柯的剧本《中国的左撇子》 --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 09:10, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
Europe: Professorships<br />
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The study of Assyriology and Egyptology developed before the serious study of China because of their connections to the Bible; the study of Indology represented a breakthrough in the development of linguistics. Chinese texts, perhaps because they did not have these connections, were the last to be studied in European universities until around 1860 except in France (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 6, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
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由于和圣经的紧密联系，亚述学、埃及学的研究在正规的中国研究前发展充分；印度学研究代表了语言学发展的突破口。可能是因为中国文本和它们没有联系，所以直到1860左右，它才成为除了法国外的欧洲大学最后的研究对象。<br />
<br />
由于和圣经联系紧密，亚述学、埃及学的研究在中国正式研究前就已经展开了；印度学研究是语言学发展的突破口。或许是因为中国文本缺乏这些联系，所以直到1860年左右，它才成为除法国外欧洲大学最后的研究对象。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:35, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
The first college to study Chinese was established in Italy. At the Academy in St. Petersburg in Russia, on March 23, 1741, the lecturer 伊拉利昂·罗索欣 started to teach Chinese Studies. He was also part of a mission sent to emperor Kangxi in Qing Dynasty.de<br />
<br />
首个教授汉语的大学创建于意大利。1741年3月23日，在俄罗斯圣彼得堡的学院，讲师伊拉利昂·罗索欣开始教授汉语学。他还参加了清朝对康熙帝进行的宣教活动。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 01:22, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
首个学习汉语的学院创建于意大利。1741年3月23日，讲师伊拉利昂·罗索欣在俄罗斯圣彼得堡学院开始讲授汉学。该讲师也曾参加清朝对康熙帝进行的宣教活动。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:54, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
On December 11, 1814, the first Professorship of Chinese and Manchu was established at the Collège de France, the sinologist 雷慕莎 Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat, who taught himself Chinese, filled the position, becoming the first professor of Chinese in Europe. By then the first Russian Sinologist, Nikita Bichurin, had been living in Beijing for ten years. <br />
<br />
1814年，研究中国和满族的讲学席位在法国的大学成立。雷慕莎自学了中文，占据了这一位置，成为了欧洲第一个汉学教授。而之后的第一个俄罗斯汉学家尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。<br />
1814年，首个研究中国和满族的讲学席位在法国的大学成立，雷慕莎自学中文，登上了这一席位，成为了欧洲第一个汉学教授。而之后的第一个俄罗斯汉学家尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 00:47, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1814年12月11日，首个汉学和满学的讲座席位在法兰西公学院成立，汉学家雷慕莎（Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusa）自学了中文，登上了这一席位，成为了欧洲第一任汉学教授。而之后俄罗斯的汉学奠基人尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
Abel-Rémusat's counterparts in England and Germany were Samuel Kidd (1797–1843) and Wilhelm Schott (1807–1889) respectively, though the first important secular sinologists in these two countries were James Legge and Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz. Scholars like Legge often relied on the work of ethnic Chinese scholars such as Wang Tao (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 8-14, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
<br />
雷慕莎的同仁分别有英国的Samuel Kidd（1797–1843）和德国的Wilhelm Schott（1807–1889），虽然在这两个国家头等重要的世俗汉学家是理雅各和加贝伦茨。理雅各等学者常常依靠华人学者如王韬等人的作品。<br />
<br />
<br />
阿贝尔·雷穆萨在英国和德国的同行分别是塞缪尔·基德（Samuel Kidd，1797-1843）和威廉·肖特（Wilhelm Schott，1807-1889），不过这两个国家最早出现的重要世俗汉学家是詹姆斯·莱格和汉斯·格奥尔格·科农·冯·德加布伦茨。像莱格这样的学者经常依赖于像王韬这样的华裔学者的作品。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:08, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
Stanislas Julien served as the Chair of Chinese at the Collège de France for over 40 years, starting his studies with Rémusat and succeeding him in 1833. not only of classical texts but also works of vernacular literature, and for his knowledge of Manchu. Édouard Chavannes succeeded to the position after the death of Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys in 1893. Chavannes pursued broad interests in history as well as language (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 8-14, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
<br />
儒莲担任法兰西学院的汉学教授超过40年，他与雷慕莎一起开始他的研究，并在1833年继承了雷慕莎的工作。他以不仅针对古典文学、而且涉猎白话文学作品的翻译工作和和对满族的了解而闻名。沙畹在德理文于1893去世后继承了他的位置，沙畹在历史和语言领域上兴趣广泛。<br />
<br />
斯塔尼斯拉斯·朱利安（Stanislas Julien）在法兰西学院（Collègede France）担任中文主席40多年，从雷穆萨（Rémusat）开始学习，并于1833年继任。他不仅学习古典文学作品，还学习白话文学作品，并了解满族。 爱德华·沙畹在1893年侯爵·圣赫尔·圣丹尼斯（Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys）去世后继任。沙畹追求历史和语言的广泛利益（Zurndorfer，中国参考书目1999年第8-14页，引自Wikipedia“ Sinology”， 2018年8月6日）。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 09:13, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Rulian served as a professor of Sinology at the French Academy for more than 40 years. He started his research with Remusa and inherited Remusa's work in 1833. He is famous for his translation work not only for classical literature, but also for vernacular literary works and his understanding of Manchu. Chavannes inherited his position after De Liwen died in 1893. Chavannes has a wide range of interests in history and language. --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 09:13, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
After the Opium war 1840, the Department of Oriental Studies at Cambridge University and the SOAS/London University were established.<br />
<br />
In 1875, Leiden University in the Netherlands started and in 1890 the sinologist 考狄 founded the first academic journal by Westerners on China, the Toung Pao 通报.<br />
<br />
1840年鸦片战争后，剑桥大学东方研究院和英国伦敦大学亚非学院成立。<br />
<br />
1875年，荷兰莱顿大学成立，1890年，汉学家考狄创办了第一个由西方人撰写的关于中国的学术期刊—《通报》。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:10, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
In 1912, Richard Wilhelm, who had lived in China for about 30 years, taught at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Frankfurt and established a Chinese Seminar “中国学社” and together with Beiping’s Furen University the journal华裔学志.<br />
<br />
At the end of the 19th century, in Sweden the University of Gotheburg established East Asian Language and Culture Seminar, starting with Sven Hedin, who explored Western China, followed by the the Chinese linguist 高本汉.<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
The image of China as an essentially Confucian society conveyed by Jesuit scholars dominated Western thought in these times. While some in Europe learned to speak Chinese, most studied written classical Chinese. These scholars were in what is called the “commentarial tradition” through critical annotated translation. <br />
<br />
那时，中国在西方的形象是靠耶稣会学者传达的，本质上是儒家社会的形象，这样的形象主导了西方思想。在欧洲，有一些人学习说汉语，但大部分人学习写文言文，这些学者学习时会使用批判性的注释，属于“注释传统”的行列。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:05, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在那个时候，中国在西方的形象在本质上是以耶稣会学者传达的儒家社会为主。在欧洲，有些人学学习说中文，大多数人则学写书面文言文。这些学者们通过批判的注释性翻译处在了所谓的“注释传统”。<br />
<br />
当时，耶稣会学者所传达的中国本质上是儒家社会的形象主导了当时的西方思想。在欧洲，虽然有些人学说汉语，但大多数人学的是文言文。这些学者是在所谓的“评论传统”通过批评注释翻译。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:32, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
耶稣会士学者传达的中国作为一个儒家社会的形象在当时根深于西方人的思想中。 尽管有些欧洲人学会了说中文，但大多数人仍然学习古典汉语。 这些学者通过批判性的注释翻译而处于所谓的“注释传统”中。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 01:31, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
This emphasis on translating classical texts inhibited the use of social science methodology or comparing these texts of other traditions. One scholar described this type of sinology as “philological hairsplitting” preoccupied with marginal or curious aspects (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 14-15, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018). Secular scholars gradually came to outnumber missionaries, and in the 20th century sinology slowly gained a substantial presence in Western universities.<br />
<br />
这种强调翻译经典文本的做法阻碍了社会科学方法论的使用或与其他传统的文本的比较。有学者称这类汉学描述为专注于边缘或好奇方面的“语言学上的吹毛求疵”。世俗学者逐渐多于传教士，并在西方大学为20世纪的汉学慢慢积累了实质性存在。<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Sinology in Germany <br />
<br />
Today, in Germany there are about 30 universities and universities of applied sciences with Chinese Studies.<br />
<br />
Since the beginning of the 19th century, people started to conduct research on China. In 1829–1831, the orientalist Carl Friedrich Neumann bought 12,000 Chinese books in Canton, which he shipped to Munich and which became the foundation of the East Asian Collection of the Bavarian State Library as well as the Berlin State Library. Since 1833 Wilhelm Schott taught Chinese and Chinese philosophy in Berlin.<br />
<br />
德国的汉学<br />
如今，在德国有大约30所大学以及应用科学大学开设了汉学专业。19世纪伊始，人们开始研究中国。1829年至1831年，东方学专家卡尔·弗里德里希·诺伊曼于广州购置了12000本中文书籍，将其运至慕尼黑。这一举措使慕尼黑成为了巴伐利亚州立图书馆和柏林州立图书馆东亚收藏所的基础。1833年起，威廉·肖特在柏林教授中文与中国哲学。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 07:10, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Pioneering research on China were the geological-geographical research trips by Ferdinand von Richthofen since the early 1860s. In 1887 the first Chinese language classes and sinological classes started at the Seminar for Oriental languages in Berlin. In 1889, the first German Chair of Sinology was established at the University of Leipzig, the first full professor was Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz. In 1912 the 2nd chair was established in Berlin with J. J. M. de Groot and in 1914 at the Colonial Institute in Hamburg with Otto Franke.<br />
<br />
19世纪60年代初以来，费迪南·冯·李希霍芬的地质地理研究之旅是对中国的开创性研究。1887年，柏林东方语言研究会开设了第一批汉语班和汉学班。1889年，德国第一个汉学讲座在莱比锡大学成立，第一个全职教授是汉斯·格奥尔格·科农·冯·德·加贝伦茨。1912年，第二任主席由格鲁特在柏林设立，1914年由奥托·福兰阁在汉堡殖民地研究所设立。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 02:12, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
19世纪60年代初以来，费迪南·冯·李希霍芬的地质地理研究之旅是对中国的开创性研究。1887年，柏林东方语言研究会开设了第一批汉语班和汉学班。1889年，德国第一个汉学委员会在莱比锡大学成立，第一个全职教授是汉斯·格奥尔格·科农·冯·德·加贝伦茨。1912年，第二个委员会由格鲁特在柏林设立，1914年由奥托·福兰阁在汉堡殖民地研究所设立了另一委员会。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 12:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
During colonial times, in which the German Empire held the Chinese colony “Kiautschou”, the interest in Chinese culture grew. The exile of many Chinese scientists in the period of National Socialism harmed the German Sinology sustainably. Since the opening up of the People's Republic of China in the 1980s, Sinology in Germany is no longer among the orchid subjects and new students of Sinology have good job prospects. <br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
The change of attitude among early China experts with the example of the early reception of the Red Chamber Dreams<br />
<br />
The Red Chamber Dreams shortly after publication in 1791 spread fast among the foreigners’ community including Robert Morrison (who incorporated parts of it into his language teaching material and dictionary already by 1813-1815).<br />
<br />
早期中国专家态度的转变-以早期接受《红楼梦》为例<br />
《红楼梦》在1791年出版后不久，就在国外迅速传播包括罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）。罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）早在1813年至1815年就将其部分内容纳入了他的语言教材和词典中。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 08:59, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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早期中国作家的态度转变，以《红楼梦》的早期收录为例<br />
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1791年，《红楼梦》出版后不久，便在包括罗伯特·莫里森(Robert Morrison)在内的国外社会迅速流传。（莫里森早在1813年-1815年就将《红楼梦》的部分内容引入其语言教材和词典中）--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
早期中国专家态度的转变-以早期接受《红楼梦》为例<br />
《红楼梦》在1791年出版后不久，就在国外迅速传播包括罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）。罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）早在1813年至1815年就将其部分内容纳入了他的语言教材和词典中。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 07:18, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The novel also was made known in partial translation both in English and French (by John Francis Davis) in Europe in 1819. However, for a few decades, the Western reviews of the book were mostly negative, revealing an ethnocentric approach, valuing Chinese literature below Western literature.<br />
<br />
1819年，《红楼梦》的英语和法语（John Francis Davis译）的部分翻译使这部小说知名于欧洲。然而，几十年之后，西方对于该书的评论大多是消极的，他们认为该书呈现出种族中心主义的观点，并且认为西方文学高于中国文学。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:27, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1819年,该小说还被译成英语和法语（约翰·弗朗西斯·戴维斯译（John Francis Davis）），因而在欧洲为人所知。然而，几十年来，西方对该书的评论大多是负面的，这揭示了西方的一种民族中心主义，即认为西方文学高于中国文学。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:43, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1819年，这部小说在欧洲被部分翻译成英语和法语（作者:约翰·弗朗西斯·戴维斯）。然而，几十年来，西方对该书的评论大多是负面的，即揭示了一种民族中心主义的态度，对中国文学的评价低于西方文学。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 01:36, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
It took almost a century to get to know each other better, to change attitudes from ethnocentric to dialectical, to stop exploiting the novel and to come to the insight that Chinese literature with Dream as one of its masterpieces was not only comparable to other world literatures but also could bring value to Western readers (Mayers 1867).<br />
<br />
经过几乎一个世纪，双方增进了解，并从“民族中心主义”的优越感向辩证思想转变，停止利用小说互相攻击，开始深入了解中国文学，不仅将《红楼梦》这类杰作与其他世界文学相比较，而且，更重要的是将价值观带给西方读者。（梅辉立(Mayers) 1867年）。<br />
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几乎一个世纪,增进了彼此的了解。双方从“民族中心主义”转向辩证思想，停止利用小说互相攻击，并开始深入了解中国文学。不仅将《红楼梦》这类杰作与其他世界文学相比较，更是将价值观带给西方读者。（梅辉立(Mayers) 1867年）。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 02:17, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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近一个世纪，彼此之间增进了了解，从”民族中心主义“的优越感转向辩证思想，停止利用小说互相攻击，并开始深入了解以《红楼梦》为代表的中国文学，它不仅可以与世界其他文学相媲美，而且还可以为西方读者传递价值观。（梅辉立（Mayers） 1867年）。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 13:30, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Main Controversies<br />
<br />
a) The Great Divergence<br />
<br />
One of the main controversies in Chinese Studies is that for a long time China appeared economically backward (compared to Western European nations). Sociologists (Marx), philosophers (Hegel), economists (Kenneth Pomeranz: The Great Divergence) and sinologists tried to explain this with the static nature of Chinese economy due to Confucianism.<br />
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主要的争议<br />
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a)大分流<br />
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汉学研究的主要争议之一是，长期以来，中国出现了经济落后的情况(与西欧国家相比)。许多社会学家(如马克思)，哲学家(如黑格尔)，经济学家(如肯尼斯·彭慕兰：《大分流》)和汉学家试图用儒家思想所导致的中国经济的静态性来解释这一现象。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:06, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Scholars have questioned this: Angus Maddison suggested that China was leading (rotating ranks with India) by GDP from 0 to 1550 so that the current development was a return to old status. Philipp C.C. Huang concentrated on rural developments and argued that only the concentration of production capibilities during the socialist reforms laid the foundation for today’s Chinese economical miracle. Today, sinologists argue that Confucianism is one of the main reasons for the economical miracle.<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
“The Chinese have as a general characteristic, a remarkable skill in imitation, which is exercised not merely in daily life, but also in art. They have not yet succeeded in representing the beautiful, as beautiful; for in their painting, perspective and shadow are wanting.<br />
“中国人有种普遍特征，即拥有卓越的模仿能力，这种能力不仅体现在日常生活中，也体现在艺术中。但由于其绘画领域中缺乏透视法和阴影画法，他们无法充分展现事物的美。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:25, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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“总之，这个民族有种罕见的模仿能力，这不仅体现在他们的日常生活中，也用运到了艺术创作当中。美作为美的事物去展示对于这个民族来说并不成功，因为在绘画中缺少了透视和阴影。<br />
<br />
中国人有一个总体特征，那就是其超凡脱俗的模仿能力。这不仅体现在他们的日常生活中，也运用到了艺术创作当中。由于其绘画中缺乏透视法和阴影，他们无法淋漓尽致地表现出事物的美。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:28, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
“中国人有种普遍特征：一种卓越的模仿能力，这种能力不仅运用于日常生活中，也运用在艺术领域。但由于画中缺乏透视和阴影，中国人没能成功展现出美感”--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 01:47, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
And although a Chinese painter copies European pictures (as the Chinese do everything else) correctly; although he observes accurately how many scales a carp has; how many indentations there are in the leaves of a tree; what is the form of various trees, and how the branches bend; - the Exalted, the Ideal and Beautiful is not the domain of his art and skill. The Chinese are, on the other hand, too proud to learn anything from Europeans, although they must often recognize their superiority.” <br />
Hegel, The Philosophy of History (transl. J. Sibree, p. 155)<br />
<br />
即使中国画家原封不动地模仿欧洲的绘画，如若他知道鲤鱼有多少鳞片……，崇高的、理想的、美的事物也不是他的艺术土壤和擅长之处。” 黑格爾，《历史哲学讲演录》<br />
<br />
尽管一个中国画家原封不动地地复制了欧洲的图画（就像中国人所做的所有事那样）；尽管他能准确地观察到鲤鱼有多少鳞片；一棵树的叶子上有多少凹痕；各种树木的形状是什么，树枝是如何弯曲的；崇高、理想和美丽不是他的艺术领域和技巧。另一方面，中国人过于骄傲，不愿向欧洲人学习任何东西，虽然他们必须经常认识到自己的优越性。J、 西布里，第155页）--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 01:34, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
b) Chinese and Western scholarship<br />
<br />
Traditional Chinese education (focusing on self development and social harmony) differed much from Western scholarship (search for truth and universal human values). Chinese scholars of guoxue often do not recognize Western scholars of Hanxue as their colleagues. Today there are trends to return to Confucian education, teaching and scholarship in China, taking the Hanlin academy as example (see: Hong Kong College).<br />
<br />
b）中西学问<br />
<br />
中西方在传统教育方面又很大不同，前者侧重于追求自我发展和社会和谐，后者寻求真理和普世价值观。中国国学学者通常不把西方汉学学者当作同行。如今，儒家教育以及儒学研究在中国如火如荼，以翰林书院为例（见：香港大学）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 07:19, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
b）中西学术<br />
中国传统教育（注重自我发展和社会和谐）与西方学术（追求真理和普遍的人类价值）有很大不同。中国国学学者往往不承认西方汉学学者是他们的同僚。今天，中国教育有向儒学教育回归的趋势，以翰林院为例（参见：香港大学）。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:17, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Also Traditional Chinese Medicine has continued to be an alternative to Western medicine, although the general grouping into Yin and Yang has been proven to be arbitrary since objects/organs etc. historically were assigned to Yang for a time and to Yin at other times. However, acupuncture has been recognized by Western medicine to be effective. Western reproach towards Chinese scholarship is that it is not conducted in a free environment.<br />
<br />
此外，传统中医仍然是西方医学的替代品。尽管因为物体/有机体等在历史上一段时间被指定为阳，一段时间被指定为阴，一般的阴阳分类已经被证明是随意的。然而，针灸仍被西医认为是有效的。西方对中国学术的指责是，它不是在一个自由的环境中进行的。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 16:51, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
From Ethnocentrism and Exoticism to Universalism and Dialogue: <br />
the General Trend of Chinese Studies in the West - <br />
A Case Study of the Early Western Reception of Red Chamber Dreams<br />
<br />
从种族中心主义和异国主义到普遍主义和对话：<br />
西方中国学之总趋势——以《红楼梦》早期西方接受为例<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler <br />
(Witten/Herdecke University, Peking Normal University, Nanking Normal University)<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
“Chinese Studies” (Sinology, Chinakunde, Études Chinoises etc.) in general from its origins until today sees a main trend from ethnocentrism and exoticism to universalism and dialogue. Undergoing historical periods of Chinoisérie and then China-bashing during imperialist and colonialist times, Chinese Studies at universities and in associations like the German China Association has established a more objective view on China. <br />
摘要<br />
“汉学” （又名“国学”、“中国学” 等等）自起源至今，大体上经过这样一条发展主线：从种族中心主义和追求异域风情发展至普世主义和对话机制。在经过中国风(Chinoisérie)时代，到批判和抨击中国（China-bashing）的帝国主义和殖民主义时代之后，汉学在大学和学术协会（如德中协会）里建立了一个对中国更为客观的看法。<br />
摘要<br />
“汉学” （又名“国学”、“中国学” 等等）自起源至今，大体上经过这样一条发展主线：从种族中心主义和追求异域风情发展至普世主义和对话机制。在经过中国风(Chinoisérie)时代，到批判和抨击中国（China-bashing）的帝国主义和殖民主义时代之后，大学和学术协会（如德中协会）的汉学建立了一个对中国更为客观的看法。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 00:40, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Ethnocentrism is still existing among Western sinologists today and has to be fought. Still, the contemporary trends globalization, digitalization and travel freedom offer the current generation of sinologists so far unseen possibilities of international cooperation, promising extremely fruitful especially between distant cultures like China and the West. <br />
但是，在当代西方汉学家中间仍然还存在民族中心主义，我们需要为此而抗争。随着全球化、数字化和“出境自由行”这三种当代趋向的出现，新一代汉学家获得了前所未见的国际合作可能，特别像是中西间如此大跨度的文化差异，其国际合作的前景和潜力更是无可估量。<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Key words<br />
Ethnocentrism, Exoticism, Universalism, Chinese Studies, German China Association, universal values, Gregor Paul, cooperation, China and the West<br />
<br />
關鍵詞<br />
宗族中心主義、異國主義、普遍主義、漢學/中國學、德中協會、普遍價值觀、Gregor Paul、合作、中國與西方<br />
<br />
When we define an academic category like “Chinese Studies”, we pay respect to the fact that the world historically has developed differently in different regions. <br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Of course the world was far less connected than today, with slow carriers like horses and ships and often bad or risky infrastructure like roads. Therefore it appears on first sight that these regions have developed their culture, their civilization and even first written languages on their own, independently.<br />
<br />
当然，世界之间的联系远不如今天，诸如马和轮船之类的速度较慢的运输工具，以及诸如道路之类的基础设施往往损坏或危险丛丛。 因此，乍看之下，这些地区已经独立地发展了自己的文化、文明甚至第一语言。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 08:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The oldest evidence of written civilizations, dating back around 3500 years BC, we find in the fertile crescent Mesopotamia with the clay tablets of the Sumerer. A little bit later there is evidence in Ancient Egypt, then in Proto-India and finally also in China.<br />
<br />
最古老的文字文明的证据，可以追溯到公元前3500年，我们在美索不达米亚平原这片新月状的沃土中找到了苏美尔人的粘土板。随后在古埃及，然后是印度，最后在中国也相继找到了证据。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:03, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
But the more we explore history, the more fascinating evidence comes to light that these seemingly independently developing regions have had more trade relations and exchange of ideas than seems likely bearing in mind mobility: The Silk Road is not only rediscovered and reevaluated historically, but also rebuilt as a political agenda today. We today find early evidence of European civilizations in America and Asia as well as the Chinese civilization also in America and Europe.<br />
<br />
但是我们对历史探索得越多,就有更多有趣的证据证明，比起看似可能存在的思维迁移，这些看似独立的发展中地区存在更多的贸易关系和思想交流，从历史角度来看，我们并不只是重新发现和重新评估丝绸之路,也是作为一个政治议程来重建它。我们今天在美洲和亚洲发现了欧洲文明的早期证据，在美洲和欧洲也发现了中国文明的早期证据。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 09:23, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
但我们越是探索历史，就会发现更有吸引力的证据：这些看似独立发展的地区之间的贸易关系和思想交流比思维流动性更频繁：丝绸之路不仅在历史上被重新发现和重新评价，而且在今天也被重建为政治议程。如今，我们在美洲和亚洲发现了欧洲文明的早期证据而在美洲和欧洲也同样发现了中国文明。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
Cultural Science is more influenced by its subject than other sciences, since we are part of it and cannot leave it to examine it. The history of cultural science has developed from the first times of intercultural encounters to today’s life, in which cultures are mixed and people understand each other as being part of different cultures simultaneously.<br />
文化科学比其他科学更受其研究对象的影响，因为我们是它的一部分，不能离开它去研究它。文化科学的历史从最初的跨文化冲突发展到今天的生活，文化相互交融，人们作为不同文化的一部分互相理解。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:51, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与其他科学相比，文化科学受其研究对象影响更大，因为我们是文化科学的一部分，不能独立于它去研究它。文化科学的历史已经从最初的跨文化交流发展到今天，文化相互交融，同时人们作为不同文化的一部分相互理解。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 17:10, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
However, there will always be differentiation between cultures, simply because the trends of integration and separation occur at the same time.<br />
<br />
When there is different cultures, there is an interest in comparing these. This medal has two sides. As soon as you start to compare, you may value. Cultural encounters happened before there were experts or a whole discipline.<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
So the first comparisons between cultures were ethnocentric: You compared whatever you encountered as “other”, “foreign” or “alien”, to your own culture. This was often accompanied with feelings. There was both, the feeling of fear of the unknown and curiosness in the exotic.<br />
<br />
因此，文化间的第一次比较是具有种族中心主义的：你拿你遇到的任何事物与你自己的文化相比较，认为它们是“其他的”、“外国的”、“外来的”。这时常伴随着情绪：既有对未知的恐惧，也有对异国的好奇。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 15:33, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
You may categorize civilizations into so-called “high civilizations” and “low civilizations”, into “developed” and “underdeveloped” cultures. This was an ethnocentric approach in the age of cultural relativism. Today in the age of post-growth economy and after tragic experiences of colonialization and missionization, we know that each culture is equal and cannot be ranked to be higher or lower, of more or less value than the other.<br />
<br />
你可以将文明分为所谓的“高级文明”和“低级文明”，“发达”和“欠发达”文化。 在文化相对主义时代，这是一种以民族为中心的方法。 但在后增长经济时代的今天，在经历了殖民化和传教化的不幸经历之后，我们知道，每种文化都是平等的，不能认为哪种文化的价值更高或更低。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 14:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
While very early there were historians collecting knowledge from travel reports or official delegations visiting foreign cultures, in the middle ages handbooks collected the knowledge to describe different cultures. Even the Romans had words for the Chinese (Seres in the North and Sinae in the South) and attributed to Asian-looking people certain characteristics of behaviour, attitudes, value systems, beliefs, morals and character. <br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The first in-depth analysis of the Chinese culture through Western people came not with the merchants, but with the Jesuits. How few was known about China can be seen from the fact, that only the Jesuits managed to clarify, that the myth of the two empires, Tartary and Kitai/Cathay, in fact both were the same (China).<br />
<br />
第一次通过西方人对中国文化进行深入的分析，不是来自商人，而是来自耶稣会士。对中国的了解是多么的少，这可以从以下事实中看出，只有耶稣会士设法澄清了鞑靼和基泰/卡泰两个帝国的神话，事实上，这两个帝国都是同一个（中国）。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 02:36, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
第一次对中国文学进行深入分析的西方人不是商人，而是耶稣会士。西方人对中国知之甚少可以从以下事实看出：只有耶稣会士成功地澄清了鞑靼和契丹这两个帝国的神话事实上是相同的（都属于中国）。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
However, the Jesuit’s approach was still ethnocentric and cultural relativist, because by portraying (like Du Halde) China as a seemingly ideal state suitable for mission work, they contributed to subjective views on China. <br />
<br />
Around 1720 presumably the French Jesuit Jean-François Noëlas even translated the Dao de jing into Latin.[ Collani, Claudia von, Harald Holz, Konrad Wegmann eds. Uroffenbarung und Daoismus: jesuitische Missionshermeneutik des Daoismus. Europ. University Press, 2008. [Partial retranslation Chinese-Latin-German.]] <br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The translation turns out to deviate from the original in the way that we suddenly find the Christian trinity god in it.<br />
<br />
This is the starting point of an ethnocentric tradition to read the self and the own into the other and the alien, instead of respecting the other as a value by itself and allowing it to even challenge the own beliefs. <br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Even the German Christian missionary and sinologist Richard Wilhelm used a Christian language (belief, heavens’ doors, life after death etc.) in his influential 1919 Taoteking translation and in 1925 he translated “god” into the Analects of Confucius.<br />
<br />
The missionaries baptized the seemingly “backward” aborigines in several continents, sometimes supported by the sword.<br />
<br />
连德国基督教传教士兼汉学家理查德·威廉在其影响深远的1919年道教翻译中也使用了基督教语言(信仰、天堂之门、来生等)，并在1925年在《论语》中使用上帝这一翻译。<br />
<br />
传教士们在几个大陆上给看似“落后”的土著人施洗，有时还用武力威胁。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 02:23, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
A lot of cultures, considered less “developed”, were heavily influenced or even destroyed and extinguished. Earlier, the “Warriors of the Cross” even fought wars and devastated complete regions.<br />
<br />
The other aspect, the exotization of the other was expressed by the way the first Chinese people who came to Europe were received: They were passed on at tea meetings and gazed at like animals.<br />
<br />
许多被认为不太“发达”的文化受到了严重影响，甚至遭到破坏并且已经消亡。早些时候，“十字军”甚至发起战争，摧毁了整个地区。<br />
<br />
另一方面， 异域化表现在第一批来到欧洲的中国人所能接受的方式：这些文化在茶话会上被传下来，受到瞩目。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:56, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
Soon Chinese goods became the symbol of the exotic. Chinese porcellain and nick-nacks, even Chinese-style buildings were recreated in Europe. The fever-like admiration of a China image, which certainly was not the true China, is called Chinoiserie. The Chinoiserie even involved European philosophers like Voltaire and Leibniz, who compared China to an ideal country without religion and still moral values, represented by a wise emperor.<br />
<br />
很快中国货就成了异国情调的象征。中国的瓷器和小装饰品，甚至中国风格的建筑都在欧洲得以重现。狂热崇拜中国形象，被称为中国热，当然不是对真正中国形象的狂热。这股中国热甚至影响到伏尔泰和莱布尼茨这样的欧洲哲学家，他们把中国比作一个理想国家，这个国家没有宗教信仰和道德价值观，由一位睿智的皇帝所代表。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
In Europe, the first experts on Chinese culture were entrusted with the task to explain the Chinese culture no longer from the ethnocentric viewpoint, but from a scientific one: Professorships at universities were established. Their early translations show traces of admiration of the exotic. Chinoiserie was also countered by Européerie in China. <br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
However, this phase did only last as long as it fit to European politics. As soon as the import of colonial goods (and resources) became an economic factor, the (wrong) image of the ideal China changed into a negative one (similarly wrong). Not only mission and belief were motifs to look down on the Chinese culture, but also the comparison of economic development and living standards. <br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Hegel continued the ethnocentric view on China with his ranking of cultures. Although Confucius already had developed a “Golden Rule” principle comparable to Kant’s “Categorical Imperative”, Hegel declared Chinese philosophy as inferior to European philosophy, and even saw a geographical step by step development from Confucius over Buddha, Zarathustra, the ancient Greek and the Roman philosophy, leading to the European philosophy.<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
A ladder only second by the Arab philosophy. At the turn from the 19th to the 20th century, China was suddenly considered as static, as “the sick man of Asia”. Actually semi-colonialism in China helped to hinder development there. <br />
<br />
Rereading the reviews of Chinese literature in contemporary Western journals, it is astonishing, how disrespectful even men of letters treated Chinese literature, even during a time, when it was not yet available in translation, so that it is save to say that ethnocentric attitude prevailed over knowledge.<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
This can be proven by the many mistakes you can find in the reviews (Morrison: the book was of low literary quality, but written in Peking dialect and therefore useful as language learning material; Gützlaff: the protagonist Baoyu is a petulant woman; Giles: the words “Red Chamber Dreams do not appear in the book” etc.).<br />
<br />
错误百出的评论可以证明这一点（马礼逊：这本书没什么文采，但由于它是用北京方言所写，因而可以作为语言学习材料；居茨拉夫：主角宝玉真是一个爱耍小性子的女人；贾尔斯：“红楼梦没有在书中出现过”等等。）。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:17, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
<br />
书评中许多人对其的误解能证明这一点（马礼逊：这本书文笔拙劣，但由于是用北京话写的，因此可以用作语言学习材料;居茨拉夫：主角宝玉是一个被宠坏的女子; 贾尔斯：“红楼梦”一词没有在书中出现等）。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:47, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Also, the tradition of the title translation as “Dream of the Red Chamber” can be traced back to the origins of the better translation as “Red Chamber Dreams”, sacrificed by Francis Davis finally in favor of the powerful tool of Morrison’s dictionary calling it “Dream of the Red Chamber”.<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Here, the exotic was used to make fun of China. Barrow introduces an excerpt, describing the outward appearance of Baoyu and Xifeng, translated by Francis Davis into English, explicitely for the reason to “amuse the beaux and belles”. Francis Davis himself picks two poems from the novel for translation, but not for its own sake, but to use them as a proof for his own (minority) opinion that the Chinese poetry knew a certain, “descriptive” function of poems in novels. <br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
In 1815 Macao Reverend Robert Morrison (1782-1834) coined the Western translation of the novel’s title by mentioning it in his Dictionary of the Chinese Language as “[dreams of the red chamber.” He explained the character “妙” as in the novel’s character “妙玉 Meaou yǔh [Miao Yu]” as “the admirable gem, name of one of the female characters in the novel called 紅樓夢 the dreams of the red chamber”, see Robert Morrison: A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts, Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I., 930 pp., here p. 614, left column. 24 years after the print edition was published, this is the first mention and translation of the novel’s title into a Western language known so far. If no earlier occurrence is found it means that Morrison created a translation which has lasted until today almost unchanged.] He chose the plural, which was quite reasonable as there are many dreams in the novel. It appears that 27 years later the plural “dreams” was turned into the singular “dream,” which sounds a bit more general and is therefore also a reasonable translation.<br />
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1815年，澳门牧师罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison，1782-1834年）在其《汉语词典》中将小说的标题称为“红楼梦”，从而创造了该小说的标题的西译本。[他解释道小说红楼梦中一个叫妙玉的女子就像是一块令人钦佩的宝石，参见罗伯特·莫里森：《汉语词典》三部分，澳门：东印度公司出版社1815年，第一卷p930，此处p614，左栏。印刷版出版24年后，这是第一次提及该小说，并将其标题翻译成迄今已知的西方语言。如果没有更早的发现，则意味着莫里森所创作的译本一直持续到今天几乎不变。]他选择了复数形式，这是相当合理的，因为小说中有许多梦想。似乎在27年后，复数的“梦”变成了单数的“梦”，听起来更笼统，因此也是一种合理的翻译。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
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1815年，澳门牧师罗伯特·莫里森(1782-1834)在他的《汉语词典》中将《红楼梦》称作“dreams of the red chamber”，从而创造了小说的英文译名。他把《红楼梦》这本小说中一个女性人物的名字“妙玉”中的“妙”字解释为“令人艳羡的宝石”，（参见罗伯特·莫里森《汉语词典》，澳门：东印度公司出版社，1815年，第一卷第936页，此处第614页左栏)。在印刷版出版24年后，这是第一次提到并将标题翻译成西方语言。如果找不到比这还早的标题翻译，便意味着莫里森创造的翻译一直持续到今天都几乎发生没有改变。“梦”这个词的译文他选择了复数“dreams”，这是相当合理的，因为在小说中有许多梦。27年后，复数的“梦”（dreams)变成了单数的“梦”(dream)，这听起来有点笼统，但也是一个合理的翻译。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
''Red Chamber Dreams'' is the most common translation in English and, in its variations, in all Western languages so far.<br />
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In 1817 Rev. Robert Morrison published a book for studying Chinese,[ Robert Morrison, A view of China for philological purposes: containing a sketch of Chinese Chronology, Geography, Government, Religion & Customs, designed for the use of persons who study the Chinese language, Macao: East Asia Company Press, 1817, 141 S., hier S. 120-121.] in which he recommended “''Dreams of the Red Chamber''” as beginner readings, together with the novel Hao qiu zhuan, which was available mostly in English and partly in Portuguese by 1719, and fully in English by 1761. Both were written in colloquial style.<br />
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==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
Morrison claims that ''Dream'' was written in Peking dialect. This does not hold true, since the author’s family Cao came from the South and many people in the novel have Nanking dialect sprinkles. In fact, the highly artful and intentional switch of dialects and sociolects contributed to the later fame of the novel. Morrison’s mistake developed its own tradition.[ Even in 1995, you could read that the ''Dreams'' is written in Peking dialect, cf. Shu Changshan, Die Rezeption Thomas Manns in China, 1995, Frankfurt: Lang, 326 pp. At least Tong Yao, Die Vielfältigkeit der Literatur, 2006 mentions both Peking and Nanking dialects.]<br />
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马礼逊称《红楼梦》是用北京方言写的，但他的说法并不属实，因为书的作者曹雪芹其实是南方人，书中很多角色有时候还会说南京方言。实际上，书中地方方言和社会方言的切换十分巧妙，也是作者有意而为之，这也是此作品之后享有盛名的原因之一。马礼逊的这一错误还持续了很长一段时间。[ 甚至到了1995年仍有人说《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成。]--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 11:07, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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马礼逊认为，《红楼梦》是用北京方言写的，但他的说法并不属实，《红楼梦》的作者曹雪芹其实是南方人，书中很多角色在某些场合甚至还会说南京方言。实际上，书中地方方言和社会方言的切换十分巧妙，这是作者有意而为之，也是《红楼梦》在后来享有盛名的原因之一。马礼逊的这一错误还持续了很长一段时间。[ 甚至到了1995年时，仍有人认为《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成。]--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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马礼逊声称《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成的。这一说法是不正确的，因为作者曹雪芹来自南方，小说中很多人说话都有南京方言的色彩。事实上，方言和社会用语的巧妙和有意的转换为这部小说后来的名声做出了贡献。马礼逊的错误持续了很长一段时间。[即使是在1995年，还有人说《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成的。]--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 09:29, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
Barrow mentioned the title “[...] a Chinese novel called Hung-low-Mung, or, The Red Chamber Dreams” on June 4, 1819, in the Quarterly Review. He inserted this （导言）reference into a review[ My own findings, so far not discussed in 20th century hongxue, and published first in October 2010. John Barrow, “Art. IV Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited. By Clarke Abel F.L.S. London 1818”, in: William Gifford ed., Quarterly Review 21:41 (January 1819) S. 67-91, hier S. 79-80. This edition appeared (only by) June 4, 1819 with 13,000 copies. The author follows here the argumentation of the assignment to the author Barrow due to the following indications: “Gentleman's Magazine (Mar. 1844), 246-47. The article's author refers to #415 and #438 (including a specific reference), both of which are on the same topic and are by Barrow. Cf. also the discussion of infanticide (p.76) and Raffles's account of Java reviewed by Barrow in #422. In his Q[uarterly] R[eview] articles, it was Barrow's signature practice to refer to his own works, see “Quarterly Review Archive” http:// www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/41.html, last visited Dec 5, 2010.] of Clarke Abel’s report of a journey through China.[ Clarke Abel, Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited, F.L.S. London 1818.] He interrupted his review with an excursus on the uniform appearance and static nature of the Chinese, in line with the contemporary China-bashing of Herder and Hegel. <br />
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==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
For contemporary Europeans, the Chinese appeared abnormally uniform and simple in their clothes and appearance. They would not be subordinated to the tyranny of fashion; their culture was static. In order to entertain the “belles and beaux of Great Britain,” Barrow provides a foil to this general impression by quoting the descriptions of the garments and anatomy of two characters, Wang Xifeng and Jia Baoyu, from chapter 3 of J. Davis’ translation of Dream. <br />
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==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In fact the graphic comparisons given in these descriptions were simply strange to Europeans of that time, since they apparently did not correspond to the European’s own ideal of beauty.<br />
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Even in 1842 Gützlaff criticized: “the author [makes] many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] the style is without any art […] whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage”[ “Amongst the novels of the Chinese, this work holds a decidedly high rank. The author, after making many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] Having brought this tedious story to a conclusion, in expressing our opinion about the literary merits of the performance, we may say that the style is without any art, being literally the spoken language of the higher classes in the northern provinces. Some words that are used in a sense different from that in ordinary writings, and others are formed for the occasion, to express provincial sounds. But after reading one volume the sense is easily understood, and whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage.” ibid., p. 273.]<br />
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实际上，这些描述中给出的图形比较对于当时的欧洲人来说简直是陌生的，因为它们显然不符合欧洲人自己的美感。<br />
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甚至在1842年，居茨拉夫（Gützlaff）都批评说：“作者[对]他无法对这个主题伸张正义，提出了许多抗议，这确实是书中唯一的道理。以说北方法院方言的方式，可以有利地细读这部作品” [“在中国小说中，这部作品绝对享有很高的地位。在多次抗议他无法公正对待这个主题之后，这确实是本书中唯一的真相[...]总结了这个乏味的故事，在表达我们对表演文学价值的看法后，我们可以说这种风格没有任何艺术意义，实际上是北部省份上层阶级的口头语言。有些词的用法与普通著作有所不同，而另一些词的用法则是为了表达省级声音。但是，读完一卷书后，这种感觉很容易理解，并且无论谁希望熟悉北部法院方言的表达方式，都可以从中受益。同上，p。273.]<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:49, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
In 1867, 78 years after the first Chinese printed edition, we find a first real in-depth review of two pages by William Frederick Mayers:[ William Frederick Mayers, in: Notes and Queries (Dec 31, 1867) pp. 167-168, here p. 167. Mayers was Chinese secretary of the British Legation at Peking. He gives also short extracts in translation: <br />
“Vast as is Heaven above or Earth below – <br />
Sighs may such limits fill for passion vainly past <br />
Grieve for the senseless youth, the hapless maiden’s woe ! <br />
Not oft is love’s light pledge redeem’ed at last ! ” (p. 167) […] <br />
Vain to be soft in temper, mild in ways, <br />
Fair as the fairest … (p. 168) <br />
[…] <br />
Not often shines <br />
thy longings too are vain ! ” (p. 168)].]<br />
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“If it be lawful to avow a feeling approaching to enthusiasm for any Chinese production, The Hung Low Mêng 紅樓夢 or ‘Dreams of the Red Chamber’ is beyond possibility of cavil the work for which genuine admiration may be expressed.<br />
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1867年，即第一本中文印刷版出版78年之后，我们对梅辉立的两页进行了首次真正的深入回顾：[梅辉立，在：中日释疑（1867年12月31日）,第167-168页，此处第167页。梅辉立曾担任英国使馆驻北京的中国秘书。他还给出了一些翻译中的简要摘录：<br />
“天堂之上或地狱之下都很广阔–<br />
叹息可能会限制过去的激情<br />
为无知的青年，不幸的少女而悲伤！<br />
最后，爱的誓言不是经常被兑现的！ ”（第167页）[…]<br />
不会脾气柔和，方式温和，<br />
公平为最公平…（第168页）<br />
[…]<br />
不常发光<br />
你的渴望也是徒劳的！ ” (第168页)].]<br />
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“如果公然宣称对任一中国作品充满热情的感觉是合法的，那么要对红楼梦或‘Dreams of the Red Chamber’的无端指摘表示真正的钦佩是不可能的。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 13:37, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
What, in English literature, the writings of Thackeray and Bulwer are in comparison with the wearisome and unskilful productions of previous generations, such is the Hung Low Mêng when compared with the works of fiction that have emanated from other Chinese authors. <br />
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==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Human character in its complex variety of shades, the intricacies of family relations, the force of passion and the torture of disappointed yearnings after love are pourtrayed with a degree of skill and knowledge such as in truth suggests a resemblance with the two great master-spirits of English romance;<br />
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复杂多变的人物性格，错综复杂的家庭关系，猛烈的激情，追求爱情而不得的折磨，凡此种种，作者都以具有技巧和才识的笔触描绘出来，这事实上展现了他与两位英国浪漫小说大师的相似之处。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 04:41, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
whilst, as in Nature's own drama of existence, the reflections of storm and sunshine are closely interlaced, and the lighter thread of comedy runs side by side with the dark main-strand of a story which opens with the omens of sorrow and is conducted to a tearful end.<br />
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同时，就像在自然界的生存戏剧中一样，风暴和阳光的反射紧密地交织在一起，喜剧的轻快线与故事的黑暗主线并排而行，故事的黑暗主线以悲伤的预兆开始，以泪洗面而终。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 12:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
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同时，正如自然存在本身就具有戏剧性，风暴与阳光之间的映射紧密纠缠，明亮的喜剧线与黑暗的故事主线并肩而行，展开故事，它以悲伤的预兆开头，并最终导向令人垂泪的结局。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 04:56, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
If, at the same time, a faint – a very faint – tinge of the supernatural is allowed to show itself in the conception of the tale, this is not only in full accord with the inclinations of the people for whom the work is written, but is also far less obtrusive than the similar element which pervades more than one of our own most celebrated fictions. […]”<br />
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==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Reading through almost 80 years of reviews, during which more and more chapters of the novel became available, the ethnocentric attitude gradually changes to the scientific one and finally, with Mayr’s review of 1867 to a dialectic one, not only admitting that the Chinese novel was a piece of world literature, but even leaving open the possibility that it surpassed literary achievements of the own culture.<br />
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==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
This process certainly has been brought to a good end with the establishment of further diversified Chinese Studies in Europe and the USA, with the role of overseas Chinese at American universities, with further translations especially through Franz Kuhn in the 1930s and with the establishment of the German China Association in the 1950s.<br />
随着在欧洲和美国建立更多多元化的中文研究，在美国大学中扮演海外华人的角色，尤其是在1930年代通过Franz Kuhn进行的进一步翻译以及 1950年代的德国中国协会.--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 03:12, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
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During its 60 years of history, the German China Association (next to the developing chairs of Chinese Studies at universities and next to other organizations dealing with China like friendship associations and Confucius Institutes) has helped to overcome prejudices, cultural relativism with diversity and tolerance. This is especially challenging, because the cultures and languages are quite distant and German media and internet community tends to bash China.<br />
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During the last 20 years, the German China Association was shaped through its prolific president, Gregor Paul, who has shaped the prestige of the Association with his sharp and precise analysis of a common logic in China and the West as well as universal values, including human rights, worth to strive for both in the West and in China.<br />
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在其60年的历史中，德国中国协会(旁边是正在发展的大学中国研究中心，旁边是其他与中国打交道的组织，如友好协会和孔子学院)以多样性和宽容帮助克服偏见和文化相对主义。这尤其具有挑战性，因为两国文化和语言相当遥远，而德国媒体和互联网社区往往会抨击中国。<br />
在过去的20年里,德国的中国协会在优秀的主席格雷戈尔保罗领导下建立,通过敏锐和精确的分析中国和西方的一个共同的逻辑，还有普世价值,包括值得一起追求的人权，他建立起了这个协会的声誉。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 04:17, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
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His entertaining and informative lectures used a rhethoric often referring to persuasive conventional wisdom, e.g. that differences often come from different opinions instead of a difference of the nature of the things, as can be seen from a quarrel with his wife about what both remembered had happened the day before. Paul is a consequent logician and a real universalist and he has added to Germany’s international reputation as “the land of poets and thinkers”.<br />
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The process of doing more justice to China today culminates in the cooperation between Chinese and Western scholars at international conferences, in research projects or international book projects like “A Harvard Literary History of Modern China”.<br />
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他的演讲娱乐性强，内容翔实，善用修辞，引经据典。例如：分歧往往源于意见不和，而非事情性质不一致，这从他和妻子的争吵中可以看出，他们都记得前一天发生的事情。保罗是一名逻辑学家和普遍主义者，他提升了德国的国际声誉，德国被誉为“诗人和思想家的国度”。<br />
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如今，中国与西方学者在国际会议、研究项目或诸如“现代中国的哈佛文学史”之类的国际图书项目上的合作，是对中国更加公正的体现，也是合作达到高潮的体现。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 06:18, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
Europeans (and later US-Americans) have made a contribution to Chinese Studies in general. They were influenced heavily by the idealizers (Jesuits, European philosophers of the enlightenment) and by China-bashers (Hegel, the German emperor...). It took 100 years for a Chinese piece of world literature to be recognized as such in Europe. But today, Chinese literature and culture is recognized with the Nobel Prize and Confucius Institutes do successful work in the whole work promoting and exporting Chinese culture abroad.<br />
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However, we should not overestimate the European contribution. There are still examples of ethnocentrism, even of religiously motivated reading of things into Chinese literature. One of these examples is the 10 volume ''History of Chinese Literature'' published in Bonn.<br />
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总体上来说，欧洲人（以及后期的美国人）对中国的研究做出了贡献。研究很大程度上受到了理想主义者（耶稣会士和德国启蒙哲学家）以及抨击中国者（黑格尔和德国教皇）的影响。中国的文学作品花费了100年的时间才能得到像欧洲文学那样的认可。但是如今，中国文学和文化已经受到诺贝尔奖的认可，孔子学院也成功地在国外传播弘扬中国文化。<br />
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然而，我们不能高估欧洲对中国文学的贡献。仍有很多民族中心主义的例子，甚至有宗教鼓励性的读物混入中国文学当中。其中一个例子便是在波恩出版的《十卷中国文学史》。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 03:12, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
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In two volumes, the one about the origins of Chinese literature and the one on Chinese poetry, a German sinologist, who formerly was a priest, defines, that the origin of Chinese literature lies in the dialogue of the author with god. This reminds us again of the Jesuit reading of things into Chinese texts, it reminds us of the attempts, to impose your own culture on other seemingly backward cultures, in this case even the try to impose the Western god on the Chinese culture of a time, when China had a totally different understanding of the world and of heaven than that of a Christian god. The emergence of Chinese literature comes from songs, speeches and paintings, from the wish to document events, family etc., but not from an encounter with god.<br />
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其中的两卷，一卷关于中国文学的起源，另一卷关于中国的诗歌。有位曾担任过牧师的德国汉学家认为，中国文学源于作家与上帝的对话。这让我们再次想起耶稣会教士对中文文本的解读，他们试图将其自身文化强加到其他看似落后的文化上。在这本书中，这位汉学家甚至试图把西方的上帝强加到某一时期的中国文化上，尽管中国对世界和天堂的理解与西方完全不同。其实，中国文学兴于诗歌、演讲和绘画，把美好愿景和文献记载世代相传，而非源自与上帝的邂逅。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 13:20, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其中的两卷，一卷关于中国文学的起源，另一卷关于中国的诗歌。有位曾担任过牧师的德国汉学家认为，中国文学源于作家与上帝的对话。这让人联想到耶稣会教士对中文文本的解读，他们试图将其自身文化强加到其他看似落后的文化上。在这本书中，这位汉学家甚至试图把西方的上帝强加到某一时期的中国文化上，而这个时候中国对世界和天堂的理解与西方完全不同。其实，中国文学兴于诗歌、言论和绘画，从美好愿景到记载事件、家族等，而非源自与上帝的邂逅。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 04:25, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
The same German sinologist retranslated the Analects, attributed to Confucius, and translated some of the more than 50 occurrences of “heaven” or “demon/ghost” with the term “god”. <br />
<br />
Experts on Confucius also quote the few passages, where Confucius addresses the question of the supranatural like ghosts etc. and analyze that Confucius may have been at best not interested or even negative about the belief in ghosts, while he was positive about the social stability and peace rituals brought for the people.<br />
<br />
This reminds us of the fact, that it is to us to make sure that ethnocentrism is still existing today and that science is a field that needs to be aware of and cautious about it. And it needs courage to speak out against it.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
“We were wrong” – Coming to terms <br />
with failed master narratives of Chinese Studies<br />
“我们错了”——汉学应对主流叙事传统<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler 吴漠汀<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
We, the international scholars of Chinese Studies, apologize for two main misinterpretations of China. 1. The master narrative of Jesuits and others who tried to proof the Western Christian god in ancient Chinese texts. As a tool, they used a distortion of the Chinese texts by manipulated translation. <br />
<br />
我们是中国研究的国际学者，对中国的两个主要误解道歉。 1.耶稣会士和其他人在古代中国文本中试图证明西方基督教之神的主要叙事。作为一种工具，他们通过操纵翻译来歪曲中文文本。<br />
<br />
“我们错了”---学会接受错误的汉学主流叙述<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
我们作为汉学的海外学者，要向中国道歉，因为我们在两个方面误读了中国。1. 耶稣会教士和其他人的主流叙事试图证明古代中国作品存在西方的基督教上帝。他们通过操纵翻译来歪解中国作品。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:36, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
2. The master narrative of the stagnation of China, sometimes claimed to be inherent and systemic, often reasoned with Confucianism. This narrative was a dogma for 150 years between 1830 and 1980. The disruptive economic development since 1978 has proven this narrative wrong, Confucianism is seen as one reason for the economic miracle. <br />
<br />
2.关于中国停滞的主要叙述，有时被称为固有的和系统性的，常常用儒家思想来推理。这种叙述是1830年至1980年间150年的教条。自1978年以来的破坏性经济发展证明了这种叙事错误，儒家思想被视为经济奇迹的一个原因。<br />
<br />
常以儒家思想为依据的中国停滞论有时被认为是固有的和系统性的。在1830-1980年这150年间，这种说法如同教条主义一般。直到1978年中国经济飞速发展才证明这种说话是错误的，儒家思想也被视为中国经济奇迹的原因之一。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 04:49, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.中国停滞的主要叙述有时是内在的、系统的，通常由儒家思想所论证。这种叙述是1830年至1980年间150年的教条。自1978年以来的破坏性经济发展证明了这种叙述是错误的，而儒家思想被视为经济奇迹的原因之一。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 01:31, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
关于中国发展停滞不前的大体说法有时被认为是固定的、系统的，且往往以儒家思想为依据。在1830-1980年这150年里，这种说法像教条一样根植人心。直到1978年以后，中国经济的腾飞推翻了这一说法，儒家思想也被视为是中国经济奇迹的原因之一。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 03:20, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
3. The master narrative of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution as a successful Communist reform. During the 1970s, Western sinologists abandoned basic principles of neutrality, distance and fact-seeking and, based on propaganda, enthusiastically celebrated the Cultural Revolution and became dedicated followers of Mao Zedong, holding up the Little Red Book.<br />
<br />
无产阶级文化大革命的主要叙事是成功的共产主义改革。在20世纪70年代，西方汉学家放弃了中立，距离和事实寻求的基本原则，并在宣传的基础上，热烈地庆祝文化大革命，成为毛泽东的忠实粉丝，举起小红皮书。相信中国宣传的意愿部分是出于将中国理想化为一种模式的愿望，这种模式可以为西方社会的改革指明方向。<br />
<br />
主述将无产阶级文化大革命（文革）描述为共产党的一场成功改革。20世纪70年代，西方汉学家放弃了中立、保持距离、实事求是的基本原则，并在宣传的基础上，热衷于庆祝文化大革命，高举小红书，成为毛泽东的忠实追随者。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:40, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
The readiness to believe in the Chinese propaganda was partly motivated by the wish to idealize China into a model which could show the way for a reform of Western societies.<br />
<br />
相信中国宣传的意愿部分是出于将中国理想化为一种模式的愿望，这种模式可以为西方社会的改革指明方向。<br />
<br />
人们愿意相信中国的宣传，部分原因是希望将中国理想化为一种典范，可以为西方社会改革指明道路。 --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:07, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
Key words<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
<br />
Apology, errors, mistakes, manipulation, ethnocentrism, eurocentrism, master narratives, Chinese Studies, sinology, coming to terms with the past<br />
<br />
道歉，错误，错误，操纵，种族中心主义，欧洲中心主义，大师叙事，中国研究，汉学，与过去达成协议<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
1. God in China上帝在中国<br />
<br />
Human beings develop ancestor worship, complemented by natural religions. The natural religions established a layer of shamans who interpreted the will of the natural gods. <br />
<br />
人类发展祖先崇拜，辅以自然宗教。自然宗教建立了一套解释自然神灵意志的法则。<br />
<br />
人类开创了祖先崇拜的先例，并辅以自然宗教。自然宗教组建了一支能解释自然神灵意志的萨满法师队伍。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:38, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
In India, the layer of priests of the Vedan religion alienated from the people, because the religious texts of Vedan religion brought a conservating effect to language, texts were canonized and finally not understood by ordinary people any more. <br />
<br />
在印度，Vedan宗教的神职人员与人民疏远，因为Vedan宗教的宗教文本对语言产生了保护作用，文本被册封，最后不再为普通人所理解。<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
Finally, only the Vedan priests could understand the Vedan texts any more. This was the start of the so-called “anti-religious” start of Buddishm.<br />
<br />
最后，只有Vedan牧师才能理解Vedan文本。这是Buddishm所谓的“反宗教”起源的开始。<br />
<br />
<br />
最后，只有Vedan牧师才能理解Vedan文本。这是佛教所谓的“反宗教”起源的开始。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:50, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Due to the alienation of people and the religious texts and its priests, Buddha was able to establish Buddhism. He claimed that every individual was able to find his or her own way to self-perception and spiritual liberation (nirvana). <br />
<br />
由于人与宗教文本及其祭司的异化，佛陀能够建立佛教。他声称每个人都能找到自己的自我认知和精神解放的方式（涅槃）。<br />
<br />
由于人们和宗教文本及其祭司的异化，佛陀得以建立佛教。他宣称，每个人都能找到自己的方式来实现自我认知和精神解脱（涅槃）。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 02:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人们和宗教由于文本及其祭司发生了异化，佛陀得以建立佛教。佛陀宣称，每个人都能找到自己的方式来实现自我认知和精神解脱（涅槃）。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:59, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
Although Buddha did not abandon priests, he established the new tradition that masters would have their disciples and these could overcome their masters. Also, Buddha destroyed the perfectionism of the almighty god by claiming that the life of imperfect men simply was much more interesting. <br />
<br />
虽然佛陀没有放弃传教者，但他建立了新的传统，即主人会有他们的门徒，这些人可以推翻他们的主人。此外，佛陀通过声称不完美男人的生活更加有趣，摧毁了全能神的完美主义。<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
In China, ancestor worship has kept its dominant role until today. Although there was the age of shamans, since several millenia every family clan had its own tradition of ancestor worship. It was believed that the ancestors in heaven watched over and influenced the lives of their descendants on earth. <br />
<br />
在中国，祖先崇拜一直保持其主导地位，直到今天。虽然萨满有年龄，由于几千年来每个家族都有自己的祖先崇拜传统。据信，天上的祖先观看并影响了他们在地球上的后代的生活。<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
So the most important unit were family clans. Even rulers used fire cracks and characters inscribed in turtle shells or cattle bones to communicate with the ancestors and to predict the future. <br />
<br />
所以最重要的单位是家族。甚至统治者也使用火龟纹和龟壳或牛骨上的字符来与祖先交流并预测未来。<br />
<br />
因此最核心的单位是家族。统治者甚至通过把火裂纹和符号刻在龟壳和牛骨上的方式和祖先进行交流和预测未来。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 05:24, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
However, when the dynasty changed and a new ethnic group took over, they could not claim the ancestors to be their relatives any more, so the shangdi concept was replaced by heaven (tian) and related understandings like “son of heaven”, “mandate of heaven” etc., supllying them with legitimization of power. <br />
<br />
然而，当王朝改变并且一个新的族群接管时，他们不能再宣称祖先是他们的亲戚，所以上帝的概念被天堂（天）和相关的理解所取代，如“天堂之子”，“任务”天国等等，用权力合法化来贬低他们。<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Although there were mythical divine creatures, the understanding of gods was not developed as distinct and authoritative as in Europe and Egypt. Egypt and Europe both further developed from multi theism to mono theism.<br />
<br />
虽然有神话般的神圣生物，但对神的理解并没有像欧洲和埃及那样发展出独特和权威。埃及和欧洲都从多神论到单一神论进一步发展。<br />
<br />
虽然有神话中的神创物，但对神的理解并没有像在欧洲和埃及那样发展得独特而权威。埃及和欧洲都从多神论进一步发展到一神论。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 02:21, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
----<br />
尽管存在神话中的神圣生物，但对神灵的了解却没有欧洲和埃及那样独特而权威。埃及和欧洲都是从多神论进一步发展到一神论的。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 08:46, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
Theism established a layer of priests, occupying the role of mediators between god and men. Since every uncontrolled authority abuses its power, these mediators gained earthly wealth and took advantage of their control over people by abuse of their work force and even sexual abuse. <br />
<br />
有神论建立了一套祭祀法则，成为了神与人之间调解者的角色。由于每个不受控制的权威都滥用权力，这些调解人获得了人间的财富，并利用他们对工作人员的滥用甚至性虐待来控制他们。<br />
有神论确立了一些神职人员来充当上帝和人民之间的调停者。无限制的权力会导致权力的滥用，因此这些调停者不仅获得了大量的财富，还利用自己对人民的控制来压榨他们的劳动力甚至是通过性虐待来达到此目的。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 14:08, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
In Europe, the power was divided among the rulers and the church, represented by the pope, the cardinals, the bishops and the priests. <br />
<br />
在欧洲，权力在统治者和教会之间分配，由教皇，红衣主教，主教和神父代表。<br />
<br />
在欧洲，权力被统治者和以教皇、红衣主教、主教和神父为代表的教会所控制，并且被分享、分配。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:21, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在欧洲，由统治者和以教皇，红衣主教，主教和神父为代表的教会掌控分配权力。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 03:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在欧洲，统治者和以教皇，红衣主教，主教和神父为代表的教会分配权力。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 04:02, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
Since religion in general claims to be valid for all of menkind, when new territories were discovered in East Asia and Africa, the missionaries tried to enlarge the territorium under their control by forcing locals to accept European religions and societal development models like modernization and economical development. <br />
因为宗教通常声称对所有人都有效，所以当在东亚和非洲发现新的领土时，传教士试图通过迫使当地人接受欧洲宗教和社会发展模式，如现代化和经济发展，来扩大他们控制下的领土。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 08:34, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
由于宗教一般主张对所有人都有效，所以当在东亚和非洲发现新的领土时，传教士会试图通过强迫当地人接受欧洲的宗教和社会发展模式，如现代化和经济发展，来扩大自己控制的领土。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 04:56, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
After the first missionaries arrived in China and saw that the exchange was positive for both sides, they also developed a motivation to keep the missionaries alive, which was a second motivation for them. <br />
<br />
在第一批传教士抵达中国，并看到双方的交流是积极的之后，他们也发展了一种让传教士活动的动力，这是他们的第二个动机。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:47, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在第一批传教士抵达中国后，并看到这种交流对双方来说都是积极的，他们也就产生了另一个动力，让传教士们积极活动。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:11, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
Since the Christian religion is a religion revealed in divine texts, the missionaries had a strong motivation to find evidence in the classical Chinese texts that the Christian god also existed there. So among the first texts, they selected, translated and sorted were the canonized texts. A good example is the Daodejing which they translated in a distorted way, allowing them to proof the existence of the Christian god in China.<br />
<br />
由于基督教是一种神圣文本中所揭示的宗教，传教士有强烈的动机在中国古典文本中找到证据，证明基督教的神也存在于那里。 因此，在第一批文本中，他们选择、翻译和排序的是册封文本。一个很好的例子就是《道德经》，他们以扭曲的方式翻译，使他们能够证明中国基督教神的存在。<br />
<br />
由于基督教起源于神圣文本，所以传教士很想在中国古典作品中找到基督教的神亦存在的证据。因此，他们最初选择、翻译、排序的文章都是经典作品。这些传教士歪曲事实，翻译《道德经》是一个很好的证明。其目的是证明中国存在基督教的神。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:35, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
This was the first major mistake, the attitude of Europeans to find evidence of their European god in Chinese roots. This attidtude lead to translation practises abandoning the basic rules of the profession: <br />
<br />
这是第一个重大错误，即欧洲人在中国人根源中找到欧洲神的证据的态度。这种原因导致翻译实践放弃了专业的基本规则：<br />
<br />
这是第一个重大错误，即欧洲人想寻找证据，证明自己的欧洲神明存在于中国人根源之中的这种态度。这种态度导致其在翻译实践中放弃专业的基本规则：--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 02:14, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这是第一个重大错误，即欧洲人试图在中国根源中找到欧洲神的证据的态度。这种态度导致翻译实践放弃了专业的基本规则：--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 02:24, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Terms, concepts and ideas sounding familiar were forcibly changed into the original European meaning. However, the published translations did only show a slight influence of this practise, the main translations, e.g. of the Daodejing first were not published, but discussed internally. <br />
<br />
熟悉的术语、概念和想法被强制改变，具有原欧洲意义。但是，已发表的翻译并没有受太大影响，主要翻译，例如最初没有发表的《道德经》，在内部进行了讨论。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 03:25, 19 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
<br />
为人熟知的术语、概念和想法被强制改变为原欧洲意义。然而，已发表的翻译作品仅受到了轻微影响。但主要的翻译作品，例如最初没有发表的《道德经》，在内部进行了讨论。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
为人所熟知的术语、概念和思想，被迫改为原来的欧洲含义。然而，已发表的翻译只是受到了这种做法的轻微影响，但主要的翻译作品，如《道德经》最初没有出版，而是进行内部讨论。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:07, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
The outcome of the discussion was that the deviations in the translations would have to go too far and ultimately that there was no proof of the Christian god in ancient Chinese texts. <br />
<br />
讨论的结果是，翻译中的偏差必须走得太远，最终在中国古代文本中没有基督教之神的证据。<br />
<br />
讨论的结果是，译本的偏差会太大，最终导致在古代中国文本中没有基督教上帝存在的证据。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 01:21, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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讨论的结果是译本可能会偏差过大，最终导致在中国古籍中没有基督教存在的依据了。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 07:50, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
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Nonetheless, since then several missionaries, priests (Richard Wilhelm) and sinologists (Wolfgang Kubin) still tend to translate the Chinese concept of “heaven” into concepts familiar to Europeans like “god”. <br />
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尽管如此，从那时起，几位传教士，牧师（理查德威廉）和汉学家（顾彬）仍然倾向于将中国的“天堂”概念翻译成欧洲人熟悉的概念，如“上帝”。<br />
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尽管如此，从那时起，一些传教士、牧师（如理查德·威廉）和汉学家（如沃尔夫冈·库宾）还是倾向于把中国的“天”译作欧洲人所熟悉的概念，如“上帝”--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 07:41, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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尽管如此，从那时起，一些传教士、牧师(理查德·威廉)和汉学家(沃尔夫冈·库宾)仍然倾向于把中国的“天堂”概念翻译成欧洲人熟悉的概念，比如“上帝”。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 01:26, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
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This is wrong and we as sinologists, apologize to the Chinese citizens for this eurocentric approach. We hope to overcome this historical mistake by cooperation with our Chinese colleagues.<br />
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这是错误的，我们作为汉学家，为这种以欧洲为中心的方法向中国公民道歉。我们希望通过与中国同事的合作修正这一历史错误。<br />
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这是错误的，并且作为汉学家，我们为这种以欧洲为中心的做法向中国公民道歉。我们希望通过与中国同事的合作来纠正这一历史错误。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 06:29, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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这种以欧洲为中心的做法是不对的。作为汉学家，我们为此向中国公民道歉，希望能够和中国汉学家合作来纠正这个历史错误。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
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All institutionalization develops inertia, the Chinese society was very instituionalized, therefore the Christianization in general failed. However, he secondary aims of the missions, to bring the European understanding of societal development (development of economy, health, education bringing about progress and modernization) were a success.<br />
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所有制度化都发展了惯性，中国社会非常机构化，因此基督教化总体上失败了。 然而，他的使命的次要目标，使欧洲对社会发展的理解（经济、健康、教育带来进步和现代化）的成功是成功的。<br />
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一切制度化都滋长了惰性，中国社会非常制度化，因此基督教化总体上失败了。然而，他的任务的第二个目标是，使欧洲人了解社会发展（经济、卫生、教育的发展带来进步和现代化），这个目标成功了。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 10:42, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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一切制度化滋长了惰性，中国社会非常制度化，因此基督教化总体上失败了。然而，他的任务的第二个目标：使欧洲人了解社会发展（经济、卫生、教育的发展带来进步和现代化），成功了。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 02:34, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
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The missionaries translated European books of knowledge into Chinese and therefore practically performed a knowledge transfer. Also the learning of foreign languages enhanced.<br />
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传教士将欧洲知识书籍翻译成中文，实际上不仅传递了知识，也提高了他们外语学习的能力。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 09:27, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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传教士将欧洲的知识书籍译成了中文，从而将知识的传递落到了实处。人们的外语学习能力也得到了提高。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:53, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
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During history, the authoritarian rule was replaced by democracies. In China, this was the case with the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912. During history, the power of the church was also restrained with protestant reformism.<br />
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在历史上，专制统治被民主取代。 在中国，1912年中华民国成立就是这种情况。在历史上，教会的权力也受到新教改良主义的制约。<br />
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在历史上，专制统治被民主制所取代。 在中国，1912年中华民国成立就是这种情况。在历史上，新教改革派也限制了教会的权力。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 04:23, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在历史上，独裁统治被民主政体所取代。而在中国，中华民国于1912年成立就是这样的事件。历史上，教会的权力也受到新教改革主义的制约。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:27, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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Religions are more or less tolerant regarding people believing in different religions or regarding atheists. Islam in average is less tolerant the Christianity. <br />
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宗教对于相信不同宗教或无神论者的人或多或少都是宽容的。平均而言，伊斯兰教对基督教的宽容度较低。<br />
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各大宗教对于有别的宗教信仰的人或无神论者或多或少持宽松态度。一般而言，伊斯兰教对基督教徒的宽松度较低。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 05:32, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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任何宗教对于信仰不同宗教的人或无神论者都有着或多或少的宽容。一般来说，伊斯兰教对基督教的宽容度较低。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 06:07, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
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Since two millenia, Europe has been dominated by Christianity and China mostly by ancestor worship, with a huge tolerance towards Buddhism, Daoism and other forms of religious practises. <br />
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自两千年以来，欧洲一直由基督教和中国主导，主要是祖先崇拜，对佛教、道教和其他形式的宗教活动有着巨大的容忍。<br />
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自从两千年以来，欧洲一直以基督教为主，中国大多以崇拜祖先为主，对佛教，道教和其他形式的宗教活动具有极大的容忍度。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 06:02, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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2. Stagnant China停滞的中国<br />
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Times when international China watchers (scholars, philosophers) and China experts (merchants, missionaries, members of delegations, scholars) idealized China (Chinoiserie) and when they demonized her (stagnation, Yellow peril) followed each other. <br />
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国际中国观察家（学者、哲学家）和中国专家（商人、传教士、代表团成员、学者）理想化中国（中国风）以及妖魔化她（停滞、黄祸）的时代相互依存。<br />
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国际上中国的关注者（学者、哲学家）和对中国颇为了解的人（商人、传教士、代表团成员、学者）先是把中国理想化（Chinoiserie），接着又把中国妖魔化（停滞、黄祸）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:00, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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国际上中国的观察者们（学者、哲学家）和中国通（商人、传教士、代表团成员、学者）把中国理想化(中国风）、妖魔化（停滞、黄祸）的时期是互相交汇的。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 05:34, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
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Western Sinology has long declared the "stagnation" in China as being “without an alternative” and as “being caused by Confucianism”. However, China showed a disruptive economical development since 1978, which proves this narrative wrong. Now also the Chinese "economic miracle" is explained by the Western sinologists with Confucianism. <br />
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西方汉学早就宣称中国的“停滞”是“没有其他选择”和“由儒学引起的”。 然而，自1978年以来，中国显示出飞速的经济发展，证明这种说法是错误的。 现在中国的“经济奇迹”也被西方汉学家用儒学解释了。<br />
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西方汉学早就宣称中国的“停滞”是“无法避免的”，“由儒学造成的”。然而，从1978年来，中国的经济出现了颠覆性的发展，证明这种说法是错误的。现在，西方汉学家又用儒学去解释中国的“经济奇迹”。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:00, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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Now is the time for Western Sinology to admit its historical mistake and to overcome the eurocentric and racist dogma of “stagnation” by diversification. The exchange with Chinese colleagues like here at the congress offers a good opportunity to do so.<br />
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现在是西方汉学承认其历史错误、克服多元化“停滞”的欧洲中心和种族主义教条的时候了。在这里与大会上的中国同事交流提供了一个很好的机会。<br />
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现在，西方汉学应当承认自己的历史错误，并通过多样化来克服“停滞”的欧洲中心主义和种族主义教条。本次大会上与中国同事的交流为此提供了一个很好的机会。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 04:53, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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现在是西方汉学承认历史错误，通过多元化克服“停滞”的欧洲中心主义和种族主义教条的时候了。本次大会上与中国同事的交流提供了一个很好的机会。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 10:45, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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With the overall turn from admiring China to demonizing China, also Hegel started to judge on China as a “stagnant” empire. <br />
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随着从钦佩中国到妖魔化中国的整体转变，黑格尔也开始判断中国是一个“停滞不前”的帝国。<br />
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从钦佩中国到妖魔化中国，黑格尔也开始认为中国是一个“停滞不前”的帝国。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:22, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
随着黑格尔从钦佩中国到妖魔化中国的全面转变，他也开始认为中国是一个“停滞”的帝国。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 04:21, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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Although he found evidence that Confucius had invented the Golden Rule, he described China as the lowest stage of a stairways to the world Geist# with Berlin at the top. His condemnation of China was taken over by Marx who condemned China too. <br />
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尽管他发现了孔子发明黄金法则的证据，但他将中国描述为通往世界精神阶梯的最低阶段，而柏林位居榜首。他对中国的谴责也被谴责中国的马克思所接管。<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
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There were several narratives establishing a Great Divergence or arguing for little divergences during the early stage of globalization. However, new rediscoveries of ancient Chinese translations of Western books of knowledge and new statistics of sugar consumption (which was for the most time higher in China than in Europe) question these narratives today.<br />
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在全球化的早期阶段，有几种叙述形成了一种大分歧或争论很少的分歧。 然而，中国古代西方知识翻译的新发现以及食糖消费的新统计数据（这在中国的时间比欧洲最高）在今天质疑这些叙述。<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
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'''3. Western Sinologists as Red Guard作为红卫兵的西方汉学家'''<br />
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Whenever science and scholarship serves an ideology or a religion, it gives up its objectivity and it betrays the fundamental principles of science and scholarship, e.g. the principle that you conduct research independantly without any predestined results and that you accept the results whatever they are.<br />
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每当科学和学术服务于意识形态或宗教时，它就会放弃其客观性，并背叛科学和学术的基本原则，例如： 你独立进行研究而没有任何预定结果的原则，你接受的结果无论它们是什么。<br />
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每当科学和学术服务于意识形态或宗教时，它就会放弃其客观性，并背叛科学和学术的基本原则，例如： 在你独立进行研究时，你可能会想要一个预定好的结果。你可能不太愿意接受不想要的答案。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:22, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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Sinologists and scholars of Chinese Studies are scholars who deal with the subject of China. To keep the distance, it is good that they are able to freely travel to and out of China in order to be able to change perspectives and to keep the distance.<br />
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中国研究的汉学家和学者是处理中国主题的学者。为了保持距离，他们能够自由地进出中国以便能够改变视角并保持距离。<br />
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汉学家和中国研究学者都是研究中国主题的学者。为了区分不同，他们能够自由进出中国，以便能够改变视角去研究不同方面，这是非常好的方法。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉学家和中国研究学者是研究中国问题的学者。为了保持距离，他们能够自由地往返于中国，以便能够改变视角，保持距离，这是很好的。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:40, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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There was a time at the end of the 1960s, when the Western capitalism and establishment was challenged, initi-ated by images from the Vietnam war, dismantling the cruelty of war, where American soldiers used unfair tech-niques like chemical weapons against civilians in Vietnam. The photo of the naked children, scared to death from the napalm air strikes and running away in panic, changed the attitude of the people in the USA and in Europe against the institutionalized form of capitalism. Suddenly, the people, who were assured to be the “good ones” asked instead if they were the “bad ones” and had to change their systems towards peaceful coexistence. <br />
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20世纪60年代末，西方资本主义的形成和建立受到挑战，受到越南战争的影响。资本主义使战争看上去不那么残酷，美国士兵在越南对平民使用化学武器等不公平技术。看到裸体儿童的照片，看到他们在凝固汽油弹袭击中惊恐万分的模样，惊慌而逃的身影，改变了美国和欧洲人民对制度化资本主义的态度。 突然之间，那些发誓要成为“好人”的人们反而会质疑自己是否是“坏蛋”，并且不得不改变他们自己的方式以实现和平共处。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:13, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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20世纪60年代末，西方资本主义和建立受到越南战争的影响，摧毁了战争的残酷，美国士兵在越南对平民使用化学武器等不公平技术。 裸体儿童的照片，在凝固汽油弹袭击中惊恐万分，在恐慌中逃跑，改变了美国和欧洲人民对制度化资本主义形式的态度。 突然之间，那些被保证成为“好人”的人们反而要求他们是“坏人”，并且不得不改变他们的制度以实现和平共处。<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
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Western sinologist in the whole world were too ready to believe the propaganda of a successful “Great Proletari-an Cultural Revolution”. In 1961 Defense Minister Lin Biao instructed the army journal ''People’s Liberation Army Daily'' to print one saying of Mao each day. Sorted thematically, the first collection of these sayings was published in 1964. The little red book with sayings by Mao Zedong was printed more than 740 million times in China to supply every citizen with a copy. During its peak of popularity 1966-1971, it was the most printed book, it was printed in more than 30 languages more than a billion times. <br />
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全世界的西方汉学家都准备好相信成功的“无产阶级文化大革命”的宣传。 1961年，国防部长林彪指示军民报“人民解放军报”每天打印一篇毛泽东的语录。 按主题排序，这些说法的第一个集合于1964年出版。毛泽东的红宝书在中国印刷了7.4亿多次，为每个公民提供了一份副本。 在1966年至1971年的人气高峰期间，它是印刷最多的书，以超过30种语言印刷超过十亿次。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 03:20, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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全世界的西方汉学家都不敢相信“伟大的无产阶级文化大革命”的宣传竟如此成功。1961年，国防部长林彪指示军队日报《人民解放军日报》每天刊登一篇毛泽东语录。按主题分类，这些语录的第一本合集于1964年出版。《毛泽东语录红皮书》在中国印刷了7.4亿多册，几乎人手一本。在1966至1971年间，该书的印刷量达到顶峰，被翻译成30多种语言，印刷超过10亿次。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 06:46, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
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Jean-Luc Godard released his film “La Chinoise” in August 1967, displaying a youthful Parisian Maoist sect. This lead to a popularity of this ideology among Western experts of Chinese Studies.<br />
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Jean-Luc Godard于1967年8月发行了他的电影《中国姑娘》，展示了一个年轻的巴黎毛派教派。这导致了这种意识形态在西方中国研究专家中的流行。<br />
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让-吕克·戈达尔（Jean-Luc Godard）于1967年8月发行了电影《中国姑娘》，展示了一个年轻的巴黎毛派教派。随后，此意识形态在西方中国研究专家中流行。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 06:31, 20 November 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
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1967年8月，让-吕克·戈达尔（Jean-Luc Godard）发布了其电影《中国姑娘》，电影中展示了一个年轻的巴黎毛派教派。随后，此意识形态在那些做中国研究的西方专家中流行开来。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:45, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
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Recently, Cambridge University Press published a collection of memories of how Western sinologists and young intellectuals have received and embraced Maoism in the 1960s and 1970s. <br />
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最近，剑桥大学出版社出版了一系列关于西方汉学家和年轻知识分子如何在20世纪60年代和70年代接受和信奉毛泽东思想的回忆。<br />
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最近，剑桥大学出版社出版了一系列回忆录，里面记录了西方汉学家和年轻知识分子如何在20世纪60年代和70年代就已接收并信奉毛泽东思想。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:19, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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最近，剑桥大学出版社出版了一系列回忆录，里面记录了西方汉学家和年轻知识分子在20世纪60年代和70年代对毛泽东思想的接受和信奉情况。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 02:28, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
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John Gray in a book review has summarized main points of the book. I mostly follow his summary here. He de-scribes how French thinkers received this film:<br />
<br />
约翰格雷在书评中总结了本书的要点。 我在此将列出他主要的总结。他描述了法国思想家如何评价这部电影：<br />
<br />
<br />
约翰格雷在书评中总结了这本书的要点。 我将在此列出他主要的总结。他描述了法国思想家如何评价这部电影：--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 03:21, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
约翰·格雷在书评中总结了他这本书的主要观点。在这里，我主要是跟随着他的总结。他描述了法国的思想者是如何接受这部电影的：--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:25, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg: “Mao’s language of violence had a certain rhetorical appeal.” In fact, it was his combination of rhetorical violence with sub-Hegelian dialectical logic that proved so irresistible to sections of the French intelligentsia. Eulogising Mao’s distinction between principal and secondary contradictions, Louis Althusser deployed Maoist categories as part of an extremely abstract and, indeed, largely meaningless defence of “the relative autonomy of theory”. <br />
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[Julian] Bourg：“毛泽东的暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”事实上，正是他将修辞暴力与次黑格尔辩证逻辑相结合，证明了法国知识分子的各个部分是如此不可抗拒。 颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分，路易斯·阿尔都塞将毛派分类作为极其抽象的，实际上在很大程度上毫无意义地保护“理论的相对自治”的一部分。<br />
<br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg:“毛泽东暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”事实上，正是他的修辞暴力与亚黑格尔的辩证逻辑相结合，对法国知识分子的各个部分来说是如此难以抗拒。 颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分,路易·阿尔都塞将毛泽东主义者分类作为极其抽象的,实际上是对“理论相对自治”的毫无意义的辩护的一部分。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 07:46, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg：“毛泽东的暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”事实上，正是因为他将修辞暴力与次黑格尔辩证逻辑相结合，才证明了法国知识分子的各个部分是如此不可抗拒。 路易斯·阿尔都塞颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分，并将毛派分类作为极其抽象的，实际上是对“理论的相对自治”的毫无意义的辩护的一部分。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
Althusser’s student Alain Badiou (for many years professor of philosophy at the École Normale Supérieure) continued to defend Maoism long after the scale of its casualties had become undeniable. As recently as 2008, while commending himself for being “now one of Maoism’s few noteworthy representatives”, Badiou praised Mao’s thought as “a new politics of the negation of the negation”. From one point of view, this stance is merely contemptible – a professorial pirouette around a vast pile of corpses. But one must bear in mind the fathomless frivolity of some on the French left. Already in 1980, two former Maoist mili-tants had announced their rejection of the creed in the language of fashion: “China was in . . . Now it is out . . . we are no longer Maoists.” Against this background, Badiou’s persistence is almost heroically ab-surd. <br />
<br />
阿尔都塞的学生Alain Badiou（多年来在巴黎高等师范学院的哲学教授）在其伤亡人数不可否认之后很久就继续捍卫毛派。 就在2008年，尽管称赞自己是“现在是毛派少数几个值得注意的代表之一”，但巴迪欧称赞毛泽东的思想是“否定否定的新政治”。 从一个角度来看，这种立场仅仅是可鄙的 - 围绕着一大堆尸体的教授旋转。 但是人们必须牢记法国左翼一些人的无聊轻浮。 早在1980年，两位前毛泽东武装分子就已经宣布以时尚语言拒绝信条：“中国是在中国。。。 现在它出来了。。。 我们不再是毛泽东思想者。”在这种背景下，巴迪欧的坚持几乎是荒谬的荒谬。<br />
<br />
阿尔都塞的学生阿兰·巴迪欧（多年来一直是巴黎高等师范学院的哲学教授）在伤亡人数不可否认之后很久仍继续捍卫毛派。就在2008年，巴迪欧称自己“现在是毛泽东主义为数不多的重要代表之一”，并称赞毛泽东的思想是“否定否定的新政治”。某种程度上来说，这种姿态简直是可鄙的——围绕着一大堆尸体旋转的教授。但是，我们必须记住一些法国左翼人士不可理喻的轻浮。早在1980年，两位前毛泽东武装分子已经用时尚的语言宣布拒绝这一信条：“中国在。现在它出来了。在这样的背景下，巴迪欧的坚持几乎是英勇无畏的。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:14, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
Dominique Kirchner Reill has documented, that Maoist influence in Italy and Yugoslavia was even wider: <br />
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Dominique Kirchner Reill证明，毛派在意大利和南斯拉夫的影响甚至更为广泛：<br />
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“In Italy Mao-mania was not purely a left-wing phenomenon. Some ultra-right groups quoted their Little Red Books to justify their arguments.” In 1968-73 the neo-fascist party Lotto di Popolo (“the people’s fight”) lauded Mao as an exemplary nationalist and resolute opponent of US global hegemony. <br />
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“在意大利，毛派狂热不仅仅是一种左翼现象。 一些极权团体引用他们的红皮书为他们的论点辩护。“1968年-1973年，新法西斯政党Lotto di Popolo（”人民的斗争“）称赞毛泽东是模范民族主义者和美国全球霸权的坚决反对者。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:13, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
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In a footnote he observes <br />
在他的脚注中，他注意到：<br />
<br />
“Nazi-Maoist movement in Italy included many other figures and groups” besides the Lotto di Popolo. <br />
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除了Lotto di Popolo之外，“意大利的纳粹毛派运动包括许多其他人物和团体”。<br />
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Gray beklagt#: “It is a pity this aspect of Mao’s influence is not explored in greater detail.” One of the reasons may be that the generation of Maoist sinologists later were the ones to document their own history, the history of sinologists, but they never came to terms with it, very much like the 1960s activists with sympathy for the German “Red Army Fraction”, who later became part of the establishment, even ministers in the government, and did not want to be reminded of their past.<br />
<br />
灰色beklagt＃：“遗憾的是，毛泽东影响力的这一方面没有得到更详细的探讨。”其中一个原因可能是后来毛派汉族的一代人要记录他们自己的历史，也就是汉学家的历史，但是 他们从来没有接受过它，非常像20世纪60年代积极分子同情德国“红军分数”，后来成为该组织的一部分，甚至是政府的部长，并且不想被提醒他们的过去。<br />
<br />
在他的脚注中，他表示，参与者除了Lotto di Popolo外，“意大利纳粹毛派运动还包括许多其他人物和团体”。<br />
Gray beklagt#表示：“遗憾的是，在这个层面，毛泽东的影响未得到更细致的探讨。”其中一个原因可能是，后来的毛泽东思想汉学家只记载他们自己的历史，即汉学家的历史。他们从不接受毛泽东思想，这就很像二十世纪六十年代的积极分子同情德国“红军纵队”。该纵队的人后来成为该组织的一部分，有的甚至还成了政府机关部长。这些汉学家不想回忆起自己的历史。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:18, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
Gray writes in his book review: 格雷在他的书评中写道：<br />
<br />
“In a programmatic introductory essay Alexander C Cook compares the Chinese leader’s book to a “spir-itual atom bomb” and considers its global fallout. Showing how it reflects the influence of the choral sing-ing introduced into China by 19th-century Christian missionaries, Andrew F Jones provides an illuminating account of the rise of the Maoist pop song. Taking as her starting point the global distribution of the Little Red Book to over a hundred countries in the eight months between October 1966 and May 1967, Xu Lanjun examines the process of translation in the context of Maoist ideas of global revolution. Quinn Slo-bodian discusses the impact the book had in eastern and western Germany. In the concluding essay, Ban Wang considers the Little Red Book and “religion as politics” in China. Elsewhere, its influence in Tanzania, India, Peru, Albania and the former Soviet Union is discussed.”<br />
<br />
“在一篇程序化的介绍性文章中，亚历山大·库克将中国领导人的书与“精神原子弹”进行了比较，并考虑了它的全球影响。 安德鲁·F·琼斯（Andrew F Jones）展示了它如何反映19世纪基督教传教士引入中国的合唱歌曲的影响，为毛泽东主义流行歌曲的兴起提供了一个有启发性的说明。 在1966年10月至1967年5月的八个月中，徐兰军以红宝书的全球分布为一百多个国家，在毛泽东的全球革命思想背景下考察了翻译的过程。 Quinn Slobodian讨论了该书在德国东部和西部的影响。 在最后的文章中，王班并认为红宝书和中国的“宗教为政治”。在其他地方，讨论了它在坦桑尼亚、印度、秘鲁、阿尔巴尼亚和前苏联的影响。”<br />
<br />
“在一篇纲领性的导言文章中，亚历山大·C·库克（Alexander C Cook）把这位中国领导人的书比作是一颗“精神原子弹”，并认为这对全世界都产生了辐射效应。安德鲁·F·琼斯（Andrew F Jones）展示了19世纪基督教传教士将合唱引入中国后所造成的影响，并生动地讲述了毛泽东主义流行歌曲是如何兴起的。在1966年10月至1967年5月的八个月中，徐兰军以红宝书销往的全球一百多个国家为着手点，考察了在毛泽东的全球革命思想背景下的翻译过程。奎因·斯洛博迪安（Quinn Slo-bodian）探讨了该书对德国东部和西部的影响。在这篇文章的最后，王斑研究了红宝书并将其视为中国的“宗教政治”。除了探讨对中国的影响，还讨论了在坦桑尼亚、印度、秘鲁、阿尔巴尼亚和前苏联的影响。"--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:45, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
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“In West Germany in the late 1960s, the Little Red Book “resembled simultaneously an accessory of the classical workers’ movement and a modish commodity of the educated elite”. In theatres, across from the refreshments, there were glass cases “full of pretty red Mao bibles (two Deutsche Marks each)”. As an anti-consumerist commodity, the book became “a marker of social distinction within a commercial market”.”<br />
<br />
“在20世纪60年代后期的西德，红宝书”同时也是古典工人运动的一部分，也是受过教育的精英的一种时尚商品”。 在茶馆对面的剧院里，有一些玻璃盒子“里面装满了漂亮的红宝书（每个都有两个德国马克）”。 作为一种反消费主义商品，这本书成为“商业市场中社会区别的标志”。”<br />
<br />
“在20世纪60年代后期的西德，（毛泽东的）红宝书“是古典工人运动的读物，同时也是教育良好的精英阶层中的畅销书。”在茶馆对面的剧院里，有一些玻璃盒子“里面装满了漂亮的红宝书（每个都有两个德国马克）”。作为一种反消费主义的商品，这本书成为了“商业市场中社会差异的标志”。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:20, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Condemned as distorting Mao’s ideas and exerting a “widespread and pernicious influence”, the book was withdrawn from circulation in February 1979 and a hundred million copies pulped.”<br />
“这部书被谴责为歪曲毛泽东的思想并发挥“广泛而有害的影响”，于1979年2月撤销流通，并且有数亿份纸张被废弃。”<br />
<br />
“这本书受到了人们的谴责，认为书中歪曲了毛泽东的思想，并带来“广泛而有害的影响”，因此，该书于1979年2月停止发行，数亿份书籍被废弃。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:20, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
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The popularity of the Chinese system in the West was at the peak when it had the most victims.<br />
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中国体制在西方的受欢迎程度因其最多的受害者而达到了峰值。<br />
<br />
当受害者人数最多时中国制度在西方的受欢迎程度达到顶峰。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Today, even in China, the Cultural Revolution is evaluated as “10 Years of Chaos”. Mao Zedong’s approach to mobilize the masses in endless revolutions turned out to be a historical failure. <br />
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今天，即使在中国，文化大革命也被评为“十年动乱”。 毛泽东在无休止的革命中动员群众的方法被证明是历史性的失败。<br />
<br />
今天，即使在中国，文化大革命也称为“十年动乱”。毛泽东发动群众进行无休止革命的做法被证明是历史性的失败。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
However, domestic Science and Scholarship today once more receives incentives to pretend an ideological use-fulness of their research results when applying for funds to conduct research projects. However, an independant science and scholarship serves any government best, because a government needs real and true research results, not sugar coated ones.<br />
<br />
然而，今天的国内科学和奖学金再次获得激励，在申请资金进行研究项目时，假装其研究成果具有意识形态的有用性。 然而，独立的科学和奖学金最适合任何政府，因为政府需要真实和真实的研究结果，而不是糖衣。<br />
<br />
然而，如今国内学科及奖学金再次受到鼓励，要求在申请项目研究资金时伪称其研究结果具有意识形态有用性。但由于政府需要真实准确的研究结果，而非华而不实的研究结果，一项独立的学科及奖学金对任何政府都是绝佳选择。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:59, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，如今国内的科学学术研究就再次要求在申请研究项目资金时，其研究结果须表现为有助于意识形态建设。然而，独立的科学与学术研究能够最大程度地服务政府，因为政府需要的是真实的研究成果，而不是让其巧加粉饰。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:32, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，今天国内的科学和学术再次获得激励，在申请资金进行研究项目时，可以假装其研究成果具有意识形态的有用性。 然而，真正独立的科学和学术才能够最好地服务于政府，因为政府需要真正的和真实的研究结果，而不是徒有其表的。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 01:54, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
Freedom is always the freedom within the limits not to restrict the freedom of others. But this historical event posed a new question: When is it time to kill a massmurderer? If communism threatens to enslave a whole population with millions of death victims – how far is it justified to intervene or not to intervene? But when it is not just a mass murderer, but a whole group of people mislead by a leader, a whole administration of a country, how can you clearly differentiate between good and evil? Reality often consists out of different levels of grey.<br />
<br />
自由永远是限制的自由，而不是限制他人的自由。但这一历史事件提出了一个新问题：什么时候杀死一名群众？ 如果共产主义威胁到全世界数百万死亡受害者的奴役 - 干预或不干预到底有多大理由？ 但是，当它不仅仅是一个大规模杀人犯，而且还是一群人误导领导者，一个国家的整个政府时，你怎么能清楚地区分善恶呢？ 现实通常由不同级别的灰色组成。<br />
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自由永远是在不限制他人自由的范围内的自由。但是这一历史性事件向我们提出了一个新的问题：什么时候应该杀死一个杀人凶手？如果共产主义威胁要奴役数以百万计的死亡受害者，那么进行干预或不进行干预的合理性有多大差别？但是，当它不仅是一个大规模杀人犯，而且是一群人被一个领导人，一个国家的整个政府误导时，该如何清楚地区分善与恶？现实通常是由不同层次的灰色组成的。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 13:28, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
湖南师范大学洪堡跨学科研究中心<br />
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Humboldt Center for Transdisciplinary Studies at Hunan Normal University<br />
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揭牌仪式<br />
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Launch Ceremony<br />
<br />
2020年9月14日<br />
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September 14, 2020<br />
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I congratulate the Humboldt Center for Transdisciplinary Studies 洪堡跨学科研究中心 for its opening at Hunan Normal University and especially my German colleague and Humboldt expert Professor Ottmar Ette奥特玛·埃特教授 for his dedication to realize the Center. Ette is one of the leading experts about Humboldt, in 2014-2017 he was responsible for the part “Genealogy, Chronology, Epistemology” of the BMBF research project about Humboldt in the United States.<br />
<br />
祝贺湖南师范大学洪堡跨学科研究中心成立，尤其感谢我的德国同事、洪堡专家奥特玛·埃特教授为中心的建成所做的贡献。埃特教授是研究洪堡的主要专家之一，2014-2017年，他负责美国BMBF关于洪堡研究项目中“系谱、年代学、认识论”的部分。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 03:56, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
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The Center has the best starting conditions: It is backed by the University Potsdam and the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities 柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院, which spon-sors a 18 year long research project until 2033 “Science on the Move” about Humboldt, lead by Prof. Ette.<br />
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该中心拥有最佳的启动条件：它由波茨坦大学和柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院共同支持的，该基金会资助了一项由埃特（Ette）教授领导，历时18年，一直进行到2033年，即关于洪堡“移动中的科学”的研究。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 13:54, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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该中心具有最佳的启动条件：它由波茨坦大学和柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院提供支持，该基金会赞助了直到2033年一项长达18年的研究项目，即“洪堡运动科学”，由埃特教授领导。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:08, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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该中心具备最佳的启动条件：它由波茨坦大学和柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院共同支持。直到2033年，该基金会一直赞助这一历时18年的研究项目，即埃特教授领导的“洪堡运动科学”研究。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
The Center could not have found a better Chinese partner: This new Center is opened at a Hum-boldian University, with a long tradition in transdisciplinary research and teaching, with chancel-lor Professor Jiang Hongxin 湖南师范大学党委书记蒋洪新教授, who is not only an internation-ally renowned scholar in English literature, but also the driving factor behind the internationaliza-tion and opening up of Hunan Normal University.<br />
<br />
洪堡跨学科交流中心找到了最佳的中国合作伙伴——湖南师范大学。该中心设立在洪堡大学，洪堡大学在跨学科研究和教学领域有着悠久的历史。湖南师范大学党委书记蒋洪新教授不仅是国际知名的英语文学学者，也是湖南师范大学国际化、对外开放的带头人。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 06:29, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
The success of Hunan Normal University is displayed in the rising position in the university rank-ings, in the number of study programs ranking top nationwide, in the growing community of in-ternational experts working at Hunan Normal University, in international cooperations, joint school projects etc. Also the staff working at the Center are ideally chosen, Ren Haiyan 中心副主任任海燕博士, who is familiar with English literature of the 18th century, Fan Ni, who is currently building up the German Department as well as Li Yaqin.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
Changsha is both the place of one of the earliest universities in China, founded in 976 CE, the Yuelu Academy 岳麓书院, and together with its attached High School, Hunan Normal University and its Foreign Studies College founded by Qian Zhongshu is famous for its history of educating leaders with a thinking outside of the box. Similarly, Humboldt has said: “How a person masters his fate is more important than what his fate is.” This is just what Humboldt fought for. Humboldt is famous not just in Germany and Europe, but also in the United States, Russia, Asia and world-wide. He shaped our understanding of universities, research, teaching and education. Today, it is safe to say that the German universities are Humboldian universities, also European ones, Ameri-can ones and certainly also Hunan Normal University.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
When Humboldt traveled Central Asia and wrote about China, he certainly never would have dreamed of the realization of such a Center to his honor in Changsha. However, he would have been overwhelmed and would see his dreams realized here. With this Research Center it is now possible to explore the relation of Humboldt and China in great detail. Moreover, the relation between China and Europe can be explored here from a transdisciplinary perspective. Coopera-tion is key. With Humboldt’s words: “Collaboration operates through a process in which the suc-cessful intellectual achievements of one person arouse the intellectual passions and enthusiasms of others.”<br />
<br />
当洪堡游历中亚，写到中国时，肯定做梦也想不到长沙会是实现他梦想中荣耀的地方。但那样的话，他虽会看到自己实现梦想，也会不堪重负。现在有了这一研究中心，我们可以更详细地探讨洪堡与中国的关系。而且，可以从跨学科的角度来探讨中欧的关系。其关键是合作。正如洪堡所说:“合作是是通过一个人的智慧成就激发其他人的智力激情和热情来实现的”<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
As Jean Monnet Chair of Hunan Normal University 欧盟“让•莫内讲席教授” and as the direc-tor of the International Chinese Studies Center at Foreign Studies Center I reach out with both hands to the new Center and offer to bring in European and Chinese networks, to start immediate and concrete joint research. <br />
<br />
I close with a final quote from Humboldt: “The most dangerous worldview is the worldview of those who have not viewed the world.” Therefore, the Center now allows scholars from other places in the world to see China and offers Chinese colleagues a bridge to Europe and interna-tional scholarship.<br />
<br />
And I wish the Humboldt Center for Transdisciplinary Studies great success!<br />
<br />
作为湖南师范大学欧盟“让•莫内讲席教授”以及外国研究中心国际汉语研究中心主任的让·莫内主席，我两手准备着新的中心，并提议向欧洲和中国引进网络，以开始目前的具体的联合研究。<br />
<br />
最后，我引述洪堡的最后一句话：“最危险的世界观是那些没有看过世界的人的世界观。” 因此，该中心欢迎来自世界各地的学者参观中国，并为中国同事搭建通往欧洲和国际奖金的桥梁。<br />
<br />
祝洪堡跨学科研究中心取得圆满成功！--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 07:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
MARTIN WOESLER<br />
<br />
'''THE CHINESE PRODUCTION CULTURE<br />
<br />
Genuity, changes and compatibility with modern international production culture'''<br />
<br />
'''中国制造哲学'''<br />
<br />
原始传统、变化和对现代国际制造文化的兼容<br />
<br />
吴漠汀著<br />
<br />
歐洲大學出版社2011年<br />
European University Press 2011<br />
<br />
Content<br />
<br />
Modern Chinese Production Culture<br />
<br />
Does this global factory provide a model for an international production culture?<br />
<br />
Cultural approach<br />
<br />
National Cultures<br />
<br />
Approaches/Perspectives <br />
<br />
The Japanese Production Culture<br />
<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
China - Factory of the world<br />
<br />
中国——世界工厂<br />
<br />
Genuity of Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
Made in China<br />
<br />
中国制造<br />
<br />
Characteristics of Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的特征<br />
<br />
Shapes of modern Chinese production culture and their causes<br />
<br />
现代商品文化的形成及其原因<br />
<br />
Necessity is the mother of invention<br />
<br />
创造始于需要<br />
<br />
Changes in the Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的发展<br />
<br />
Roles in the Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的作用<br />
<br />
The Intermezzo of Socialism from 1949-1979<br />
<br />
1949-1979年社会主义的插曲<br />
<br />
Gaming in the Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的博弈<br />
<br />
Effects on the company<br />
<br />
对公司产生的影响<br />
<br />
Where is modern Chinese management and production culture (CMPC) an international role model?<br />
<br />
中国现代经营理念和商品文化是全球的标杆，这一点体现在哪里？<br />
<br />
Logistics<br />
<br />
物流<br />
<br />
Appendix: References <br />
<br />
附录：参考文献<br />
<br />
Appendix: Historical Timeline China<br />
<br />
附录：中国历史时间轴<br />
<br />
Index<br />
<br />
索引<br />
<br />
'''Modern Chinese Production Culture<br />
<br />
中国现代商品文化<br />
<br />
Does this global factory provide a model for an international production culture?<br />
<br />
中国作为全球工厂是否为国际商品文化树立标杆？--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
In the aftermath of the Second World War, the Japanese economy lacked the finances for new machinery and, in consequence, decision-makers concentrated on optimizing existing resources and processes. Soon lean production, just in time production and quality circles became export hits, even though Japanese production culture in many ways remained typically Japanese - for instance on issues such as hierarchy and loyalty on the part of employees. Today, the modernity of a factory is measured by the extent to which these characteristics of Japanese production culture are put into practice. After the Second World War, this approach developed into a model for an international production culture.<br />
By the beginning of the 21st century, the Chinese economy had surpassed that of Japan;<br />
<br />
二战后，日本财政无力支撑新型制造业的发展，决策者只能大力利用已有的资源和工艺技术。尽管日本的制造文化在许多方面仍然具有典型的日本特征，比如等级制度以及雇员的忠诚度等问题，但很快，精益生产以及品质圈成为出口热门。而今，日本制造文化应用于实践的程度是衡量工厂现代化程度的重要标准。二战后，这种方法成为一种典型的国际制造文化。<br />
到了21世纪初，中国经济超越了日本。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:21, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
today, China is a global factory. This subproject analyzes and defines the "Chinese production culture“ and focuses on the question of whether any of its modern characteristics can serve as a model for international production culture. Based on surveys by Hofstede (2009), case studies by Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku (2006) and on fundamental thinking of Philip Huang, the project takes as its premise that the development of Chinese production culture falls into different historical periods: from the genuinely Chinese production culture of silk, china and tea production over the slumbering industrial revolution, the import of Western manufacturing culture, the building of larger production units in the socialist a tradition, to today’s mixed production culture with Japanese and Western elements.<br />
<br />
如今，中国是一个“世界工厂”，本子项目对“中国生产文化”进行了分析和界定，并着重探讨了中国生产文化的现代特征是否可以作为国际生产文化的典范这一问题。该项目基于霍夫斯特德（2009年）、洪/佩赫宁/凯莱海库（2006年）的案例研究和黄菲浦的基本思想，以中国生产文化发展为前提，从不同的历史时期进行探讨：从沉睡的工业革命时期真正的中国丝绸、瓷器、茶叶生产文化，西方制造文化的进口，社会主义传统中大型生产单位的建设，到当今中日两国混合生产文化与日西元素的混合。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:02, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
But still today's production culture comes with some genuinely Chinese characteristics: the Confucian understanding of the relation boss - team leader – employee, hierarchy, the concept of face (and critique), the informal network management in the decision finding process, the esteem for the concept of age, nepotism, the play instinct (including imitation), flexibility and speed. This subproject explores which of these elements are exportable in principle and which ones can be profitably implemented within international production cultures.<br />
<br />
但今天的生产文化仍然具有一些真正的中国特色：儒家对老板-团队领导-员工关系的理解、等级、脸观（和批评）、决策查找过程中非正式的网络管理、对年龄概念的尊重、裙带关系、游戏本能（包括模仿）、灵活性和速度。此子项目探讨哪些元素原则上是可输出的，哪些元素可以在国际生产文化中有利可图地实现的。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:12, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
但如今的文化生产仍然具有一些真正的中国特色：儒家对“老板-团队领导-员工”关系的理解、等级、脸面观（和批评）、决议过程中非正式的网络管理、对年龄概念的尊重、裙带关系、好玩的天性（包括模仿）、灵活度和速度。此子项目探讨哪些元素原则上是可以输出的，哪些元素可以在国际文化生产中有利可图。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:22, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
'''Cultural approach'''<br />
文化方法<br />
<br />
As a cultural scientist, the author of this script applies the approach of Cultural Science to describe economical cultures or subcultures. One of the subcultures of economical culture is the way or culture of management and production.<br />
<br />
作为文化科学家，该脚本的作者运用文化科学的方法来描述经济文化或亚文化。 经济文化的亚文化之一是管理和生产的方式或文化。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
作为一名文化科学家，本文作者运用文化科学的方法来描述经济文化或亚文化。经济文化的亚文化之一是管理和生产的方式或文化。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:08, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After a phase of several decades in which mathematics has found its way into economics, cultural studies has also been rediscovered by economics in recent years.Cultural studies can be a helpful supplement, for example, when predictions for economic behavior need to be made, for example in models. The economic sciences initially contribute Homo oeconomicus, the self-interest maximizer. In recent years, especially since 2000, many experiments have shown that humans often behave diametrically opposed to self-interest:<br />
<br />
经过几十年的数学进入经济学的阶段之后，近年来文化也被经济学重新发现了，例如当需要对经济行为进行预测时， 比如在一些模型中，文化研究可以作为有益的补充。经济科学起初是对自利最大化者经济人的贡献。 近年来，尤其是自2000年以来，许多实验表明，人类的行为常常与自我利益截然相反：--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
经过几十年的数学进入经济学的阶段后，近年来经济学也重新发现了文化研究。例如，当需要对经济行为进行预测时，比如在模型中，文化研究可以是一种有益的补充。经济科学最初贡献了“经济人”，即利己最大化者。近年来，特别是自2000年以来，许多实验表明，人类的行为往往与自身利益截然相反:--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:08, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
'''Case 1) The bag of oranges'''<br />
<br />
Initial situation: An orange seller sells bags of oranges to tourists. He has a few rotten oranges that he could put in the bags at the bottom. The tourists would not notice it when buying and would not go to this place again because of a few rotten oranges. <br />
<br />
Behavior: He does not do it, however, but throws the rotten oranges away.<br />
<br />
Cultural-scientific explanation: In the present case, the merchant is thus ethically-morally socially responsible out of a sense of justice.<br />
案例1)橘子袋<br />
最初的情况:一个卖橘子的人把成袋的橘子卖给游客。他有几个烂橘子，他可以把它们放进底部的袋子里。游客在购买时不会注意到它，也不会再去这个地方，因为有几个烂橘子。<br />
行为:但是他没有这样做，而是把烂橘子扔了。<br />
文化-科学的解释:在当时的情况下，商人出于正义感而负有伦理道德上的社会责任。<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
One can try to construct a self-interest with the help of neurobiology: Biology leaves him no choice - if he behaves justly, although he might behave unjustly, he is rewarded with dopamine and other happiness hormones. If he were to behave unfairly at all times, he would have a guilty conscience, coupled with the fear of being caught, and sooner or later he might get stomach ulcers. In the long run, acting justly secures his life statistically better, also with regard to the economic value of his own life. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
However, if you ask the orange seller, he will at best say that it would be unfair to cheat his customers. Of course, there will always be a small number of fraudulent orange sellers in such experiments who value short-term profit more highly than long-term physical damage, if they expect it at all. And they will perhaps adopt a world view to avoid a guilty conscience, such as that rich tourists should give some of their wealth to poor orange sellers. And there will be people who cannot distinguish right from wrong due to a corresponding anatomically detectable defect in the reward system. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The following experiments are some of the classic and most frequently conducted and tested experiments to complement the maximization of self-interest:<br />
<br />
'''Case 2) Ultimatum game: share 10 Euros'''<br />
<br />
Initial situation: A student in Bonn is offered 10 €. The only condition: He has to give any partial amount to his fellow student. His fellow student has the right either to accept the amount allocated to him or to refuse to accept the whole 10 € for him and his fellow student. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
Prediction according to the self-interest maximization: The first student will keep 9,99 € and give 0,01 € to the fellow student. The fellow student would have to accept the 0.01 €, as this is more than 0.00 €.<br />
<br />
Conduct: In fact, about 90% of the students in similarly conducted experiments worldwide give 5 € to their fellow student. In the few cases in which the students want to give 2 € to their fellow student and keep 8 €, the fellow student refuses the 10 € completely, and so both go away empty-handed.<br />
根据自身利益最大化的预测:第一个学生将保留9,99欧元，并给予同伴0,01欧元。这个同学将不得不接受这0.01欧元，因为这超过了0.00欧元。<br />
行为:事实上，在全球范围内进行的类似实验中，大约90%的学生会给他们的同学5欧元。在少数情况下，学生想给他们的同学2欧元，留下8欧元，那个同学完全拒绝了这10欧元，所以两人都空手而去。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:35, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
The maximization of self-interest cannot explain the behavior in both situations. Here, cultural studies provide an explanation that is supported by neurobiologists. <br />
<br />
Cultural studies explanation: <br />
<br />
For the fellow student, relative justice is more important than his own absolute gain. If the student takes more for no reason, there are various reasons not to allow this, e.g. educational. Furthermore, this is a decision under observation and the reward system rewards behavior in the sense of justice all the more, if justice has to be bought even with one's own loss.<br />
<br />
个人利益最大化无法解释这两种情况下的行为。在这里，文化研究提供了一个解释，这个解释为神经生物学家所认可。<br />
<br />
这个解释如下:<br />
<br />
对于获得奖学金的研究生来说，相对的公正比自己的绝对利益更重要。有很多理由反对学生无故得到超过自己应得的利益，比如教育方面的原因。此外，这种决定处于监察之下。如果个人利益的损失能换来公正，奖励系统更会奖励正义感的行为。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 03:30, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Neurobiologists also explain that men consider a constellation such as this experiment like a zero-sum game and feel a sense of competition, i.e. they see the greater gain of the other as a loss for themselves.<br />
<br />
By the way, the environment also influences the degree of self-maximization against a sense of justice: <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
'''Case 3) Bank bill in letter'''<br />
<br />
If one lets a 5 Euro bill shine through the window of an envelope that is half hanging out of the mailbox, 4 out of 10 unobserved passers-by will grab it. If you paint a graffiti on the wall next to the mailbox and put some garbage next to the mailbox, 8 out of 10 unobserved passers-by will access it.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
Case 4) Primates<br />
<br />
Behavioral researchers have successfully demonstrated homo economicus in primates: There chimpanzees help each other to get shared food. If the first chimpanzee has the opportunity to give both of them the same amount or more food, it will give as much food as possible.<br />
<br />
案例4）灵长类动物<br />
<br />
行为研究人员已经成功地证明了灵长类动物在经济观：黑猩猩之间互相帮助，获取共同的食物。 如果第一个黑猩猩有机会给他们两个人相同或更多的食物，它将给予尽可能多的食物。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 07:41, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
案例4)灵长类动物<br />
<br />
行为研究人员已经成功地证明了灵长类动物中的“经济人”:黑猩猩会帮助彼此以获得共同的食物。如果第一只黑猩猩有机会给它们两只本身相同数量或更多的食物，它就会尽可能给予更多的食物。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 11:17, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
Of course, the assumption of self-interest is a reasonable approach to explain phenomena in economic life, since companies are primates in many things, but in marketing they want to appear inwardly and outwardly as human, with social responsibility and a sense of justice. The Chinese Management and Production Culture (CMPC) has a clear distribution of power in the hierarchy, which corresponds to the maximization of self-interest, but the boss has a stronger responsibility towards his employees, which also includes private areas, so that there is an above-average social component.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
References<br />
<br />
Häring, Norbert: „''Der Homo oeconomicus ist tot''“, in: Financial Times Deutschland (14.3.2001) http://ockenfels.uni-koeln.de/download/press/ftd-14032001. pdf<br />
<br />
Schlicht, Ekkehart: „''Der homo oeconomicus unter experimentellem Beschuß''“, in: Martin Held, Gisela Kubon-Gilke & Richard Sturn (Hrsg.): ''Experimente in der Ökonomik. Jahrbuch normative und institutionelle Grund-fra¬gen der Ökonomik 2.'' Metropolis-Verlag, Marburg 2003, ISBN 3-89518-414-4, http://www.semverteilung.vwl.uni-muenchen.de/mitarbeiter/es/paper/schlicht-homo-oeconomicus.pdf<br />
<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
'''National Cultures''' <br />
<br />
Cultural differences decrease as the world becomes globalized. National characteristics become blurred, companies have to operate in different locations worldwide and sell their products in different markets.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, there are historically grown traditions that come from a time when there was often already intensive global trade, but less intensive cooperation and less exchange of information.<br />
<br />
'''民族文化'''<br />
<br />
随着世界全球化，文化差异减少。民族特征变得模糊起来，企业不得不在全球各地运营和在不同市场上销售产品。尽管如此，仍有传统沿着历史发展至今，那时全球贸易虽然已经十分密集，但密切合作更少，信息交流也更少。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 08:51, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
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随着世界日益全球化，文化差异减少。民族特征也变得模糊起来，企业需在全球各地运营并将其产品销往各国市场。尽管如此，仍有传统沿着历史发展保留至今，那时全球贸易虽已十分频繁，但密切的合作以及信息的交流远不如今。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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全球化程度愈深，文化差异愈少。民族特色模糊起来，企业需要在世界范围内运营，其生产的产品也将销往世界各地。但是，仍有传统沿袭历史发展至今，那时国际贸易已十分频繁，但合作及信息交流远不及今。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:13, 20 November 2020 (UTC)</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201123_trans&diff=10524220201123 trans2020-11-22T06:02:49Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Xu Jing 许晶 */</p>
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<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
History of Chinese Studies <br />
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国际汉学史<br />
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Martin Woesler 吳漠汀 (Witten/Herdecke University, Peking Normal University 德國維籐大學，中國北京師範大學)<br />
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Abstract: The roots of Chinese Studies lie as early as Chinese people started to reflect on parts of Chinese culture, which was as early as Chinese culture emerged. Especially foreign people defined Chinese culture distinctly in separation of their own culture, like ancient Greek philosophers and early delegations from the Roman Empire.<br />
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摘要：汉学的根源可以追溯到中国人开始对中国文化进行反思的时候，也可以追溯到中国文化出现之初。尤其是一些外国人，如古希腊哲学家和罗马帝国的早期代表团，他们定义下的中国文化是与自己本土文化完全分开的。<br />
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==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
From the very beginning, Western Scholars of Chinese Studies were closely cooperating with Chinese partners, so that Chinese Studies cannot be limited to Overseas Chinese Studies. Merchants went beyond their trade business and created travel reports and first translations of Chinese literature. Missionaries for the first time studied systematically the Chinese language and culture, translated the Chinese Classics and Four Books into Latin.<br />
起初，研究汉学的西方学者与中国伙伴密切合作，所以汉学研究并不局限于海外汉学研究。商人不仅从事商业贸易，撰写旅行游记，并且首次翻译了中国文学。传教士第一次系统研究了中国语言和文化，将中国文学名著和四书译成拉丁语。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 01:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
Their idealized descriptions of China stimulated the Chinoisérie and the positive reception of China among philosophers of the enlightenment, which saw China as a secular empire. Then, the China-image turned to the worse with Western scholars ascribing China a static nature creating the so-called “Great Divergence”.<br />
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他们对中国的理想化描述促进中国风形成以及促使启蒙哲学家对中国的积极接受，这种变化已然是把中国看作一个世俗帝国。随后，中国形象恶化，西方学者把中国定性为静态，形成了所谓的“大分流”。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 13:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
This narrative was challenged in the early 1980s with the start of the Opening and Reform Policy. Finally colleges and professorships were established first in the West and then in China. Today, Chinese Studies in the West and in China are enriching each other and are inseparably connected.<br />
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Key Words: Chinese Studies, Sinology, Hanxue, Guoxue, delegations, philosophers, merchants, travel reports, translations, missionaries, enlightenment, Chinoisérie, Great Divergence<br />
上世纪80年代初，随着改革开放政策的开始，这种说法受到了挑战。最后，学院和教授职位首先在西方建立，然后在中国。今天，西方的中国学与中国的中国学相互 促进，密不可分。<br />
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关键词:汉学、汉学、汉学、国学、代表团、哲学家、商人、游记、翻译、传教士、启蒙、中国文化、大分流--[[User:Chen Hui|Chen Hui]] ([[User talk:Chen Hui|talk]]) 08:07, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Hui<br />
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==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
Definition 定義<br />
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Chinese Studies, also called Sinology (in German: Sinologie) or China Studies (in German: Chinawissenschaften, Chinakunde), is the academic discipline to study China in its geography, history, society, culture(s), language(s), literature(s) etc. It is mainly divided into the study of ancient and premodern China and of modern and contemporary China.<br />
定义 Definition<br />
汉语研究是一门研究中国地理、历史、社会、文化、语言等的学术科目，人们也称之为汉学（德语叫做 Sinologie）或者叫中国研究（德语叫做 Chinawissenschaften,Chinakunde）。汉语研究主要分为中国古代和近代研究，以及中国现当代研究。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 03:40, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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定义 <br />
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汉语研究也称作汉学（德语叫做 Sinologie）或中文研究（德语叫做 Chinawissenschaften,Chinakunde），这是一门研究中国地理、历史、社会、文化、语言等各方面的学科，并主要分为中国古代研究、中国近代研究，以及中国现当代研究。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 03:17, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
In the Chinese language, internationally the term “Hanxue” is used (first used in Japan as kangaku漢學/汉学, parallely to the term “Hanyu” 漢語/汉语 for Chinese). The term is not meant discriminative against non-Han minorities, since we have terms like “Hanyu” or “Germanic Studies” (the Germans were an ethnic tribe of many in todays Deutschland). In Chinese, domestically more often the terms “guoxue” 國學/国学 or “Zhongguo xue” 中國學 etc. are used.<br />
在中文里，“汉学”这一词在国际上被广泛使用（它最早在日本被称为汉学，类似中文被称为“汉语”)。这一词语并不意味着排斥非汉人的少数群体，因为我们也有类似于“汉语” 或“日耳曼研究” （日耳曼人是指在当今德国占数较多的一个的民族)的词语。中国国内“国学”或“中国学”等词更为广泛使用。By Chen Jiaxin --[[User:Jessie Chen|Jessie Chen]] ([[User talk:Jessie Chen|talk]]) 06:44, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
There is a trend to divide Chinese Studies in sub disciplines dealing with traditional or modern China, while the term “Sinology” is more often applied to the traditional part. In quantity, scholars dealing with traditional China become less and those dealing with modern or contemporary China more. Of course, there are other exotic terms for phenomena related to China or Chinese people, like the term “Tang People Street” 唐人街 for Chinatowns.<br />
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汉语研究之下往往又分为不同的子学科，致力于研究中国古代或现代，然而“汉学”这一术语更适用于中国古代。在数量上，研究中国古代的学者越来越少，而研究中国现代或当代的学者则越来越多。当然，还存在一些与中国或中国人相关现象的外来词，如“Tang People Street” 即唐人街。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:10, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
Some Chinese scholars interpret the term “Hanxue” as reserved for the study of China by foreigners, implying often that the real “guoxue” could only be conducted by Chinese scholars, arguing you need to grow up in China in order to understand it. However, confronted with the case of overseas Chinese scholars or Western scholars growing up and working in China, the limitation of this racist distinction becomes obvious. <br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
Although in history we have rare examples of foreigners who were able to study China without Chinese partners (starting with language teachers) or without visiting the country, and Chinese Studies today often is conducted by mixed teams of domestic and foreign scholars.<br />
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尽管有史以来，外国人不结交中国伙伴或是没去过中国就研究中国的例子鲜少出现。如今研究中国的通常都是都是由国内外学者组成的团队。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:39, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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虽然在历史上，我们很少有外国人能够在没有中国伙伴的情况下(这些伙伴开始会是语言教师)或在没有访问过中国的情况下研究中国的例子，但如今的中国研究往往是由国内外学者以混合团队的形式进行的。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:45, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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尽管在历史上我们很少有外国人能够在没有中国伙伴（从语言老师开始）或没有访问中国的情况下来中国学习的例子，但是今天的中国研究通常由国内外学者组成的混合团队进行。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 12:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
The discipline itself, as established at universities, had a natural focus on language and literature (philology). Today, we have a broad range of sub disciplines like Chinese literature [epigraphy], language, culture, philosophy/ethics/aesthetics, history, political science, sociology, economy) 中国文学[金石学]，语言，文化，哲学、伦理学、美学、历史、政治学、社会学、经济学<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
Emergence<br />
Although the first university professorships as we know them today were established only in the 1814, we find the origins of Chinese Studies in early descriptions of China by philosophers. That the empires knew early about each other is proven by delegations, exchanged even two thousand years ago between the Roman Empire and China.<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
Later we have records and first translations of travelling merchants (Marco Polo lived in the 13th century and travelled on land and by ship) and then by missionaries (starting with the 16th century). Later we have western philosophers (like Leibniz) and reports in journals dedicated to China.<br />
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后来，我们有了旅行商人的记录和第一批翻译作品（13世纪的马可·波罗（Marco Polo）在陆地和海上旅行），然后有了传教士（从16世纪开始）。 再后来，我们有了西方哲学家（例如莱布尼兹（Leibniz）），他们在研究中国的期刊上进行报道。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:33, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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后来出现了行商的记载和第一批翻译作品（13世纪的马可·波罗（Marco Polo）在陆地和海上航行），之后出现了传教士（始于16世纪）。 再后来，出现了西方哲学家（例如莱布尼兹（Leibniz）），以及他们探索中国所留下来的有关记载。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 08:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
The first scholarly view on China had the Christian missionaries, who studied Chinese language and culture in China. Therefore, the first translations of Chinese classics were done into Latin. The term “sinology” since the Latin term “sina” for China seems to point to the Qin Dynastie since 221 BCE. The main purpose of the missionaries was to baptize and therefore they also translated the bible into Chinese and reported on the so far mostly unknown China to Europe, reports which met a huge interest and demand in Europe.<br />
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基督教传教士是最早对中国持有学术观点的人，他们在中国研究中国语言和文化。因此，第一批翻译的中国经典著作也就翻译成了拉丁文。汉学“sinology”一词源于拉丁语中的“sina”，意指公元前221年以来的秦朝。传教士的主要目的是施洗，因此他们也将《圣经》翻译成中文，并向欧洲报道迄今几乎不为人知的中国，这些报道满足了欧洲巨大的兴趣和需求。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 09:23, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
Resources 资源<br />
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There are a lot of national histories of Chinese Studies so far, but no detailed international or global history (see references).<br />
The Overseas Chinese Studies Center 海外漢學研究中心 at Peking Foreign Language University 北京外語大學 under the leadership of Zhang Xiping張西平 has been renamed in the 2010s to Research Center for the Study of Chinese Culture 中國文化研究中心#. Here a list of works on the History of Sinology:<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
First contacts: Trade (without written documents)<br />
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Genetic evidence shows that there were trade relations from Mesopotamia to Europe and China as early as 11000 BCE (cows, horses) and 10000 BCE (crops). <br />
China very early became an export region, as we can trace the genes of animals back to China 10000 BCE (pigs), 8000 BCE (chicken), and of silk cloth 5000 BCE.<br />
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首次接触：贸易（无书面文件）<br />
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基因证据表明：早在公元前11000年了，美索不达米亚就和欧洲，中国有牛羊贸易关系，公元前10000年，就有了农作物贸易关系。追溯到公元前1000年的猪和公元前8000年的鸡身上的动物基因，以及公元前5000年的丝绸来看，中国很早就是个出口地区了。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 02:03, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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首次接触：贸易(无书面文件)<br />
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遗传证据表明，早在公元前11000年(出现如像牛、马等动物贸易)和公元前10000年(出现农作物的贸易)，美索不达米亚与欧洲和中国之间就有贸易关系。追溯到公元前10000年猪的贸易和公元前8000年鸡的贸易，从中发现的动物基因，以及公元前5000年所交易的丝绸来看，中国很早就成为了一个出口地区。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:18, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
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遗传学证据显示，早在公元前11000年美索不达米亚就和欧洲就有了牛马贸易往来；早在公元前10000年，美索不达米亚就和中国有了作物贸易往来。追溯动物基因，我们可以发现，公元前10000年中国就有了猪，公元前8000年就有了鸡，公元前5000年就有了丝绸。因此，中国很早就成为了商品出口地区。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:28, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
The Emergence of Chinese Studies: Philosophers<br />
Aristotle (384-322 BC) writes in the 4th century BC: “Those who live in a cold climate and in Europe are full of spirit, but wanting in intelligence and skill; and therefore they retain comparative freedom, but have no political organization, and are incapable of ruling over others. Whereas the natives of Asia are intelligent and inventive, but they are wanting in spirit, and therefore they are always in a state of subjection and slavery.”[ Aristoteles: Politeia, Book VII, Part VII, translated by Benjamin Jowett, http://evans-experientialism. freewebspace.com/aristotle_politics07.htm, last visited Dec 5, 2010. In German: „Die Völkerschaften nämlich, welche innerhalb der kalten Gegenden in Europa wohnen, sind zwar voll Muth, aber weniger mit Geist und Kunstfertigkeit begabt. Daher behaupten sie zwar leichter ihre Freiheit, aber sie sind zur Bildung staatsbürgerlicher Gemeinwesen untüchtig [...]. Die Völkerschaften Asiens dagegen sind klugen und kunstfertigen Geistes, aber ohne Muth. Daher leben sie in Unterwürfigkeit und Sklaverei.“, from: Aristoteles: Werke. Griechisch und Deutsch, vol. 6, ed. by Franz Susemihl, Aalen 1978 (Reprint of the edition Leipzig 1879), p. 409.]<br />
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汉学的起源：哲学家<br />
亚里士多德（公元前384年-公元前322年）在公元前4世纪写道：“那些生活在欧洲寒冷地区的人们精气神十足但是缺乏智慧和技巧；所以虽然他们保留了相对的自由，却没有政治组织，也没有管理的能力。然而，亚洲人聪明且富有创造力，但是他们缺乏勇气，所以他们总是顺从和被奴役。” [ 亚里士多德：《政治学》，第七卷，第七部分，由本杰明·乔伊特翻译，http://evans-experientialism. freewebspace.com/aristotle_politics07.htm，最近一次访问日期2010年12月5日。德语原文为： „Die Völkerschaften nämlich, welche innerhalb der kalten Gegenden in Europa wohnen, sind zwar voll Muth, aber weniger mit Geist und Kunstfertigkeit begabt. Daher behaupten sie zwar leichter ihre Freiheit, aber sie sind zur Bildung staatsbürgerlicher Gemeinwesen untüchtig [...]. Die Völkerschaften Asiens dagegen sind klugen und kunstfertigen Geistes, aber ohne Muth. Daher leben sie in Unterwürfigkeit und Sklaverei.“，引自：《亚里士多德作品集-希腊人和德国人》，第六卷，由Franz Susemihl, Aalen在1978年出版（1879年在莱比锡再版），第409页。]--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 09:39, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
The Emergence of Religious Missions with the Study of China as a by-product<br />
Between 1593-1607 the Spanish Dominican mission in Manila operated a press and produced 4 books on Christian belief. <br />
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1593-1607西班牙多明我会使团在马尼拉经营的出版社出版了4本基于基督教信仰的书<br />
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In 1583 the influential Jesuit Matteo Ricci arrived in Canton and spent the rest of his life in China.<br />
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1583利玛窦（耶稣会会士）抵达广州，在中国度过余生。<br />
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宗教传教的出现<br />
1593年至1607年间，西班牙多米尼加使团在马尼拉经营的出版社出版了4本基于基督教信仰的书。<br />
1583年，颇具影响力的耶稣会士利玛窦（Matteo Ricci），抵达广州，在中国度过余生。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 09:30, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
Interest by European emperors in the beginning of the 18th century<br />
In France, the study of China and the Chinese language began with the patronage of Louis XIV. In 1711, he appointed a young Chinese, Arcadio Huang to catalog the royal collection of Chinese texts. Huang was assisted by Étienne Fourmont, who published a Chinese grammar in 1742.<br />
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在法国，对中国和中国语言的研究始于路易十四的赞助。在1711，他任命了一位年轻的中国人Arcadio Huang对皇家藏书的中文文本进行目录整理。黄的助手艾蒂安Fourmont，在1742年发表了一本中国语法书。<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
In 1732 a missionary priest of the Sacred Congregation "De propaganda fide" from the kingdom of Naples, Matteo Ripa (1692–1746), created in Naples the first Sinology School of the European Continent: the "Chinese Institute", the first nucleus of what would become today's Università degli studi di Napoli L'Orientale, or Naples Eastern University. Ripa had worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the imperial court of the Kangxi Emperor between 1711 and 1723. Ripa returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, all teachers of their native language and formed the Institute sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to teach Chinese to missionaries and thus advance the propagation of Christianity in China.<br />
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1732年，来自那不勒斯的传布信仰圣部的传教牧师Matteo Ripa马国贤（1692–1746），在那不勒斯创建了欧洲大陆的第一个汉学学校：“中国学院”，它后来成为了今天的那不勒斯东方大学。马国贤曾在1711和1723之间担任康熙皇帝的宫廷画家和雕刻师。马国贤从中国回到那不勒斯时，带回了四个年轻的中国基督徒。他们都是汉语教师，组建了学院，在教皇克莱门特十二世的批准下向牧师们教授中文，从而推进了基督教在中国的传播。<br />
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1732年，那不勒斯王国“圣公会”的传教士马国贤（Matteo Ripa)在那不勒斯创建了欧洲大陆第一所汉学学校“中国学院”，即后来的那不勒斯东方大学。马国贤曾在1711至1723年间担任康熙皇帝的宫廷画师和雕刻师。当他回国的时候，他带回了四个年轻的中国基督徒。他们在教皇克莱门特的授意下，组建学院、担任汉语教师，向牧师们教授中文，从而推进了基督教在中国的传播。--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 01:45, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1732年，那不勒斯王国“传信部”的传教士马国贤（Matteo Ripa)在那不勒斯建立了欧洲大陆第一所汉学学校“中国学院”，即当今的那不勒斯东方大学。马国贤曾在1711至1723年间担任康熙皇帝的宫廷画师和雕刻师。在回到那不勒斯时，他带了四个年轻的中国基督徒。在教皇克莱门特十二世的授意下，他们组建学院，担任汉语教师，向牧师们教授中文，从而推进了基督教在中国的传播。--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
Chinoiserie<br />
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Chinese objects of art as symbols of Chinese cultural tradition early spread to Europe, reaching the peak in the 18th century during the period of Chinoisérie“中国风”. Fascinated Collectors saved several artefacts for following generations. Their selection criteria allow to approach the guiding aesthetic principles behind their fascination. European imitations of these artefacts show in their similarities and differences to the originals and to the own cultural traditions the principles they followed to catch the reason for the experienced exoticism during the consumption of the cultural goods. Imitated imitated Chinese-style architecture, imitated Chinese paintings and imitated characters in paintings, tattoos and design, reveal what principles Westerners believed to guide Chinese traditional art.<br />
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作为中国传统文化象征的中国艺术品很早就传播到了欧洲，在“中国风”时期达到了顶峰。对此十分着迷的收藏家们为后人保存了几件文物。他们的选择标准很接近他们所欣赏的指导性美学原则。欧洲的工艺模仿品表明了他们自己的文化传统和原型的相似性和差异性，他们遵循的原则符合在文化商品的消费过程中对异国情调的体验。在绘画、纹身和设计方面的模仿特点、模仿中国风格的建筑和仿作的中国画，揭示了西方人眼里的中国传统艺术的指导原则。<br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
Europe: Enlightened Philosophers end of the 18th century 欧洲：第18世紀末的启蒙哲学家<br />
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During the enlightenment process in Europe, philosophers in their search for a vision of a world without religious control, discovered China and wanted to understand it as a secular ideal alternative to Europe. (Leibniz: Novissima Sinica, The Orphan of Zhao, Voltaire: wrote play “L'orphelin de la Chine” portrait of Confucius, Giambattista Vico.<br />
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启蒙哲学家在欧洲汉学（莱布尼茨：《中国近事》，伏尔泰：《赵氏孤儿》、孔子肖像，维柯。<br />
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1789-… Enlightened philosophers: Saw China as an enlightened kingdom with ethics instead of church and religion<br />
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1789…启蒙哲学家：看到中国作为一个有伦理的开明王国而不是教会和宗教伦理<br />
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一个不受宗教控制的世界时<br />
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在欧洲的启蒙运动中，哲学家们在寻找一个不受宗教控制的世界时，了解到了中国这一国度，并将其视为欧洲脱离世俗的替代品。（莱尼兹：诺威西玛·辛尼卡，《赵氏孤儿》，伏尔泰：写下孔子朱安·巴蒂斯塔·维柯的剧本《中国的左撇子》。--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:18, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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一个不受宗教控制的世界时<br />
在欧洲启蒙运动的进程中，哲学家们在寻找一个不受宗教控制的世界时，发现了中国，并希望可以将其视为欧洲脱离世俗理想替代品。莱尼兹：诺威西玛·辛尼卡，《赵氏孤儿》，伏尔泰：写下孔子朱安·巴蒂斯塔·维柯的剧本《中国的左撇子》 --[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 09:10, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
Europe: Professorships<br />
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The study of Assyriology and Egyptology developed before the serious study of China because of their connections to the Bible; the study of Indology represented a breakthrough in the development of linguistics. Chinese texts, perhaps because they did not have these connections, were the last to be studied in European universities until around 1860 except in France (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 6, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
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由于和圣经的紧密联系，亚述学、埃及学的研究在正规的中国研究前发展充分；印度学研究代表了语言学发展的突破口。可能是因为中国文本和它们没有联系，所以直到1860左右，它才成为除了法国外的欧洲大学最后的研究对象。<br />
<br />
由于和圣经联系紧密，亚述学、埃及学的研究在中国正式研究前就已经展开了；印度学研究是语言学发展的突破口。或许是因为中国文本缺乏这些联系，所以直到1860年左右，它才成为除法国外欧洲大学最后的研究对象。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 12:35, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
The first college to study Chinese was established in Italy. At the Academy in St. Petersburg in Russia, on March 23, 1741, the lecturer 伊拉利昂·罗索欣 started to teach Chinese Studies. He was also part of a mission sent to emperor Kangxi in Qing Dynasty.de<br />
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首个教授汉语的大学创建于意大利。1741年3月23日，在俄罗斯圣彼得堡的学院，讲师伊拉利昂·罗索欣开始教授汉语学。他还参加了清朝对康熙帝进行的宣教活动。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 01:22, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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首个学习汉语的学院创建于意大利。1741年3月23日，讲师伊拉利昂·罗索欣在俄罗斯圣彼得堡学院开始讲授汉学。该讲师也曾参加清朝对康熙帝进行的宣教活动。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:54, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
On December 11, 1814, the first Professorship of Chinese and Manchu was established at the Collège de France, the sinologist 雷慕莎 Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat, who taught himself Chinese, filled the position, becoming the first professor of Chinese in Europe. By then the first Russian Sinologist, Nikita Bichurin, had been living in Beijing for ten years. <br />
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1814年，研究中国和满族的讲学席位在法国的大学成立。雷慕莎自学了中文，占据了这一位置，成为了欧洲第一个汉学教授。而之后的第一个俄罗斯汉学家尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。<br />
1814年，首个研究中国和满族的讲学席位在法国的大学成立，雷慕莎自学中文，登上了这一席位，成为了欧洲第一个汉学教授。而之后的第一个俄罗斯汉学家尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 00:47, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1814年12月11日，首个汉学和满学的讲座席位在法兰西公学院成立，汉学家雷慕莎（Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusa）自学了中文，登上了这一席位，成为了欧洲第一任汉学教授。而之后俄罗斯的汉学奠基人尼基塔·比丘林则曾在北京生活了十年。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
Abel-Rémusat's counterparts in England and Germany were Samuel Kidd (1797–1843) and Wilhelm Schott (1807–1889) respectively, though the first important secular sinologists in these two countries were James Legge and Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz. Scholars like Legge often relied on the work of ethnic Chinese scholars such as Wang Tao (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 8-14, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
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雷慕莎的同仁分别有英国的Samuel Kidd（1797–1843）和德国的Wilhelm Schott（1807–1889），虽然在这两个国家头等重要的世俗汉学家是理雅各和加贝伦茨。理雅各等学者常常依靠华人学者如王韬等人的作品。<br />
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<br />
阿贝尔·雷穆萨在英国和德国的同行分别是塞缪尔·基德（Samuel Kidd，1797-1843）和威廉·肖特（Wilhelm Schott，1807-1889），不过这两个国家最早出现的重要世俗汉学家是詹姆斯·莱格和汉斯·格奥尔格·科农·冯·德加布伦茨。像莱格这样的学者经常依赖于像王韬这样的华裔学者的作品。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:08, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
Stanislas Julien served as the Chair of Chinese at the Collège de France for over 40 years, starting his studies with Rémusat and succeeding him in 1833. not only of classical texts but also works of vernacular literature, and for his knowledge of Manchu. Édouard Chavannes succeeded to the position after the death of Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys in 1893. Chavannes pursued broad interests in history as well as language (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 8-14, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018).<br />
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儒莲担任法兰西学院的汉学教授超过40年，他与雷慕莎一起开始他的研究，并在1833年继承了雷慕莎的工作。他以不仅针对古典文学、而且涉猎白话文学作品的翻译工作和和对满族的了解而闻名。沙畹在德理文于1893去世后继承了他的位置，沙畹在历史和语言领域上兴趣广泛。<br />
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斯塔尼斯拉斯·朱利安（Stanislas Julien）在法兰西学院（Collègede France）担任中文主席40多年，从雷穆萨（Rémusat）开始学习，并于1833年继任。他不仅学习古典文学作品，还学习白话文学作品，并了解满族。 爱德华·沙畹在1893年侯爵·圣赫尔·圣丹尼斯（Marquis d'Hervey-Saint-Denys）去世后继任。沙畹追求历史和语言的广泛利益（Zurndorfer，中国参考书目1999年第8-14页，引自Wikipedia“ Sinology”， 2018年8月6日）。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 09:13, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Rulian served as a professor of Sinology at the French Academy for more than 40 years. He started his research with Remusa and inherited Remusa's work in 1833. He is famous for his translation work not only for classical literature, but also for vernacular literary works and his understanding of Manchu. Chavannes inherited his position after De Liwen died in 1893. Chavannes has a wide range of interests in history and language. --[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 09:13, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
After the Opium war 1840, the Department of Oriental Studies at Cambridge University and the SOAS/London University were established.<br />
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In 1875, Leiden University in the Netherlands started and in 1890 the sinologist 考狄 founded the first academic journal by Westerners on China, the Toung Pao 通报.<br />
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1840年鸦片战争后，剑桥大学东方研究院和英国伦敦大学亚非学院成立。<br />
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1875年，荷兰莱顿大学成立，1890年，汉学家考狄创办了第一个由西方人撰写的关于中国的学术期刊—《通报》。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 13:10, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
In 1912, Richard Wilhelm, who had lived in China for about 30 years, taught at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Frankfurt and established a Chinese Seminar “中国学社” and together with Beiping’s Furen University the journal华裔学志.<br />
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At the end of the 19th century, in Sweden the University of Gotheburg established East Asian Language and Culture Seminar, starting with Sven Hedin, who explored Western China, followed by the the Chinese linguist 高本汉.<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
The image of China as an essentially Confucian society conveyed by Jesuit scholars dominated Western thought in these times. While some in Europe learned to speak Chinese, most studied written classical Chinese. These scholars were in what is called the “commentarial tradition” through critical annotated translation. <br />
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那时，中国在西方的形象是靠耶稣会学者传达的，本质上是儒家社会的形象，这样的形象主导了西方思想。在欧洲，有一些人学习说汉语，但大部分人学习写文言文，这些学者学习时会使用批判性的注释，属于“注释传统”的行列。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 08:05, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在那个时候，中国在西方的形象在本质上是以耶稣会学者传达的儒家社会为主。在欧洲，有些人学学习说中文，大多数人则学写书面文言文。这些学者们通过批判的注释性翻译处在了所谓的“注释传统”。<br />
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当时，耶稣会学者所传达的中国本质上是儒家社会的形象主导了当时的西方思想。在欧洲，虽然有些人学说汉语，但大多数人学的是文言文。这些学者是在所谓的“评论传统”通过批评注释翻译。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:32, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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耶稣会士学者传达的中国作为一个儒家社会的形象在当时根深于西方人的思想中。 尽管有些欧洲人学会了说中文，但大多数人仍然学习古典汉语。 这些学者通过批判性的注释翻译而处于所谓的“注释传统”中。--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 01:31, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
This emphasis on translating classical texts inhibited the use of social science methodology or comparing these texts of other traditions. One scholar described this type of sinology as “philological hairsplitting” preoccupied with marginal or curious aspects (Zurndorfer, China Bibliography 1999 p. 14-15, quoted from Wikipedia “Sinology”, August 6, 2018). Secular scholars gradually came to outnumber missionaries, and in the 20th century sinology slowly gained a substantial presence in Western universities.<br />
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这种强调翻译经典文本的做法阻碍了社会科学方法论的使用或与其他传统的文本的比较。有学者称这类汉学描述为专注于边缘或好奇方面的“语言学上的吹毛求疵”。世俗学者逐渐多于传教士，并在西方大学为20世纪的汉学慢慢积累了实质性存在。<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
Sinology in Germany <br />
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Today, in Germany there are about 30 universities and universities of applied sciences with Chinese Studies.<br />
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Since the beginning of the 19th century, people started to conduct research on China. In 1829–1831, the orientalist Carl Friedrich Neumann bought 12,000 Chinese books in Canton, which he shipped to Munich and which became the foundation of the East Asian Collection of the Bavarian State Library as well as the Berlin State Library. Since 1833 Wilhelm Schott taught Chinese and Chinese philosophy in Berlin.<br />
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德国的汉学<br />
如今，在德国有大约30所大学以及应用科学大学开设了汉学专业。19世纪伊始，人们开始研究中国。1829年至1831年，东方学专家卡尔·弗里德里希·诺伊曼于广州购置了12000本中文书籍，将其运至慕尼黑。这一举措使慕尼黑成为了巴伐利亚州立图书馆和柏林州立图书馆东亚收藏所的基础。1833年起，威廉·肖特在柏林教授中文与中国哲学。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 07:10, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
Pioneering research on China were the geological-geographical research trips by Ferdinand von Richthofen since the early 1860s. In 1887 the first Chinese language classes and sinological classes started at the Seminar for Oriental languages in Berlin. In 1889, the first German Chair of Sinology was established at the University of Leipzig, the first full professor was Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz. In 1912 the 2nd chair was established in Berlin with J. J. M. de Groot and in 1914 at the Colonial Institute in Hamburg with Otto Franke.<br />
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19世纪60年代初以来，费迪南·冯·李希霍芬的地质地理研究之旅是对中国的开创性研究。1887年，柏林东方语言研究会开设了第一批汉语班和汉学班。1889年，德国第一个汉学讲座在莱比锡大学成立，第一个全职教授是汉斯·格奥尔格·科农·冯·德·加贝伦茨。1912年，第二任主席由格鲁特在柏林设立，1914年由奥托·福兰阁在汉堡殖民地研究所设立。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 02:12, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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19世纪60年代初以来，费迪南·冯·李希霍芬的地质地理研究之旅是对中国的开创性研究。1887年，柏林东方语言研究会开设了第一批汉语班和汉学班。1889年，德国第一个汉学委员会在莱比锡大学成立，第一个全职教授是汉斯·格奥尔格·科农·冯·德·加贝伦茨。1912年，第二个委员会由格鲁特在柏林设立，1914年由奥托·福兰阁在汉堡殖民地研究所设立了另一委员会。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 12:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
During colonial times, in which the German Empire held the Chinese colony “Kiautschou”, the interest in Chinese culture grew. The exile of many Chinese scientists in the period of National Socialism harmed the German Sinology sustainably. Since the opening up of the People's Republic of China in the 1980s, Sinology in Germany is no longer among the orchid subjects and new students of Sinology have good job prospects. <br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
The change of attitude among early China experts with the example of the early reception of the Red Chamber Dreams<br />
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The Red Chamber Dreams shortly after publication in 1791 spread fast among the foreigners’ community including Robert Morrison (who incorporated parts of it into his language teaching material and dictionary already by 1813-1815).<br />
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早期中国专家态度的转变-以早期接受《红楼梦》为例<br />
《红楼梦》在1791年出版后不久，就在国外迅速传播包括罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）。罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）早在1813年至1815年就将其部分内容纳入了他的语言教材和词典中。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 08:59, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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早期中国作家的态度转变，以《红楼梦》的早期收录为例<br />
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1791年，《红楼梦》出版后不久，便在包括罗伯特·莫里森(Robert Morrison)在内的国外社会迅速流传。（莫里森早在1813年-1815年就将《红楼梦》的部分内容引入其语言教材和词典中）--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 06:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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早期中国专家态度的转变-以早期接受《红楼梦》为例<br />
《红楼梦》在1791年出版后不久，就在国外迅速传播包括罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）。罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）早在1813年至1815年就将其部分内容纳入了他的语言教材和词典中。--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 07:18, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
The novel also was made known in partial translation both in English and French (by John Francis Davis) in Europe in 1819. However, for a few decades, the Western reviews of the book were mostly negative, revealing an ethnocentric approach, valuing Chinese literature below Western literature.<br />
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1819年，《红楼梦》的英语和法语（John Francis Davis译）的部分翻译使这部小说知名于欧洲。然而，几十年之后，西方对于该书的评论大多是消极的，他们认为该书呈现出种族中心主义的观点，并且认为西方文学高于中国文学。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:27, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1819年,该小说还被译成英语和法语（约翰·弗朗西斯·戴维斯译（John Francis Davis）），因而在欧洲为人所知。然而，几十年来，西方对该书的评论大多是负面的，这揭示了西方的一种民族中心主义，即认为西方文学高于中国文学。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 03:43, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
1819年，这部小说在欧洲被部分翻译成英语和法语（作者:约翰·弗朗西斯·戴维斯）。然而，几十年来，西方对该书的评论大多是负面的，即揭示了一种民族中心主义的态度，对中国文学的评价低于西方文学。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 01:36, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
It took almost a century to get to know each other better, to change attitudes from ethnocentric to dialectical, to stop exploiting the novel and to come to the insight that Chinese literature with Dream as one of its masterpieces was not only comparable to other world literatures but also could bring value to Western readers (Mayers 1867).<br />
<br />
经过几乎一个世纪，双方增进了解，并从“民族中心主义”的优越感向辩证思想转变，停止利用小说互相攻击，开始深入了解中国文学，不仅将《红楼梦》这类杰作与其他世界文学相比较，而且，更重要的是将价值观带给西方读者。（梅辉立(Mayers) 1867年）。<br />
<br />
几乎一个世纪,增进了彼此的了解。双方从“民族中心主义”转向辩证思想，停止利用小说互相攻击，并开始深入了解中国文学。不仅将《红楼梦》这类杰作与其他世界文学相比较，更是将价值观带给西方读者。（梅辉立(Mayers) 1867年）。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 02:17, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
近一个世纪，彼此之间增进了了解，从”民族中心主义“的优越感转向辩证思想，停止利用小说互相攻击，并开始深入了解以《红楼梦》为代表的中国文学，它不仅可以与世界其他文学相媲美，而且还可以为西方读者传递价值观。（梅辉立（Mayers） 1867年）。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 13:30, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
Main Controversies<br />
<br />
a) The Great Divergence<br />
<br />
One of the main controversies in Chinese Studies is that for a long time China appeared economically backward (compared to Western European nations). Sociologists (Marx), philosophers (Hegel), economists (Kenneth Pomeranz: The Great Divergence) and sinologists tried to explain this with the static nature of Chinese economy due to Confucianism.<br />
<br />
主要的争议<br />
<br />
a)大分流<br />
<br />
汉学研究的主要争议之一是，长期以来，中国出现了经济落后的情况(与西欧国家相比)。许多社会学家(如马克思)，哲学家(如黑格尔)，经济学家(如肯尼斯·彭慕兰：《大分流》)和汉学家试图用儒家思想所导致的中国经济的静态性来解释这一现象。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:06, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
Scholars have questioned this: Angus Maddison suggested that China was leading (rotating ranks with India) by GDP from 0 to 1550 so that the current development was a return to old status. Philipp C.C. Huang concentrated on rural developments and argued that only the concentration of production capibilities during the socialist reforms laid the foundation for today’s Chinese economical miracle. Today, sinologists argue that Confucianism is one of the main reasons for the economical miracle.<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
“The Chinese have as a general characteristic, a remarkable skill in imitation, which is exercised not merely in daily life, but also in art. They have not yet succeeded in representing the beautiful, as beautiful; for in their painting, perspective and shadow are wanting.<br />
“中国人有种普遍特征，即拥有卓越的模仿能力，这种能力不仅体现在日常生活中，也体现在艺术中。但由于其绘画领域中缺乏透视法和阴影画法，他们无法充分展现事物的美。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 07:25, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
“总之，这个民族有种罕见的模仿能力，这不仅体现在他们的日常生活中，也用运到了艺术创作当中。美作为美的事物去展示对于这个民族来说并不成功，因为在绘画中缺少了透视和阴影。<br />
<br />
中国人有一个总体特征，那就是其超凡脱俗的模仿能力。这不仅体现在他们的日常生活中，也运用到了艺术创作当中。由于其绘画中缺乏透视法和阴影，他们无法淋漓尽致地表现出事物的美。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:28, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
“中国人有种普遍特征：一种卓越的模仿能力，这种能力不仅运用于日常生活中，也运用在艺术领域。但由于画中缺乏透视和阴影，中国人没能成功展现出美感”--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 01:47, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
And although a Chinese painter copies European pictures (as the Chinese do everything else) correctly; although he observes accurately how many scales a carp has; how many indentations there are in the leaves of a tree; what is the form of various trees, and how the branches bend; - the Exalted, the Ideal and Beautiful is not the domain of his art and skill. The Chinese are, on the other hand, too proud to learn anything from Europeans, although they must often recognize their superiority.” <br />
Hegel, The Philosophy of History (transl. J. Sibree, p. 155)<br />
<br />
即使中国画家原封不动地模仿欧洲的绘画，如若他知道鲤鱼有多少鳞片……，崇高的、理想的、美的事物也不是他的艺术土壤和擅长之处。” 黑格爾，《历史哲学讲演录》<br />
<br />
尽管一个中国画家原封不动地地复制了欧洲的图画（就像中国人所做的所有事那样）；尽管他能准确地观察到鲤鱼有多少鳞片；一棵树的叶子上有多少凹痕；各种树木的形状是什么，树枝是如何弯曲的；崇高、理想和美丽不是他的艺术领域和技巧。另一方面，中国人过于骄傲，不愿向欧洲人学习任何东西，虽然他们必须经常认识到自己的优越性。J、 西布里，第155页）--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 01:34, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
b) Chinese and Western scholarship<br />
<br />
Traditional Chinese education (focusing on self development and social harmony) differed much from Western scholarship (search for truth and universal human values). Chinese scholars of guoxue often do not recognize Western scholars of Hanxue as their colleagues. Today there are trends to return to Confucian education, teaching and scholarship in China, taking the Hanlin academy as example (see: Hong Kong College).<br />
<br />
b）中西学问<br />
<br />
中西方在传统教育方面又很大不同，前者侧重于追求自我发展和社会和谐，后者寻求真理和普世价值观。中国国学学者通常不把西方汉学学者当作同行。如今，儒家教育以及儒学研究在中国如火如荼，以翰林书院为例（见：香港大学）。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 07:19, 18 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
b）中西学术<br />
中国传统教育（注重自我发展和社会和谐）与西方学术（追求真理和普遍的人类价值）有很大不同。中国国学学者往往不承认西方汉学学者是他们的同僚。今天，中国教育有向儒学教育回归的趋势，以翰林院为例（参见：香港大学）。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 03:17, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
Also Traditional Chinese Medicine has continued to be an alternative to Western medicine, although the general grouping into Yin and Yang has been proven to be arbitrary since objects/organs etc. historically were assigned to Yang for a time and to Yin at other times. However, acupuncture has been recognized by Western medicine to be effective. Western reproach towards Chinese scholarship is that it is not conducted in a free environment.<br />
<br />
此外，传统中医仍然是西方医学的替代品。尽管因为物体/有机体等在历史上一段时间被指定为阳，一段时间被指定为阴，一般的阴阳分类已经被证明是随意的。然而，针灸仍被西医认为是有效的。西方对中国学术的指责是，它不是在一个自由的环境中进行的。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 16:51, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
From Ethnocentrism and Exoticism to Universalism and Dialogue: <br />
the General Trend of Chinese Studies in the West - <br />
A Case Study of the Early Western Reception of Red Chamber Dreams<br />
<br />
从种族中心主义和异国主义到普遍主义和对话：<br />
西方中国学之总趋势——以《红楼梦》早期西方接受为例<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler <br />
(Witten/Herdecke University, Peking Normal University, Nanking Normal University)<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
“Chinese Studies” (Sinology, Chinakunde, Études Chinoises etc.) in general from its origins until today sees a main trend from ethnocentrism and exoticism to universalism and dialogue. Undergoing historical periods of Chinoisérie and then China-bashing during imperialist and colonialist times, Chinese Studies at universities and in associations like the German China Association has established a more objective view on China. <br />
摘要<br />
“汉学” （又名“国学”、“中国学” 等等）自起源至今，大体上经过这样一条发展主线：从种族中心主义和追求异域风情发展至普世主义和对话机制。在经过中国风(Chinoisérie)时代，到批判和抨击中国（China-bashing）的帝国主义和殖民主义时代之后，汉学在大学和学术协会（如德中协会）里建立了一个对中国更为客观的看法。<br />
摘要<br />
“汉学” （又名“国学”、“中国学” 等等）自起源至今，大体上经过这样一条发展主线：从种族中心主义和追求异域风情发展至普世主义和对话机制。在经过中国风(Chinoisérie)时代，到批判和抨击中国（China-bashing）的帝国主义和殖民主义时代之后，大学和学术协会（如德中协会）的汉学建立了一个对中国更为客观的看法。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 00:40, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
Ethnocentrism is still existing among Western sinologists today and has to be fought. Still, the contemporary trends globalization, digitalization and travel freedom offer the current generation of sinologists so far unseen possibilities of international cooperation, promising extremely fruitful especially between distant cultures like China and the West. <br />
但是，在当代西方汉学家中间仍然还存在民族中心主义，我们需要为此而抗争。随着全球化、数字化和“出境自由行”这三种当代趋向的出现，新一代汉学家获得了前所未见的国际合作可能，特别像是中西间如此大跨度的文化差异，其国际合作的前景和潜力更是无可估量。<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
Key words<br />
Ethnocentrism, Exoticism, Universalism, Chinese Studies, German China Association, universal values, Gregor Paul, cooperation, China and the West<br />
<br />
關鍵詞<br />
宗族中心主義、異國主義、普遍主義、漢學/中國學、德中協會、普遍價值觀、Gregor Paul、合作、中國與西方<br />
<br />
When we define an academic category like “Chinese Studies”, we pay respect to the fact that the world historically has developed differently in different regions. <br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
Of course the world was far less connected than today, with slow carriers like horses and ships and often bad or risky infrastructure like roads. Therefore it appears on first sight that these regions have developed their culture, their civilization and even first written languages on their own, independently.<br />
<br />
当然，世界之间的联系远不如今天，诸如马和轮船之类的速度较慢的运输工具，以及诸如道路之类的基础设施往往损坏或危险丛丛。 因此，乍看之下，这些地区已经独立地发展了自己的文化、文明甚至第一语言。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 08:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
The oldest evidence of written civilizations, dating back around 3500 years BC, we find in the fertile crescent Mesopotamia with the clay tablets of the Sumerer. A little bit later there is evidence in Ancient Egypt, then in Proto-India and finally also in China.<br />
<br />
最古老的文字文明的证据，可以追溯到公元前3500年，我们在美索不达米亚平原这片新月状的沃土中找到了苏美尔人的粘土板。随后在古埃及，然后是印度，最后在中国也相继找到了证据。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:03, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
But the more we explore history, the more fascinating evidence comes to light that these seemingly independently developing regions have had more trade relations and exchange of ideas than seems likely bearing in mind mobility: The Silk Road is not only rediscovered and reevaluated historically, but also rebuilt as a political agenda today. We today find early evidence of European civilizations in America and Asia as well as the Chinese civilization also in America and Europe.<br />
<br />
但是我们对历史探索得越多,就有更多有趣的证据证明，比起看似可能存在的思维迁移，这些看似独立的发展中地区存在更多的贸易关系和思想交流，从历史角度来看，我们并不只是重新发现和重新评估丝绸之路,也是作为一个政治议程来重建它。我们今天在美洲和亚洲发现了欧洲文明的早期证据，在美洲和欧洲也发现了中国文明的早期证据。--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 09:23, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
但我们越是探索历史，就会发现更有吸引力的证据：这些看似独立发展的地区之间的贸易关系和思想交流比思维流动性更频繁：丝绸之路不仅在历史上被重新发现和重新评价，而且在今天也被重建为政治议程。如今，我们在美洲和亚洲发现了欧洲文明的早期证据而在美洲和欧洲也同样发现了中国文明。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
Cultural Science is more influenced by its subject than other sciences, since we are part of it and cannot leave it to examine it. The history of cultural science has developed from the first times of intercultural encounters to today’s life, in which cultures are mixed and people understand each other as being part of different cultures simultaneously.<br />
文化科学比其他科学更受其研究对象的影响，因为我们是它的一部分，不能离开它去研究它。文化科学的历史从最初的跨文化冲突发展到今天的生活，文化相互交融，人们作为不同文化的一部分互相理解。--[[User:Liubo|Liubo]] ([[User talk:Liubo|talk]]) 06:51, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与其他科学相比，文化科学受其研究对象影响更大，因为我们是文化科学的一部分，不能独立于它去研究它。文化科学的历史已经从最初的跨文化交流发展到今天，文化相互交融，同时人们作为不同文化的一部分相互理解。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 17:10, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
However, there will always be differentiation between cultures, simply because the trends of integration and separation occur at the same time.<br />
<br />
When there is different cultures, there is an interest in comparing these. This medal has two sides. As soon as you start to compare, you may value. Cultural encounters happened before there were experts or a whole discipline.<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
So the first comparisons between cultures were ethnocentric: You compared whatever you encountered as “other”, “foreign” or “alien”, to your own culture. This was often accompanied with feelings. There was both, the feeling of fear of the unknown and curiosness in the exotic.<br />
<br />
因此，文化间的第一次比较是具有种族中心主义的：你拿你遇到的任何事物与你自己的文化相比较，认为它们是“其他的”、“外国的”、“外来的”。这时常伴随着情绪：既有对未知的恐惧，也有对异国的好奇。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 15:33, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
You may categorize civilizations into so-called “high civilizations” and “low civilizations”, into “developed” and “underdeveloped” cultures. This was an ethnocentric approach in the age of cultural relativism. Today in the age of post-growth economy and after tragic experiences of colonialization and missionization, we know that each culture is equal and cannot be ranked to be higher or lower, of more or less value than the other.<br />
<br />
你可以将文明分为所谓的“高级文明”和“低级文明”，“发达”和“欠发达”文化。 在文化相对主义时代，这是一种以民族为中心的方法。 但在后增长经济时代的今天，在经历了殖民化和传教化的不幸经历之后，我们知道，每种文化都是平等的，不能认为哪种文化的价值更高或更低。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 14:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
While very early there were historians collecting knowledge from travel reports or official delegations visiting foreign cultures, in the middle ages handbooks collected the knowledge to describe different cultures. Even the Romans had words for the Chinese (Seres in the North and Sinae in the South) and attributed to Asian-looking people certain characteristics of behaviour, attitudes, value systems, beliefs, morals and character. <br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
The first in-depth analysis of the Chinese culture through Western people came not with the merchants, but with the Jesuits. How few was known about China can be seen from the fact, that only the Jesuits managed to clarify, that the myth of the two empires, Tartary and Kitai/Cathay, in fact both were the same (China).<br />
<br />
第一次通过西方人对中国文化进行深入的分析，不是来自商人，而是来自耶稣会士。对中国的了解是多么的少，这可以从以下事实中看出，只有耶稣会士设法澄清了鞑靼和基泰/卡泰两个帝国的神话，事实上，这两个帝国都是同一个（中国）。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 02:36, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
第一次对中国文学进行深入分析的西方人不是商人，而是耶稣会士。西方人对中国知之甚少可以从以下事实看出：只有耶稣会士成功地澄清了鞑靼和契丹这两个帝国的神话事实上是相同的（都属于中国）。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 03:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
However, the Jesuit’s approach was still ethnocentric and cultural relativist, because by portraying (like Du Halde) China as a seemingly ideal state suitable for mission work, they contributed to subjective views on China. <br />
<br />
Around 1720 presumably the French Jesuit Jean-François Noëlas even translated the Dao de jing into Latin.[ Collani, Claudia von, Harald Holz, Konrad Wegmann eds. Uroffenbarung und Daoismus: jesuitische Missionshermeneutik des Daoismus. Europ. University Press, 2008. [Partial retranslation Chinese-Latin-German.]] <br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
The translation turns out to deviate from the original in the way that we suddenly find the Christian trinity god in it.<br />
<br />
This is the starting point of an ethnocentric tradition to read the self and the own into the other and the alien, instead of respecting the other as a value by itself and allowing it to even challenge the own beliefs. <br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
Even the German Christian missionary and sinologist Richard Wilhelm used a Christian language (belief, heavens’ doors, life after death etc.) in his influential 1919 Taoteking translation and in 1925 he translated “god” into the Analects of Confucius.<br />
<br />
The missionaries baptized the seemingly “backward” aborigines in several continents, sometimes supported by the sword.<br />
<br />
连德国基督教传教士兼汉学家理查德·威廉在其影响深远的1919年道教翻译中也使用了基督教语言(信仰、天堂之门、来生等)，并在1925年在《论语》中使用上帝这一翻译。<br />
<br />
传教士们在几个大陆上给看似“落后”的土著人施洗，有时还用武力威胁。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 02:23, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
A lot of cultures, considered less “developed”, were heavily influenced or even destroyed and extinguished. Earlier, the “Warriors of the Cross” even fought wars and devastated complete regions.<br />
<br />
The other aspect, the exotization of the other was expressed by the way the first Chinese people who came to Europe were received: They were passed on at tea meetings and gazed at like animals.<br />
<br />
许多被认为不太“发达”的文化受到了严重影响，甚至遭到破坏并且已经消亡。早些时候，“十字军”甚至发起战争，摧毁了整个地区。<br />
<br />
另一方面， 异域化表现在第一批来到欧洲的中国人所能接受的方式：这些文化在茶话会上被传下来，受到瞩目。--[[User:Luo Weijia|Luo Weijia]] ([[User talk:Luo Weijia|talk]]) 13:56, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
Soon Chinese goods became the symbol of the exotic. Chinese porcellain and nick-nacks, even Chinese-style buildings were recreated in Europe. The fever-like admiration of a China image, which certainly was not the true China, is called Chinoiserie. The Chinoiserie even involved European philosophers like Voltaire and Leibniz, who compared China to an ideal country without religion and still moral values, represented by a wise emperor.<br />
<br />
很快中国货就成了异国情调的象征。中国的瓷器和小装饰品，甚至中国风格的建筑都在欧洲得以重现。狂热崇拜中国形象，被称为中国热，当然不是对真正中国形象的狂热。这股中国热甚至影响到伏尔泰和莱布尼茨这样的欧洲哲学家，他们把中国比作一个理想国家，这个国家没有宗教信仰和道德价值观，由一位睿智的皇帝所代表。--[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:03, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
In Europe, the first experts on Chinese culture were entrusted with the task to explain the Chinese culture no longer from the ethnocentric viewpoint, but from a scientific one: Professorships at universities were established. Their early translations show traces of admiration of the exotic. Chinoiserie was also countered by Européerie in China. <br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
However, this phase did only last as long as it fit to European politics. As soon as the import of colonial goods (and resources) became an economic factor, the (wrong) image of the ideal China changed into a negative one (similarly wrong). Not only mission and belief were motifs to look down on the Chinese culture, but also the comparison of economic development and living standards. <br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
Hegel continued the ethnocentric view on China with his ranking of cultures. Although Confucius already had developed a “Golden Rule” principle comparable to Kant’s “Categorical Imperative”, Hegel declared Chinese philosophy as inferior to European philosophy, and even saw a geographical step by step development from Confucius over Buddha, Zarathustra, the ancient Greek and the Roman philosophy, leading to the European philosophy.<br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
A ladder only second by the Arab philosophy. At the turn from the 19th to the 20th century, China was suddenly considered as static, as “the sick man of Asia”. Actually semi-colonialism in China helped to hinder development there. <br />
<br />
Rereading the reviews of Chinese literature in contemporary Western journals, it is astonishing, how disrespectful even men of letters treated Chinese literature, even during a time, when it was not yet available in translation, so that it is save to say that ethnocentric attitude prevailed over knowledge.<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
This can be proven by the many mistakes you can find in the reviews (Morrison: the book was of low literary quality, but written in Peking dialect and therefore useful as language learning material; Gützlaff: the protagonist Baoyu is a petulant woman; Giles: the words “Red Chamber Dreams do not appear in the book” etc.).<br />
<br />
错误百出的评论可以证明这一点（马礼逊：这本书没什么文采，但由于它是用北京方言所写，因而可以作为语言学习材料；居茨拉夫：主角宝玉真是一个爱耍小性子的女人；贾尔斯：“红楼梦没有在书中出现过”等等。）。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 14:17, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
<br />
书评中许多人对其的误解能证明这一点（马礼逊：这本书文笔拙劣，但由于是用北京话写的，因此可以用作语言学习材料;居茨拉夫：主角宝玉是一个被宠坏的女子; 贾尔斯：“红楼梦”一词没有在书中出现等）。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:47, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
Also, the tradition of the title translation as “Dream of the Red Chamber” can be traced back to the origins of the better translation as “Red Chamber Dreams”, sacrificed by Francis Davis finally in favor of the powerful tool of Morrison’s dictionary calling it “Dream of the Red Chamber”.<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
Here, the exotic was used to make fun of China. Barrow introduces an excerpt, describing the outward appearance of Baoyu and Xifeng, translated by Francis Davis into English, explicitely for the reason to “amuse the beaux and belles”. Francis Davis himself picks two poems from the novel for translation, but not for its own sake, but to use them as a proof for his own (minority) opinion that the Chinese poetry knew a certain, “descriptive” function of poems in novels. <br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
In 1815 Macao Reverend Robert Morrison (1782-1834) coined the Western translation of the novel’s title by mentioning it in his Dictionary of the Chinese Language as “[dreams of the red chamber.” He explained the character “妙” as in the novel’s character “妙玉 Meaou yǔh [Miao Yu]” as “the admirable gem, name of one of the female characters in the novel called 紅樓夢 the dreams of the red chamber”, see Robert Morrison: A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts, Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I., 930 pp., here p. 614, left column. 24 years after the print edition was published, this is the first mention and translation of the novel’s title into a Western language known so far. If no earlier occurrence is found it means that Morrison created a translation which has lasted until today almost unchanged.] He chose the plural, which was quite reasonable as there are many dreams in the novel. It appears that 27 years later the plural “dreams” was turned into the singular “dream,” which sounds a bit more general and is therefore also a reasonable translation.<br />
<br />
<br />
1815年，澳门牧师罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison，1782-1834年）在其《汉语词典》中将小说的标题称为“红楼梦”，从而创造了该小说的标题的西译本。[他解释道小说红楼梦中一个叫妙玉的女子就像是一块令人钦佩的宝石，参见罗伯特·莫里森：《汉语词典》三部分，澳门：东印度公司出版社1815年，第一卷p930，此处p614，左栏。印刷版出版24年后，这是第一次提及该小说，并将其标题翻译成迄今已知的西方语言。如果没有更早的发现，则意味着莫里森所创作的译本一直持续到今天几乎不变。]他选择了复数形式，这是相当合理的，因为小说中有许多梦想。似乎在27年后，复数的“梦”变成了单数的“梦”，听起来更笼统，因此也是一种合理的翻译。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 08:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
1815年，澳门牧师罗伯特·莫里森(1782-1834)在他的《汉语词典》中将《红楼梦》称作“dreams of the red chamber”，从而创造了小说的英文译名。他把《红楼梦》这本小说中一个女性人物的名字“妙玉”中的“妙”字解释为“令人艳羡的宝石”，（参见罗伯特·莫里森《汉语词典》，澳门：东印度公司出版社，1815年，第一卷第936页，此处第614页左栏)。在印刷版出版24年后，这是第一次提到并将标题翻译成西方语言。如果找不到比这还早的标题翻译，便意味着莫里森创造的翻译一直持续到今天都几乎发生没有改变。“梦”这个词的译文他选择了复数“dreams”，这是相当合理的，因为在小说中有许多梦。27年后，复数的“梦”（dreams)变成了单数的“梦”(dream)，这听起来有点笼统，但也是一个合理的翻译。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 12:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
''Red Chamber Dreams'' is the most common translation in English and, in its variations, in all Western languages so far.<br />
<br />
In 1817 Rev. Robert Morrison published a book for studying Chinese,[ Robert Morrison, A view of China for philological purposes: containing a sketch of Chinese Chronology, Geography, Government, Religion & Customs, designed for the use of persons who study the Chinese language, Macao: East Asia Company Press, 1817, 141 S., hier S. 120-121.] in which he recommended “''Dreams of the Red Chamber''” as beginner readings, together with the novel Hao qiu zhuan, which was available mostly in English and partly in Portuguese by 1719, and fully in English by 1761. Both were written in colloquial style.<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
Morrison claims that ''Dream'' was written in Peking dialect. This does not hold true, since the author’s family Cao came from the South and many people in the novel have Nanking dialect sprinkles. In fact, the highly artful and intentional switch of dialects and sociolects contributed to the later fame of the novel. Morrison’s mistake developed its own tradition.[ Even in 1995, you could read that the ''Dreams'' is written in Peking dialect, cf. Shu Changshan, Die Rezeption Thomas Manns in China, 1995, Frankfurt: Lang, 326 pp. At least Tong Yao, Die Vielfältigkeit der Literatur, 2006 mentions both Peking and Nanking dialects.]<br />
<br />
马礼逊称《红楼梦》是用北京方言写的，但他的说法并不属实，因为书的作者曹雪芹其实是南方人，书中很多角色有时候还会说南京方言。实际上，书中地方方言和社会方言的切换十分巧妙，也是作者有意而为之，这也是此作品之后享有盛名的原因之一。马礼逊的这一错误还持续了很长一段时间。[ 甚至到了1995年仍有人说《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成。]--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 11:07, 18 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
马礼逊认为，《红楼梦》是用北京方言写的，但他的说法并不属实，《红楼梦》的作者曹雪芹其实是南方人，书中很多角色在某些场合甚至还会说南京方言。实际上，书中地方方言和社会方言的切换十分巧妙，这是作者有意而为之，也是《红楼梦》在后来享有盛名的原因之一。马礼逊的这一错误还持续了很长一段时间。[ 甚至到了1995年时，仍有人认为《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成。]--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 02:22, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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马礼逊声称《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成的。这一说法是不正确的，因为作者曹雪芹来自南方，小说中很多人说话都有南京方言的色彩。事实上，方言和社会用语的巧妙和有意的转换为这部小说后来的名声做出了贡献。马礼逊的错误持续了很长一段时间。[即使是在1995年，还有人说《红楼梦》是用北京方言写成的。]--[[User:Ling Zijin|Ling Zijin]] ([[User talk:Ling Zijin|talk]]) 09:29, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
Barrow mentioned the title “[...] a Chinese novel called Hung-low-Mung, or, The Red Chamber Dreams” on June 4, 1819, in the Quarterly Review. He inserted this （导言）reference into a review[ My own findings, so far not discussed in 20th century hongxue, and published first in October 2010. John Barrow, “Art. IV Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited. By Clarke Abel F.L.S. London 1818”, in: William Gifford ed., Quarterly Review 21:41 (January 1819) S. 67-91, hier S. 79-80. This edition appeared (only by) June 4, 1819 with 13,000 copies. The author follows here the argumentation of the assignment to the author Barrow due to the following indications: “Gentleman's Magazine (Mar. 1844), 246-47. The article's author refers to #415 and #438 (including a specific reference), both of which are on the same topic and are by Barrow. Cf. also the discussion of infanticide (p.76) and Raffles's account of Java reviewed by Barrow in #422. In his Q[uarterly] R[eview] articles, it was Barrow's signature practice to refer to his own works, see “Quarterly Review Archive” http:// www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/41.html, last visited Dec 5, 2010.] of Clarke Abel’s report of a journey through China.[ Clarke Abel, Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited, F.L.S. London 1818.] He interrupted his review with an excursus on the uniform appearance and static nature of the Chinese, in line with the contemporary China-bashing of Herder and Hegel. <br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
For contemporary Europeans, the Chinese appeared abnormally uniform and simple in their clothes and appearance. They would not be subordinated to the tyranny of fashion; their culture was static. In order to entertain the “belles and beaux of Great Britain,” Barrow provides a foil to this general impression by quoting the descriptions of the garments and anatomy of two characters, Wang Xifeng and Jia Baoyu, from chapter 3 of J. Davis’ translation of Dream. <br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
In fact the graphic comparisons given in these descriptions were simply strange to Europeans of that time, since they apparently did not correspond to the European’s own ideal of beauty.<br />
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Even in 1842 Gützlaff criticized: “the author [makes] many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] the style is without any art […] whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage”[ “Amongst the novels of the Chinese, this work holds a decidedly high rank. The author, after making many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] Having brought this tedious story to a conclusion, in expressing our opinion about the literary merits of the performance, we may say that the style is without any art, being literally the spoken language of the higher classes in the northern provinces. Some words that are used in a sense different from that in ordinary writings, and others are formed for the occasion, to express provincial sounds. But after reading one volume the sense is easily understood, and whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage.” ibid., p. 273.]<br />
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实际上，这些描述中给出的图形比较对于当时的欧洲人来说简直是陌生的，因为它们显然不符合欧洲人自己的美感。<br />
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甚至在1842年，居茨拉夫（Gützlaff）都批评说：“作者[对]他无法对这个主题伸张正义，提出了许多抗议，这确实是书中唯一的道理。以说北方法院方言的方式，可以有利地细读这部作品” [“在中国小说中，这部作品绝对享有很高的地位。在多次抗议他无法公正对待这个主题之后，这确实是本书中唯一的真相[...]总结了这个乏味的故事，在表达我们对表演文学价值的看法后，我们可以说这种风格没有任何艺术意义，实际上是北部省份上层阶级的口头语言。有些词的用法与普通著作有所不同，而另一些词的用法则是为了表达省级声音。但是，读完一卷书后，这种感觉很容易理解，并且无论谁希望熟悉北部法院方言的表达方式，都可以从中受益。同上，p。273.]<br />
--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 03:49, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
In 1867, 78 years after the first Chinese printed edition, we find a first real in-depth review of two pages by William Frederick Mayers:[ William Frederick Mayers, in: Notes and Queries (Dec 31, 1867) pp. 167-168, here p. 167. Mayers was Chinese secretary of the British Legation at Peking. He gives also short extracts in translation: <br />
“Vast as is Heaven above or Earth below – <br />
Sighs may such limits fill for passion vainly past <br />
Grieve for the senseless youth, the hapless maiden’s woe ! <br />
Not oft is love’s light pledge redeem’ed at last ! ” (p. 167) […] <br />
Vain to be soft in temper, mild in ways, <br />
Fair as the fairest … (p. 168) <br />
[…] <br />
Not often shines <br />
thy longings too are vain ! ” (p. 168)].]<br />
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“If it be lawful to avow a feeling approaching to enthusiasm for any Chinese production, The Hung Low Mêng 紅樓夢 or ‘Dreams of the Red Chamber’ is beyond possibility of cavil the work for which genuine admiration may be expressed.<br />
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1867年，即第一本中文印刷版出版78年之后，我们对梅辉立的两页进行了首次真正的深入回顾：[梅辉立，在：中日释疑（1867年12月31日）,第167-168页，此处第167页。梅辉立曾担任英国使馆驻北京的中国秘书。他还给出了一些翻译中的简要摘录：<br />
“天堂之上或地狱之下都很广阔–<br />
叹息可能会限制过去的激情<br />
为无知的青年，不幸的少女而悲伤！<br />
最后，爱的誓言不是经常被兑现的！ ”（第167页）[…]<br />
不会脾气柔和，方式温和，<br />
公平为最公平…（第168页）<br />
[…]<br />
不常发光<br />
你的渴望也是徒劳的！ ” (第168页)].]<br />
<br />
“如果公然宣称对任一中国作品充满热情的感觉是合法的，那么要对红楼梦或‘Dreams of the Red Chamber’的无端指摘表示真正的钦佩是不可能的。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 13:37, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
What, in English literature, the writings of Thackeray and Bulwer are in comparison with the wearisome and unskilful productions of previous generations, such is the Hung Low Mêng when compared with the works of fiction that have emanated from other Chinese authors. <br />
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==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
Human character in its complex variety of shades, the intricacies of family relations, the force of passion and the torture of disappointed yearnings after love are pourtrayed with a degree of skill and knowledge such as in truth suggests a resemblance with the two great master-spirits of English romance;<br />
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复杂多变的人物性格，错综复杂的家庭关系，猛烈的激情，追求爱情而不得的折磨，凡此种种，作者都以具有技巧和才识的笔触描绘出来，这事实上展现了他与两位英国浪漫小说大师的相似之处。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 04:41, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
whilst, as in Nature's own drama of existence, the reflections of storm and sunshine are closely interlaced, and the lighter thread of comedy runs side by side with the dark main-strand of a story which opens with the omens of sorrow and is conducted to a tearful end.<br />
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同时，就像在自然界的生存戏剧中一样，风暴和阳光的反射紧密地交织在一起，喜剧的轻快线与故事的黑暗主线并排而行，故事的黑暗主线以悲伤的预兆开始，以泪洗面而终。--[[User:QiKai|QiKai]] ([[User talk:QiKai|talk]]) 12:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Qi Kai<br />
<br />
同时，正如自然存在本身就具有戏剧性，风暴与阳光之间的映射紧密纠缠，明亮的喜剧线与黑暗的故事主线并肩而行，展开故事，它以悲伤的预兆开头，并最终导向令人垂泪的结局。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 04:56, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
If, at the same time, a faint – a very faint – tinge of the supernatural is allowed to show itself in the conception of the tale, this is not only in full accord with the inclinations of the people for whom the work is written, but is also far less obtrusive than the similar element which pervades more than one of our own most celebrated fictions. […]”<br />
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==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
Reading through almost 80 years of reviews, during which more and more chapters of the novel became available, the ethnocentric attitude gradually changes to the scientific one and finally, with Mayr’s review of 1867 to a dialectic one, not only admitting that the Chinese novel was a piece of world literature, but even leaving open the possibility that it surpassed literary achievements of the own culture.<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
This process certainly has been brought to a good end with the establishment of further diversified Chinese Studies in Europe and the USA, with the role of overseas Chinese at American universities, with further translations especially through Franz Kuhn in the 1930s and with the establishment of the German China Association in the 1950s.<br />
随着在欧洲和美国建立更多多元化的中文研究，在美国大学中扮演海外华人的角色，尤其是在1930年代通过Franz Kuhn进行的进一步翻译以及 1950年代的德国中国协会.--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 03:12, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
During its 60 years of history, the German China Association (next to the developing chairs of Chinese Studies at universities and next to other organizations dealing with China like friendship associations and Confucius Institutes) has helped to overcome prejudices, cultural relativism with diversity and tolerance. This is especially challenging, because the cultures and languages are quite distant and German media and internet community tends to bash China.<br />
<br />
During the last 20 years, the German China Association was shaped through its prolific president, Gregor Paul, who has shaped the prestige of the Association with his sharp and precise analysis of a common logic in China and the West as well as universal values, including human rights, worth to strive for both in the West and in China.<br />
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在其60年的历史中，德国中国协会(旁边是正在发展的大学中国研究中心，旁边是其他与中国打交道的组织，如友好协会和孔子学院)以多样性和宽容帮助克服偏见和文化相对主义。这尤其具有挑战性，因为两国文化和语言相当遥远，而德国媒体和互联网社区往往会抨击中国。<br />
在过去的20年里,德国的中国协会在优秀的主席格雷戈尔保罗领导下建立,通过敏锐和精确的分析中国和西方的一个共同的逻辑，还有普世价值,包括值得一起追求的人权，他建立起了这个协会的声誉。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 04:17, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
<br />
His entertaining and informative lectures used a rhethoric often referring to persuasive conventional wisdom, e.g. that differences often come from different opinions instead of a difference of the nature of the things, as can be seen from a quarrel with his wife about what both remembered had happened the day before. Paul is a consequent logician and a real universalist and he has added to Germany’s international reputation as “the land of poets and thinkers”.<br />
<br />
The process of doing more justice to China today culminates in the cooperation between Chinese and Western scholars at international conferences, in research projects or international book projects like “A Harvard Literary History of Modern China”.<br />
<br />
他的演讲娱乐性强，内容翔实，善用修辞，引经据典。例如：分歧往往源于意见不和，而非事情性质不一致，这从他和妻子的争吵中可以看出，他们都记得前一天发生的事情。保罗是一名逻辑学家和普遍主义者，他提升了德国的国际声誉，德国被誉为“诗人和思想家的国度”。<br />
<br />
如今，中国与西方学者在国际会议、研究项目或诸如“现代中国的哈佛文学史”之类的国际图书项目上的合作，是对中国更加公正的体现，也是合作达到高潮的体现。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 06:18, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
Europeans (and later US-Americans) have made a contribution to Chinese Studies in general. They were influenced heavily by the idealizers (Jesuits, European philosophers of the enlightenment) and by China-bashers (Hegel, the German emperor...). It took 100 years for a Chinese piece of world literature to be recognized as such in Europe. But today, Chinese literature and culture is recognized with the Nobel Prize and Confucius Institutes do successful work in the whole work promoting and exporting Chinese culture abroad.<br />
<br />
However, we should not overestimate the European contribution. There are still examples of ethnocentrism, even of religiously motivated reading of things into Chinese literature. One of these examples is the 10 volume ''History of Chinese Literature'' published in Bonn.<br />
<br />
总体上来说，欧洲人（以及后期的美国人）对中国的研究做出了贡献。研究很大程度上受到了理想主义者（耶稣会士和德国启蒙哲学家）以及抨击中国者（黑格尔和德国教皇）的影响。中国的文学作品花费了100年的时间才能得到像欧洲文学那样的认可。但是如今，中国文学和文化已经受到诺贝尔奖的认可，孔子学院也成功地在国外传播弘扬中国文化。<br />
<br />
然而，我们不能高估欧洲对中国文学的贡献。仍有很多民族中心主义的例子，甚至有宗教鼓励性的读物混入中国文学当中。其中一个例子便是在波恩出版的《十卷中国文学史》。--[[User:Si Yu|Si Yu]] ([[User talk:Si Yu|talk]]) 03:12, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
In two volumes, the one about the origins of Chinese literature and the one on Chinese poetry, a German sinologist, who formerly was a priest, defines, that the origin of Chinese literature lies in the dialogue of the author with god. This reminds us again of the Jesuit reading of things into Chinese texts, it reminds us of the attempts, to impose your own culture on other seemingly backward cultures, in this case even the try to impose the Western god on the Chinese culture of a time, when China had a totally different understanding of the world and of heaven than that of a Christian god. The emergence of Chinese literature comes from songs, speeches and paintings, from the wish to document events, family etc., but not from an encounter with god.<br />
<br />
其中的两卷，一卷关于中国文学的起源，另一卷关于中国的诗歌。有位曾担任过牧师的德国汉学家认为，中国文学源于作家与上帝的对话。这让我们再次想起耶稣会教士对中文文本的解读，他们试图将其自身文化强加到其他看似落后的文化上。在这本书中，这位汉学家甚至试图把西方的上帝强加到某一时期的中国文化上，尽管中国对世界和天堂的理解与西方完全不同。其实，中国文学兴于诗歌、演讲和绘画，把美好愿景和文献记载世代相传，而非源自与上帝的邂逅。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 13:20, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
其中的两卷，一卷关于中国文学的起源，另一卷关于中国的诗歌。有位曾担任过牧师的德国汉学家认为，中国文学源于作家与上帝的对话。这让人联想到耶稣会教士对中文文本的解读，他们试图将其自身文化强加到其他看似落后的文化上。在这本书中，这位汉学家甚至试图把西方的上帝强加到某一时期的中国文化上，而这个时候中国对世界和天堂的理解与西方完全不同。其实，中国文学兴于诗歌、言论和绘画，从美好愿景到记载事件、家族等，而非源自与上帝的邂逅。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 04:25, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
The same German sinologist retranslated the Analects, attributed to Confucius, and translated some of the more than 50 occurrences of “heaven” or “demon/ghost” with the term “god”. <br />
<br />
Experts on Confucius also quote the few passages, where Confucius addresses the question of the supranatural like ghosts etc. and analyze that Confucius may have been at best not interested or even negative about the belief in ghosts, while he was positive about the social stability and peace rituals brought for the people.<br />
<br />
This reminds us of the fact, that it is to us to make sure that ethnocentrism is still existing today and that science is a field that needs to be aware of and cautious about it. And it needs courage to speak out against it.<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
“We were wrong” – Coming to terms <br />
with failed master narratives of Chinese Studies<br />
“我们错了”——汉学应对主流叙事传统<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler 吴漠汀<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
We, the international scholars of Chinese Studies, apologize for two main misinterpretations of China. 1. The master narrative of Jesuits and others who tried to proof the Western Christian god in ancient Chinese texts. As a tool, they used a distortion of the Chinese texts by manipulated translation. <br />
<br />
我们是中国研究的国际学者，对中国的两个主要误解道歉。 1.耶稣会士和其他人在古代中国文本中试图证明西方基督教之神的主要叙事。作为一种工具，他们通过操纵翻译来歪曲中文文本。<br />
<br />
“我们错了”---学会接受错误的汉学主流叙述<br />
<br />
吴漠汀<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
我们作为汉学的海外学者，要向中国道歉，因为我们在两个方面误读了中国。1. 耶稣会教士和其他人的主流叙事试图证明古代中国作品存在西方的基督教上帝。他们通过操纵翻译来歪解中国作品。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 14:36, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
2. The master narrative of the stagnation of China, sometimes claimed to be inherent and systemic, often reasoned with Confucianism. This narrative was a dogma for 150 years between 1830 and 1980. The disruptive economic development since 1978 has proven this narrative wrong, Confucianism is seen as one reason for the economic miracle. <br />
<br />
2.关于中国停滞的主要叙述，有时被称为固有的和系统性的，常常用儒家思想来推理。这种叙述是1830年至1980年间150年的教条。自1978年以来的破坏性经济发展证明了这种叙事错误，儒家思想被视为经济奇迹的一个原因。<br />
<br />
常以儒家思想为依据的中国停滞论有时被认为是固有的和系统性的。在1830-1980年这150年间，这种说法如同教条主义一般。直到1978年中国经济飞速发展才证明这种说话是错误的，儒家思想也被视为中国经济奇迹的原因之一。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 04:49, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
2.中国停滞的主要叙述有时是内在的、系统的，通常由儒家思想所论证。这种叙述是1830年至1980年间150年的教条。自1978年以来的破坏性经济发展证明了这种叙述是错误的，而儒家思想被视为经济奇迹的原因之一。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 01:31, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
关于中国发展停滞不前的大体说法有时被认为是固定的、系统的，且往往以儒家思想为依据。在1830-1980年这150年里，这种说法像教条一样根植人心。直到1978年以后，中国经济的腾飞推翻了这一说法，儒家思想也被视为是中国经济奇迹的原因之一。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 03:20, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
3. The master narrative of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution as a successful Communist reform. During the 1970s, Western sinologists abandoned basic principles of neutrality, distance and fact-seeking and, based on propaganda, enthusiastically celebrated the Cultural Revolution and became dedicated followers of Mao Zedong, holding up the Little Red Book.<br />
<br />
无产阶级文化大革命的主要叙事是成功的共产主义改革。在20世纪70年代，西方汉学家放弃了中立，距离和事实寻求的基本原则，并在宣传的基础上，热烈地庆祝文化大革命，成为毛泽东的忠实粉丝，举起小红皮书。相信中国宣传的意愿部分是出于将中国理想化为一种模式的愿望，这种模式可以为西方社会的改革指明方向。<br />
<br />
主述将无产阶级文化大革命（文革）描述为共产党的一场成功改革。20世纪70年代，西方汉学家放弃了中立、保持距离、实事求是的基本原则，并在宣传的基础上，热衷于庆祝文化大革命，高举小红书，成为毛泽东的忠实追随者。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 10:40, 19 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
The readiness to believe in the Chinese propaganda was partly motivated by the wish to idealize China into a model which could show the way for a reform of Western societies.<br />
<br />
相信中国宣传的意愿部分是出于将中国理想化为一种模式的愿望，这种模式可以为西方社会的改革指明方向。<br />
<br />
人们愿意相信中国的宣传，部分原因是希望将中国理想化为一种典范，可以为西方社会改革指明道路。 --[[User:Luo Yuqing|Luo Yuqing]] ([[User talk:Luo Yuqing|talk]]) 05:07, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
Key words<br />
<br />
关键词<br />
<br />
Apology, errors, mistakes, manipulation, ethnocentrism, eurocentrism, master narratives, Chinese Studies, sinology, coming to terms with the past<br />
<br />
道歉，错误，错误，操纵，种族中心主义，欧洲中心主义，大师叙事，中国研究，汉学，与过去达成协议<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
1. God in China上帝在中国<br />
<br />
Human beings develop ancestor worship, complemented by natural religions. The natural religions established a layer of shamans who interpreted the will of the natural gods. <br />
<br />
人类发展祖先崇拜，辅以自然宗教。自然宗教建立了一套解释自然神灵意志的法则。<br />
<br />
人类开创了祖先崇拜的先例，并辅以自然宗教。自然宗教组建了一支能解释自然神灵意志的萨满法师队伍。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 02:38, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
In India, the layer of priests of the Vedan religion alienated from the people, because the religious texts of Vedan religion brought a conservating effect to language, texts were canonized and finally not understood by ordinary people any more. <br />
<br />
在印度，Vedan宗教的神职人员与人民疏远，因为Vedan宗教的宗教文本对语言产生了保护作用，文本被册封，最后不再为普通人所理解。<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
Finally, only the Vedan priests could understand the Vedan texts any more. This was the start of the so-called “anti-religious” start of Buddishm.<br />
<br />
最后，只有Vedan牧师才能理解Vedan文本。这是Buddishm所谓的“反宗教”起源的开始。<br />
<br />
<br />
最后，只有Vedan牧师才能理解Vedan文本。这是佛教所谓的“反宗教”起源的开始。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:50, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
Due to the alienation of people and the religious texts and its priests, Buddha was able to establish Buddhism. He claimed that every individual was able to find his or her own way to self-perception and spiritual liberation (nirvana). <br />
<br />
由于人与宗教文本及其祭司的异化，佛陀能够建立佛教。他声称每个人都能找到自己的自我认知和精神解放的方式（涅槃）。<br />
<br />
由于人们和宗教文本及其祭司的异化，佛陀得以建立佛教。他宣称，每个人都能找到自己的方式来实现自我认知和精神解脱（涅槃）。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 02:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
人们和宗教由于文本及其祭司发生了异化，佛陀得以建立佛教。佛陀宣称，每个人都能找到自己的方式来实现自我认知和精神解脱（涅槃）。--[[User:Wang Meiling|Wang Meiling]] ([[User talk:Wang Meiling|talk]]) 13:59, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
Although Buddha did not abandon priests, he established the new tradition that masters would have their disciples and these could overcome their masters. Also, Buddha destroyed the perfectionism of the almighty god by claiming that the life of imperfect men simply was much more interesting. <br />
<br />
虽然佛陀没有放弃传教者，但他建立了新的传统，即主人会有他们的门徒，这些人可以推翻他们的主人。此外，佛陀通过声称不完美男人的生活更加有趣，摧毁了全能神的完美主义。<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
In China, ancestor worship has kept its dominant role until today. Although there was the age of shamans, since several millenia every family clan had its own tradition of ancestor worship. It was believed that the ancestors in heaven watched over and influenced the lives of their descendants on earth. <br />
<br />
在中国，祖先崇拜一直保持其主导地位，直到今天。虽然萨满有年龄，由于几千年来每个家族都有自己的祖先崇拜传统。据信，天上的祖先观看并影响了他们在地球上的后代的生活。<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
So the most important unit were family clans. Even rulers used fire cracks and characters inscribed in turtle shells or cattle bones to communicate with the ancestors and to predict the future. <br />
<br />
所以最重要的单位是家族。甚至统治者也使用火龟纹和龟壳或牛骨上的字符来与祖先交流并预测未来。<br />
<br />
因此最核心的单位是家族。统治者甚至通过把火裂纹和符号刻在龟壳和牛骨上的方式和祖先进行交流和预测未来。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 05:24, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
However, when the dynasty changed and a new ethnic group took over, they could not claim the ancestors to be their relatives any more, so the shangdi concept was replaced by heaven (tian) and related understandings like “son of heaven”, “mandate of heaven” etc., supllying them with legitimization of power. <br />
<br />
然而，当王朝改变并且一个新的族群接管时，他们不能再宣称祖先是他们的亲戚，所以上帝的概念被天堂（天）和相关的理解所取代，如“天堂之子”，“任务”天国等等，用权力合法化来贬低他们。<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
Although there were mythical divine creatures, the understanding of gods was not developed as distinct and authoritative as in Europe and Egypt. Egypt and Europe both further developed from multi theism to mono theism.<br />
<br />
虽然有神话般的神圣生物，但对神的理解并没有像欧洲和埃及那样发展出独特和权威。埃及和欧洲都从多神论到单一神论进一步发展。<br />
<br />
虽然有神话中的神创物，但对神的理解并没有像在欧洲和埃及那样发展得独特而权威。埃及和欧洲都从多神论进一步发展到一神论。--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 02:21, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
----<br />
尽管存在神话中的神圣生物，但对神灵的了解却没有欧洲和埃及那样独特而权威。埃及和欧洲都是从多神论进一步发展到一神论的。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 08:46, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
Theism established a layer of priests, occupying the role of mediators between god and men. Since every uncontrolled authority abuses its power, these mediators gained earthly wealth and took advantage of their control over people by abuse of their work force and even sexual abuse. <br />
<br />
有神论建立了一套祭祀法则，成为了神与人之间调解者的角色。由于每个不受控制的权威都滥用权力，这些调解人获得了人间的财富，并利用他们对工作人员的滥用甚至性虐待来控制他们。<br />
有神论确立了一些神职人员来充当上帝和人民之间的调停者。无限制的权力会导致权力的滥用，因此这些调停者不仅获得了大量的财富，还利用自己对人民的控制来压榨他们的劳动力甚至是通过性虐待来达到此目的。--[[User:Wen Xiaoyi|Wen Xiaoyi]] ([[User talk:Wen Xiaoyi|talk]]) 14:08, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
In Europe, the power was divided among the rulers and the church, represented by the pope, the cardinals, the bishops and the priests. <br />
<br />
在欧洲，权力在统治者和教会之间分配，由教皇，红衣主教，主教和神父代表。<br />
<br />
在欧洲，权力被统治者和以教皇、红衣主教、主教和神父为代表的教会所控制，并且被分享、分配。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:21, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在欧洲，由统治者和以教皇，红衣主教，主教和神父为代表的教会掌控分配权力。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 03:55, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在欧洲，统治者和以教皇，红衣主教，主教和神父为代表的教会分配权力。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 04:02, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
Since religion in general claims to be valid for all of menkind, when new territories were discovered in East Asia and Africa, the missionaries tried to enlarge the territorium under their control by forcing locals to accept European religions and societal development models like modernization and economical development. <br />
因为宗教通常声称对所有人都有效，所以当在东亚和非洲发现新的领土时，传教士试图通过迫使当地人接受欧洲宗教和社会发展模式，如现代化和经济发展，来扩大他们控制下的领土。--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 08:34, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
由于宗教一般主张对所有人都有效，所以当在东亚和非洲发现新的领土时，传教士会试图通过强迫当地人接受欧洲的宗教和社会发展模式，如现代化和经济发展，来扩大自己控制的领土。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 04:56, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
After the first missionaries arrived in China and saw that the exchange was positive for both sides, they also developed a motivation to keep the missionaries alive, which was a second motivation for them. <br />
<br />
在第一批传教士抵达中国，并看到双方的交流是积极的之后，他们也发展了一种让传教士活动的动力，这是他们的第二个动机。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 07:47, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在第一批传教士抵达中国后，并看到这种交流对双方来说都是积极的，他们也就产生了另一个动力，让传教士们积极活动。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:11, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
Since the Christian religion is a religion revealed in divine texts, the missionaries had a strong motivation to find evidence in the classical Chinese texts that the Christian god also existed there. So among the first texts, they selected, translated and sorted were the canonized texts. A good example is the Daodejing which they translated in a distorted way, allowing them to proof the existence of the Christian god in China.<br />
<br />
由于基督教是一种神圣文本中所揭示的宗教，传教士有强烈的动机在中国古典文本中找到证据，证明基督教的神也存在于那里。 因此，在第一批文本中，他们选择、翻译和排序的是册封文本。一个很好的例子就是《道德经》，他们以扭曲的方式翻译，使他们能够证明中国基督教神的存在。<br />
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由于基督教起源于神圣文本，所以传教士很想在中国古典作品中找到基督教的神亦存在的证据。因此，他们最初选择、翻译、排序的文章都是经典作品。这些传教士歪曲事实，翻译《道德经》是一个很好的证明。其目的是证明中国存在基督教的神。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:35, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
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This was the first major mistake, the attitude of Europeans to find evidence of their European god in Chinese roots. This attidtude lead to translation practises abandoning the basic rules of the profession: <br />
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这是第一个重大错误，即欧洲人在中国人根源中找到欧洲神的证据的态度。这种原因导致翻译实践放弃了专业的基本规则：<br />
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这是第一个重大错误，即欧洲人想寻找证据，证明自己的欧洲神明存在于中国人根源之中的这种态度。这种态度导致其在翻译实践中放弃专业的基本规则：--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 02:14, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这是第一个重大错误，即欧洲人试图在中国根源中找到欧洲神的证据的态度。这种态度导致翻译实践放弃了专业的基本规则：--[[User:Wensixing|Wensixing]] ([[User talk:Wensixing|talk]]) 02:24, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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Terms, concepts and ideas sounding familiar were forcibly changed into the original European meaning. However, the published translations did only show a slight influence of this practise, the main translations, e.g. of the Daodejing first were not published, but discussed internally. <br />
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熟悉的术语、概念和想法被强制改变，具有原欧洲意义。但是，已发表的翻译并没有受太大影响，主要翻译，例如最初没有发表的《道德经》，在内部进行了讨论。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 03:25, 19 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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为人熟知的术语、概念和想法被强制改变为原欧洲意义。然而，已发表的翻译作品仅受到了轻微影响。但主要的翻译作品，例如最初没有发表的《道德经》，在内部进行了讨论。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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为人所熟知的术语、概念和思想，被迫改为原来的欧洲含义。然而，已发表的翻译只是受到了这种做法的轻微影响，但主要的翻译作品，如《道德经》最初没有出版，而是进行内部讨论。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 11:07, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
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The outcome of the discussion was that the deviations in the translations would have to go too far and ultimately that there was no proof of the Christian god in ancient Chinese texts. <br />
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讨论的结果是，翻译中的偏差必须走得太远，最终在中国古代文本中没有基督教之神的证据。<br />
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讨论的结果是，译本的偏差会太大，最终导致在古代中国文本中没有基督教上帝存在的证据。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 01:21, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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讨论的结果是译本可能会偏差过大，最终导致在中国古籍中没有基督教存在的依据了。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 07:50, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
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Nonetheless, since then several missionaries, priests (Richard Wilhelm) and sinologists (Wolfgang Kubin) still tend to translate the Chinese concept of “heaven” into concepts familiar to Europeans like “god”. <br />
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尽管如此，从那时起，几位传教士，牧师（理查德威廉）和汉学家（顾彬）仍然倾向于将中国的“天堂”概念翻译成欧洲人熟悉的概念，如“上帝”。<br />
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尽管如此，从那时起，一些传教士、牧师（如理查德·威廉）和汉学家（如沃尔夫冈·库宾）还是倾向于把中国的“天”译作欧洲人所熟悉的概念，如“上帝”--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 07:41, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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尽管如此，从那时起，一些传教士、牧师(理查德·威廉)和汉学家(沃尔夫冈·库宾)仍然倾向于把中国的“天堂”概念翻译成欧洲人熟悉的概念，比如“上帝”。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 01:26, 21 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
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This is wrong and we as sinologists, apologize to the Chinese citizens for this eurocentric approach. We hope to overcome this historical mistake by cooperation with our Chinese colleagues.<br />
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这是错误的，我们作为汉学家，为这种以欧洲为中心的方法向中国公民道歉。我们希望通过与中国同事的合作修正这一历史错误。<br />
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这是错误的，并且作为汉学家，我们为这种以欧洲为中心的做法向中国公民道歉。我们希望通过与中国同事的合作来纠正这一历史错误。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 06:29, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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这种以欧洲为中心的做法是不对的。作为汉学家，我们为此向中国公民道歉，希望能够和中国汉学家合作来纠正这个历史错误。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 04:45, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
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All institutionalization develops inertia, the Chinese society was very instituionalized, therefore the Christianization in general failed. However, he secondary aims of the missions, to bring the European understanding of societal development (development of economy, health, education bringing about progress and modernization) were a success.<br />
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所有制度化都发展了惯性，中国社会非常机构化，因此基督教化总体上失败了。 然而，他的使命的次要目标，使欧洲对社会发展的理解（经济、健康、教育带来进步和现代化）的成功是成功的。<br />
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一切制度化都滋长了惰性，中国社会非常制度化，因此基督教化总体上失败了。然而，他的任务的第二个目标是，使欧洲人了解社会发展（经济、卫生、教育的发展带来进步和现代化），这个目标成功了。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 10:42, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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一切制度化滋长了惰性，中国社会非常制度化，因此基督教化总体上失败了。然而，他的任务的第二个目标：使欧洲人了解社会发展（经济、卫生、教育的发展带来进步和现代化），成功了。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 02:34, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
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The missionaries translated European books of knowledge into Chinese and therefore practically performed a knowledge transfer. Also the learning of foreign languages enhanced.<br />
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传教士将欧洲知识书籍翻译成中文，实际上不仅传递了知识，也提高了他们外语学习的能力。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 09:27, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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传教士将欧洲的知识书籍译成了中文，从而将知识的传递落到了实处。人们的外语学习能力也得到了提高。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:53, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
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During history, the authoritarian rule was replaced by democracies. In China, this was the case with the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912. During history, the power of the church was also restrained with protestant reformism.<br />
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在历史上，专制统治被民主取代。 在中国，1912年中华民国成立就是这种情况。在历史上，教会的权力也受到新教改良主义的制约。<br />
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在历史上，专制统治被民主制所取代。 在中国，1912年中华民国成立就是这种情况。在历史上，新教改革派也限制了教会的权力。--[[User:Ishikami|Ishikami]] ([[User talk:Ishikami|talk]]) 04:23, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在历史上，独裁统治被民主政体所取代。而在中国，中华民国于1912年成立就是这样的事件。历史上，教会的权力也受到新教改革主义的制约。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 04:27, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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Religions are more or less tolerant regarding people believing in different religions or regarding atheists. Islam in average is less tolerant the Christianity. <br />
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宗教对于相信不同宗教或无神论者的人或多或少都是宽容的。平均而言，伊斯兰教对基督教的宽容度较低。<br />
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各大宗教对于有别的宗教信仰的人或无神论者或多或少持宽松态度。一般而言，伊斯兰教对基督教徒的宽松度较低。--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 05:32, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
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Since two millenia, Europe has been dominated by Christianity and China mostly by ancestor worship, with a huge tolerance towards Buddhism, Daoism and other forms of religious practises. <br />
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自两千年以来，欧洲一直由基督教和中国主导，主要是祖先崇拜，对佛教、道教和其他形式的宗教活动有着巨大的容忍。<br />
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自从两千年以来，欧洲一直以基督教为主，中国大多以崇拜祖先为主，对佛教，道教和其他形式的宗教活动具有极大的容忍度。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 06:02, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
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2. Stagnant China停滞的中国<br />
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Times when international China watchers (scholars, philosophers) and China experts (merchants, missionaries, members of delegations, scholars) idealized China (Chinoiserie) and when they demonized her (stagnation, Yellow peril) followed each other. <br />
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国际中国观察家（学者、哲学家）和中国专家（商人、传教士、代表团成员、学者）理想化中国（中国风）以及妖魔化她（停滞、黄祸）的时代相互依存。<br />
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国际上中国的关注者（学者、哲学家）和对中国颇为了解的人（商人、传教士、代表团成员、学者）先是把中国理想化（Chinoiserie），接着又把中国妖魔化（停滞、黄祸）。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:00, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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国际上中国的观察者们（学者、哲学家）和中国通（商人、传教士、代表团成员、学者）把中国理想化(中国风）、妖魔化（停滞、黄祸）的时期是互相交汇的。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 05:34, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
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Western Sinology has long declared the "stagnation" in China as being “without an alternative” and as “being caused by Confucianism”. However, China showed a disruptive economical development since 1978, which proves this narrative wrong. Now also the Chinese "economic miracle" is explained by the Western sinologists with Confucianism. <br />
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西方汉学早就宣称中国的“停滞”是“没有其他选择”和“由儒学引起的”。 然而，自1978年以来，中国显示出飞速的经济发展，证明这种说法是错误的。 现在中国的“经济奇迹”也被西方汉学家用儒学解释了。<br />
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西方汉学早就宣称中国的“停滞”是“无法避免的”，“由儒学造成的”。然而，从1978年来，中国的经济出现了颠覆性的发展，证明这种说法是错误的。现在，西方汉学家又用儒学去解释中国的“经济奇迹”。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:00, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
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Now is the time for Western Sinology to admit its historical mistake and to overcome the eurocentric and racist dogma of “stagnation” by diversification. The exchange with Chinese colleagues like here at the congress offers a good opportunity to do so.<br />
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现在是西方汉学承认其历史错误、克服多元化“停滞”的欧洲中心和种族主义教条的时候了。在这里与大会上的中国同事交流提供了一个很好的机会。<br />
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现在，西方汉学应当承认自己的历史错误，并通过多样化来克服“停滞”的欧洲中心主义和种族主义教条。本次大会上与中国同事的交流为此提供了一个很好的机会。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 04:53, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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现在是西方汉学承认历史错误，通过多元化克服“停滞”的欧洲中心主义和种族主义教条的时候了。本次大会上与中国同事的交流提供了一个很好的机会。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 10:45, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
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With the overall turn from admiring China to demonizing China, also Hegel started to judge on China as a “stagnant” empire. <br />
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随着从钦佩中国到妖魔化中国的整体转变，黑格尔也开始判断中国是一个“停滞不前”的帝国。<br />
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从钦佩中国到妖魔化中国，黑格尔也开始认为中国是一个“停滞不前”的帝国。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:22, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
随着黑格尔从钦佩中国到妖魔化中国的全面转变，他也开始认为中国是一个“停滞”的帝国。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 04:21, 22 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
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Although he found evidence that Confucius had invented the Golden Rule, he described China as the lowest stage of a stairways to the world Geist# with Berlin at the top. His condemnation of China was taken over by Marx who condemned China too. <br />
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尽管他发现了孔子发明黄金法则的证据，但他将中国描述为通往世界精神阶梯的最低阶段，而柏林位居榜首。他对中国的谴责也被谴责中国的马克思所接管。<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
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There were several narratives establishing a Great Divergence or arguing for little divergences during the early stage of globalization. However, new rediscoveries of ancient Chinese translations of Western books of knowledge and new statistics of sugar consumption (which was for the most time higher in China than in Europe) question these narratives today.<br />
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在全球化的早期阶段，有几种叙述形成了一种大分歧或争论很少的分歧。 然而，中国古代西方知识翻译的新发现以及食糖消费的新统计数据（这在中国的时间比欧洲最高）在今天质疑这些叙述。<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
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'''3. Western Sinologists as Red Guard作为红卫兵的西方汉学家'''<br />
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Whenever science and scholarship serves an ideology or a religion, it gives up its objectivity and it betrays the fundamental principles of science and scholarship, e.g. the principle that you conduct research independantly without any predestined results and that you accept the results whatever they are.<br />
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每当科学和学术服务于意识形态或宗教时，它就会放弃其客观性，并背叛科学和学术的基本原则，例如： 你独立进行研究而没有任何预定结果的原则，你接受的结果无论它们是什么。<br />
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每当科学和学术服务于意识形态或宗教时，它就会放弃其客观性，并背叛科学和学术的基本原则，例如： 在你独立进行研究时，你可能会想要一个预定好的结果。你可能不太愿意接受不想要的答案。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:22, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
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Sinologists and scholars of Chinese Studies are scholars who deal with the subject of China. To keep the distance, it is good that they are able to freely travel to and out of China in order to be able to change perspectives and to keep the distance.<br />
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中国研究的汉学家和学者是处理中国主题的学者。为了保持距离，他们能够自由地进出中国以便能够改变视角并保持距离。<br />
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汉学家和中国研究学者都是研究中国主题的学者。为了区分不同，他们能够自由进出中国，以便能够改变视角去研究不同方面，这是非常好的方法。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 04:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
汉学家和中国研究学者是研究中国问题的学者。为了保持距离，他们能够自由地往返于中国，以便能够改变视角，保持距离，这是很好的。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:40, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
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There was a time at the end of the 1960s, when the Western capitalism and establishment was challenged, initi-ated by images from the Vietnam war, dismantling the cruelty of war, where American soldiers used unfair tech-niques like chemical weapons against civilians in Vietnam. The photo of the naked children, scared to death from the napalm air strikes and running away in panic, changed the attitude of the people in the USA and in Europe against the institutionalized form of capitalism. Suddenly, the people, who were assured to be the “good ones” asked instead if they were the “bad ones” and had to change their systems towards peaceful coexistence. <br />
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20世纪60年代末，西方资本主义的形成和建立受到挑战，受到越南战争的影响。资本主义使战争看上去不那么残酷，美国士兵在越南对平民使用化学武器等不公平技术。看到裸体儿童的照片，看到他们在凝固汽油弹袭击中惊恐万分的模样，惊慌而逃的身影，改变了美国和欧洲人民对制度化资本主义的态度。 突然之间，那些发誓要成为“好人”的人们反而会质疑自己是否是“坏蛋”，并且不得不改变他们自己的方式以实现和平共处。--[[User:Yang Ziling|Yang Ziling]] ([[User talk:Yang Ziling|talk]]) 07:13, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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20世纪60年代末，西方资本主义和建立受到越南战争的影响，摧毁了战争的残酷，美国士兵在越南对平民使用化学武器等不公平技术。 裸体儿童的照片，在凝固汽油弹袭击中惊恐万分，在恐慌中逃跑，改变了美国和欧洲人民对制度化资本主义形式的态度。 突然之间，那些被保证成为“好人”的人们反而要求他们是“坏人”，并且不得不改变他们的制度以实现和平共处。<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
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Western sinologist in the whole world were too ready to believe the propaganda of a successful “Great Proletari-an Cultural Revolution”. In 1961 Defense Minister Lin Biao instructed the army journal ''People’s Liberation Army Daily'' to print one saying of Mao each day. Sorted thematically, the first collection of these sayings was published in 1964. The little red book with sayings by Mao Zedong was printed more than 740 million times in China to supply every citizen with a copy. During its peak of popularity 1966-1971, it was the most printed book, it was printed in more than 30 languages more than a billion times. <br />
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全世界的西方汉学家都准备好相信成功的“无产阶级文化大革命”的宣传。 1961年，国防部长林彪指示军民报“人民解放军报”每天打印一篇毛泽东的语录。 按主题排序，这些说法的第一个集合于1964年出版。毛泽东的红宝书在中国印刷了7.4亿多次，为每个公民提供了一份副本。 在1966年至1971年的人气高峰期间，它是印刷最多的书，以超过30种语言印刷超过十亿次。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 03:20, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
全世界的西方汉学家都不敢相信“伟大的无产阶级文化大革命”的宣传竟如此成功。1961年，国防部长林彪指示军队日报《人民解放军日报》每天刊登一篇毛泽东语录。按主题分类，这些语录的第一本合集于1964年出版。《毛泽东语录红皮书》在中国印刷了7.4亿多册，几乎人手一本。在1966至1971年间，该书的印刷量达到顶峰，被翻译成30多种语言，印刷超过10亿次。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 06:46, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
<br />
Jean-Luc Godard released his film “La Chinoise” in August 1967, displaying a youthful Parisian Maoist sect. This lead to a popularity of this ideology among Western experts of Chinese Studies.<br />
<br />
Jean-Luc Godard于1967年8月发行了他的电影《中国姑娘》，展示了一个年轻的巴黎毛派教派。这导致了这种意识形态在西方中国研究专家中的流行。<br />
<br />
让-吕克·戈达尔（Jean-Luc Godard）于1967年8月发行了电影《中国姑娘》，展示了一个年轻的巴黎毛派教派。随后，此意识形态在西方中国研究专家中流行。--[[User:Zhang Weihong|Zhang Weihong]] ([[User talk:Zhang Weihong|talk]]) 06:31, 20 November 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong<br />
<br />
1967年8月，让-吕克·戈达尔（Jean-Luc Godard）发布了其电影《中国姑娘》，电影中展示了一个年轻的巴黎毛派教派。随后，此意识形态在那些做中国研究的西方专家中流行开来。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:45, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
<br />
Recently, Cambridge University Press published a collection of memories of how Western sinologists and young intellectuals have received and embraced Maoism in the 1960s and 1970s. <br />
<br />
最近，剑桥大学出版社出版了一系列关于西方汉学家和年轻知识分子如何在20世纪60年代和70年代接受和信奉毛泽东思想的回忆。<br />
<br />
最近，剑桥大学出版社出版了一系列回忆录，里面记录了西方汉学家和年轻知识分子如何在20世纪60年代和70年代就已接收并信奉毛泽东思想。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:19, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
最近，剑桥大学出版社出版了一系列回忆录，里面记录了西方汉学家和年轻知识分子在20世纪60年代和70年代对毛泽东思想的接受和信奉情况。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 02:28, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
<br />
John Gray in a book review has summarized main points of the book. I mostly follow his summary here. He de-scribes how French thinkers received this film:<br />
<br />
约翰格雷在书评中总结了本书的要点。 我在此将列出他主要的总结。他描述了法国思想家如何评价这部电影：<br />
<br />
<br />
约翰格雷在书评中总结了这本书的要点。 我将在此列出他主要的总结。他描述了法国思想家如何评价这部电影：--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 03:21, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
约翰·格雷在书评中总结了他这本书的主要观点。在这里，我主要是跟随着他的总结。他描述了法国的思想者是如何接受这部电影的：--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 08:25, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg: “Mao’s language of violence had a certain rhetorical appeal.” In fact, it was his combination of rhetorical violence with sub-Hegelian dialectical logic that proved so irresistible to sections of the French intelligentsia. Eulogising Mao’s distinction between principal and secondary contradictions, Louis Althusser deployed Maoist categories as part of an extremely abstract and, indeed, largely meaningless defence of “the relative autonomy of theory”. <br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg：“毛泽东的暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”事实上，正是他将修辞暴力与次黑格尔辩证逻辑相结合，证明了法国知识分子的各个部分是如此不可抗拒。 颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分，路易斯·阿尔都塞将毛派分类作为极其抽象的，实际上在很大程度上毫无意义地保护“理论的相对自治”的一部分。<br />
<br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg:“毛泽东暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”事实上，正是他的修辞暴力与亚黑格尔的辩证逻辑相结合，对法国知识分子的各个部分来说是如此难以抗拒。 颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分,路易·阿尔都塞将毛泽东主义者分类作为极其抽象的,实际上是对“理论相对自治”的毫无意义的辩护的一部分。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 07:46, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
[Julian] Bourg：“毛泽东的暴力语言具有一定的修辞吸引力。”事实上，正是因为他将修辞暴力与次黑格尔辩证逻辑相结合，才证明了法国知识分子的各个部分是如此不可抗拒。 路易斯·阿尔都塞颂扬毛泽东对主要和次要矛盾的区分，并将毛派分类作为极其抽象的，实际上是对“理论的相对自治”的毫无意义的辩护的一部分。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:27, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
<br />
Althusser’s student Alain Badiou (for many years professor of philosophy at the École Normale Supérieure) continued to defend Maoism long after the scale of its casualties had become undeniable. As recently as 2008, while commending himself for being “now one of Maoism’s few noteworthy representatives”, Badiou praised Mao’s thought as “a new politics of the negation of the negation”. From one point of view, this stance is merely contemptible – a professorial pirouette around a vast pile of corpses. But one must bear in mind the fathomless frivolity of some on the French left. Already in 1980, two former Maoist mili-tants had announced their rejection of the creed in the language of fashion: “China was in . . . Now it is out . . . we are no longer Maoists.” Against this background, Badiou’s persistence is almost heroically ab-surd. <br />
<br />
阿尔都塞的学生Alain Badiou（多年来在巴黎高等师范学院的哲学教授）在其伤亡人数不可否认之后很久就继续捍卫毛派。 就在2008年，尽管称赞自己是“现在是毛派少数几个值得注意的代表之一”，但巴迪欧称赞毛泽东的思想是“否定否定的新政治”。 从一个角度来看，这种立场仅仅是可鄙的 - 围绕着一大堆尸体的教授旋转。 但是人们必须牢记法国左翼一些人的无聊轻浮。 早在1980年，两位前毛泽东武装分子就已经宣布以时尚语言拒绝信条：“中国是在中国。。。 现在它出来了。。。 我们不再是毛泽东思想者。”在这种背景下，巴迪欧的坚持几乎是荒谬的荒谬。<br />
<br />
阿尔都塞的学生阿兰·巴迪欧（多年来一直是巴黎高等师范学院的哲学教授）在伤亡人数不可否认之后很久仍继续捍卫毛派。就在2008年，巴迪欧称自己“现在是毛泽东主义为数不多的重要代表之一”，并称赞毛泽东的思想是“否定否定的新政治”。某种程度上来说，这种姿态简直是可鄙的——围绕着一大堆尸体旋转的教授。但是，我们必须记住一些法国左翼人士不可理喻的轻浮。早在1980年，两位前毛泽东武装分子已经用时尚的语言宣布拒绝这一信条：“中国在。现在它出来了。在这样的背景下，巴迪欧的坚持几乎是英勇无畏的。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 03:14, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
<br />
Dominique Kirchner Reill has documented, that Maoist influence in Italy and Yugoslavia was even wider: <br />
<br />
Dominique Kirchner Reill证明，毛派在意大利和南斯拉夫的影响甚至更为广泛：<br />
<br />
“In Italy Mao-mania was not purely a left-wing phenomenon. Some ultra-right groups quoted their Little Red Books to justify their arguments.” In 1968-73 the neo-fascist party Lotto di Popolo (“the people’s fight”) lauded Mao as an exemplary nationalist and resolute opponent of US global hegemony. <br />
<br />
“在意大利，毛派狂热不仅仅是一种左翼现象。 一些极权团体引用他们的红皮书为他们的论点辩护。“1968年-1973年，新法西斯政党Lotto di Popolo（”人民的斗争“）称赞毛泽东是模范民族主义者和美国全球霸权的坚决反对者。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:13, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
<br />
In a footnote he observes <br />
在他的脚注中，他注意到：<br />
<br />
“Nazi-Maoist movement in Italy included many other figures and groups” besides the Lotto di Popolo. <br />
<br />
除了Lotto di Popolo之外，“意大利的纳粹毛派运动包括许多其他人物和团体”。<br />
<br />
Gray beklagt#: “It is a pity this aspect of Mao’s influence is not explored in greater detail.” One of the reasons may be that the generation of Maoist sinologists later were the ones to document their own history, the history of sinologists, but they never came to terms with it, very much like the 1960s activists with sympathy for the German “Red Army Fraction”, who later became part of the establishment, even ministers in the government, and did not want to be reminded of their past.<br />
<br />
灰色beklagt＃：“遗憾的是，毛泽东影响力的这一方面没有得到更详细的探讨。”其中一个原因可能是后来毛派汉族的一代人要记录他们自己的历史，也就是汉学家的历史，但是 他们从来没有接受过它，非常像20世纪60年代积极分子同情德国“红军分数”，后来成为该组织的一部分，甚至是政府的部长，并且不想被提醒他们的过去。<br />
<br />
在他的脚注中，他表示，参与者除了Lotto di Popolo外，“意大利纳粹毛派运动还包括许多其他人物和团体”。<br />
Gray beklagt#表示：“遗憾的是，在这个层面，毛泽东的影响未得到更细致的探讨。”其中一个原因可能是，后来的毛泽东思想汉学家只记载他们自己的历史，即汉学家的历史。他们从不接受毛泽东思想，这就很像二十世纪六十年代的积极分子同情德国“红军纵队”。该纵队的人后来成为该组织的一部分，有的甚至还成了政府机关部长。这些汉学家不想回忆起自己的历史。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 04:18, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
<br />
Gray writes in his book review: 格雷在他的书评中写道：<br />
<br />
“In a programmatic introductory essay Alexander C Cook compares the Chinese leader’s book to a “spir-itual atom bomb” and considers its global fallout. Showing how it reflects the influence of the choral sing-ing introduced into China by 19th-century Christian missionaries, Andrew F Jones provides an illuminating account of the rise of the Maoist pop song. Taking as her starting point the global distribution of the Little Red Book to over a hundred countries in the eight months between October 1966 and May 1967, Xu Lanjun examines the process of translation in the context of Maoist ideas of global revolution. Quinn Slo-bodian discusses the impact the book had in eastern and western Germany. In the concluding essay, Ban Wang considers the Little Red Book and “religion as politics” in China. Elsewhere, its influence in Tanzania, India, Peru, Albania and the former Soviet Union is discussed.”<br />
<br />
“在一篇程序化的介绍性文章中，亚历山大·库克将中国领导人的书与“精神原子弹”进行了比较，并考虑了它的全球影响。 安德鲁·F·琼斯（Andrew F Jones）展示了它如何反映19世纪基督教传教士引入中国的合唱歌曲的影响，为毛泽东主义流行歌曲的兴起提供了一个有启发性的说明。 在1966年10月至1967年5月的八个月中，徐兰军以红宝书的全球分布为一百多个国家，在毛泽东的全球革命思想背景下考察了翻译的过程。 Quinn Slobodian讨论了该书在德国东部和西部的影响。 在最后的文章中，王班并认为红宝书和中国的“宗教为政治”。在其他地方，讨论了它在坦桑尼亚、印度、秘鲁、阿尔巴尼亚和前苏联的影响。”<br />
<br />
“在一篇纲领性的导言文章中，亚历山大·C·库克（Alexander C Cook）把这位中国领导人的书比作是一颗“精神原子弹”，并认为这对全世界都产生了辐射效应。安德鲁·F·琼斯（Andrew F Jones）展示了19世纪基督教传教士将合唱引入中国后所造成的影响，并生动地讲述了毛泽东主义流行歌曲是如何兴起的。在1966年10月至1967年5月的八个月中，徐兰军以红宝书销往的全球一百多个国家为着手点，考察了在毛泽东的全球革命思想背景下的翻译过程。奎因·斯洛博迪安（Quinn Slo-bodian）探讨了该书对德国东部和西部的影响。在这篇文章的最后，王斑研究了红宝书并将其视为中国的“宗教政治”。除了探讨对中国的影响，还讨论了在坦桑尼亚、印度、秘鲁、阿尔巴尼亚和前苏联的影响。"--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 11:45, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
<br />
“In West Germany in the late 1960s, the Little Red Book “resembled simultaneously an accessory of the classical workers’ movement and a modish commodity of the educated elite”. In theatres, across from the refreshments, there were glass cases “full of pretty red Mao bibles (two Deutsche Marks each)”. As an anti-consumerist commodity, the book became “a marker of social distinction within a commercial market”.”<br />
<br />
“在20世纪60年代后期的西德，红宝书”同时也是古典工人运动的一部分，也是受过教育的精英的一种时尚商品”。 在茶馆对面的剧院里，有一些玻璃盒子“里面装满了漂亮的红宝书（每个都有两个德国马克）”。 作为一种反消费主义商品，这本书成为“商业市场中社会区别的标志”。”<br />
<br />
“在20世纪60年代后期的西德，（毛泽东的）红宝书“是古典工人运动的读物，同时也是教育良好的精英阶层中的畅销书。”在茶馆对面的剧院里，有一些玻璃盒子“里面装满了漂亮的红宝书（每个都有两个德国马克）”。作为一种反消费主义的商品，这本书成为了“商业市场中社会差异的标志”。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:20, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
“Condemned as distorting Mao’s ideas and exerting a “widespread and pernicious influence”, the book was withdrawn from circulation in February 1979 and a hundred million copies pulped.”<br />
“这部书被谴责为歪曲毛泽东的思想并发挥“广泛而有害的影响”，于1979年2月撤销流通，并且有数亿份纸张被废弃。”<br />
<br />
“这本书受到了人们的谴责，认为书中歪曲了毛泽东的思想，并带来“广泛而有害的影响”，因此，该书于1979年2月停止发行，数亿份书籍被废弃。”--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 03:20, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
<br />
The popularity of the Chinese system in the West was at the peak when it had the most victims.<br />
<br />
中国体制在西方的受欢迎程度因其最多的受害者而达到了峰值。<br />
<br />
当受害者人数最多时中国制度在西方的受欢迎程度达到顶峰。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
Today, even in China, the Cultural Revolution is evaluated as “10 Years of Chaos”. Mao Zedong’s approach to mobilize the masses in endless revolutions turned out to be a historical failure. <br />
<br />
今天，即使在中国，文化大革命也被评为“十年动乱”。 毛泽东在无休止的革命中动员群众的方法被证明是历史性的失败。<br />
<br />
今天，即使在中国，文化大革命也称为“十年动乱”。毛泽东发动群众进行无休止革命的做法被证明是历史性的失败。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 02:29, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
<br />
However, domestic Science and Scholarship today once more receives incentives to pretend an ideological use-fulness of their research results when applying for funds to conduct research projects. However, an independant science and scholarship serves any government best, because a government needs real and true research results, not sugar coated ones.<br />
<br />
然而，今天的国内科学和奖学金再次获得激励，在申请资金进行研究项目时，假装其研究成果具有意识形态的有用性。 然而，独立的科学和奖学金最适合任何政府，因为政府需要真实和真实的研究结果，而不是糖衣。<br />
<br />
然而，如今国内学科及奖学金再次受到鼓励，要求在申请项目研究资金时伪称其研究结果具有意识形态有用性。但由于政府需要真实准确的研究结果，而非华而不实的研究结果，一项独立的学科及奖学金对任何政府都是绝佳选择。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 02:59, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，如今国内的科学学术研究就再次要求在申请研究项目资金时，其研究结果须表现为有助于意识形态建设。然而，独立的科学与学术研究能够最大程度地服务政府，因为政府需要的是真实的研究成果，而不是让其巧加粉饰。--[[User:Xu Jing|Xu Jing]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing|talk]]) 08:32, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
然而，今天国内的科学和学术再次获得激励，在申请资金进行研究项目时，可以假装其研究成果具有意识形态的有用性。 然而，真正独立的科学和学术才能够最好地服务于政府，因为政府需要真正的和真实的研究结果，而不是徒有其表的。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 01:54, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
<br />
Freedom is always the freedom within the limits not to restrict the freedom of others. But this historical event posed a new question: When is it time to kill a massmurderer? If communism threatens to enslave a whole population with millions of death victims – how far is it justified to intervene or not to intervene? But when it is not just a mass murderer, but a whole group of people mislead by a leader, a whole administration of a country, how can you clearly differentiate between good and evil? Reality often consists out of different levels of grey.<br />
<br />
自由永远是限制的自由，而不是限制他人的自由。但这一历史事件提出了一个新问题：什么时候杀死一名群众？ 如果共产主义威胁到全世界数百万死亡受害者的奴役 - 干预或不干预到底有多大理由？ 但是，当它不仅仅是一个大规模杀人犯，而且还是一群人误导领导者，一个国家的整个政府时，你怎么能清楚地区分善恶呢？ 现实通常由不同级别的灰色组成。<br />
<br />
自由永远是在不限制他人自由的范围内的自由。但是这一历史性事件向我们提出了一个新的问题：什么时候应该杀死一个杀人凶手？如果共产主义威胁要奴役数以百万计的死亡受害者，那么进行干预或不进行干预的合理性有多大差别？但是，当它不仅是一个大规模杀人犯，而且是一群人被一个领导人，一个国家的整个政府误导时，该如何清楚地区分善与恶？现实通常是由不同层次的灰色组成的。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 13:28, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
<br />
湖南师范大学洪堡跨学科研究中心<br />
<br />
Humboldt Center for Transdisciplinary Studies at Hunan Normal University<br />
<br />
揭牌仪式<br />
<br />
Launch Ceremony<br />
<br />
2020年9月14日<br />
<br />
September 14, 2020<br />
<br />
I congratulate the Humboldt Center for Transdisciplinary Studies 洪堡跨学科研究中心 for its opening at Hunan Normal University and especially my German colleague and Humboldt expert Professor Ottmar Ette奥特玛·埃特教授 for his dedication to realize the Center. Ette is one of the leading experts about Humboldt, in 2014-2017 he was responsible for the part “Genealogy, Chronology, Epistemology” of the BMBF research project about Humboldt in the United States.<br />
<br />
祝贺湖南师范大学洪堡跨学科研究中心成立，尤其感谢我的德国同事、洪堡专家奥特玛·埃特教授为中心的建成所做的贡献。埃特教授是研究洪堡的主要专家之一，2014-2017年，他负责美国BMBF关于洪堡研究项目中“系谱、年代学、认识论”的部分。--[[User:Blank|Blank]] ([[User talk:Blank|talk]]) 03:56, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
<br />
The Center has the best starting conditions: It is backed by the University Potsdam and the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities 柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院, which spon-sors a 18 year long research project until 2033 “Science on the Move” about Humboldt, lead by Prof. Ette.<br />
<br />
该中心拥有最佳的启动条件：它由波茨坦大学和柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院共同支持的，该基金会资助了一项由埃特（Ette）教授领导，历时18年，一直进行到2033年，即关于洪堡“移动中的科学”的研究。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 13:54, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
该中心具有最佳的启动条件：它由波茨坦大学和柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院提供支持，该基金会赞助了直到2033年一项长达18年的研究项目，即“洪堡运动科学”，由埃特教授领导。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 14:08, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
该中心具备最佳的启动条件：它由波茨坦大学和柏林-勃兰登堡科学与人文学院共同支持。直到2033年，该基金会一直赞助这一历时18年的研究项目，即埃特教授领导的“洪堡运动科学”研究。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 00:48, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
<br />
The Center could not have found a better Chinese partner: This new Center is opened at a Hum-boldian University, with a long tradition in transdisciplinary research and teaching, with chancel-lor Professor Jiang Hongxin 湖南师范大学党委书记蒋洪新教授, who is not only an internation-ally renowned scholar in English literature, but also the driving factor behind the internationaliza-tion and opening up of Hunan Normal University.<br />
<br />
洪堡跨学科交流中心找到了最佳的中国合作伙伴——湖南师范大学。该中心设立在洪堡大学，洪堡大学在跨学科研究和教学领域有着悠久的历史。湖南师范大学党委书记蒋洪新教授不仅是国际知名的英语文学学者，也是湖南师范大学国际化、对外开放的带头人。--[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 06:29, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
<br />
The success of Hunan Normal University is displayed in the rising position in the university rank-ings, in the number of study programs ranking top nationwide, in the growing community of in-ternational experts working at Hunan Normal University, in international cooperations, joint school projects etc. Also the staff working at the Center are ideally chosen, Ren Haiyan 中心副主任任海燕博士, who is familiar with English literature of the 18th century, Fan Ni, who is currently building up the German Department as well as Li Yaqin.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
<br />
Changsha is both the place of one of the earliest universities in China, founded in 976 CE, the Yuelu Academy 岳麓书院, and together with its attached High School, Hunan Normal University and its Foreign Studies College founded by Qian Zhongshu is famous for its history of educating leaders with a thinking outside of the box. Similarly, Humboldt has said: “How a person masters his fate is more important than what his fate is.” This is just what Humboldt fought for. Humboldt is famous not just in Germany and Europe, but also in the United States, Russia, Asia and world-wide. He shaped our understanding of universities, research, teaching and education. Today, it is safe to say that the German universities are Humboldian universities, also European ones, Ameri-can ones and certainly also Hunan Normal University.<br />
<br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
<br />
When Humboldt traveled Central Asia and wrote about China, he certainly never would have dreamed of the realization of such a Center to his honor in Changsha. However, he would have been overwhelmed and would see his dreams realized here. With this Research Center it is now possible to explore the relation of Humboldt and China in great detail. Moreover, the relation between China and Europe can be explored here from a transdisciplinary perspective. Coopera-tion is key. With Humboldt’s words: “Collaboration operates through a process in which the suc-cessful intellectual achievements of one person arouse the intellectual passions and enthusiasms of others.”<br />
<br />
当洪堡游历中亚，写到中国时，肯定做梦也想不到长沙会是实现他梦想中荣耀的地方。但那样的话，他虽会看到自己实现梦想，也会不堪重负。现在有了这一研究中心，我们可以更详细地探讨洪堡与中国的关系。而且，可以从跨学科的角度来探讨中欧的关系。其关键是合作。正如洪堡所说:“合作是是通过一个人的智慧成就激发其他人的智力激情和热情来实现的”<br />
<br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
<br />
As Jean Monnet Chair of Hunan Normal University 欧盟“让•莫内讲席教授” and as the direc-tor of the International Chinese Studies Center at Foreign Studies Center I reach out with both hands to the new Center and offer to bring in European and Chinese networks, to start immediate and concrete joint research. <br />
<br />
I close with a final quote from Humboldt: “The most dangerous worldview is the worldview of those who have not viewed the world.” Therefore, the Center now allows scholars from other places in the world to see China and offers Chinese colleagues a bridge to Europe and interna-tional scholarship.<br />
<br />
And I wish the Humboldt Center for Transdisciplinary Studies great success!<br />
<br />
作为湖南师范大学欧盟“让•莫内讲席教授”以及外国研究中心国际汉语研究中心主任的让·莫内主席，我两手准备着新的中心，并提议向欧洲和中国引进网络，以开始目前的具体的联合研究。<br />
<br />
最后，我引述洪堡的最后一句话：“最危险的世界观是那些没有看过世界的人的世界观。” 因此，该中心欢迎来自世界各地的学者参观中国，并为中国同事搭建通往欧洲和国际奖金的桥梁。<br />
<br />
祝洪堡跨学科研究中心取得圆满成功！--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 07:35, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
<br />
MARTIN WOESLER<br />
<br />
'''THE CHINESE PRODUCTION CULTURE<br />
<br />
Genuity, changes and compatibility with modern international production culture'''<br />
<br />
'''中国制造哲学'''<br />
<br />
原始传统、变化和对现代国际制造文化的兼容<br />
<br />
吴漠汀著<br />
<br />
歐洲大學出版社2011年<br />
European University Press 2011<br />
<br />
Content<br />
<br />
Modern Chinese Production Culture<br />
<br />
Does this global factory provide a model for an international production culture?<br />
<br />
Cultural approach<br />
<br />
National Cultures<br />
<br />
Approaches/Perspectives <br />
<br />
The Japanese Production Culture<br />
<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
<br />
China - Factory of the world<br />
<br />
中国——世界工厂<br />
<br />
Genuity of Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
Made in China<br />
<br />
中国制造<br />
<br />
Characteristics of Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的特征<br />
<br />
Shapes of modern Chinese production culture and their causes<br />
<br />
现代商品文化的形成及其原因<br />
<br />
Necessity is the mother of invention<br />
<br />
创造始于需要<br />
<br />
Changes in the Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的发展<br />
<br />
Roles in the Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的作用<br />
<br />
The Intermezzo of Socialism from 1949-1979<br />
<br />
1949-1979年社会主义的插曲<br />
<br />
Gaming in the Chinese production culture<br />
<br />
中国商品文化的博弈<br />
<br />
Effects on the company<br />
<br />
对公司产生的影响<br />
<br />
Where is modern Chinese management and production culture (CMPC) an international role model?<br />
<br />
中国现代经营理念和商品文化是全球的标杆，这一点体现在哪里？<br />
<br />
Logistics<br />
<br />
物流<br />
<br />
Appendix: References <br />
<br />
附录：参考文献<br />
<br />
Appendix: Historical Timeline China<br />
<br />
附录：中国历史时间轴<br />
<br />
Index<br />
<br />
索引<br />
<br />
'''Modern Chinese Production Culture<br />
<br />
中国现代商品文化<br />
<br />
Does this global factory provide a model for an international production culture?<br />
<br />
中国作为全球工厂是否为国际商品文化树立标杆？--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 03:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
<br />
In the aftermath of the Second World War, the Japanese economy lacked the finances for new machinery and, in consequence, decision-makers concentrated on optimizing existing resources and processes. Soon lean production, just in time production and quality circles became export hits, even though Japanese production culture in many ways remained typically Japanese - for instance on issues such as hierarchy and loyalty on the part of employees. Today, the modernity of a factory is measured by the extent to which these characteristics of Japanese production culture are put into practice. After the Second World War, this approach developed into a model for an international production culture.<br />
By the beginning of the 21st century, the Chinese economy had surpassed that of Japan;<br />
<br />
二战后，日本财政无力支撑新型制造业的发展，决策者只能大力利用已有的资源和工艺技术。尽管日本的制造文化在许多方面仍然具有典型的日本特征，比如等级制度以及雇员的忠诚度等问题，但很快，精益生产以及品质圈成为出口热门。而今，日本制造文化应用于实践的程度是衡量工厂现代化程度的重要标准。二战后，这种方法成为一种典型的国际制造文化。<br />
到了21世纪初，中国经济超越了日本。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:21, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
<br />
today, China is a global factory. This subproject analyzes and defines the "Chinese production culture“ and focuses on the question of whether any of its modern characteristics can serve as a model for international production culture. Based on surveys by Hofstede (2009), case studies by Hong/Pöyhönen/Kyläheiku (2006) and on fundamental thinking of Philip Huang, the project takes as its premise that the development of Chinese production culture falls into different historical periods: from the genuinely Chinese production culture of silk, china and tea production over the slumbering industrial revolution, the import of Western manufacturing culture, the building of larger production units in the socialist a tradition, to today’s mixed production culture with Japanese and Western elements.<br />
<br />
如今，中国是一个“世界工厂”，本子项目对“中国生产文化”进行了分析和界定，并着重探讨了中国生产文化的现代特征是否可以作为国际生产文化的典范这一问题。该项目基于霍夫斯特德（2009年）、洪/佩赫宁/凯莱海库（2006年）的案例研究和黄菲浦的基本思想，以中国生产文化发展为前提，从不同的历史时期进行探讨：从沉睡的工业革命时期真正的中国丝绸、瓷器、茶叶生产文化，西方制造文化的进口，社会主义传统中大型生产单位的建设，到当今中日两国混合生产文化与日西元素的混合。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:02, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
<br />
But still today's production culture comes with some genuinely Chinese characteristics: the Confucian understanding of the relation boss - team leader – employee, hierarchy, the concept of face (and critique), the informal network management in the decision finding process, the esteem for the concept of age, nepotism, the play instinct (including imitation), flexibility and speed. This subproject explores which of these elements are exportable in principle and which ones can be profitably implemented within international production cultures.<br />
<br />
但今天的生产文化仍然具有一些真正的中国特色：儒家对老板-团队领导-员工关系的理解、等级、脸观（和批评）、决策查找过程中非正式的网络管理、对年龄概念的尊重、裙带关系、游戏本能（包括模仿）、灵活性和速度。此子项目探讨哪些元素原则上是可输出的，哪些元素可以在国际生产文化中有利可图地实现的。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 06:12, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
但如今的文化生产仍然具有一些真正的中国特色：儒家对“老板-团队领导-员工”关系的理解、等级、脸面观（和批评）、决议过程中非正式的网络管理、对年龄概念的尊重、裙带关系、好玩的天性（包括模仿）、灵活度和速度。此子项目探讨哪些元素原则上是可以输出的，哪些元素可以在国际文化生产中有利可图。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:22, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
<br />
'''Cultural approach'''<br />
文化方法<br />
<br />
As a cultural scientist, the author of this script applies the approach of Cultural Science to describe economical cultures or subcultures. One of the subcultures of economical culture is the way or culture of management and production.<br />
<br />
作为文化科学家，该脚本的作者运用文化科学的方法来描述经济文化或亚文化。 经济文化的亚文化之一是管理和生产的方式或文化。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
作为一名文化科学家，本文作者运用文化科学的方法来描述经济文化或亚文化。经济文化的亚文化之一是管理和生产的方式或文化。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:08, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
After a phase of several decades in which mathematics has found its way into economics, cultural studies has also been rediscovered by economics in recent years.Cultural studies can be a helpful supplement, for example, when predictions for economic behavior need to be made, for example in models. The economic sciences initially contribute Homo oeconomicus, the self-interest maximizer. In recent years, especially since 2000, many experiments have shown that humans often behave diametrically opposed to self-interest:<br />
<br />
经过几十年的数学进入经济学的阶段之后，近年来文化也被经济学重新发现了，例如当需要对经济行为进行预测时， 比如在一些模型中，文化研究可以作为有益的补充。经济科学起初是对自利最大化者经济人的贡献。 近年来，尤其是自2000年以来，许多实验表明，人类的行为常常与自我利益截然相反：--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 13:44, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
经过几十年的数学进入经济学的阶段后，近年来经济学也重新发现了文化研究。例如，当需要对经济行为进行预测时，比如在模型中，文化研究可以是一种有益的补充。经济科学最初贡献了“经济人”，即利己最大化者。近年来，特别是自2000年以来，许多实验表明，人类的行为往往与自身利益截然相反:--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 14:08, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
<br />
'''Case 1) The bag of oranges'''<br />
<br />
Initial situation: An orange seller sells bags of oranges to tourists. He has a few rotten oranges that he could put in the bags at the bottom. The tourists would not notice it when buying and would not go to this place again because of a few rotten oranges. <br />
<br />
Behavior: He does not do it, however, but throws the rotten oranges away.<br />
<br />
Cultural-scientific explanation: In the present case, the merchant is thus ethically-morally socially responsible out of a sense of justice.<br />
案例1)橘子袋<br />
最初的情况:一个卖橘子的人把成袋的橘子卖给游客。他有几个烂橘子，他可以把它们放进底部的袋子里。游客在购买时不会注意到它，也不会再去这个地方，因为有几个烂橘子。<br />
行为:但是他没有这样做，而是把烂橘子扔了。<br />
文化-科学的解释:在当时的情况下，商人出于正义感而负有伦理道德上的社会责任。<br />
<br />
==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
<br />
One can try to construct a self-interest with the help of neurobiology: Biology leaves him no choice - if he behaves justly, although he might behave unjustly, he is rewarded with dopamine and other happiness hormones. If he were to behave unfairly at all times, he would have a guilty conscience, coupled with the fear of being caught, and sooner or later he might get stomach ulcers. In the long run, acting justly secures his life statistically better, also with regard to the economic value of his own life. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
<br />
However, if you ask the orange seller, he will at best say that it would be unfair to cheat his customers. Of course, there will always be a small number of fraudulent orange sellers in such experiments who value short-term profit more highly than long-term physical damage, if they expect it at all. And they will perhaps adopt a world view to avoid a guilty conscience, such as that rich tourists should give some of their wealth to poor orange sellers. And there will be people who cannot distinguish right from wrong due to a corresponding anatomically detectable defect in the reward system. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
<br />
The following experiments are some of the classic and most frequently conducted and tested experiments to complement the maximization of self-interest:<br />
<br />
'''Case 2) Ultimatum game: share 10 Euros'''<br />
<br />
Initial situation: A student in Bonn is offered 10 €. The only condition: He has to give any partial amount to his fellow student. His fellow student has the right either to accept the amount allocated to him or to refuse to accept the whole 10 € for him and his fellow student. <br />
<br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
<br />
Prediction according to the self-interest maximization: The first student will keep 9,99 € and give 0,01 € to the fellow student. The fellow student would have to accept the 0.01 €, as this is more than 0.00 €.<br />
<br />
Conduct: In fact, about 90% of the students in similarly conducted experiments worldwide give 5 € to their fellow student. In the few cases in which the students want to give 2 € to their fellow student and keep 8 €, the fellow student refuses the 10 € completely, and so both go away empty-handed.<br />
根据自身利益最大化的预测:第一个学生将保留9,99欧元，并给予同伴0,01欧元。这个同学将不得不接受这0.01欧元，因为这超过了0.00欧元。<br />
行为:事实上，在全球范围内进行的类似实验中，大约90%的学生会给他们的同学5欧元。在少数情况下，学生想给他们的同学2欧元，留下8欧元，那个同学完全拒绝了这10欧元，所以两人都空手而去。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 12:35, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
<br />
The maximization of self-interest cannot explain the behavior in both situations. Here, cultural studies provide an explanation that is supported by neurobiologists. <br />
<br />
Cultural studies explanation: <br />
<br />
For the fellow student, relative justice is more important than his own absolute gain. If the student takes more for no reason, there are various reasons not to allow this, e.g. educational. Furthermore, this is a decision under observation and the reward system rewards behavior in the sense of justice all the more, if justice has to be bought even with one's own loss.<br />
<br />
个人利益最大化无法解释这两种情况下的行为。在这里，文化研究提供了一个解释，这个解释为神经生物学家所认可。<br />
<br />
这个解释如下:<br />
<br />
对于获得奖学金的研究生来说，相对的公正比自己的绝对利益更重要。有很多理由反对学生无故得到超过自己应得的利益，比如教育方面的原因。此外，这种决定处于监察之下。如果个人利益的损失能换来公正，奖励系统更会奖励正义感的行为。--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 03:30, 22 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
<br />
Neurobiologists also explain that men consider a constellation such as this experiment like a zero-sum game and feel a sense of competition, i.e. they see the greater gain of the other as a loss for themselves.<br />
<br />
By the way, the environment also influences the degree of self-maximization against a sense of justice: <br />
<br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
<br />
'''Case 3) Bank bill in letter'''<br />
<br />
If one lets a 5 Euro bill shine through the window of an envelope that is half hanging out of the mailbox, 4 out of 10 unobserved passers-by will grab it. If you paint a graffiti on the wall next to the mailbox and put some garbage next to the mailbox, 8 out of 10 unobserved passers-by will access it.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
<br />
Case 4) Primates<br />
<br />
Behavioral researchers have successfully demonstrated homo economicus in primates: There chimpanzees help each other to get shared food. If the first chimpanzee has the opportunity to give both of them the same amount or more food, it will give as much food as possible.<br />
<br />
案例4）灵长类动物<br />
<br />
行为研究人员已经成功地证明了灵长类动物在经济观：黑猩猩之间互相帮助，获取共同的食物。 如果第一个黑猩猩有机会给他们两个人相同或更多的食物，它将给予尽可能多的食物。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 07:41, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
案例4)灵长类动物<br />
<br />
行为研究人员已经成功地证明了灵长类动物中的“经济人”:黑猩猩会帮助彼此以获得共同的食物。如果第一只黑猩猩有机会给它们两只本身相同数量或更多的食物，它就会尽可能给予更多的食物。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 11:17, 21 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
<br />
Of course, the assumption of self-interest is a reasonable approach to explain phenomena in economic life, since companies are primates in many things, but in marketing they want to appear inwardly and outwardly as human, with social responsibility and a sense of justice. The Chinese Management and Production Culture (CMPC) has a clear distribution of power in the hierarchy, which corresponds to the maximization of self-interest, but the boss has a stronger responsibility towards his employees, which also includes private areas, so that there is an above-average social component.<br />
<br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
<br />
References<br />
<br />
Häring, Norbert: „''Der Homo oeconomicus ist tot''“, in: Financial Times Deutschland (14.3.2001) http://ockenfels.uni-koeln.de/download/press/ftd-14032001. pdf<br />
<br />
Schlicht, Ekkehart: „''Der homo oeconomicus unter experimentellem Beschuß''“, in: Martin Held, Gisela Kubon-Gilke & Richard Sturn (Hrsg.): ''Experimente in der Ökonomik. Jahrbuch normative und institutionelle Grund-fra¬gen der Ökonomik 2.'' Metropolis-Verlag, Marburg 2003, ISBN 3-89518-414-4, http://www.semverteilung.vwl.uni-muenchen.de/mitarbeiter/es/paper/schlicht-homo-oeconomicus.pdf<br />
<br />
<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
<br />
'''National Cultures''' <br />
<br />
Cultural differences decrease as the world becomes globalized. National characteristics become blurred, companies have to operate in different locations worldwide and sell their products in different markets.<br />
<br />
Nevertheless, there are historically grown traditions that come from a time when there was often already intensive global trade, but less intensive cooperation and less exchange of information.<br />
<br />
'''民族文化'''<br />
<br />
随着世界全球化，文化差异减少。民族特征变得模糊起来，企业不得不在全球各地运营和在不同市场上销售产品。尽管如此，仍有传统沿着历史发展至今，那时全球贸易虽然已经十分密集，但密切合作更少，信息交流也更少。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 08:51, 20 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
随着世界日益全球化，文化差异减少。民族特征也变得模糊起来，企业需在全球各地运营并将其产品销往各国市场。尽管如此，仍有传统沿着历史发展保留至今，那时全球贸易虽已十分频繁，但密切的合作以及信息的交流远不如今。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 11:38, 20 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
全球化程度愈深，文化差异愈少。民族特色模糊起来，企业需要在世界范围内运营，其生产的产品也将销往世界各地。但是，仍有传统沿袭历史发展至今，那时国际贸易已十分频繁，但合作及信息交流远不及今。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 13:13, 20 November 2020 (UTC)</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201116_trans&diff=10456120201116 trans2020-11-16T01:05:55Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Chang Huiyue 常慧月 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''WOESLER, Martin'''<br />
<br />
'''Prof. Dr. Martin Woesler (University Rome III/Witten University)'''<br />
<br />
'''The Waves of the Stone –''' <br />
<br />
'''Early Reception Between Instrumentalization and Exoticization'''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
The fame of the ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' spread quickly not across Asia, but also to Europe and the USA. This paper introduces the roles and motifs of different actors in the early distribution, like merchants, Western embassies, Chinese teachers of Western missionaries, missionaries themselves, translators, early Sinologists as well as literary critics. I introduce judgements on the novel before it was available in translation.<br />
<br />
马丁·沃斯勒<br />
<br />
'''教授 Martin Woesler博士（罗马第三大学/维滕大学）'''<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
一“石”激起千层浪—西方早期以工具化和边缘化为核心的中国文学接受<br />
<br />
“红楼梦”不仅风靡亚洲，而且还名扬欧美。 本文介绍了早期版本中不同人物的角色和主题，例如商人，西方使馆，西方传教士的中文老师，传教士本身，译者，早期汉学家和文学评论家。 在介绍这本小说的翻译版本之前，我先介绍一下它的判断。--[[User:Cao Runxin|Cao Runxin]] ([[User talk:Cao Runxin|talk]]) 13:05, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
<br />
As motifs I identify exoticization (joy of otherness of fashion and dressing, customs), universalization (world literature), the instrumentalization of the novel as evidence for own hypotheses on literature (Davis’ poetry), the instrumentalization for language learning etc. I show a change of motifs over time from exoticization and instrumentalization for proving inferiority to Western novels to accepting the novel as part of world literature and a masterpiece of Chinese culture with a special value in documenting Chinese society. Of special interest are misunderstandings (Gützlaff) and deviations from the original (Kuhn, Minford).<br />
<br />
对于主题，我确定了异国情调（时尚和穿着习惯别样风情的乐趣）、普遍化（世界文学）、小说的工具化（作为文学假设的证据）（戴维斯的诗歌）、语言学习的工具化等。我呈现了主题随时间而产生的变化，从使用异国情调和工具化证明了西方小说的劣势，到接纳小说为世界文学和中国文化的杰作，对记录中国社会具有特殊价值。特别令人感兴趣的是误解（古茨拉夫）和与原著的偏离（库恩，明福德）。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 10:12, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
对于主题，我确定了异国情调（享受时尚，穿着以及风俗的别样风情），普遍化（世界文学），证明文学假说的小说工具化（戴维斯的诗歌），语言学习的工具化等。从异国情调和工具化证明了西方小说的劣势，到接纳小说作为世界文学的一部分以及中国文化的一大杰作，对记录中国社会具有特殊价值，展示了主题随时间而产生的变化。尤其对于误解（古茨拉夫）和原著的替代（库恩，明福德）特别感兴趣。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 01:05, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber, Western translation, Western dissemination, Western reception, instrumentalization, exotization, deviation<br />
<br />
'''First (unproven) experiences of young Cao Xueqin with foreign literature'''<br />
<br />
In 1947 the graduate student Huang Long from then Jinling University quoted the following passage from the book Dragon's Imperial Kingdom, which he claimed to have borrowed from the Central Library (today’s Nanking Library), in which William Winston ‘remembers’ an encounter of his grandfather Philip Winston with Cao Xueqin:<br />
<br />
'''关键词'''<br />
<br />
《红楼梦》；西方翻译；西方传播；西方接受；工具化；异国化；偏差<br />
<br />
'''青年曹雪芹外国文学初探（未证实）'''<br />
<br />
1947年，金陵大学的研究生黄龙在国立中央图书馆（今南京图书馆）借阅了《龙之帝国》一书，并引用了该书中的一段资料，此书写道威廉·温斯顿“记得”祖父菲利普·温斯顿曾与曹雪芹会面：--[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 12:22, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
<br />
"The imperial kingdom was symbolized by a five-clawed golden dragon, a legendary reptile nonexistent since Creation. Of her indigenous produces shantung commanded the broadest popularity. This rendered her to merit the credit ‚Land of Silk’ in the Orient. There has been cherished as our precious heirloom a piece of home-spun fabric with an ornamental pattern of "dragon and phoenix" manufactured at Kiangning Textile Mill. It survived fires and swords. During my grandfather Philip's sojourn in China for trade in textiles, he contracted an acquaintance with Mr. Tsao Fu, the then Superintendent of Kiangning Textile Mill, and at the latter's request served as an initiator of textile technology.<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
<br />
The host was hospitality incarnate and oftentimes indited extempore verses in token of rapport. As a reply, my grandfather delivered Biblical sermons and gave a graphic narration of Shakespeare's dramas. For audience he had merely those other than the juvenile and feminine. On the score of eavesdropping, Tsao’s pampered son suffered a lashing and castigation".[ Philip Winston: Dragon's Imperial Kingdom, Douglas 1874, p. 53. Quoted from: 吴新雷, 黄进德《曹雪芹江南家世考》，福建人民出版社, 1983, 304 pp., here pp. 103-104. See also:馬幼垣（Yau-Woon Ma）《實事與構想: 中國小說史論釋》，聯經出版事業股份有限公司, 2007年，384页。See also: 周汝昌《曹雪芹新传》外文出版社(1992)²1997, 353pp., here p. 101.]<br />
主人是热情好客的化身，并且经常当场创作诗歌以示融洽。作为回应，我的祖父也会分享圣经讲道，并对莎士比亚戏剧作了图形叙述。他的观众往往只有青少年和女性。曹雪芹那骄纵的儿子由于偷听，遭到了曹先生的鞭打和斥责。[菲利普·温斯顿：《龙的帝国》，道格拉斯 1874,53页。引自Wu Xinlei, HuangJinde "Cao Xueqin Jiangnan Family History", Fujian People's publishing House,1983,304页,103-104页。 还引自：Yau-Woon Ma ""Facts and Ideas: Historical Commentary on Chinese Fiction", Lianjing Publishing Co.,LTD,2007, P384. 还引自：Zhou Ruchang "A New Biography of Cao Xueqin" Foreign language Press(1992)²1997, 353页。101页。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
<br />
If this encounter has been made up, it shows how much effort Redology invested to come to new findings, if not, it may explain some of the special characteristics of the novel never seen in Chinese literature before.<br />
<br />
'''Status of the book before its publication'''<br />
<br />
Between 1754 and 1771 we have one new manuscript version per year in average and almost each manuscript carries new comments mostly from 脂砚斋 or from 畸笏叟. The author died on Feb 1, 1764, which did not end the commenting on the manuscripts.<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The book was not officially published, but that did not prevented it from dissemination, as manuscript fragments were handed around since the 1750s and the novel was known to many scholars before its publication in 1791.<br />
<br />
The preface to the 2nd edition in 1792 also points to the fact, that there had been a “long” tradition of scholarly research of the book and comments. These comments had not been taken over for the 1st and 2nd edition.<br />
<br />
这本书并没有正式出版，但这却并未影响其传播，因为自18世纪50年代以来部分手稿已经流传开来，且这本小说在1791年出版前就已经为许多学者所熟知。<br />
1792年第二版的序言中也指出，该书和评论的学术研究历史悠久。这些评论还未被第一版和第二版所采用。--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 06:34, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
该书没有被正式出版，但这并不影响它广泛流传开来，因为自1750年起该书的部分手稿就已经为人们津津乐道，并且小说在1791年出版之前就已经为众多学者熟知。<br />
1792年第二版的前言部分也指出了这一事实，学者对于该书的研究和评价早已经历了很长一段时间。这些评价还未被第一版以及第二版所采用。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 07:22, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
这本书没有正式出版，但这并不影响其传播，因为部分手稿自18世纪50年代就已经流传开来，并且这部小说早在1791年出版之前就已经为许多学者所熟知。<br />
1792年第二版的序也指出，对该书及其评论的学术研究有着悠久的传统。这些评论在第一版和第二版中还未被采纳。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 10:13, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
'''From inofficial manuscript versions to the printed book'''<br />
<br />
One of the reasons why the book was not printed was that it was (wrongly) considered either sexually explicite literature (淫书) or against Confucianism, which could only passed on in manuscript versions. <br />
<br />
Gao E claims in his preface of 1791, that he had heared before 1771 from this novel and that he checked whether it was against Confucianism, but could not find anything like this in it, so that it could be published.<br />
<br />
<br />
“从非官方手抄本到印刷版”<br />
这本书未被印刷出版，原因之一是人们要么误认为它是淫书要么误认为它反对儒家思想,所以它只能以手抄本的形式通行。<br />
高鹗在其1791年所做的序中说，他在1771年之前就已经听说过这部小说了，并且对这部小说是否反对儒家思想进行了审查，但没有发现诸如此类的东西，所以《红楼梦》就出版了。--[[User:Chen Sha|Chen Sha]] ([[User talk:Chen Sha|talk]]) 10:16, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
从非官方手抄本到印刷版<br />
<br />
本书未能出版的原因之一是当时的人将其误认为是淫书或反孔书籍，因此只能以手抄本的形式流传。高鹗1791年在书的序言部分写道自己1771年前就对这部小说略有耳闻，还检查了书中是否有反孔言论，结果却没发现此类言论。因此，本书得以出版。--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 10:51, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
<br />
“One of the best works of fiction in Chinese literature was supposed to have been written by a member of this sect, and was suppressed by the Emperor because of offensive references to the reigning family contained in it. It was called the ‘Hung Lou Meng,’ or ‘Dream of the Red Chamber,’ and it resembles a large number of fairy tales threaded together rather than a modern novel. By an ingenious substitution of false characters, words, occasionally throughout certain portions of the work—something like incorrect spelling —the imperial interdict was evaded, and it has continued in print and popularity down to the present day. Foreign students of Chinese commonly read a portion of it, the smooth and excellent style making it an invaluable text-book.”[ See: He Tianyue 何天爵: ''The real Chinese question'' (真正的中国问题), New York: Dodd，Mead & Co. 1900, 386 pp., here p. 109.]<br />
<br />
“中国文学界有这样一部优秀小说，这部小说应出自此派作家之手，却因书中一些针对统治者的冒犯言辞遭到了皇帝的反对和打压。这部书就是《红楼梦》（Hung Lou Meng/Dream of the Red Chamber)此书更像是由大量神话故事拼凑而成，而非一部现代小说。通过巧妙替换书中的虚拟人物、错别字以及有时通篇出现的拼写错误，此书躲过了皇家控诉，得以继续出版，其知名度绵延至今。学习汉语的外国学生常阅读书中的一小段，其流畅的行文和绝佳的风格使其成为了一部颇具价值的教科书。”[见：何天爵：真正的中国问题,纽约:Dodd,Mead & Co.1900, 386pp.,here p. 109]--[[User:Chen Sunfu|Chen Sunfu]] ([[User talk:Chen Sunfu|talk]]) 09:35, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
<br />
'''Preparations of the 1st book edition'''<br />
<br />
Gao E worked with Cheng Weiyuan, who ran the publishing house Suzhou Cuiwen Press (苏州萃文书屋). <br />
<br />
According to the preface to the 1791 edition by Cheng Weiyuan, different 80 chapter manuscript versions were already circulating, some were sold for a high price at the Temple Market, others were copied by readers. Since the 80 chapter manuscript versions already contained content lists with 120 chapter headlines, he searched for and found (as he pretended) the 120 chapters.<br />
<br />
程甲本的准备工作<br />
<br />
高鹗与苏州萃文书屋的程伟元合作<br />
<br />
根据程伟元1791年版的序言所知，早有80多种不同版本的手稿流传在世，有些在庙会高价出售，有些则被读者抄袭相传。 由于80章回手稿版本包含有120章回标题的内容，因此他搜寻到了（假称）120个章回的版本。<br />
--[[User:Chen Yongxiang|Chen Yongxiang]] ([[User talk:Chen Yongxiang|talk]]) 13:30, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
<br />
In the preface to the first printed edition he already refers to an existing number of readers, who share the love of the book with him. Also his description that some readers took over the effort to copy the book by handwriting shows that an early fan culture existed even before the printed version appeared.<br />
<br />
Also, Cheng Weiyuan keeps the question of the authorship open, but points directly to Cao Xueqin, who claimed to have worked 10 years on the novel and rewritten it five times. The rewriting may refer to the production of new manuscript versions reflecting the ideas of the commentators.<br />
<br />
<br />
在首印本的序言中，程伟元已经提到了现存的读者群，他们与之分享了对此书的喜爱之情。 此外，程伟元还描述到读者竭尽所能手抄《红楼梦》的现象，这表明在印刷本发行之前就有了粉丝文化的存在。<br />
<br />
另外，程伟元公开表明了对此书作者身份的质疑，不过，他也直接指明了曹雪芹，其称在这本小说上耗费十载光阴，反复写作五次。复写本可能指的是新版手抄本的发行，书中反映了评论者的观点。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 15:57, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
<br />
'''1st Book edition 1791:''' 程甲本 Cheng A edition<br />
<br />
According to the preface to the 2nd edition 1792, these early fans were called collectors and the 1st edition was produced with movable characters, which was faster than the woodblock print. The book contained 99 illustrations and more than 100 copies were printed. The first edition might have been printed in Peking at the end of 1791, the 2nd in early 1792 in Suzhou, leaving 72 days between the two editions, which may show that the Peking edition was sold out immediately. The 1791 edition was also soon translated into Mongolian: 蒙古王府本 Menggu ben.<br />
<br />
'''1791年第一版:''' 程甲本 <br />
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根据1792年第二版的序言，这些早期的粉丝被称为收藏家。第一版采用可移动的字符制作，这比木刻版画要快。 该书包含99幅插图，被印刷了一百多本。 第一版可能于1791年底在北京印刷，第二版于1792年初在苏州印刷。两版之间相隔72天，这或许表明北京印刷版立即被抢购一空。 1791年版也很快被译成蒙古文：蒙古王府本。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:18, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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'''1791年第一版:''' 程甲本 <br />
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根据1792年第二版的序言，这些早期的粉丝被称为收藏家。第一版采用活字印刷制作，这比木刻印刷要快。 该书包含99幅插图，印刷了一百多本。 第一版可能于1791年底在北京印刷，第二版于1792年初在苏州印刷。两版之间相隔72天，这或许表明北京的这一版一经印刷立即被抢购一空。 1791年版也很快被译成蒙古文：蒙古王府本。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:32, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
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'''2nd Book edition in 1792:''' 程乙本 Cheng B edition<br />
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A second edition, with ‘corrections’ some consider mistakes today, was published in 1792 in Suzhou and sold well too. The 2nd edition claims to have removed many mistakes of the 1st edition.[ For an overview of the comparison of the two editions please refer to: 《《红楼梦》程乙本版本研究综述》，王丽敏，河南教育学院学报 (哲学社会科学版) Vol．33.] One of the differences is that the 程乙本 Cheng B edition changed expressions in ancient wenyan to more contemporary ones, like “索” was turned into “要”, “趁” into “赶”, “题” into “写”, “端” into “头”, “闻得” into “听见”, “记挂” into “惦记”, “殊不知” into “那里知道” etc., but not in every case. Altogether they changed roughly 20,000 characters.<br />
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1792年第二版：程乙本<br />
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第二版于1792年在苏州出版，也取得了很好的销量。在第二版当中，做出了一些修正，尽管这些修正在如今被认为是错误的。第二版声称修正了第一版中的诸多错误。[关于两个版本比较的概述，请参阅：《《红楼梦》程乙本版本研究综述》，王丽敏，河南教育学院学报 (哲学社会科学版) Vol．33.]不同点之一是程乙本将一些古文言文表达转化为了更为现代的表达，比如将“索”改成了“要”，“趁”改成了“赶”，“题”改成了“写”，“端”改成了“头”，“闻得”改成了“听见”，“记挂”改成了“惦记”，“殊不知”改成了“那里知道”等,但它并没有对所有的表达进行修改。修改字数总计约达20000。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:40, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1792年第二版：程乙本<br />
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第二版于1792年在苏州出版，也取得了很好的销量。在第二版中，做了一些修正，尽管这些修正在今天看来有些错误。第二版修正了第一版中的诸多错误。[关于两个版本比较的概述，请参阅：《《红楼梦》程乙版研究综述》，王丽敏，河南教育学院学报 (哲学社会科学版) Vol．33].其中一点不同是程乙本将一些文言文表达转换成了更加现代的形式，如将“索”改成了“要”，“趁”改成了“赶”，“题”改成了“写”，“端”改成了“头”，“闻得”改成了“听见”，“记挂”改成了“惦记”，“殊不知”改成了“那里知道”等。但并不是所有的文言文均被修改，修改字数共计20000字左右。--[[User:Cheng Yusi|Cheng Yusi]] ([[User talk:Cheng Yusi|talk]]) 15:19, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
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There is also a change of the list of confiscated goods. What might have been the reason in this particular case to change the list of confiscated goods for the Cheng B edition? The list in the Jiaben is a documentation of richness and therefore lets the confiscation seem to be justified because of unjustified enrichment. In the Yiben, the list starts with mostly religious items like, Buddha statues, this lets the confiscation appear unjustified and shifts the sympathies of the reader towards the family. In the late 18th century, there was a turn towards Buddhism.<br />
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没收货物的清单也有所变化。 在这种特殊情况下，在程乙本版本中改变没收货物清单的原因可能是什么呢？ 甲本中的清单是丰富性的文件，因此让没收由于不合理的丰富性看起来是合理的。 在乙本中，清单的开头主要是像佛像这样的宗教物品，这使没收显得不合理，并使读者的同情心转向了家庭。 在18世纪末，人们转向了佛教。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:30, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
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Many umlegitimized copies appeared. The book was delivered to Korea and shipped to Japan, where it was read in its original language.<br />
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The novel created a wave of interest in China comparable to the one of ''The Sorrows of the Young Werther'' in Europe since 1774. The first edition, printed in 1791 in Peking in a small number of copies (estimates range between 4 and 400) was soon sold out.<br />
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很多非法盗版书出现，盗版书籍运到韩国后，又转海运到日本，在那里，人们阅读的却又是原文。<br />
小说在中国引起了一波兴趣浪潮，堪比欧洲1774年以来的《少年维特的烦恼》浪潮。1791年，北京 印刷了第一版，数量很少（大约4-400本），很快就一售而空。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:25, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
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Some scholars assume a suicide wave among readers who identified with Lin Daiyu. Many readers discussed whether they identified more with Lin Daiyu or with Xue Baochai, a discussion that lasts until today.<br />
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一些学者认为，在那些认同林黛玉的读者中可能会引发自杀风波。很多读者都在更加认同林黛玉还是薛宝钗这一问题上进行过讨论，且这个讨论一直持续到了今天。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 13:52, 14 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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一些学者则认为，这可能会在那些认同林黛玉的读者中引发一场自杀浪潮。许多读者曾探讨过“更认同林黛玉还是薛宝钗的身份”这一问题，直至今天关于这个问题的讨论仍未停止。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 14:02, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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一些学者猜想，与林黛玉有感同身受的读者中可能会有自杀风波。也有许多学者会讨论此种现象是存在于林黛云更多还是薛宝钗更多，且该讨论一直持续到了现在。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 10:14, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
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'''Spreading to Japan and Korea'''<br />
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Captain王开泰 Wang Kaitai delivered 18 copies of a 9-volume edition of the Dream on December 9, 1793 to Japan, as we can prove in a store list of a Nanking ship arriving in长崎港Nagasaki (which started on November 3 in 乍浦 Zhapu): „红楼梦 九部十八套“.[ From 发货账本, quoted from: 《红楼梦 》在日本.] We know of an early mentioning of the Dream by the Korean author ''Lee'', ''Kyu-Kyung''李圭景 ( 1788- ? 李圭景(이규경)) in the 1830s.[ From 《五洲衍文长笺散稿》卷七《小说 辩证说》, quoted from: 《红楼梦》在韩国的流传和翻译.]<br />
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There were early (partial) translations of the novel into Manchurian.<br />
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传播到日本和韩国<br />
1793年12月9日，王开泰船长向日本交付了18册9卷本的《红楼梦》，我们可以在一艘抵达长崎港（11月3日从乍浦出发）的南京船只上的一份发行账本中证明这一点：“红楼梦九部十八套”。[摘自发行账本，引自《红楼梦》在日本。] 我们了解到，19世纪30年代，韩国作家李圭景（Lee Kyu-Kyung，1788-？）最早提起过《红楼梦》。 [摘自《五洲衍文长笺散稿》卷七《小说辩证说》，引自：《红楼梦》在韩国的流传和翻译。] 这本书有部分翻译成了满语。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 15:03, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
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'''Early Western notions of the book'''<br />
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The novel also caught the attention of Europeans living in China, like the missionaries, who started to translate parts of it into Western languages, as well as the British embassies to China, who collected also Chinese literature, brought it back to Europe or engaged in translation or dissemination.<br />
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这部小说也引起了生活在中国的欧洲人的注意，比如传教士，他们开始将小说的部分内容翻译成西文，还有英国驻华使馆，他们也收集了中国的文学作品，带回欧洲或从事翻译、传播。<br />
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西方早期对这本书的看法:<br />
这部小说也引起了生活在中国的欧洲人的注意，比如传教士开始把它的一部分翻译成西方语言，还有英国驻华大使馆，他们也收集中国文学，把它带回欧洲或从事翻译或传播。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 04:31, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
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The book seems to have run out of stock often and needed to be purchased from other cities, whereever it was available, like in about 1812 in Canton: Robert Morrison, a missionary who worked in Macao, may have been pointed by his Chinese tutor to the novel. In 1816 he published a dialogue between a student (maybe himself) and his Chinese tutor pointing to the time before December 1812, when he translated parts of the novel and therefore had a copy:<br />
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这本书似乎经常缺货，需要从其他城市购买。一旦什么地方有货，比如在1812年左右的广州，在澳门工作的传教士罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）就受他导师指示去购买这本小说。1816年，他公布了一位学生（也许就是他本人）与中国家庭教师之间的对话，指出他在1812年之前对该小说部分情节进行了翻译，因此有了以下内容：--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 13:56, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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这本书似乎经常缺货，需要从其他有货的城市购买。比如在1812年左右的广州，在澳门工作的传教士罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison）受他的中国导师指示，购买了这本小说。1816年，罗伯特公布了一位学生（也许就是他本人）与其中国导师之间的对话，对话发生在1812年12月之前，当时他正翻译这本小说的部分内容，因此有小说副本：--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:31, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
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Student: “What is the best book for students to read?” – [...suggestion of ''Daxue''.] Tutor: [...] to read the Hung-low-mung will do very well. – Student: I have not seen the Hung-low-mung, have you seen it? – Tutor: I have not brought it with me, but if you wish to see it, I will write to Canton, and present it to you. Student: “Very good. I will trouble you to write for it.” – Tutor: “I will do so.” – Student: “How many volumes are there in the Hung-low-mung?” – Tutor: “Twenty volumes in all. In this book, the phraseology is entirely that of Peking.”[ From: “Dialogue V”, in: 《中文对话与单句》''Dialogues and Detached Sentences in the Chinese Language, with a free and verbal translation in English, collected from various sources'', Macao: East India Company Press 1816. [Chinese parts left out in this quotation.]] <br />
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==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
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Between December 1812 and February 1813, Robert Morrison translated parts of chapter 4 and send it to Great Britain. He published entries about the Dream in his dictionary, of which the first volume appeared in 1815[ 《华英字典》''A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts'', Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I 930 pp., the novel title is mentioned in volume I:614.] and more translation excerpts, e.g. from chapters 4 and 39, in his 1816 textbook edition.[ 《中文对话与单句》''Dialogues and Detached Sentences in the Chinese Language, with a free and verbal translation in English, collected from various sources'', Macao: East India Company Press 1816, e.g. pp. 194-200.]<br />
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1812年12月至1813年2月期间，罗伯特·莫里森翻译了部分书中第四章的内容，并将其寄往英国。他将这《梦想》这篇小说编进了字典当中，其中第一卷出现在1815年(《华英字典》，第三版汉语字典,澳门：东印度公司，1815年版，第一卷，930页。这篇小说出现在第一卷614页）同时，1816年的版本当中的第4章和39章还对后续的翻译进行了记录。（《中文对话与单句》，实现对汉语中的对话及独立句子的英文口头翻译，从各处收集而来。澳门：东印度公司，1816年版，194 - 200页。)--[[User:Guo Lu|Guo Lu]] ([[User talk:Guo Lu|talk]]) 14:02, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
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Only 23 years of its publication, the novel already was part of the canonized Chinese literature of fiction and Robert Morrison used excerpts of it for his text books to teach Westerners Chinese, as well as expressions from it for his dictionary and sent letters with excerpt translations to Europe, for an intended 2nd vol. of his ''Horæ Sinicæ'' which never was realized.<br />
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The first British Embassies to China (among them especially Charles Bowra, John Francis Davies) also collected literature and among it the ''Dream of the Red Chamber''.<br />
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就在它出版的23年之后，这部小说就被列为中国文学小说行列之中。罗伯特·马礼逊用了其中一些摘选作为教材去教西方人中文；一些表达应用在他的字典里。他把一些摘要翻译版本以信的形式寄去欧洲，打算将其作为第二版本。但他的《中国时光》出版之梦却永远没有实现。<br />
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首次英国到中国的使节（其中有包腊，约翰·弗朗西斯·戴维斯）也收集了文学材料，其中包括有《红楼梦》。--[[User:Han Haiyang|Han Haiyang]] ([[User talk:Han Haiyang|talk]]) 10:07, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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仅在它出版23年后，这部小说就被归为中国文学小说之列。罗伯特·马礼逊摘选了其中部分内容用作教授西方人中文的教材；他还摘选了一些表达应用在他的字典里。他把一些摘要的翻译版本以信的形式寄去欧洲，打算将其作为他的《中国时光》的第二卷，但并没有实现。<br />
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首批英国到中国的使节（其中有包腊，约翰·弗朗西斯·戴维斯）也收集了文学材料，其中包括有《红楼梦》。--[[User:Gao Mingzhu|Gao Mingzhu]] ([[User talk:Gao Mingzhu|talk]]) 12:10, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu<br />
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==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
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'''Early translation history in the West'''<br />
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In 1819, the first excerpt translations were published in Europe, in English (by John Francis Davis) and in French (by Davis, further translated by Bruguière). Significantly, they were published hidden in other larger works, in the English case, it was a Travel Report by Clarke Abel,[ 约翰．巴罗（John Barrow）：“Art. IV Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Peking, and Observations on the Countries which it visited. By Clarke Abel F.L.S. London 1818”，见：William Gifford（主编）, Quarterly Review 21:41 (1819年1月) 见第67-91页，特见第79-80页。这份期刊于1819年6月4号发行，总发行量13000份。笔者在这里参照了以下的索引并最终确定作者: „Gentleman's Magazine (Mar. 1844), 246-47. The article's author refers to #415 and #438 (including a specific reference), both of which are on the same topic and are by Barrow. Cf. also the discussion of infanticide (p. 76) and Raffles's account of Java reviewed by Barrow in #422. In his QR articles, it was Barrow's signature practice to refer to his own works.“, 参考„Quarterly Review Archive“ http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/41.html。] and in the French case, it was a Chinese drama, La-song-euil.[ “Rêves de la Chambre rouge”, 见：»Avant-propos du traducteur francais«, 见: 安托萬．安德烈．包儒略(Antoine-André Bruguière), ''Lao-seng-eul'' [老生兒], ''Comédie Chinoise, suivie de San-iu-leou, ou Les trois étages consacrés, conte moral ; Traduits du chinois en anglais, par J. F. Davis de la factorerie de Canlon ; et de l'anglais en français, par A. Bruguière de Sorsum; avec additions du traducteur'', 巴黎: Rey et Gravier / 伦敦 A. B. Dulau & Co. 1819 年, 227 页, 第141-164页, 见第150-151页。]<br />
西方早期的翻译史<br />
在1819年，欧洲发布了第一个摘要翻译版本，该版本被约翰 弗兰斯 大卫斯翻译为英语版本，后来又被布吉拉进一步翻译为法语。重要的是，它们被隐藏在其他较大的作品中出版，在英语案例中，这是克拉克·亚伯（John Clarke Abel）的《旅行报告》。1816年和1817年的中国内陆之旅和往返该国的旅程的叙述；内容包括对阿默斯特勋爵大使馆向北京法院进行的最有趣的交易以及对所访问国家的观察。克拉克·阿贝尔F.L.S.伦敦1818”，见：威廉·吉福德（主编），季评21:41（1819年1月）见第67-91页，特见第79-80页。这份期刊于1819年6月4号发行，总发行量13000份。笔者在这里参照了以下的索引并最终确定作者：“绅士杂志”（1844年3月），第246-47页。本文的作者引用了＃415和＃438（包括一个特定的参考文献），这两个主题都在同一主题上，由Barrow撰写。 cf.还有关于杀婴的讨论（第76页）和巴罗在＃422中对莱佛士关于Java的描述。在他的QR文章中，引用他自己的作品是Barrow的签名做法。”，请参阅“ Quarterly Review Archive”（季度审查档案）http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/41.html。在法国案中，这是一部中国戏曲，即La-song-euil。[“Rêvesde la Chambre rouge”，见：»Avant-propos du traducteur francais«，见：安托万。安德烈。包儒略（安托万·安德烈·布鲁吉埃（Antoine-AndréBruguière），“老生儿”（Lao-seng-eul），《喜剧》（ComédieChinoise），圣尤尼·路易（suivie de San-iu-leou）或《反叛的道德》； Traduits du chinois en englais，par J. F. Davis de la factorerie de Canlon； et de l'anglais enfrançais，par A.Bruguièrede Sorsum； ”，巴黎：Rey et Gravier /伦敦A. B. Dulau＆Co. 1819年，227页，第141-164页，见第150-151页。]--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 14:44, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
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These excerpt translations were done by John Francis Davis, he translated excerpts from chapter 3 and they were published by John Barrow in Great Britain and by Bruguière in France, both in 1819. Further translations were in 1846 by Robert Thom, excerpts of chapter 6, in 1868-69 Edward Charles Bowra chapters 1-8, in 1892-93 Henry Bencraft Joly chapters 1-56, in 1927 Liang-Chih Wang chapters 1-95, in 1929/1958 Wang Chi-chen an abridged full version, in 1958 Florence McHugh & Isabel McHugh a further translation from the abridged German version of 1938 by Franz Kuhn. <br />
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==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
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Regarding these translations, both the translation quality as well as the quality of the English used did not reach the status of world literature. Regarding full translations, we have in the 1960s Bramwell Seaton Bonsall, in 1973-1986 Hawkes/Minford and in 1978-1980 Yang/Yang. Among all the translators who embarked on this endeavour, only Hawkes (1923-2009) and Minford (1946-) achieved the goal to produce a translation which clearly falls into the categorization of world literature, the others, as Gladys Yang stated, “were a poor shadow of the original”.[ Yang 1980 3:621-622.]<br />
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就这些翻译而言，无论是翻译质量还是所用英语的质量都没有达到世界文学的水平。关于全译本，20世纪60年代涌现了一些翻译家，比如布拉姆威尔·西顿·邦索尔、1973-1986年霍克斯/明福德和1978-1980年杨。在所有从事这项工作的翻译家中，只有霍克斯（1923-2009）和明福德（1946-）达到了翻译的目的，而这两个译本显然属于世界文学的范畴，而其他的译者，正如格拉迪斯·杨所说，“他们只是原作的一个影子”。--[[User:Hu Baihui|Hu Baihui]] ([[User talk:Hu Baihui|talk]]) 04:26, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
就这些翻译而言，无论是翻译质量还是所用英语的质量都没有达到世界文学的水平。至于全译本，20世纪60年代涌现了一批翻译家，比如布拉姆威尔·西顿·邦索尔、1973-1986年霍克斯/明福德和1978-1980年杨宪益及其夫人。在所有从事这项工作的翻译家中，只有霍克斯（1923-2009）和明福德（1946-）达到了翻译的目的，而这两个译本显然属于世界文学的范畴，而其他的译者，正如格拉迪斯·杨所说，“他们只是原作的一个影子”。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:41, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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关于这些翻译，翻译质量以及所用英语的质量都没有达到世界文学的水平。 关于完整翻译，我们在1960年代的Bramwell Seaton Bonsall，1973-1986 Hawkes / Minford和1978-1980 Yang / Yang中都有。 在所有从事这一工作的翻译人员中，只有霍克斯（1923-2009）和明福德（1946-）达到了产生翻译的目标，该翻译显然属于世界文学的范畴，而其他人，如Gladys Yang所说，“ 原始的阴影。” [杨1980：3：621-622。]--[[User:Han Wanzhen|Han Wanzhen]] ([[User talk:Han Wanzhen|talk]]) 14:46, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
<br />
'''Early Misunderstandings'''<br />
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Before the novel was available in translation, we find a lot of misunderstandings and negative judgements on the novel: Morrison considered the novel to have been written in “Peking Dialect”, this mistake developed its own tradition.[ Even in 1995, you could read that the Dreams is written in Peking dialect, cf. Shu Changshan, Die Rezeption Thomas Manns in China, 1995, Frankfurt: Lang, 326 pp. At least Tong Yao, Die Vielfältigkeit der Literatur, 2006 mentions both Peking and Nanking dialects.] In 1842 Gützlaff[ “''Dreams in the Red Chamber''”, Friedrich August Gützlaff (1803-1851), “《紅樓夢》Hung Lau Mung, or Dreams in the Red Chamber; a novel. 20 vols. Noticed by a Correspondent”, in: ''Chinese Repository'', issue 11 (1842) 266-273.] introduced the protagonist as „the lady Páuyu“ (p. 268), even “a very petulant woman” (p. 270) and “busy lady” (p. 272), and took Jia Yucun贾雨村 (instead of Jia Zheng 贾政) as Baoyu’s father.<br />
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在小说被翻译出版之前，我们发现了很多关于小说的误解和负面判断。莫里森认为小说是用“北京话”写的，这个错误发展了它自己的传统。[即使在1995年，您也可以阅读 梦是用北京话写的，参见 舒常山，《死神的托马斯·曼斯》，中国，1995年，法兰克福：郎，326页。至少通瑶（《文学之路》，2006年）同时提到了北京方言和南京话。 弗里德里希·奥古斯特·古兹拉夫（Friedrich AugustGützlaff，1803-1851年），《《红楼梦》》 一本小说。 20卷 通讯员注意到”，在：中国资料库，第11版（1842）266-273。]中将主角介绍为“夫人帕尤”（第268页），甚至是“一个非常挑剔的女人”（第270页），以及“ （第272页），并以贾雨村贾雨村（而不是贾政贾政）为宝玉的父亲。--[[User:Hu Huifang|Hu Huifang]] ([[User talk:Hu Huifang|talk]]) 02:19, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
早期出现的误解<br />
<br />
在小说翻译出版之前，出现了很多关于小说的误解和负面判断：莫里森认为小说是用“北京话”写的，这种误解延续了很久。[即使在1995年，你也会看到《红楼梦》是用北京话写的这种说法，参见 舒常山，《死神的托马斯·曼斯》，中国，1995年，法兰克福：郎，326页。至少通瑶（《文学之路》，2006年）同时提到了北京方言和南京话。 弗里德里希·奥古斯特·古兹拉夫（Friedrich AugustGützlaff，1803-1851年），《《红楼梦》》 一本小说。 20卷 通讯员注意到”，在：中国资料库，第11版（1842）266-273。]中将主角介绍为“宝玉夫人”（第268页），甚至是称他是“一个非常挑剔的女人”（第270页），以及“ （第272页），并把贾雨村（而不是贾政）当成宝玉的父亲。--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 10:04, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
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Also his overall judgement is “in expressing our opinion about the literary merits of the performance, we may say that the style is without any art, being literally the spoken language of the higher classes in the northern provinces.” and he recommends it for language learning (p. 273). Even in 1900, Herbert Allen Giles introduced the novel as have been written in “Peking dialect” and attributed to Cao Xueqin “of the 17th cent.”[ “HUNG-LOU-MENG: 紅樓夢 A famous Chinese novel in the Peking dialect, popularly known as the Dream of the Red Chamber, dealing chiefly with events of domestic life which are very graphically described, and attributed to Ts'ao Hsiieh-ch'in of the 17th cent.” See: Herbert Allen Giles, ''A glossary of reference on subjects connected with the Far East'', 1900, pp. 127-128]<br />
<br />
此外，他的总体判断是“在表达我们对文学价值的意见时，我们可以说，这种风格没有任何艺术，实际上是北方各省较高阶层的口语。”他建议将它用于语言学习(第273页)。甚至在1900年，翟理斯介绍说这部小说是用“北京话”写成的，被认为是17世纪曹雪芹的代表作.【紅樓夢：一部以北京话写成的中国著名小说，俗称《红楼梦》，主要描写家庭生活中的琐事，描写生动形象，被认为是十七世纪曹雪芹的主要作品。参考:赫伯特·艾伦·翟里斯，《远东相关主题参考词汇》，1900年，第127-128页]】--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 04:08, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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此外，他认为，在表达我们对文学价值的意见时，我们可以说，这种风格不带有任何艺术成分，是北方各省较高阶层的口语用词。他建议将它用于语言学习当中(第273页)。在1900年，翟理斯表示，这部小说是用“北京话”写成，是17世纪曹雪芹的代表作.【《红楼梦》：一部以北京话写成的中国著名小说，俗称《红楼梦》，主要描写家庭生活中的琐事，其描写生动形象，被认为是十七世纪曹雪芹的代表作。参考：赫伯特·艾伦·翟里斯，《远东相关主题参考词汇》，1900年，第127-128页]】<br />
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==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
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Also he claimed that the title “红楼梦” would be “a term which is not found anywhere in the text”,[ Giles 1885.] therefore was figurative and should be translated as “A Vision of Wealth and Power”. Actually the expression is found several times in the text, even in the title of chapter 25 and Baoyu actually very often falls asleep and dreams in the red bed-chambers of his female relatives and friends.<br />
<br />
同时，他指出，“红楼梦”这一题目是“一个在文本中完全没有出现的术语”，[翟理斯 1885.]因此，它富含比喻意，应该将之译为“对财富和权力的憧憬”。实际上，“红楼梦”这一表述在文中出现了好几次，甚至出现在25章的标题中，除此之外，宝玉经常在睡梦中梦见他的女性亲友的红色寝室。--[[User:Ji Tiantian|Ji Tiantian]] ([[User talk:Ji Tiantian|talk]]) 09:34, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
此外，他还声称 "红楼梦 "是 "一个在文本中任何地方都找不到的术语"，[ 翟理斯1885.]因此是形象化的，应译为 "财富和权力的愿景"。其实这句话在正文中，甚至在第二十五回的标题中，都多次出现过，而且宝玉也确实经常在他的女性亲友的红色卧房中入睡和入梦。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 09:58, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
而且，他认为“红楼梦”这个名字“在整个作品中无迹可寻”（翟理斯）因此它的选用是修辞手法的表达，并且应该译为“财富与权力之现象”。事实上，“红楼梦”的表达在文章中出现过好几次，甚至出现在第25章的标题里，宝玉经常在女性亲朋好友的红色厢房里睡觉和做梦。--[[User:Chang Huiyue|Chang Huiyue]] ([[User talk:Chang Huiyue|talk]]) 11:10, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
'''Early Reception of the novel in the West'''<br />
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We first must credit pioneers like J. Davis, who not only tried to systematize Chinese poetry with examples from the ''Red Chamber Dreams'', but also sent the first translations of the novel out in the world and made it known in America and Europe just a decade after it has been published in China. Some sinologists used the story simply as a good example for learning Chinese (Morrison, Thom).<br />
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“中国小说传到西方早期”<br />
<br />
我们必须赞赏像约翰·戴维斯这样的先驱，他从《红楼梦》中收集诗句，不仅将中国诗词系统化，同时也将《红楼梦》的第一份译文传向世界，使其在中国出版仅10年后，便在美国和欧洲为人所知。一些汉学家将《红楼梦》作为开始学习中文的素材。（汤姆·莫里森）--[[User:Jiang Fengyi|Jiang Fengyi]] ([[User talk:Jiang Fengyi|talk]]) 09:53, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
首先，我们必须称赞像约翰·戴维斯这样的先驱，他引用《红楼梦》中的诗句，努力将中国诗词系统化，同时还将《红楼梦》的第一版译文传向世界，使其在中国出版仅10年后，便在美国和欧洲广为人知。一些汉学家将《红楼梦》作为开始学习中文的素材。（汤姆·莫里森）--[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 13:22, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
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One can conclude that the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' transported a differentiated image of China, of fashion, of hair and clothes (Barrow, Bruguière, Goldsmith), of human relations (Goldsmith), and of a highly developed language. In this language, some poetical expressions were only understandable to those who had a broad knowledge of Chinese culture. The finesse of the differentiated use of the dialects according to the respective characters in the novel was simply overlooked (Morrison, Gützlaff, Thom) and only discovered much later.<br />
我们可以得出这样的结论：《红楼梦》传达了一种关于中国，关于时尚，关于发型和衣服（巴罗、布吕吉埃、戈德史密斯），关于人际关系（戈德史密斯），以及关于高度发达的语言的不同形象。在这种语言中，一些诗意的表达方式只有对中国文化有广泛了解的人才能理解。小说中根据各自的人物区分使用方言的精妙之处，根本被忽略了（莫里森、居茨拉夫、托姆），直到后来才发现。--[[User:Jiang Hao|Jiang Hao]] ([[User talk:Jiang Hao|talk]]) 09:54, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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我们可以得出这样的结论：《红楼梦》传达出一种与众不同的中国形象，包括时尚、发型和服饰（巴罗，布鲁吉尔，戈德史密斯）、人际关系（戈德史密斯）和高度发达的语言。在这种语言中，一些诗歌表达只有对中国文化有广泛了解的人才能理解。根据小说中人物的不同而区别使用方言的技巧被忽略了（莫里森、古茨拉夫、汤姆），直到后来才被发现。--[[User:Gong Yumian|Gong Yumian]] ([[User talk:Gong Yumian|talk]]) 15:21, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
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The first phase of the Western reception was ethnocentric, partially due to the China-bashing of philosophers like Montesquieu, Herder, Hegel and to the imperialist spirit of contemporary Europe. The judgments on the novel are mostly driven by argumentation strategies; that is, the novel is used as a tool to prove one’s own existing attitudes. The novel is exploited to argue for:<br />
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民族中心主义时期是接受西方的第一个时期，这部分源于中国对于孟德斯鸠、赫尔德、黑格尔等哲学家的猛烈抨击，以及当代欧洲的帝国主义精神。这本小说中的观点大多是由论证策略驱动的，也就是说，这本小说实际上是用以论证某人已有观点的工具。它论证的有：--[[User:Jiang Qiwei|Jiang Qiwei]] ([[User talk:Jiang Qiwei|talk]]) 14:04, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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民族中心主义时期是接受西方的第一个时期。这个时期的产生与中国对于孟德斯鸠、赫尔德、黑格尔等哲学家的猛烈抨击有关，同时也离不开当代欧洲的帝国主义精神。这本小说中的观点大多是由论证策略驱动的，也就是说，这本小说实际上是用以论证某人已有观点的工具。它论证的有：--[[User:Guan Qinqing|Guan Qinqing]] ([[User talk:Guan Qinqing|talk]]) 14:21, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
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- exoticism (J. Davis, Barrow, Bruguière)<br />
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- the inferiority of Chinese literature (Gützlaff, Langdon Davies, Harte, Giles, Headland)<br />
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- polarization by confronting opposite conceptions like ideal of beauty etc. (Goldsmith)<br />
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- to proof own hypotheses, like a self-made categorization of Chinese poetry (J. Davis)<br />
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In this beginning phase, most comparisons were done within Chinese literature (Gützlaff: best of Chinese literature but inferior to Western literature, later: best of Chinese literature).<br />
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- 异国情调（J.戴维斯，巴罗，布鲁基耶）<br />
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- 中国文学的劣势（古兹拉夫，兰登戴维斯，哈特，贾尔斯，海德兰）<br />
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- 通过对立的概念实现两极分化，如理想之美。（戈尔登史密斯）<br />
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- 证明自己的假设，就像中国诗歌的自我分类（J.戴维斯）<br />
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在最开始的阶段，大多数的比较都是关于中国文学的。（古兹拉夫：最好的中国文学，但不及西方文学，后来:最好的中国文学）--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 15:01, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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-异国情调（J.戴维斯，巴罗，布鲁基耶）<br />
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-中国文学的劣势（古茨拉夫，兰登·戴维斯，哈特，吉尔斯，海德兰）<br />
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-通过概念的对立来实现两极分化，如理想之美等。（戈德史密斯）<br />
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-证明自己的假设，例如对中国诗歌的自我归类（J.戴维斯）<br />
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在这个开始阶段，大多数比较都是在中国文学中进行的（古茨拉夫：中国文学最好，但次于西方文学，后来：中国文学最好）。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:15, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
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However, when Herder revised his China perception, and when the still inadequate perception of China called for a more differentiated image, the first translated extracts of this rich novel of manners helped to change the perception of China.<br />
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Finally ''Dream'' was compared to Western literature (Erkes, Wilhelm), was enshrined in the temple of world literature and was assigned attributes that added value to the Western reading experience (Clemons: “slowing down”).<br />
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==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
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'''Motifs for judgements'''<br />
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As motifs for the early judgements mentioned above, I identify exoticization (joy of otherness of fashion and dressing, customs), universalization (world literature), the instrumentalization of the novel as evidence for own hypotheses on literature (Davis’ poetry), the instrumentalization for language learning etc.<br />
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There is a change of motifs over time from exoticization and instrumentalization for proving inferiority to Western novels to accepting the novel as part of world literature and a masterpiece of Chinese culture with a special value in documenting Chinese society.<br />
判断的主题<br />
作为上述提及的早期判断的主题，我确定了小说的异国化（时尚和穿着的别样喜乐，习俗），普遍化（世界文学），小说的工具化作为文学假设的证据（如戴维斯的诗歌），以及小说的工具化用于语言学习等。<br />
随着时间的推移，小说主题也发生了变化，从异国化和工具化证明西方小说的劣势，到接受小说作为世界文学的一部分以及可以记录中国社会的具有独特价值的中国文化杰作。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 13:06, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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判断主题<br />
上述提到的早起判断主题，我认为小说的异国化（别样的时尚穿着，习俗带来的乐趣），普遍化（世界文学），工具化，证实了我们对文学（戴维斯诗歌）的假设，也证实了语言学习工具化。<br />
随着时间的推移，小说主题从异国化变成工具化，证实了本身不如西方小说，接受小说是世界文学的一部分，也接受中国文化杰作在记录中国社会方面有一种独特价值。--[[User:Gan Fengyu|Gan Fengyu]] ([[User talk:Gan Fengyu|talk]]) 03:11, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
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'''The novel title'''<br />
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The book title changed from the first translations as “Red Chamber Dreams” to singular “Dream” in 1843 by德明 (А. И. Коваńко / A. I. Kovańko)[ „Traumgesicht auf dem rothen Thurm“, see> 德明 А. И. Коваńко (1808-1870, trans.): „''Chun-lou-men'' (‚Traumgesicht auf dem rothen Thurm‘) oder ‚Geschichte des Steins‘（《石头记》）. Tschen-schi-in erfährt im Traume die Wiederbelebung des Steins; Zja-jui-zun verliebt sich in seiner Armuth in eine schöne Magd.“ , in: ''Das Ausland'', Munich 26 (1843) 198-199, 201-203.] and in 1846 by Robert Thom[ Robert Thom 羅伯聃, “Extract from the Hung-low-mung, chapter VI”, in: Robert Thom, 《正音撮要》 The Chinese speaker. Extracts from works written in the Mandarin language, as spoken at Peking. Compiled for the use of students, by Robert Thom, Esq., H. M. Consul at Ningpo. Part I, Ningpo: Presbyterian Mission Press 1846, pp. 62-89].<br />
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'''小说名'''<br />
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书名刚开始翻译为“红楼梦”（Red Chamber Dreams），1843年德明将其译成了单数“梦”（Dream）。1846年，羅伯聃也将其译为单数形式。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 11:33, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
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Many scholars have discussed the question if it was more appropriate to call the novel “Story of the Stone” instead of “Dream of the Red Chamber”. Arguments for the latter are that the first printed edition and most of the printed editions afterwards carried this title, so that it reached its fame and was read under this title until today, there was also at least one 120-chapter manuscript copy, the 《乾隆抄本百二十回紅樓夢》Qianlong 120 chapter manuscript; with this title circulating before. However, e.g. the Hawkes/Minford translation and the German Schwarz/Woesler translation use both titles with “also called” in between.<br />
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许多学者都讨论过这样一个问题，即这部小说是否应该叫 "石头的故事 "而不是 "红楼梦 "更合适。支持后者的论点是，第一版印刷版和之后的大部分印刷版都使用这个书名，所以它有了自己的名气，直到今天还用这个书名，至少还有一个120章的手抄本，即乾隆抄本百二十回红楼梦；之前流传着这个书名。不过，如霍克斯/明福译本和德国施瓦兹/沃斯勒译本都使用这两个书名，中间有 "也叫"。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
许多学者都讨论过一个问题，即把这部小说起名为《石头记》 相比《红楼梦》而言是否更为合适。支持后者的人认为，第一版和之后的大多数印刷版已经有《红楼梦》这个名字了，所以名气传播开来，直至今日人们读到的还是这个书名，至少还有一个一百二十回的手抄稿，即《乾隆抄本百二十回红楼梦》，之前就流传这个书名。不过，在霍克斯/明福译本和德国施瓦茨/沃斯勒译本中，两个书名都用到了，之间含有“亦称”两字。--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:16, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
<br />
Some scholars argue that the German title ''Traum der Roten Kammer'' was grammatically and logically not correct in German, but you need more than a grammar teacher’s imagination to find the answer why this title prevailed: A book title, especially a poetic one of a work of literature, does not at all have to be grammatically correct or logical, the title is simply assigned with the first translations and translators and then naturally develops in the cultural field over time.<br />
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一些学者认为,德译版本《红楼梦》的标题“Traum der Roten Kammer”在德语中的语法和逻辑不正确,但是要找到这个标题为什么盛行，光靠语法老师的想象力是不够的:书名,尤其是像诗歌文学作品,并不需要一定在语法或逻辑上正确,标题只是简单地由最初翻译版本和译者指定的，然后随着时间的推移自然地在文化领域发展。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:50, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
一些学者认为，《红楼梦》标题的德版译文Traum der Roten Kammer在德语的语法和逻辑上是不正确的，但想到找到这个标题为什么流行的答案，光拥有跟语法老师一样的想象力是不够的:书名，尤其是文学作品充满诗意的书名，根本不需要语法正确或有逻辑，标题只是简单地由最初的译文和译者定下来，然后自然而然地随着时间的推移在文化领域发展。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:05, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
一些学者认为,德译版本《红楼梦》的标题“Traum der Roten Kammer”在德语的语法和逻辑方面有误，,但是要找到这个标题为什么盛行的原因，光靠语法老师的想象力是不够的:书名,尤其是像诗歌文学作品的书名,不必在语法或逻辑上正确,因为标题由最初翻译版本和译者指定的，然后随着时间的推移自然地在文化领域发展。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:31, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
<br />
Language development exactly works like this: New, seemingly incorrect forms of expressions come into existence, and become correct and a part of language simply because they are used. All translation decisions need to be balanced: They do not have to adhere only to a word-by-word translation, or to logic or grammar, but to what is a common expression or broadly accepted.<br />
<br />
语言的发展就是这样的:新的，看似不正确的表达形式出现，变得正确且成为语言的一部分，仅仅因为它们被使用了。所有的翻译方式需要权衡:它们不必只遵循逐字的翻译，或是遵循逻辑或语法翻译，而是遵循一种通用的表达方式或被广泛接受的表达方式。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:07, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
语言的发展就是这样的:新的，看似不正确的表达形式开始出现，然后变得正确且成为语言的一部分，仅仅因为人们使用了它们。译者需要权衡所有的翻译方式:他们不必只遵循逐字翻译，或是只根据逻辑或语法规则，而是应该使用一种通用的或被广泛接受的表达方式。--[[User:Fang Jieling|Fang Jieling]] ([[User talk:Fang Jieling|talk]]) 14:44, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
语言就是以这样的方式发展的：新的，看似不正确的表达新式首先出现，然后它们变为正确表达，且成为语言的一部分，这仅仅因为它们被使用了。翻译需要权衡；不必只遵循字对字的翻译或是遵从逻辑或语法，而应该遵照人们广泛接受的表达。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 14:53, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
<br />
There are historical settings which influence these historical decisions, like the existence of the English translation title “Dream of the Red Chamber” at that time. Other reasons are that “Traum der” is simply shorter than “Träume im/vom roten Anwesen”, while the reader will still associate the logically correct meaning behind it. The word “Kammer” at the time when the novel was first published in Chinese was linked to luxurious rooms e.g. in castles, so very much appropriate. And the “red” is a leitmotiv.<br />
有一些历史背景影响着这些历史决定，比如当时英译本《红楼梦》的存在。另一个原因是“Traum der”比“Träume im/vom roten Anwesen”短，而读者会联想到其背后逻辑上正确的含义。当该小说第一次以中文出版时，“坎默”一词指豪华的房间（如城堡），非常恰当。“红色”是主旨。--[[User:Li LIli|Li LIli]] ([[User talk:Li LIli|talk]]) 11:20, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili<br />
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有一些历史背景会影响这些历史决定，例如当时“红楼梦”标题的英文翻译。另一原因是“ Traum der”短于“Träumeim / vom roten Anwesen”，而读者仍会联想到其背后逻辑上正确的含义。当小说首次以中文出版时，“ Kammer”一词指豪华的房间（如城堡），这是非常恰当的，因为“红色”是主旨。--[[User:Kong Xianghui|Kong Xianghui]] ([[User talk:Kong Xianghui|talk]]) 13:17, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
<br />
To pay tribute to historical developments of becoming a well-known expression, in the German edition, the mentioning of “rote Kammer” was capitalized into “Rote Kammer” in the new edition, very much alike “Red Chamber” in English at the very beginning of the English translation history.<br />
为了纪念历史的发展成为一个众所周知的表达，在德语版中，“rote Kammer”在新版中被大写为“Rote Kammer”，非常类似于英语翻译史开始时的英版红楼梦。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 04:30, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
。<br />
向历史发展致敬成为一种众所周知的表达方式,在德语版中，“rote Kammer”在新版中被大写为“Rote Kammer”，非常类似于英语翻译史开始时对红楼梦的译法。--[[User:Li Haiquan|Li Haiquan]] ([[User talk:Li Haiquan|talk]]) 13:11, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
'''80 or 120 chapters'''<br />
<br />
The First European Conference on the Dream of the Red Chamber in Bonn 1992 agreed that the 120 chapter version was the authoritative one because it was simply the version under which the novel reached its fame and is best known among readers. Publishing houses argue that a fragment is harder to sell. Also, the part of Cao Xueqin in the last 40 chapters is not finally enligthened, and I always recommend to stick to the editors claims until falsification, therefore we should at least assume Cao’s authorship of the last 40 chapter titles and maybe even some parts of the text.<br />
<br />
“80章还是120章”<br />
<br />
第一届以红楼梦为主题的欧洲会议于1992年在波恩举行，会议上，专家们一致认为120章的版本更具权威性。原因是这个版本在世界上广为流传，在读者中广为人知。出版社认为，单独把书的某几个章节拎出来是很难出售的。此外，曹雪芹撰写的最后40章中部分内容并没有被最终确定下来，因此我始终建议坚持编者的主张，直到被篡改为止。基于此，我们至少应承认曹雪芹拥有最后40章甚至是部分文本的著作权。--[[User:Li Liqin|Li Liqin]] ([[User talk:Li Liqin|talk]]) 09:37, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''80章还是120章'''<br />
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第一届以红楼梦为主题的欧洲会坛于1992年在波恩举办。与会者一致认为120章的版本是权威版本，因为这个版本使红楼梦声名远扬、广为人知。出版社认为取其中几章出版成书，销量会更惨淡。曹雪芹撰写的最后40章是否出版最终也没有确定。我会一直坚持编者的观点，直到这本小说被改动后出版。因此，我们至少应该承认曹雪芹对于最后40章甚至是部分文本的著作权。--[[User:Kong Yanan|Kong Yanan]] ([[User talk:Kong Yanan|talk]]) 12:09, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
<br />
How far other contributors have come close to or deviated from Cao’s original intent for the last 40 chapters may stay object of research. However, they seem to have been successful, because the 120-chapter has prevailed historically, also in its translations, and found the acceptance of the readership.<br />
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'''Deviations from the original'''<br />
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Kuhn, successful and critizised, with his Adapting and Foreignizing, very pleasing but ever-the-same-style translations of so different novels like Shuihuzhuan, Xiyouji and Hongloumeng is history and today one among many translations and more and more readers are able to read the Hongloumeng in other languages like English or even in Chinese.<br />
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在最后40章中，其他编著者在多大程度上接近或偏离了曹雪芹原本的意图，这仍是一个有待考究的问题。然而，他们似乎取得了成功，因为120章的版本及其译本在历史上一直很流行，并获得了读者的认可。<br />
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'''与原始版本的差异'''<br />
<br />
翻译家库恩（Kuhn）很成功但也受到了批评，他对许多不同小说的翻译经过改编和异化都非常有趣但风格千篇一律，例如《水浒传》、《西游记》和《红楼梦》之类的小说的译本已成为历史，如今已是众多译本中的一种，越来越多的读者能够阅读其他语言（英语甚至中文）版本的《红楼梦》。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 12:10, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
Kuhn mentions to have used two specific copies of the original work. There are scholars who doubted that he really used the copies he indicated, because they could not be found. I see no reason to doubt Kuhn’s statement, it is more likely that he used grey editions which are not registered and maybe cannot be found any more.<br />
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'''1st deviation by Minford: The explicit episode about the human-ghostly intercourse, chapter 102'''<br />
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This episode is a black humour one, where Wu Gui’s wife has “a little bit a cold”, takes the wrong medicine and dies.<br />
库恩提到，他使用了原作的两个特定副本。有学者质疑他是否真的使用了他指出的副本，因为它们没法被找到。我认为没有理由怀疑库恩的说法，更有可能是他使用的灰色版本没有注册，可能已经找不到了。<br />
闵福德的第一次偏离:关于人鬼交合的突出情节，第102章<br />
这一集是黑色幽默的一集，讲的是吴贵的妻子“有点感冒”，吃错了药然后死了。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 15:29, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
<br />
At this passage, it looks like we have the opposite case as in the second example: In the Chinese original the whole sentence “enjoyed her at inordinate length” is missing.<br />
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程甲本: 那媳妇子本有些感冒着了，日间吃错了药，晚上吴贵到家，已死在炕上。外面的人因那媳妇子不妥当，便都说妖怪爬过墙吸了精去死的。<br />
<br />
程乙本: 那媳妇子本有些感冒着了，日间吃错了药，晚上吴贵到家，已死在炕上。外面的人因那媳妇子不大妥当，便说妖怪爬过墙来吸了精去死的。<br />
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Minford: Because of her reputation for promiscuity, other members of the household staff concluded that a spirit must have climbed over the Garden wall, enjoyed her at inordinate length, and finally sucked the sap' out of her.<br />
She had caught a cold before;Worsely she took the wrong medicine in the day time, dead already when Wu Gui arrived home in the evening.Neighbours gossiped she was sucked to death by a monster because of lacking in virtue.--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 17:15, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
The sentence seems to be made up by John Minford. It is the explicit report of a sexual intercourse between a ghost and a woman, which ended, when the ghost sucked the lifeblood out of her. Minford does not only extend this brief report about the death of a woman by adding a sexual intercourse between a human and a non-human, which is inappropriate or abnormal by itself, but stresses the abnormality even by characterizing this intercourse in more detail, as taking “inordinate” long. <br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
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Originally, Cao/Gao had only very briefly reported on Wu Gui’s wife’s death. They mentioned the natural cause of death, that she had taken the wrong medicine. However, since most of the strokes of fate in this novel are explained as to be motivated through moral retaliation, Cao/Gao describe her as “promiscuous”. In the logic of moral retaliation, she earns to die. The ghost then would be the executor. But still he only is described as climbing over the wall and sucking the lifeblood out of her.<br />
<br />
最初，曹高二人只是非常简短地提到吴贵妻子的去世。 他们提到了死亡的自然原因，她服错了药。 但是，这本小说中大多数人的命运，被解释为是出于道德报复的动机，所以曹高二人将她形容为“滥交”。 按照道德报复的逻辑，她死了， 妖怪成了杀人凶手。 但是，妖怪仍然只是被描述为从墙上爬过，将血从她身上吸了出来。--[[User:Lin Min|Lin Min]] ([[User talk:Lin Min|talk]]) 12:02, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
最初，曹高二人只是非常简短地提到吴贵妻子的死。他们提到了她死亡的自然原因，是她服错了药。但是，由于这本小说中大多数对命运的描写都被解释为是出于道德报复的动机，所以曹高二人将她描写为“滥交的”。按照道德报复的逻辑，她死了，幽灵将成为她死亡的执行者。但是他仍然只是被描述为从墙上爬过，吸干了她的血夺走了她的命。--[[User:Li Luyi|Li Luyi]] ([[User talk:Li Luyi|talk]]) 12:32, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
<br />
Minford adds an action, which leads further than Cao/Gao wrote. This action still is connected to the story, it even drives its authority from Wu Gui’s wife’s promiscuous way of living. The scene might have stimulated the readers’ fantasy, but not necessarily in the direction of Minfords account. Did Minford simply give his fancy full scope? He might also have been encouraged to interpret this scene the way he did because of the parallel scene with the mirror in chapter 12, where Jia Rui also has inordinate often sexual intercourse with the ghost of Xifeng, and gradually loses his lifeblood until he dies on a large patch of semen.<br />
<br />
闵福德给曹雪芹、高鹗所作的《红楼梦》注入了新的血液。这一举动仍紧贴故事，甚至从吴贵妻子淫乱的生活方式中汲取了权威理由。这个场景可能激发了读者的想象，尽管并不一定是按照闵福德描写的方向。闵福德仅是完整呈现了他幻想的全部吗？他可能也在努力按照第十二章处风月宝鉴镜中的平行场景来解释这个场景，在该场景中，贾瑞经常与西峰的美女幻影云雨欢爱，逐渐失去了生命力，最终死在一滩留有大块精液的床上。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:31, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
闵福德之举给曹雪芹、高鹗所作的《红楼梦》注入了新的血液。这一举动仍紧贴故事，甚至从吴贵妻子淫乱的生活方式中汲取了合理理由。这个场景可能激发了读者幻想，尽管并不一定是按照闵福德描写的方向。闵福德仅是完整呈现了他幻想的全部吗？他可能已受鼓舞地按照第十二章处风月宝鉴镜中的平行场景来解释这个场景。在该场景中，贾瑞经常与西峰的倩影幽魂共赴云雨，渐渐被吸尽了精气直到咽气，身下一大滩精液。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 14:58, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
<br />
After Minford had altered the original, the original ending of that scene did not fit any more: The action of killing her by sucking the lifeblood out of her comes too abrupt. In one subordinate clause they enjoy their sex and even inappropriately long, and in the next he kills her, which is by itself also outrageous. So Minford had to step into the original text sentence and add the adverb “finally” in order to bring it into a chronological and resultative relation.<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
<br />
Kuhn and Schwartz/Woesler have translated this passage without these additions and did not elaborate possible fantasies.<br />
<br />
The effect of Minfords addition is, that the episode becomes more interesting, scandalous and sexually explicit.<br />
<br />
In order to find out, what made Minford add this information, we should consider not only the original, but also a then existing translation. Minford in his preface thanked Yang Xianyi for his help with his own translation Hawkes/Minford 4:30. When we look at the Yang/Yang translation, we find the adding already there: <br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
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Yang/Yang: Outsiders, knowing her bad reputation, claimed that a monster had climbed over the wall to enjoy her until she died of exhaustion.<br />
<br />
This translation in many respects is not so accurate. The couple Yang/Yang uses more general words, leaving out the causal conjunction “because” [she was known for promiscuity]. For 不[大]妥当 (promiscuity) they even use the more general “bad reputation”, and maybe in order to compensate for the lacking sexual connotation in this, they added “to enjoy her”, which we do not find in the Chinese original text.<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
<br />
And they already prepare the way for Minford’s “finally” by adding the “until”. As the whole Yang/Yang translation uses simpler words, 妖怪 is translated as “monster” instead of “ghost”. Since immediately before this episode the garden is described as being the home of ghosts, he latter might have been the better expression. Also the “death of exhaustion” is an interpretation, the Chinese text only reads “sucked the lifeblood out of her”.<br />
<br />
他们也将闵福德的“finally”(最后)一词改为“until”(直到)。杨戴夫妇的整个译文用的都是相对简单的词，如“妖怪”译成“monster”(怪兽)而不是“ghost”(幽灵)。在上一个片段中，杨戴夫妇将花园描述成幽灵的家，所以用后者(ghost)表达或许更好。同样，“死于精疲力竭”只是一种解释，在中文文本中只解作“吸干她的生命之血”。--[[User:Liu Liu|Liu Liu]] ([[User talk:Liu Liu|talk]]) 09:17, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他们也将闵福德的“finally”(最后)一词改为“until”(直到)。杨戴夫妇的整个译文用的都是相对简单的词，如“妖怪”译成“monster”(怪兽)而不是“ghost”(幽灵)。但就在上一个片段中，花园描述为幽灵的家，所以用后者(ghost)表达或许更好。同样，“死于精疲力竭”只是一种解释，在中文文本中只解作“吸干她的生命之血”。--[[User:Kang Haoyu|Kang Haoyu]] ([[User talk:Kang Haoyu|talk]]) 15:07, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
<br />
So it seems that Minford has decided to keep the deviation of Yang/Yang, which is disloyal to the original and therefore falls under category c. However it may protect the Yang/Yang translation from discovery of its same deviation, since only people fluent in both languages will be able to discover it. Was Minford’s disloyalty to the original and his loyalty to his fellow translators a conspiracy? Or did Minford not directly translate from the Chinese, but simply improve the Yang/Yang translation? Since he uses “spirit” instead of “monster”, he still seems to have been conscious about everything and seems to have consciously decided to keep the Yang/Yang deviation for the mentioned possible reasons.<br />
<br />
因此，Minford似乎决定保留Yang / Yang的变体，这与原文有所偏差，因此属于c类。 但是，由于只有精通两种语言的人才能发现它，因此它可以保留Yang / Yang这一翻译，而读者不会发现这一变体。 Minford对原著的不忠和对同时期译者的不忠是阴谋吗？ 还是Minford不直接从中文翻译而只是改进了Yang / Yang这一翻译？ 由于他使用“精神”而不是“怪物”，因此他似乎全文有所了解，并且出于上述可能的原因，似乎有意识地决定保持Yang / Yang这一变体。--[[User:Liu Ou|Liu Ou]] ([[User talk:Liu Ou|talk]]) 11:18, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
<br />
'''2nd deviation by Minford: The explicit episode on the first attempt of the rape of the nun Miaoyu, chapter 111'''<br />
<br />
In chapter 111, we find another anecdote, where thieves invade Rongguofu and steal chests of treasures. On their way, they discover the appealing nun Miaoyu and start a first attempt to rape her. The exact passage reads in both editions:<br />
<br />
程甲本and程乙本: 又欺上屋俱是女人，且又畏惧，正要踹进门去，因听外面有人进来追赶，所以贼众上房。<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
<br />
Yang/Yang: The thieves had known that there were no men in the house. While in Hsi-Chun’s courtyard they had peeped through the window and been inflamed by the sight of a ravishing nun. As there were only terrified women inside, they were about to kick down the door when they heard the night-watch rushing in after them and promptly climbed up the roof.<br />
<br />
Minford: After the main part of their mission was accomplished, the thieves, knowing how unprotected the Jia mansion was, had been casually snooping around in Xi-chun's courtyard, and had caught a glimpse there of a very attractive young nun, which had put all sorts of mischievous ideas into their heads.<br />
<br />
杨/阳:贼人早知屋内没有男人。在熙春的院子里时，他们曾从窗外偷看，看到一个淫荡的尼姑，就被激怒了。由于里面只有被吓坏的女人，他们正要踹门，却听到守夜人跟着冲进来，于是立即爬上屋顶。<br />
<br />
明福:在完成了主要部分的任务后，盗贼们知道贾府是多么的没有防范，就在熙春的院子里随意地窥探，在那里瞥见了一个很有魅力的年轻尼姑，这让他们产生了各种恶作剧的想法。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:02, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
杨/阳:贼人早知屋内没有男人。在熙春院子里时，贼人们从窗外偷看过，在看到是一个淫荡的尼姑后怒火中烧。房里面只有被吓坏的女人，他们正要踹门，却听到守夜人跟着冲进来，就立即爬上了屋顶。<br />
<br />
明福:在完成了主要任务后，盗贼们知道了贾府的防范是多么松懈，就在熙春的院子里随意地窥探。后在那里瞥见了一个风情万种的年轻尼姑，这让他们产生了各种恶作剧的想法。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 01:57, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
<br />
杨/阳:贼人早知屋内没有男人。在熙春的院子里时，他们曾从窗外偷看到一个淫荡的尼姑，并为之激怒。房间只有被吓坏的女人，他们正要踹门，却听到守夜人跟着冲进来，于是立即爬上屋顶。<br />
闵福德:在完成了主要任务后，盗贼们知道贾府没有多少防范，就在熙春的院子里随意地窥探，他们在那里瞥见了一个很有魅力的年轻尼姑，由此产生了各种恶作剧的想法。--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:43, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
<br />
They knew that the apartment was unguarded save by a handful of scared old women, and were about to kick the door in and put an abrupt end to Adamantina's meditations when they heard the sound of footsteps corning from outside and escaped onto the roof-top.<br />
<br />
Minford has added a sentence here. We see that the original did not contain this sexually explicit clause, therefore the deviation does not fall under category a. We can also exclude the possibility that Minford used an earlier edition which might have been censored in the more prudish socialist era, since we have the original Cheng-Gao edition from 1791/1792.<br />
<br />
他们知道那院子无人看守，只有寥寥几个年纪大的姑子在。他们正要踢开门，打断法师的冥想，却听到门外传来了脚步声，接着就逃上了屋顶。<br />
明福在这里加了一个句子。我们可以看到原版是没有这种直接带性意味的从句的，因此这种偏差没有受到分类的影响。我们可以排除这种可能性，那就是明福用的是早先的版本，这种版本可能是在更为保守的社会主义时代通过了审查的，因为我们有1791/1792年的程高原版作对照。--[[User:Liu Yiyu|Liu Yiyu]] ([[User talk:Liu Yiyu|talk]]) 01:51, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Liu Yiyu<br />
<br />
<br />
他们知道公寓无人看守，里面只有几个胆小的老妇人在。他们正准备踢门进屋，打断阿曼丹蒂娜的沉思，却听到了门外传来的脚步声，于是就逃到了屋顶上。<br />
<br />
Minford在这里添加了一个句子。 我们看到原始文件不包含此色情内容从句，因此该偏差不属于类别a。 我们还可以排除Minford使用较早版本的可能性，该版本可能在更为审慎的社会主义时代受到审查，因为我们拥有的最早的高教版本是1791/1792。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:47, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
<br />
Minford’s extra sentence also does not exist in the translations Yang/Yang, Kuhn, nor in the later Schwartz/Woesler.<br />
<br />
In the Chinese original, the emerging sexual tension, stimulating the readers fantasy of a rape, is stopped immediately, when the kicking in of the door already at the beginning of this sentence is relieved by the wording “正要” were just about to… <br />
<br />
We can also exclude the category b. here, because it is not possible to read one subordinate clause more into the original.<br />
<br />
<br />
闵福德的附加句也不存在于杨/阳、库恩以及后来的施瓦茨/沃斯勒的译本中。<br />
在中文原著中出现的性张力，因刺激了读者对强奸的幻想，立即被制止了，在句子开头敲门动作开始的时候，通过“正要（were just about to）"一词所代替。<br />
在这里，我们也可以排除b类，因为不可能在原文中多一个从句。<br />
--[[User:Liu Zhiwei|Liu Zhiwei]] ([[User talk:Liu Zhiwei|talk]]) 02:36, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
闵福德的附加句也不存在于杨/阳、库恩以及后来的施瓦茨/沃斯勒的译本中。<br />
在中文原著中出现的性张力，因刺激了读者对强奸犯的幻想，立即被制止了，在句子开头敲门动作开始的时候，通过“正要（were just about to）"一词代替。<br />
在这里，我们也可以排除b类，因为不可能在原文中多一个从句。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 08:09, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
<br />
Might it have been a necessary explanation, which Minford did not want to explain in an annotation and therefore had to integrate into the text? This, we can also exclude, since from the context it is explicitly clear why they wanted to kick in the door. <br />
<br />
In order to understand Minford’s intention, we should ask what effect this wilful addition of this sentence has on the reader? First, this sexually arousing scene becomes longer. This gives the reader more time to develop fantasies, what might happen. Minford adds a sentence which expresses exactly these fantasies: When the men enter the room, Miaoyu will stop her meditation.<br />
<br />
这可能是一个必要的解释，闵福德不想在注释中解释，因此必须融入文本?这一点，我们也可以排除，因为从上下文可以清楚地看出他们为什么要踢门。<br />
<br />
为了理解闵福德的意图，我们应该问一下这个故意添加的句子对读者产生了什么影响?首先，这个性刺激的场景变得更长。这给读者更多的时间去想象会发生什么。闵福德加了一句话，就准确地表达了这些幻想:当男人进入房间时，妙玉就会停止冥想。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 08:15, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
<br />
The shifting of the perspective to the woman adds to the sexual tension. Both, the active men and the so far passive woman are now mentioned and can act in the fantasies of the reader. Even the end of passivity of the woman is associated, when Minford explicitly states that the meditation will end. And he stresses again the brutal aspect of this scene, using the word “abrupt”.<br />
<br />
The novel is mostly very implicit and connotative, it uses metaphors like “wind and rain game” for describing sexual intercourse. Having explored the effects, Minford achieved with his deviation, one might guess, that the intention was to make this episode more explicit, to sexually arouse the readers.<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
<br />
This can be seen as disloyal to the original and its author, and it maybe seen as loyal to the profit of the press and the royalties.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Sequels'''<br />
<br />
Many other authors also were inspired by the author and wrote a sequel to the novel. Soon, the novel was broadly accepted as another novel of the format of “四大奇书 Si da qi shu” and, since times became more strict regarding pornographic literature, replaced the ''Jin Ping Mei''. Already three years after the appearance, the Suoyin-School was founded and speculations began about the author and if the story had a real background. Please refer to the table of sequels in the attachment.<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
'''Spreading of the novel to Russia'''<br />
<br />
In 1832, a member of the Russian Orthodox Mission in China (俄国驻北京宗教使团学员) brought a manuscript copy of the Story of the Stone back to Russia. It had 35 vols. (currently in the St. Petersburg branch of the Russian Scientific Oriental Institute). Another member of the Mission, А. И. Коваńко, used the pen name 德明 to introduce part of the first chapter to the West. <br />
<br />
'''Reevaluation in Late Qing and status in the Cultural Revolution'''<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei improved the status of the novel since 1885, he saw it as one of the most important pieces of Chinese literature, and the discussions of Hu Shi and Yu Pingbo. <br />
<br />
During the Cultural Revolution, the Dream of the Red Chamber was forbidden again.<br />
<br />
'''Spreading in Germany'''<br />
<br />
The total number of copies published between 1932 and 1977 is 89335 volumes, the ''Jin Ping Mei'' 《金瓶梅》 reached between 1930 and 1977 175000 vols. Der Traum der Roten Kammer rangiert auf Platz 4 der Welt-Bestsellerliste. <br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
[Please refer to the full bibliographic references in the footnotes for now.]<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
<br />
'''Report'''<br />
<br />
'''3rd International Dream of the Red Chamber Conference in Europe'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
On November 7-8, 2015, the in¬ter¬national conference “Celebrating Cao Xue¬qin’s 300th anniversary - 3rd International ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' Conference Europe” was hosted at Folkwang University of Arts, Essen/Germany and organized by Martin Woesler. The Cao Xueqin Society (Peking) and the European Dream of the Red Chamber Society (Bochum) invited 30 speakers from the USA, Australia, Asia (Hong Kong, Taiwan, Korea), Europe (Germany, Hungary, Norway, Slovakia, Switzerland) and China (from the cities of Peking, Shanghai, Chengdu). Sponsor was the Beijing Cao Xueqin Culture Development Foundation. <br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
<br />
In the greetings, Cultural Attaché Chinese Embassy Berlin Chen Ping, Essen Folkwang University of Arts’ chancellor Michael Fricke and Essen mayor Thomas Kufen expressed their gratitude and their feelings of great honor to host this 3rd international conference in Europe on Cao and his novel after the first two conferences in Bonn/Germany 1992 and Olomouc/Czech Republic 2014. Vice Minister Hu Deping, president of the Peking Cao Xueqin Society, said this conference offered the rare opportunity of sharing findings among experts from China and experts from the rest of the world, opening opportunities for further cooperation.<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler welcomed the participants in his function as president of the European Dream of the Red Chamber Society. He expressed his satisfaction with the high quality of the contributions submitted from all over the world, including 10 written contributions, a selection of which would be published in the ''European Journal of Sinology''. Duan Jiangli announced that a selection of the Chinese papers will be published in the ''Cao Xueqin Research''.<br />
<br />
作为欧洲红学会的主席，吴漠汀热烈欢迎所有参会者。他非常满意对来自世界各地的10篇高质量的书面稿件，其中一部分将在《欧洲汉学杂志》上发表。段江力宣布，中国论文选集将在《曹雪芹研究》上发表。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
作为欧洲红学会的主席，吴漠汀热烈欢迎所有参会者。对于来自世界各地的10篇高质量的书面稿件，他表示十分满意，其中一部分将在《欧洲汉学杂志》上发表。段江力宣布，精选的中国论文将会在《曹雪芹研究》上发表。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 15:20, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为欧洲红学会的主席，吴漠汀热烈欢迎所有参会者。他对来自世界各地的10篇高质量书面稿件表示十分满意，其中一部分选集将发表在《欧洲汉学杂志》上。段江力宣布，中国论文选集将会发表在《曹雪芹研究》上。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:43, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
<br />
Hu Deping opened the first panel on studies on the author (Caoxue) with a discussion of the banner identity of Cao Xueqin, he stressed the imperial proximity of his even plain white banner and his high social status. Hu sees descriptions of Cao asking to put drinks on his tab as a proof of his trustworthiness due to his steady imperial stipend. Fan Zhibin in his contribution interpreted Cao’s status lower. Hu Deping expressed his skepticism towards the authenticity of any findings of cultural relicts after the 1970s attributed to Cao. But he pointed at the fact, that two places in the Old Summer Palace are called like the Daguan yuan itself (‘Daguan’) or like a place in it.<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
<br />
Ellen B. Widmer (Wellesley College) analyzed the characterization of Cao as a dramatic character in the sequel ''Hou Honglou meng''. Zhang Shucai (Peking) explained further the findings on social status of aristocratic families and banner people close to the imperial court, with an analysis of the Han and Manchu heritages. Zhan Song (Peking) also reflected on the ethnic identity, when he introduced ''Honglou meng''-critics among Qing Eight Banner people. Duan Qiming (Peking) approached the family history from Cao Yin’s “''Beihong fuji''”, showing connections to author and novel.<br />
<br />
Ellen B. Widmer（威尔斯利学院）在续写《后红楼梦》中将曹雪芹描写为一个戏剧性的人物。张书才（北京）通过分析汉族和满族的文化遗产，进一步阐释了关于处于世族社会地位以及接近王室的旗人研究。Zhan Song（北京）在介绍红楼梦时同样反映了民族认同这种现象。张书才和Zhan Song均为清八旗人的批评家。段启明（北京）从曹寅的《北红拂记》中研究了曹雪芹的家族历史，体现了作者与小说之间的联系。--[[User:Nie Xiaolou|Nie Xiaolou]] ([[User talk:Nie Xiaolou|talk]]) 14:30, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Nie Xiaolou<br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
<br />
Ling Hon Lam (Berkeley) opened the 2nd panel “Studies on the novel” with an analysis of the difference of the reading culture in the novel and its sequels. Since the habit of ‘reading silently’ changed at the beginning of Qing to ‘reading aloud’, the silent reading is prominent in the novel and the out loud reading is prominent in the sequels as well as in the last 40 chapters. Duan Jiangli (Peking) introduced the different handwritten comments in the manuscript versions and stressed the importance of the early Zhi Yanzhai commentary. Zhou Wenye (Peking) presented a tool to compare and analyze the different manuscript versions including comments and the different print versions of the novel.<br />
<br />
林汉麟（伯克利）通过分析小说及其续集中的阅读文化差异，开设了第二个小组“小说研究”。由于自清初开始，“默读”的习惯就变成了“大声朗读”，因此，小说中突出了无声阅读，而续集和最后40章中突出了大声朗读。段江丽（北京）在稿件版本中介绍了不同的手写评论，并强调了早期的阎彦斋评论的重要性。周文业（北京）介绍了一种工具，用于比较和分析不同的手稿版本，包括评论和小说的不同印刷版本。--[[User:Ou Rong|Ou Rong]] ([[User talk:Ou Rong|talk]]) 07:24, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
<br />
Up to three versions can be displayed simultaneously with the differences highlighted. He demonstrated how to prove which kind of relation certain versions had and what suggested that, in certain cases, there must still exist a missing edition. He favored the Cheng B edition over the Cheng A edition, since the corrections were mostly improvements. He also argued that there were many intermediate editions, even between Cheng A and B, since all surplus printed pages were used for later editions. Zhang Hui (Hong Kong) introduced the novel in a different media form, the drama, focusing on one example of a drama adaption.<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
<br />
Marina Čarnogurská (Slovakia), translator of the Slovakian full translation, argued that the last 40 chapters were authored not by Gao E, but maybe even by Cao Xueqin. General consent among the participants was that Gao might have had a more editorial function and some parts of the last 40 chapters might have been written by Cao.<br />
<br />
In the 3rd panel “Interdisciplinary/Intertextual Approaches”, Shang Wei (Columbia University/USA) presented insights into visual culture in Qing dynasty and argued that there was a strong European influence in the Manchu court, which is traceable in the novel and influenced Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
玛丽娜·乔阿诺古尔斯卡（斯洛伐克）是斯洛伐克语译本的译者，她认为书的后四十章的作者不是高鹗，而是曹雪芹。参会人员也一致同意，高鹗更多的只是负责编写，后四十章的创作实际是曹雪芹完成的。<br />
<br />
在第三场主题为“跨学科/跨文本方法”的座谈会上，尚伟（美国哥伦比亚大学）提出了关于清朝时期视觉文化的一些观点，他认为满洲朝廷受欧洲文化影响颇深，这种影响在曹雪芹的小说中也有迹可循。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 06:27, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
玛丽娜·乔阿诺古尔斯卡Marina Čarnogurská(斯洛伐克)认为，最后40章的作者不是高鄂，甚至可能是曹雪芹。与会代表普遍认为，高娥可能有更多的编辑功能，最后40章的部分内容可能是曹雪芹写的。<br />
<br />
在第三板块 "跨学科/跨文本方法 "中，尚伟（美国哥伦比亚大学）提出了对清代视觉文化的见解，认为满族宫廷中存在着强烈的欧洲影响，这在小说中是有迹可循的，并影响了曹雪芹。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
<br />
Kam Louie (Hong Kong) compared the novel with Three Kingdoms in regard to masculinity, homo-sociality and class, arguing how Jia Baoyu’s homo-erotic friendships were perceived differently depending on times and lenses. Louise P. Edwards (Australia) explored an aestheticized masculinity in clothing, dress and decoration as described in the novel. Karl-Heinz Pohl (Trier/Ger¬many) analyzed Buddhist thoughts in the novel with the example of several wisdoms from the “Heart Sutra”, he showed pro¬xi¬mi¬ty between Buddhist and Daoist thoughts. Harro von Senger (Frei¬burg/ Ger¬¬many) compared supraplanning (in China traditionally ‘''moulüe''’) in the novel and the German family tragedy ‘Nibelun¬gen¬lied’.<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
<br />
Zhu Ping (Peking) introduced the historical background of drama culture at the time of Kangxi, Yongzheng (the time the novel was written), and Qianlong. Kristina Schröder (Zurich/Switzerland) ex¬plained references of early illustrations of the novel with the ‘Romance of the West Chamber’ with the example of Wang Xilian ordering flowers to blossom. Stefan Mess¬mann (Budapest/Hungary) asked from the legal perspective, if the Marxist dream of equality had been achieved. Laura Bing Han (Trier) compared the novel and the ‘Buddenbrooks’ regarding philosophical dua¬lism.<br />
朱平(北京)介绍了康熙、雍正、乾隆时期戏剧文化的历史背景。克里斯蒂娜·施洛德(苏黎世/瑞士)以王喜莲命令花朵开放为例，简单地引用了《西厢记》的早期插图。斯特芬·密瑟安(布达佩斯/匈牙利)从法律的角度提问，马克思主义的平等梦想是否已经实现。劳拉冰寒(特里尔)比较了小说和“布登布鲁克斯”关于哲学对立主义的问题。--[[User:Pengjuan|Pengjuan]] ([[User talk:Pengjuan|talk]]) 07:24, 15 November 2020 (UTC)pengjuan<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
<br />
Panel 4 introduced the novel’s in¬ter¬national dissemination, and here Martin Woesler (Witten/Germany, Rome/Italy) ana¬lyzed the changing reception of the novel by early Western translators and recipients. The novel was instrumentalized (e.g. for language learning) and exoticized. Wu Wei (Oslo/Norway, Heidelberg/Ger¬many) explored the color symbolism of ‘redness’ in novel. <br />
<br />
第4小组介绍了小说的国际传播，马丁·怀斯勒（Martin Woesler）（威滕/德国，罗马/意大利）分析了早期西方译者和接受者对小说的接受态度。 这本小说被工具化（例如用于语言学习）并被异化。 Wu Wei（奥斯陆/挪威，海德堡/德国）探索小说中“红色”的色彩象征。<br />
<br />
The translations were dealt with in panel 5, Daniela Zhang Cziráková (Slovakia) in-tro¬duced the Czech and Slovak translations of the novel. He Jun (Chengdu) introduced German excerpt translations before Franz Kuhn and Khoo An Ny (Fudan Shanghai) the state of translations in Malaysia.<br />
<br />
在第5小组中讨论了译文，其中Daniela ZhangCziráková（斯洛伐克）介绍了该小说的捷克语和斯洛伐克语翻译。 何俊（成都）在弗朗兹·库恩（Franz Kuhn）和邱安妮（Kou An Ny）（复旦上海）介绍马来西亚的翻译状况之前，先介绍了德国的摘录翻译。--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:54, 14 November 2020 (UTC)--[[User:Peng Ruihong|Peng Ruihong]] ([[User talk:Peng Ruihong|talk]]) 05:54, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
<br />
General consent of the participants was that the 120 chapter version was the most authoritative one and that the title ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was more common than its alternative title ''Story of the Stone''.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingzhi (Peking) introduced results of a 2015 representative survey among Chinese readers about the novel and the author proving its unbroken popularity and high esteem. Regarding translations, the Hawkes/Minford translation was preferred over Yang/Yang.<br />
<br />
与会者普遍同意120章回版本是最具权威的版本，而且《红楼梦》这一书名比《石头记》更为常见。<br />
<br />
魏凌志（北京）介绍了2015年中国读者对这部小说及作者的代表性调查结果，证明了这部小说一直以来所受到的广泛欢迎和高度尊重。至于翻译版本，霍克斯、闵福德的比杨阳更受喜爱。--[[User:Peng Xiaoling|Peng Xiaoling]] ([[User talk:Peng Xiaoling|talk]]) 09:45, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
与会者普遍同意120章回版本是最具权威的版本，而且《红楼梦》比另一个书名《石头记》更为常见。<br />
<br />
魏凌志（北京）介绍了2015年中国读者对这部小说及作者的代表性调查结果，证明了这部小说一直以来所受到的广泛欢迎和高度尊重。至于翻译版本，霍克斯/闵福德的比杨阳的翻译版本更受喜爱。--[[User:Lou Cancan|Lou Cancan]] ([[User talk:Lou Cancan|talk]]) 08:24, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
<br />
All participants praised the importance of the recently published full translations in German and other languages and welcomed the opportunity to share their findings especially between Chinese and non-Chinese scholars. The choreographer Shen Fang-yu and the dramaturg Martin Woesler also presented a taping of the Folkwang Dance Studio Performance “REDCHAMBERDREAM”. <br />
<br />
For further information please refer to the conference website http://china-studies. com.<br />
<br />
所有与会者都赞扬了最近出版的德语和其他语言的完整译本的重要性，并由衷希望有机会在中国学者和非中国学者之间分享他们的发现。舞蹈编导沉芳玉和戏剧编剧马丁·伍斯勒（Martin Woesler）也为富克旺根舞蹈工作室表演的“红楼梦”进行了录制。<br />
有关更多信息，请访问会议网站http://china-studies.com。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 14:03, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
'''World Citizen Lu Xun:''' <br />
<br />
'''Critical reception of European Culture by Lu Xun with the examples of Nazi cultural politics and of the Nobel Prize'''<br />
<br />
'''世界公民魯迅：魯迅批判性地接受歐洲文化——以納粹文化政治與諾貝爾獎為例'''<br />
<br />
'''''Martin Woesler 吳漠汀'''''<br />
<br />
Witten/Herdecke University 北京師範大學<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
<br />
Lu Xun was well aware of global politics in culture, as proven by documents discovered a few years ago. Three days after the book burning in Berlin on May 10, 1933, Lu Xun, as a Member of the Executive Board of the “China League for Civil Rights,” protested the “brutal terror and reaction” of Nazi Germany. Lu Xun took action and submitted an official protest to the German Consulate in Shanghai, which was taken seriously by the Nazi diplomats. He protested the racist suppression of Jewish authors while his own piece of world literature, “A Madman’s Diary” (1918), would have been considered “degenerate art” if published in Germany. In June 1933, he proved his in-depth understanding of Nazi crimes, especially the book-burning, humiliation and deportation of writers, in two essays.<br />
<br />
摘要<br />
<br />
近年发现的档案证明，鲁迅在文化事件中有很强的政治意识。在1933年5月10日柏林焚书事件发生后三日，鲁迅作为中国民权保障同盟执行委员会的一员对纳粹德国的“恐怖行径和残忍回应”表示抗议。鲁迅采取行动并向德国驻上海使馆提交了一份官方抗议书，对此，纳粹外交官的态度十分慎重。鲁迅抗议对犹太作家的种族压迫，而他自己的一篇世界文学，“狂人日记”（1918），若在德国出版，也会被视作“堕落艺术”。1933年6月，在两篇文章中，他证明自己对纳粹的罪行，尤其是焚书以及对侮辱和驱逐作家有了深入的理解。--[[User:Peng YuZhi|Peng YuZhi]] ([[User talk:Peng YuZhi|talk]]) 09:19, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
近年发现的档案证明，鲁迅在文化事件中有很强的政治意识。在1933年5月10日柏林焚书事件发生后三日，鲁迅作为中国民权保障同盟执行委员会的一员对纳粹德国的“恐怖行径和残忍回应”表示抗议。鲁迅采取行动并向德国驻上海使馆提交了一份官方抗议书，对此，纳粹外交官的态度十分慎重。鲁迅抗议对犹太作家的种族压迫，而他自己的一篇世界文学，“狂人日记”（1918），若在德国出版，也会被视作“堕落艺术”。1933年6月，在两篇文章中，他深刻论证了德国纳粹的罪行，尤其是体现其对焚书以及对侮辱和驱逐作家有了深入的理解。--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 12:03, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
<br />
因近年来所新发现的文物资料，鲁迅很深刻的意識到和瞭解了全球文化政治。柏林焚书案（1933年5月10日）发生的第三天，鲁迅做为“中国民权保障同盟”委员会成员，抗议德国纳粹“残忍的恐怖行径”。鲁迅立刻展开行动，向德国驻上海使领馆提出抗议（当时该处已经由德国纳粹接管）。他抗议纳粹对犹太作家的压制，当时他自己的世界文学作品“狂人日记”在德国也被看作是“变态艺术”。1933年6月，他通过2篇杂文，深刻论证了德国纳粹的罪行，特别是焚烧书籍、羞辱和驱逐作家等。<br />
<br />
In an earlier incident, when he was asked to accept a nomination for the Nobel Prize of Literature in 1927, he refused, not only out of personal modesty, but also because of global political considerations. <br />
<br />
他曾于1927年被提名为诺贝尔文学奖的候选人，但是他拒绝了，不仅是个人的谦逊，也是考量到当时的全球政治环境。<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
<br />
Both cases show a different side of Lu Xun’s Reception of European Culture: He was not just an admiring, importing, translator of European culture who was influenced by it (as seen in his own life and work). Instead, his reception was more complex and critical; he applied universal moral standards, as defined by civil and human rights, which he referred to.--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 15:45, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
两个例子展现了鲁迅对于欧洲文化接受的不同面：他不仅是一位令人尊敬、举足轻重、受欧洲文化影响的翻译者（参见他的生平和作品）。另一方面，他对西方文化的接受也是复杂而具有批判性的；他遵循普世价值观，是他所说的公民权和人权所定义的价值观。<br />
<br />
This makes Lu Xun a world citizen, one who cannot simply be claimed by certain parties or nations.<br />
<br />
综上所述，鲁迅是一位世界公民，不属于任何政党或民族。--[[User:Qu Miao|Qu Miao]] ([[User talk:Qu Miao|talk]]) 15:45, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
<br />
'''Introduction''''''简介'''<br />
<br />
Beginning with his earliest student years in 1902-1903, Lu Xun became an important translator of foreign literature (Jules Verne: ''Journey to the Moon, Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea''). In March 1906, he decided to give up the study of Western medicine in order to become a writer; to cure the Chinese people’s minds instead of their physical illnesses. During his lifetime, Lu Xun was torn between his hope that he could turn Chinese people’s lives to the better and his disappointment that a writer’s works alone were not powerful enough to actually change things or to instigate people to change them.<br />
<br />
介绍<br />
<br />
在鲁迅学生年代早期（1902-1903），他就是翻译国外文学的一名重要译员。（儒勒·凡尔纳：“月球之旅，海底两万里”）1906年3月，他决定放弃西医学习，成为一名作家，决定治愈中国人的思想而不是身体疾病。不过在他的一生中，希望和失望交织，他希望能带领中国人过上好日子；不过单凭他的作品，无力真正改变一件事物，也不能煽动人们去改变这些事，对此他感到很失望。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 11:38, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
简介<br />
从1902-1903年早期学生生涯开始，鲁迅就成为了外国文学的重要译者（儒勒·凡尔纳：《月球之旅，海底两万里》）。 1906年3月，他决定放弃西医研究，成为一名作家。 治愈中国人的精神疾病而不是身体疾病 鲁迅一生中希望和失望交织，他希望能带领中国人过上好日子；不过单凭他的作品，无力真正改变一件事物，也不能引导人们去改变这些事，因而他对此感到很失望。--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 03:43, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
<br />
In 1917, when his friend Qian Xuantong asked him to contribute to the new radical magazine ''New Youth'' (founded by Chen Duxiu), Lu Xun responded: "Imagine an iron house: without windows or doors, utterly indestructible, and full of sound sleepers – all about to suffocate to death. Let them die in their sleep, and they will feel nothing. Is it right to cry out, to rouse the light sleepers among them, causing them inconsolable agony before they die?" In spite of this opinion, in 1918 he still wrote his first story published under his name; “A Madman’s Diary.<br />
”1917年，当他的朋友钱选同邀请他为新的激进杂志“新青年”（由陈独秀创立）做出贡献时，鲁迅回答说：“想像一个铁房子：没有门或窗，坚不可摧，而且设施齐全 睡眠的人–快要窒息而死.让他们在睡眠中死亡，他们将不会有任何感觉。哭出来，唤醒其中的轻便睡床，在他们死前造成痛苦的痛苦是正确的吗？” 尽管有这种观点，他在1918年仍然写了他的第一个故事，以他的名字出版. “狂人日记.--[[User:Sagara Seydou 3|Sagara Seydou 3]] ([[User talk:Sagara Seydou 3|talk]]) 13:40, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
It was a social-critical short story which reached world literature level, with one fictional element placed in a realistic setting (influenced by Gogol and parallel to Kafka’s stories using a similar technique). He placed his hopes on the next generation, as we know from the last lines “A Madman’s Diary:” “Save the children....” We also know that Lu Xun engaged in political activities, starting, perhaps, with his support of the Tongmenghui in Japan and by developing plans to educate politically active students etc.<br />
<br />
<br />
这是一个达到了世界文学水平的短篇小说，将一个虚构元素放置在现实的背景下(受到果戈理的影响，和使用类似技巧的卡夫卡小说是同类型的)，对社会进行批判。他寄希望于下一代，我们可以从《狂人日记》的最后几行得知:“拯救孩子....。” 我们也知道，鲁迅从事政治活动，可能是从他支持日本同盟会开始的，也可能是从他计划去培养政治上活跃的学生开始的。--[[User:Shi Diwen|Shi Diwen]] ([[User talk:Shi Diwen|talk]]) 14:47, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
<br />
So while Lu Xun was at first concerned with China, he understood the signs of the times and was anxious to get additional education in Western sciences. He absorbed Western knowledge, learned several European languages and was an important translator of Western literature, e.g. in 1909 he published a book with translated Eastern European stories in Japan. While Lu Xun’s target was the Chinese people, he was very well aware that backwardness in China could only be overcome by learning from the West, especially from Europe.<br />
<br />
因此，虽然鲁迅最初关心的是中国，但他明白这个时代的迹象，并急于接受西方科学方面的进修深造。他研究了西方知识，学习了几门欧洲语言，还成为了西方文学的著名翻译家。例如，1909年，他在日本出版了一本东欧故事的译著。虽然鲁迅的目标读者是中国人民，但他深知，中国的落后只能通过向西方学习，特别是向欧洲学习来克服。--[[User:Shi Haiyao|Shi Haiyao]] ([[User talk:Shi Haiyao|talk]]) 06:18, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
因此，尽管最初鲁迅担忧中国命运，但他清楚地认识到时代的迹象，并急于出国深造，学习西方科学知识。他从西方知识汲取养分，学习了几门欧洲语言，还成为了一位著名的西方文学翻译家。比如，1909年，他在日本出版了他翻译的东欧故事集。虽然鲁迅的目标读者是中国人民，但他深知，中国只有向西方学习，尤其是向欧洲学习，才能摆脱落后的局面。--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 07:37, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
Because of Lu Xun’s extremely critical attitude and his concern for China, the Communist Party and patriots in China claimed to have him in their “pocket.” However, although Lu Xun’s target was China, his measurement scale and means were international universal principles and he was too fierce a protester to be in anyone’s “pocket.” He was active in different political initiatives – such as the China League for Civil Rights (中國民權保障同盟) and the later Leagues of Left-Wing Writers (although some members accused him of being a Right-Wing writer). <br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
He did not become a member of the Chinese Communist Party, but instead quarreled with Communists ideologists. In 1935, he declined to write a pro-Communist novel. Shortly before his death, he wrote: “Forget about me, and care about your own life – you're a fool if you don't.” In spite of this, the Party posthumously made him a Communist Party Member and Mao Zedong wrote the calligraphy above his tomb.<br />
<br />
Denton, Kirk (2002), Lu Xun Biography, MCLC Resource Center.<br />
<br />
他没有加入中国共产党，反而拒绝接受共产党的意识形态。1935年，他婉言谢绝写一部支持共产党的小说。他去世前不久写道：“忘掉我，管自己的生活---倘不，那就真是糊涂虫。”尽管这样，共产党在鲁迅死后仍将其算作中共党员，毛泽东为其亲笔题写墓碑。<br />
<br />
Denton, Kirk (2002), Lu Xun Biography, MCLC Resource Center.--[[User:Song Jianru|Song Jianru]] ([[User talk:Song Jianru|talk]]) 07:06, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
他没有加入中国共产党，并且还跟共产党的思想家争论。1935年，他拒绝写一部支持共产党的小说。他去世不久前写道：“忘了我，关心你们自己的生活吧。如果不这样做，你们可真的太傻了。”尽管如此，在他去世后，共产党仍然接收他为中共党员，毛泽东还亲自提笔为他写墓碑。<br />
<br />
丹顿·柯克（2002),鲁迅传记，MCLC资源中心。--[[User:Quan Meixin|Quan Meixin]] ([[User talk:Quan Meixin|talk]]) 11:17, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
'''Westernization?'''<br />
<br />
Did Lu Xun trough his Western education and translations of Western literature simply fully supported a ‘Westernization’ of China (全盤西化)? This can be disproven with the following examples: his criticism of Nazi crimes and his decline of the Nobel Prize. His critical mind and intellectual capacities did not allow him simple answers to complex questions.<br />
<br />
Only three days after the book burning in Berlin (May 10, 1933), Lu Xun protested at the Shanghai Consulate against Nazi Germany. This shows his extreme awareness of international politics and the nature of societies.<br />
鲁迅是否通过他的西方教育和西方文学翻译来完全支持中国的“全盘西化”？ 以下例子可以证明这一点：他对纳粹罪行的批评和对诺贝尔奖的拒绝。 他的批判性思维和智力能力使他无法简单地回答复杂的问题。在柏林焚书事件发生的三天后（1933年5月10日），鲁迅在上海领事馆抗议德国纳粹，这表明他对国际政治和社会性质的极致认识。--[[User:Su Lin|Su Lin]] ([[User talk:Su Lin|talk]]) 02:01, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''西化？'''<br />
<br />
鲁迅仅仅是通过接受西方教育和翻译西方文学来支持中国“全盘西化”吗？以下例子可证明这一点：他批判纳粹罪行且拒绝接受诺贝尔奖。他不能凭借其批判思维和聪明才智简单回应这类复杂问题。<br />
<br />
柏林焚书事件（1933年5月10日）刚刚过去三天，鲁迅就在上海领事馆抗议德国纳粹，这表明他对国际政治和社会性质的极致认识。 --[[User:Chen Han|Chen Han]] ([[User talk:Chen Han|talk]]) 14:14, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
The reaction of the Vice General Consul in his report to the German Embassy in Peking shows that the German Consulate engaged in counter propaganda and denied the allegations, referring even to their support of the Jewish community in Shanghai. While the world was still asleep, Lu Xun already understood and criticized Nazi anti-writer politics in Germany. It took the rest of the world almost a decade more to “wake up.” Even Nazi Germany’s invasion of Poland in 1939 did not “wake up” other countries, enabling Nazi Germany to conduct further surprise attacks (blitzkrieg) in Western Europe (Netherlands, Belgium, France etc.).<br />
<br />
在给德国驻北京大使馆的报告中，副总领事的反应表明，德国领事馆反对这些宣传，并否认有关指控，甚至拒绝承认他们支持上海的犹太社区。当世界还在沉睡的时候，鲁迅已经理解并批判德国的纳粹反作家政治。而世界上其他的国家花了将近10年的时间才“醒悟”，甚至1939年纳粹德国入侵波兰的事件也没能“唤醒”其他国家，这使得纳粹德国能够在西欧（荷兰、比利时、法国等）发动进一步的突然袭击（闪电战）。--[[User:Tan Xingyue|Tan Xingyue]] ([[User talk:Tan Xingyue|talk]]) 15:08, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
<br />
在副总领事给德国驻北京大使馆的报告中的反应表明，德国领事馆反对这些宣传，并否认有关指控，还提到他们支持上海的犹太人聚居区。当世界还在沉睡的时候，鲁迅已经理解并批判德国的纳粹反作家政治。而世界上其他的国家花了将近10年的时间才“醒悟”，甚至1939年纳粹德国入侵波兰的事件也没能“唤醒”其他国家，这使得纳粹德国能够在西欧（荷兰、比利时、法国等）发动进一步的突然袭击（闪电战）。--[[User:Peng Yongliang|Peng Yongliang]] ([[User talk:Peng Yongliang|talk]]) 14:09, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
副总领事在给德国驻北京大使馆的报告中所作的反应表明，德国领事反对这些宣传，并否认有关指控，甚至提到了他们对上海犹太社区的支持。当世界还在沉睡之时，鲁迅已经理解并批判纳粹德国的反作家政治。而世界上的其他国家用了将近10年的时间才“觉醒”。即使纳粹德国于1939年入侵波兰，也没能“唤醒”其他国家，使纳粹德国能够在西欧（荷兰、比利时、法国等）发动进一步的突袭（闪电战）。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 14:21, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun was well able to distinguish between positive and negative parts of European culture, which leads to the question: which moral standards did he actually live up to? The thesis of this paper is that he oriented himself to abstract universal human values and morals. As proof, the following details of Lu Xun’s protests are examined.<br />
<br />
鲁迅能够很好地区分欧洲文化的正面和负面，这就引出了一个问题:他到底遵循什么样的道德标准?这篇论文是以鲁迅的抽象普世人类价值和道德为主题。为了证明这一点，我们考查了鲁迅抗议宣言的一些细节。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 11:08, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鲁迅对于欧洲文化的态度究竟是积极还是消极的呢？这也引出另一个问题：他到底遵循哪一种道德价值观？本文将论证，鲁迅遵循的是普世价值观。<br />
<br />
鲁迅能够很好地区分欧洲文化中积极和消极的部分，这就引出了一个问题：他究竟遵循的是哪些道德标准？本文将论证：鲁迅遵循的是抽象的人类普世价值和道德。本文将从鲁迅的抗议宣言中分析论证。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 03:09, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
鲁迅能够很好地区分欧洲文化的正面和负面的部分，从而也引出了问题：他到底遵循的是什么样的道德标准？本文的理论是以鲁迅对人类的普世价值和道德理念为主。鲁迅的声明中列出的细节都真实可考。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 09:40, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
鲁迅善于分辨欧洲文化的积极和消极部分，这也引出了一个问题：他实际上遵循了什么道德标准？本文的论点是他遵循抽象普世的人类价值观和道德观。为了证明，以下是可考的鲁迅抗议的细节。<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:30, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
'''Lu Xun’s in-depth and early understanding of Nazi crimes'''<br />
<br />
On July 11 and 16, 1933, Lu Xun (using his pseudonyms) published two essays against Nazi crimes – about the book burning in China and Germany. As shown by this immediate response, Lu Xun was quick to retrieve information and form a judgment – independent of regionalism and dependent only upon universal moral values.<br />
<br />
Lovell, Julia. "Introduction". In ''Lu Xun: The Real story of Ah-Q and Other Tales of China, The Complete Fiction of Lu Xun''. England: Penguin Classics. 2009. ISBN 978-0-140-45548-9, here pp. xxx.<br />
<br />
Silvia Kettelhut: G''eschäfte übernommen: Deutsches Konsulat, Shanghai, Impressionen aus 150 Jahren,'' Shanghai 2006.<br />
<br />
“鲁迅早期对纳粹罪行的深入了解”<br />
<br />
1933年7月11日至16日，鲁迅（使用化名）发表了两篇反对纳粹罪行的文章，该书在中德两国畅销。正如这一即时反应所表明的那样，鲁迅迅速地获取信息并作出判断——独立于区域主义，仅依赖于普遍的道德价值观。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 12:36, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
In his essay “The Book burning in China and Germany” (dated June 28 and published July 11, 1933), Lu Xun, under the penname Ru Niu, compares Qin Shihuangdi’s book burning with the one by Hitler. He points out that the emperor did not burn books on agriculture and medicine and instead still accepted pluralism. Polemically he criticizes his Chinese colleagues for not understanding that the threat by Hitler is a threat to freedom in general. Lu Xun directly addresses the German dictator Hitler as “Mr. Hitler.”<br />
<br />
鲁迅，笔名儒牛，在他的文章《在中国和德国焚书》(日期为1933年6月28日，出版于1933年7月11日)中，将秦始皇的焚书与希特勒的焚书进行了比较。他指出，皇帝并没有焚烧有关农业和医药的书籍，仍然是接受多元主义。他在辩论中批评其中国同事没有理解希特勒的威胁是对自由的普遍威胁。鲁迅直接称德国独裁者希特勒为“希特勒先生”--[[User:Tang Bei|Tang Bei]] ([[User talk:Tang Bei|talk]]) 00:55, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
In the second essay, “Surplus of Knowledge” (dated July 12 and published July 16, 1933) he compares a recent agricultural crisis in China following a “harvest surplus” and the demand to abandon the learning of theories in favor of learning practical things with the demand in Nazi Germany to abandon liberal and pluralistic education. Polemically he calls the German imprisonment of students in labor camps a “solution to the unemployment problem.” He demands that China get rid of knowledge, insisting that people should become fatalist and opportunist.<br />
<br />
在第二篇文章“过剩的知识”中，他比较了最近中国在“丰收盈余”之后的农业危机，放弃理论学习以学习实际事物的要求，以及纳粹德国要求放弃自由和多元化教育的要求。颇具争议性的是，他称德国将学生关押在劳改营是“解决失业问题的办法”。他要求中国摆脱知识，坚持认为人们应该成为宿命主义者和机会主义者。<br />
<br />
--[[User:Tang Ming|Tang Ming]] ([[User talk:Tang Ming|talk]]) 07:35, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming<br />
<br />
在第二篇文章“过剩的知识”中，他比较了最近中国在“丰收盈余”之后的农业危机，放弃理论学习以学习实际事物的要求，以及纳粹德国要求放弃自由和多元化教育的要求。颇具争议性的是，他声称德国将学生关押在劳改营这种行为是“解决失业问题的办法”。此外，他还要求中国摆脱知识，坚持认为人们应该成为宿命主义者和机会主义者。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 09:36, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun early had studied the German philosopher Nietzsche, who was also pocketed by the Nazis, and wanted to study abroad in Germany. His critical reflection of Nazi German situation shows that he could also be extremely critical against Germany and was able to judge it according to universal values.<br />
<br />
鲁迅早年研究过德国哲学家尼采，后者为纳粹收入囊中并且想去德国留学。鲁迅对纳粹德国现状的批判说明，他有能力根据普世价值来评判纳粹德国。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 11:33, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
鲁迅很早就研究过德国哲学家尼采，而尼采也曾被纳粹骗过，并曾想去德国留学。他对纳粹德国处境的批判反思表明，他也可以对德国极端批判，并能够以普世价值来判断德国。--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 11:49, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
'''The China League for Civil Rights'''<br />
<br />
The China League for Civil Rights was established with the outspoken goal to free prisoners from Guomindang (GMD) imprisonment. Prominent among members of the League was Song Qingling (left-wing GMD), the widow of Sun Yat-sen, who broke with Qiang Kai-shek in 1927 – when the GMD turned more and more repressive. The Communists also had massive losses after 1927 and went underground. Lu Xun was the most prolific member of the League.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
In 1931, Song Qingling returned to Shanghai from Europe and headed a campaign to rescue a foreign couple detained without trial by the GMD. I did not find evidence that she knew that the couple were Comintern agents; the campaign did not address their identity. It concentrated on the legal aspects of the detainment.<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
An early stage of this part of the study including the translation of the two essays into German has been published as “Der Protest des chinesischen Intellektuellen Lu Xun gegen Nazi-Verbrechen”, in: ''Bulletin of the German China Association'' 54 (2010) 119 pp., pp. 53-58, ISSN 1436-8048. This first essay was published as Ru Niu 孺牛 [Lu Xun]: 华德焚书异同论 (Discussion of Parellels and Differences of the Book Burning in China and Germany), July 11, 1933, 申报 Shen Bao, 自由谈 (Free Talks), German translation by Martin Woesler as “ Die Bücherverbrennungen in China und Deutschland Diskussion der Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede ” in: ''Bulletin of the German China Association'' 54 (2010) 53-55.<br />
<br />
这部分研究的早期阶段，包括将两篇论文翻译成德语，已发表在《德中协会公报》54（2010）119页，第53-58页，ISSN 1436-8048，发表于《中国抗议》第54（2010）119页，第53-58页，ISSN 1436-8048。本文第一篇论文发表于1933年7月11日，英文名为《中国与德国焚书的平行线与差异》，马丁·沃斯勒译为《中国与德国图书焚烧的平行线与差异》Unterschiede in:“中德协会公报”54（2010）53-55。--[[User:Wang Xuan|Wang Xuan]] ([[User talk:Wang Xuan|talk]]) 09:28, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Wang Xuan<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
This second essay was published as Yu Ming 虞明 [Lu Xun]: “智识过剩 (Surplus of Knowledge)“, dated July 12, 1933, ''Shen Bao'' am 16.7.1933, English translation in: ''Lu Xun, Selected Works'', Übers. Yang Xianyi, Gladys Yang, Bd. 3, S. 324f., 1st ed 1959/1960, 2nd ed. 1964 p. 289-290, 3rd ed. 1980 p. 324 f., 4th ed. 2003 (Peking: Foreign Languages Press), German translation by Martin Woesler as “Wissensüberschuss” in: ''Bulletin of the German China Association 54'' (2010) 56-58.<br />
<br />
第二篇论文在1933年7月12日以虞明（鲁迅）为笔名出版：“智识过剩”，“申报”1933年7月16日上午，英文名为：“鲁迅选集”，杨宪益，戴乃迭，Bd. 3, S. 324f.,第一版1959/1960,第二版1964 p. 289-290, 第三版 1980 p. 324 f., 第四版. 2003 （北京：外文出版社），德语版本由 Martin Woesler as “Wissensüberschuss”翻译为《德中协会公报》(2010) 56-58.--[[User:Wang Yu|Wang Yu]] ([[User talk:Wang Yu|talk]]) 12:10, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
The couple Paul and Gertrud Ruegg is also known as Mr. and Mrs. Hilaire Noulens. Ruegg's public role was secretary-general of the Pan-Pacific Trade Union, an international agent for organizing the Chinese labour movement. His secret role was secretary of the Comintern's Far Eastern Bureau in Shanghai. In June 1930, the couple was first arrested by the police in the International Settlement, and then turned over to GMD authorities. See: Jinxing Chen: “The Rise and Fall of the China League for Civil Rights”, in: ''China Review'' Vol. 6, No. 2, Special Issue on: WTO and China's Financial Development (Fall 2006), pp. 121-147.<br />
<br />
Bruun, Ole, and Michael Jacobsen. ''Human rights and Asian values: Contesting national identities and cultural representations in Asia''. Vol. 6. Psychology Press, 2000.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
In the League’s press conference in Shanghai, on 30 December 1932, Cai Yuanpei referred to J. J. Rousseau and said that the League would not be placed in the pocket of any political party. The League was very active in publishing statements, sending telegrams to foreign governments in about half a dozen cases and seeing government officials on behalf of the imprisonment of intellectuals out of political reasons.<br />
<br />
1932年12月30日在上海召开的中国民权保障同盟发布会上，蔡元培提到卢梭并称该同盟不会被任何政党所控。该组织表现活跃，积极发表声明，发电报给外国政府（几乎有一半的电报出自该同盟会之手），此外还代表政治罪犯跟政府进行会谈。<br />
<br />
On May 13, 1933, Ms. Song Qingling announced her visit to the German Vice General Consul, Richard Behrend, in Shanghai, and representatives of the League – including its president Song Qingling, Cai Yuanpei, Lu Xun, Yang Xing¬fo (Yang Quan) – submitted the following protest note.<br />
<br />
1933年5月13日，宋庆龄女士宣布她将拜访德国驻上海副总领事理查德.贝伦德，并由该同盟会的代表--包括主席宋庆龄，蔡元培，鲁迅和杨杏佛递交以下抗议书。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:04, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
Transcription, from Kettelhut 2006 pp. 155-158. Source: PA AA (Political Archive of the Foreign Office / Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes) R 98440.<br />
<br />
Submission of the protest note to Vice General Consulate Behrend by the Board of the China League of Civil Rights, including the widow of Sun Yat-sen, Song Qingling, the president of Academia Si¬ni¬ca, Cai Yuanpei, Lu Xun and the Vice President of Academia Sinica, Yang Xing¬fo (Yang Quan). Wood block print by Zhao Yannian 趙延年 (born 1924) 1956. Not displayed in the wood block print are the writers Lin Yutang, Agnes Smedley und Harold Isaacs, which, according to the report of the Consulate, were also present. Lin Yutang was also not mentioned by the Chinese press.<br />
<br />
转录，摘自Kettelhut 2006，第155-158页。 资料来源：PA AA（外交部政治档案馆/AuswärtigenAmtes档案馆）R 98440。<br />
<br />
中国民权联盟理事会向贝伦副总领事馆递交了抗议说明，其中包括孙中山遗孀宋庆龄，学术界的领袖西尼卡，蔡元培，鲁迅和中央研究院副院长杨兴佛（阳泉）。 赵延年（生于1924年）在1956年制作了这些木刻版画。根据领事馆的报告，作家林语堂、艾格尼丝·史沫特莱和哈罗德——以撒并未陈列其中。 中国媒体也并未提及林语堂。<br />
--[[User:Weiyafei|Weiyafei]] ([[User talk:Weiyafei|talk]]) 03:12, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Weiyafei<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
The vice consul took the protest seriously and submitted the letter to Peking, accompanied with a report in which he described Ms Song Qingling as the head of the League and listed Lu Xun as “the famous writer” and leading fighter for the “New Chinese Language Movement.” <br />
<br />
Song Qingling, about a month after the visit at the Consulate, on June 17, 1933 sent a telegram to “Chancellor Hitler” demanding the immediate release of political prisoners.<br />
<br />
For the involvement of foreigners in the League see Chen Jinxing 2006 and others.<br />
<br />
Report by Behrendt for the German Embassy Peking dated May 15, 1933, see Kettelhut 2006.<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
The reaction from Berlin was that they should try to influence Song Qingling. The reply from the German diplomats in China was that it had been tried earlier and another attempt would probably be counter-productive since Ms. Song was close to the Communists.<br />
<br />
The League did not survive long. Hu Shi won the leadership of the Peking arm of the League. His critical review of a prison report led to some tensions within the League, leading to the dissolvement of the Peking arm. In the end, Yang Quan, the Secretary General, was assassinated by GMD, while Song Qingling received a letter with a bullet in it – forcing her to hide. All of this combined into a fatal blow to the League. Chen Jinxing (2006), however, suspects that tensions within the League (e.g. with Hu Shi) helped its dissolution. <br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
As the most prolific member of the league, Lu Xun’s active, and prominent, participation in the League’s protests shows his devotion to the principles of universal human rights – reaching beyond concern only for his countrymen.鲁迅的抗议显示了他普世人权的原则。<br />
<br />
Price, Ruth. ''The Lives of Agnes Smedley''. OUP USA, 2005.<br />
<br />
Chen, Jinxing: “The Rise and Fall of the China League for Civil Rights”, in: ''China Review'' Vol. 6, No. 2, Special Issue on: WTO and China's Financial Development (Fall 2006), pp. 121-147.<br />
<br />
作为联盟中最多产的成员，鲁迅积极而杰出地参与联盟抗议活动，显示出他对普遍人权原则的热爱——仅仅出于他对同胞的关注。<br />
<br />
普莱斯•露丝。艾格妮丝•史沫特莱的生平。牛津大学出版社，美国，2005年。<br />
<br />
陈金星：“中国民权同盟的兴衰”，载于《中国评论》第一卷。 第六卷，第二期，关于：WTO与中国金融发展的专刊(Fall 2006), pp. 121-147.--[[User:Wu Kai|Wu Kai]] ([[User talk:Wu Kai|talk]]) 11:56, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
作为联盟中最多产的成员，鲁迅积极参与联盟抗议活动，显示出他对普世人权原则的热爱——仅仅出于他对同胞的关注。<br />
<br />
普莱斯•露丝。艾格妮丝•史沫特莱的生平。牛津大学出版社，美国，2005年。<br />
<br />
陈金星：“中国民权同盟的兴衰”，载于《中国评论》第一卷。 第六卷，第二期，关于：WTO与中国金融发展的专刊(Fall 2006), pp. 121-147.--[[User:Chen Jingjing|Chen Jingjing]] ([[User talk:Chen Jingjing|talk]]) 08:03, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Chen Jingjing<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
'''The Nobel Prize of Literature'''<br />
<br />
In 1926, “The True Story of Ah Q” was translated by Jing Yinyu into French. In September 1927, Peking University Professor Liu Bannong suggested to Sven Hedish (member of the Swedish Academy) that Lu Xun be considered for laureateship. Nobel Prize Laureate Kenzaburō Ōe called Lu Xun "The greatest writer Asia produced in the twentieth century." In the 1920s, 1915 Nobel Laureate Romain Rolland introduced Chinese literature to the world. In 1927, he especially recommended Lu Xun and his story “Ah Q.”<br />
<br />
'''诺贝尔文学奖'''<br />
1926年，敬隐渔将《阿Q正传》译为法文。1927年9月，北京大学教授刘半农向斯文·赫迪什（瑞士文学院院士）建议考虑授予鲁迅桂冠诗人的称号。诺贝尔文学奖获得者肯扎布尔称鲁迅是“二十世纪亚洲最伟大的作家。”在1920年代，1915年诺贝尔文学奖获得者罗曼罗兰向世界介绍了中国文学。1927年时，他特别推荐了鲁迅和他的故事“阿Q”。<br />
--[[User:Wu Qi|Wu Qi]] ([[User talk:Wu Qi|talk]]) 11:20, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''诺贝尔文学奖'''<br />
1926年，敬隐渔将《阿Q正传》译为法文。1927年9月，北京大学教授刘半农向斯文·赫迪什（瑞士文学院院士）建议考虑授予鲁迅桂冠诗人的称号。诺贝尔文学奖的桂冠诗人肯扎布尔称鲁迅是“二十世纪亚洲最伟大的作家。”在20世纪20年代，1915年诺贝尔文学奖桂冠诗人罗曼罗兰向世界介绍了中国文学。1927年时，他特别推荐了鲁迅和他的故事“阿Q”。--[[User:Li Meng|Li Meng]] ([[User talk:Li Meng|talk]]) 15:40, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
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Lu Xun rejected the nomination in a letter to his former student and confidante, Tai Jingnong, with the following reasoning: “There are a lot of better writers than me in the world and they can’t get it.” He further said “I think there is nobody truly deserving the Nobel Prize in China. It would be better for Sweden to ignore us. It would only encourage Chinese egotism, causing them to believe they could really parallel those great foreign writers if yellow-skinned people were given preferential consideration. The result would not be good at all.” (Eventually, the prize was awarded to Sinclair Lewis.)<br />
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鲁迅在给之前的学生兼知己台静农的回信中拒绝了提名，理由是：“世界上有太多比我更优秀的作家，他们都不能获此殊荣，”他接着说道“我认为中国还没人能获诺贝尔奖，瑞典方最好是忽略掉我们。如果给黄种人优待，这只会让中国人盈盈自满，认为自己可以与外国优秀作家相提并论。结果并不如是。“（最终，奖项颁给了辛克莱·刘易斯）。--[[User:WuQiong|WuQiong]] ([[User talk:WuQiong|talk]]) 09:21, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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鲁迅在给他旧时的学生兼知己，台静农的一封回信中拒绝了提名，理由如下：“世界上比我好的作家有很多，他们尚没有获此殊荣。”他又说：“我觉得在中国没有人真配得上诺贝尔奖。瑞典要是不把我们考虑在内那是最好。如果黄种人享有优待的话，只会徒增中国人的自大，让他们觉得自己真的能比肩那些伟大的外国作家。这可不是什么好事。”（最后，获奖者为辛克莱·刘易斯）。--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 11:05, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie<br />
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==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
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Lu Xun was well acquainted with many famous foreign writers. During these days, he personally met several, such as Agnes Smedley, Harold Isaacs, and Bernhard Shaw. Therefore, Lu Xun had an understanding of the domestic political implications of the Nobel Prize; of awarding such a prize to a national literature which was still under development and had not yet reached a satisfying level. He understood that the effect of such an award would be to increase Chinese egotism. So he sacrificed his own honor in order not to send the wrong signal; in order to not discourage Chinese literature by receiving mercy from the international community, but instead to encourage its further development so that it might eventually reach the level of the “great foreign writers.”<br />
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鲁迅与许多著名的外国作家很熟。在这些日子里，他亲自见了几个人，如艾格尼丝·史沫特莱、哈罗德·艾萨克斯和伯恩哈德·肖。因此，鲁迅对诺贝尔文学奖的国内政治含义有了一个认识，即把诺贝尔奖颁给一个尚处于发展阶段、尚未达到令人满意水平的民族文学。他明白这样一个奖项的效果会增加中国人的自负。因此，为了不发出错误的信号他牺牲了自己的荣誉，；为了不让中国文学受到国际社会的怜悯而气馁，而是鼓励中国文学进一步发展，使之最终达到“伟大的外国作家”的水平。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:10, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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鲁迅与许多外国著名作家相识。在这些日子里，他亲自见到了几位，如艾格尼丝—史沫特莱、哈罗德-艾萨克斯、萧伯纳等。因此，鲁迅明白诺贝尔奖在国内的政治影响，以及把这样一个奖颁给尚在发展中的、尚未达到令人满意水平的民族文学的影响。他明白，这样的奖项导致中国人自负心增强。因此，为了不向国人发出错误的信号，他牺牲了自己的荣誉；他不愿中国文学因接受国际社会的怜悯而积极性受挫，而是鼓励中国文学进一步发展，最终达到 “外国大作家 ”的水平。--[[User:Tang Yiran1|Tang Yiran1]] ([[User talk:Tang Yiran1|talk]]) 12:00, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
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Biography of Sven Hedin (1865-1952), see George Kish, ''To the Heart of Asia: The Life of Sven Hedin'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984). Hedin was in Beijing in late 1926 and early 1927 seeking government permission for an exploration to Mongolia (''ibid.'', p. 114). Quoted after: Wang, B. [汪宝荣]. (2011). Lu Xun's fiction in English translation: the early years. (Thesis). University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.5353/th_b4696908 (in the following: Wang 2011).<br />
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斯文·赫丁传见诸于乔治·基什撰写的《亚洲的心脏：斯文·赫丁的一生》（阿安伯：密歇根大学出版社，1984）。1926年年末以及1927年年初，赫丁在北京为得到可以让他蒙古进行勘探的政治许可（同上，第114页）。引用：Wang，B.[王宝荣].（2011）。鲁迅小说英文版：早年。（论文）香港特别行政区波克富兰大学。引用于 http://dx.doi.org/10.5353/th_b4696908 （如下：王，2011）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:42, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, “Zhi Tai Jingnong” 致台静农, 25 Sept. 1927, rpt. in ''LXQJ'' 12: 73-74. See a penetrating discussion of Lu Xun’s international stature and Nobel candidacy in Paul B. Foster, “The Ironic Inflation of Chinese National Character: Lu Xun’s International Reputation, Romain Rolland’s Critique of ‘The True Story of Ah Q,’ and the Nobel Prize”, ''Modern Chinese Literature and Culture'', 13.1 (Spring, 2001): 140-168. Interestingly, Foster suggests that Lu Xun may have contributed to the publicity which eventually led to the suggestion that he be nominated for a Nobel Prize. Quoted after: Wang 2011.<br />
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Lu Xun 鲁迅, 《致台静农》, 1927.0925 ，《鲁迅全集》：73-74. 确定了鲁迅在国际文学界的地位，鲁迅因此被福斯特提名诺贝尔文学奖，罗曼罗兰评价其作品《阿q正传》充满着讽刺意味，《中国现代文学与文化》，13.1（2001年春）：140-168。王2011：有趣的是，福斯特认为，鲁迅文学对公众产生了深远影响，这可能也是他被提名诺贝尔奖的原因。--[[User:Wu Zijia|Wu Zijia]] ([[User talk:Wu Zijia|talk]]) 04:37, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Wu Zijia<br />
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==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
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This shows that Lu Xun was modest and aware of the global position of Chinese literature, and that he had a vision for its development.这些显示鲁迅很谦逊，其在中国文学的得到世界的认可，同时，他的视野也促进了中国文学的发展。 Who would decline a Nobel Prize? Only someone with principles more important than the Nobel Prize. Lu Xun firmly believed in universal values, against which even the Nobel Prize had to step back. 鲁迅相信普世价值观，为此甚至可以拒绝诺贝尔奖。These principles were universal values, with the aim to lead Chinese literature, as a whole, to world level instead of singling out anybody to let the people further “sleep in their iron house.”<br />
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This shows that Lu Xun was modest and aware of the global position of Chinese literature, and that he had a vision for its development.<br />
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这表明鲁迅很谦逊，对中国文学的国际地位有着清醒的认识，对中国文学的发展有着远见卓识。<br />
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Who would decline a Nobel Prize? Only someone with principles more important than the Nobel Prize. Lu Xun firmly believed in universal values, against which even the Nobel Prize had to step back. <br />
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谁会拒绝诺贝尔奖？除非他的原则比诺贝尔奖更为重要。鲁迅坚信普世价值，即使诺贝尔奖也不得不在这一价值面前退让。<br />
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These principles were universal values, with the aim to lead Chinese literature, as a whole, to world level instead of singling out anybody to let the people further “sleep in their iron house.”<br />
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这些原则是普世价值，旨在把中国文学作为一个整体，带到世界水平，而不是挑出一个人，然后让其他人继续“睡在铁屋子里”。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:40, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
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Several researchers have also interpreted the incident. Foster (2001) pointed to Romain Rolland’s role. Wang (2011) blames the bad quality of the French translation of “Ah Q” by Jing Yinyu as contributing to the fact that Lu Xun was not awarded the Nobel Prize. However, Romain Rolland, 1915 Nobel Prize Laureate, praised this French translation and also supported a Nobel Prize for Lu Xun. Gloria Davies recounts further incidents around this matter.<br />
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一些研究人员也对该事件进行了解释。福斯特（2001）指出罗曼-罗兰德的作用。王晓东（2011）称景印宇的《阿Q正传》法译本质量不过关，是导致鲁迅没有获得诺贝尔奖的原因。然而，1915年诺贝尔奖获得者罗曼-罗兰德对这一法译本大加赞赏，也支持为鲁迅设立诺贝尔奖。格洛丽亚-戴维斯还讲述了与此事相关的其他事件。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 03:01, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
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一些研究人员也对此事进行了解释。福斯特（2001）指出罗曼·罗兰（Romain Rolland）在其中的作用。 王晓东（2011）认为景印宇的《阿Q正传》法译本质量不过关，导致鲁迅未获得诺贝尔奖。 然而，1915年诺贝尔奖获得者罗曼·罗兰（Romain Rolland）对这一法译本大加赞赏，并支持鲁迅获得诺贝尔奖。 格洛丽亚·戴维斯（Gloria Davies）讲述了有关此事的后续事件。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:41, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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一些研究人员也对此事进行了解释。福斯特（2001）指出罗曼·罗兰（Romain Rolland）在其中的作用。 王晓东（2011）将鲁迅未获得诺贝尔奖的原因归咎于景印宇的《阿Q正传》法译本质量不过关。然而，1915年诺贝尔奖获得者罗曼·罗兰（Romain Rolland）对这一法译本大加赞赏，并支持鲁迅获得诺贝尔奖。 格洛丽亚·戴维斯（Gloria Davies）讲述了有关此事的后续事件。--[[User:Xiao Shuangling|Xiao Shuangling]] ([[User talk:Xiao Shuangling|talk]]) 09:54, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling<br />
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==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
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'''Conclusion: Universalism'''<br />
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Lu Xun was very much involved in daily politics in China and fought several fights with other intellectuals and even the Communist Party publically by the means of ''zawen'' (critical essays). For us today, these fights about small and sometimes strange issues seem to characterize its actors as caught in provinciality. However, he was universal – both in his political understanding (recognizing German domestic suppression much earlier than many others and suspecting that even the Nobel Prize could be understood as a tool of mercy towards the underdeveloped nation of China) as well as in his literature. While he wrote literary pieces of the same level as Franz Kafka, he was producing world literature in a climate which was – despite all daily chaos – freer than the one in Germany.<br />
结论:普遍性<br />
鲁迅经常参与中国的日常政治活动，并通过《杂文》公开地与其他知识分子甚至共产党争论过。对今天的我们来说，这些因小而有时奇怪的问题而引发的争论，似乎表明人陷入了狭隘的窠臼。然而，他具有普遍性——无论是在他的政治理解(比许多人更早认识到德国对国内的镇压，甚至怀疑诺贝尔奖可以被理解为对欠发达国家中国的怜悯工具)，在他的文学作品中一样。尽管他的文学作品与弗朗茨·卡夫卡不相上下，但他创作世界文学的环境却比德国更为自由——尽管这里每天都是一片混乱。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 11:01, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
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==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
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Criticism of suspected political motifs behind a Noble Prize for him and of the human rights violations in Germany show that Lu Xun was neither an advocate of total westernization nor that he oriented himself towards the West as a contrast foil for China. He placed nothing less than universal values as the contrast foil to China. True, also the League of Left-wing Writers was a short-lived daily-policy tool within China (Lu Xun himself said, it “may not last long”), but it represented universal values. He also referred to the children. This was another way of distancing himself from daily politics as he pointed to existential and universal ideals like future, hope, another chance and new people who are innocent; not pre-educated and burdened with the past.<br />
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对鲁迅的诺贝尔奖背后的可疑政治主题和德国侵犯人权的批评表明，鲁迅既不是全盘西化的倡导者，也不是把自己定位于西方，作为中国的对照。他把普世价值作为与中国的对比。诚然，左翼作家联盟在中国是一个短暂的日常政策工具（鲁迅本人说过，它“可能不会长久”），但它代表了普世价值。他还提到了孩子们。这是他与日常政治保持距离的另一种方式，因为他指的是存在主义和普遍的理想，如未来、希望、另一个机会和无辜的新人；不是受过教育的人，也不是背负着过去的重担的人。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 06:37, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
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Paul B. Foster, “The Ironic Inflation of Chinese National Character: Lu Xun’s International Reputation, Romain Rolland’s Critique of ‘The True Story of Ah Q,’ and the Nobel Prize”, ''Modern Chinese Literature and Culture'', 13.1 (Spring, 2001): 141.<br />
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保罗·B·福斯特:中国民族个性的膨胀讽刺地表现为鲁迅享有国际声誉，罗曼·罗兰批判《阿Q正传》获诺贝尔奖，以及《现代中国文学与文化》，13.1（春，2001）：141。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 09:48, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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Jeffrey Wasserstrom: “All I see Around Me is the Same Old Darkness: Gloria Davies on Lu Xun”, Nov 4, 2013, https://goo.gl/HgqmCe. See also Gloria Davies, ''Lu Xun’s Revolution'', Harvard University Press:2012.<br />
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杰夫瑞.瓦瑟施特伦：“我看到周围都是像鲁迅笔下的格洛丽亚·戴维斯一样古老的黑暗”，2013年11月4日，https://goo.gl/HgqmCe。参见《鲁迅的革命》中的格洛丽亚·戴维斯，哈佛大学出版社2012年版。--[[User:XieFan|XieFan]] ([[User talk:XieFan|talk]]) 09:48, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
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Lu Xun’s reception of Western culture was not uncritical; he was shaped by both his heritage education and his Western education, applying universal standards to the Chinese development - a Chinese man with universal values – a true citizen of the world.鲁迅并非“全盘西化”，他的价值观受到传统教育和西方教育的影响，用普世价值来判斷中国发展——一个具有普世价值的中国人——一个真正的世界公民。<br />
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鲁迅对西方文化的接受并不是没有批判的;他受到了传统教育和西方教育的双重影响，把普世价值观应用到中国的发展中——一个具有普世价值观的中国人——一个真正的世界公民。--[[User:XiaoXi|XiaoXi]] ([[User talk:XiaoXi|talk]]) 11:03, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi<br />
鲁迅并非不加批判完全接受西方文化；用普世价值来判断中国的发展--[[User:Li Yongshan|Li Yongshan]] ([[User talk:Li Yongshan|talk]]) 17:22, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
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'''Appendix: Lu Xun’s two essays in Chinese<br />
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智识过剩'''<br />
虞明<br />
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世界因为生产过剩，所以闹经济恐慌。虽然同时有三千万以上的工人挨饿，但 是粮食过剩仍旧是“客观现实”，否则美国不会赊借麦粉给我们，我们也不会 “丰收成灾”。<br />
然而智识也会过剩的，智识过剩，恐慌就更大了。据说中国现行教育在乡间提 倡愈甚，则农村之破产愈速。这大概是智识的丰收成灾了。美国因为棉花 贱，所以在铲棉田了。中国却应当铲智识。这是西洋传来的妙法。<br />
西洋人是能干的。五六年前，德国就嚷着大学生太多了，一些政治家和教育 家，大声疾呼的劝告青年不要进大学。现在德国是不但劝告，而且实行铲除智识 了：例如放火烧毁一些书籍，叫作家把自己的文稿吞进肚子去，还有，就是把一群 群的大学生关在营房里做苦工，这叫做“解决失业问题”。<br />
中国不是也嚷着文法科的大学生过剩吗？其实何止文法科。<br />
就是中学生也太多了。要用“严厉的”会考制度，像铁扫帚似的——刷， 刷，刷，把大多数的智识青年刷回“民间”去。<br />
智识过剩何以会闹恐慌？中国不是百分之八九十的人还不识字吗？然而智识过 剩始终是“客观现实”，而由此而来的恐慌，也是“客观现实”。智识太多了，不是心 活，就是心软。<br />
心活就会胡思乱想，心软就不肯下辣手。结果，不是自己不镇静，就是妨害别 人的镇静。于是灾祸就来了。所以智识非铲除不可。<br />
然而单是铲除还是不够的。必须予以适合实用之教育，第一，是命理学——要乐 天知命，命虽然苦，但还是应当乐。第二，是识相学——要“识相点”，知道点近代武 器的利害。至少，这两种适合实用的学问是要赶快提倡的。<br />
提倡的方法很简单：—— 古代一个哲学家反驳唯心论，他说，你要是怀疑这碗麦饭的物质是否存在，那最好 请你吃下去，看饱不饱。现在譬如说罢，要叫人懂得电学，最好是使他触电，看痛 不痛；要叫人知道飞机等类的效用，最好是在他头上驾起飞机，掷下炸弹，看死不死 ……<br />
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有了这样的实用教育，智识就不过剩了。亚门！<br />
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七月十二日。<br />
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The world is in economic panic because of overproduction. More than 30 million workers are starving, but the surplus is still a reality, or the United States would not have lent us wheat flour on credit, and we would not have had a "bumper harvest".<br />
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But there will be an excess of intellectuals, too, and the panic will be even greater. It is said that the more China's current education is promoted in the countryside, the faster the countryside will come down, which is probably due to the bumper harvest of wisdom. The United States is shoveling cotton because it's cheap. As for China, following the example of the west, intellectuals should be shoveled. Westerners are capable. Five or six years ago, Germany shouted that there were too many college students, and some politicians and educators urged the young not to go to university. Apart from that, the Germans is now eliminating intellectuals. For example, burning some books, telling writers to swallow their manuscripts, and locking groups of college students in barracks to do hard work, which is called "solving the problem of unemployment." <br />
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China also complains about the surplus of students majoring in art and law. Actually it's more than art and law. Even the number of middle school students is overwhelming. The "severe" examination system should be used like an iron broom -- brush most of the intellectual youth back to the ground.<br />
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Why does excess intellectuals cause panic? Isn't there 80 or 90 percent of Chinese people still illiterate? But excess intellectuals is always an objective fact, and so is the resulting panic. Too much wisdom causes either wandering minds or soft hearts. The former will lead to entangled thoughts and the latter to vacillation, the result of which is bother himself or disturb others. Then came the disaster. Wisdom must be eradicated. <br />
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But eradication alone is not enough. An education suitable for practical use must be given. The first is numerology -- to be happy to know one's destiny, and to be happy even though one's life is tough. Second, it is the learning of getting points -- we should try our best to know the advantages and disadvantages of modern weapons. At least, these two kinds of practical knowledge should be advocated as soon as possible.<br />
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The method is very simple. An ancient philosopher refuted idealism. He said, if you doubt the material existence of the bowl of rice, you'd better eat it, see if you are stuffed. Now, for example, if you want to teach a man electricity, you'd better give him an electric shock and see if it hurts. To teach a person the utility of planes, you'd better fly an airplane on his head, throw a bomb, see if he die or not...<br />
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With such a practical education, there will be no excess of wisdom. Amen! --[[User:Xu Jia|Xu Jia]] ([[User talk:Xu Jia|talk]]) 03:15, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia<br />
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==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
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Lu Xun to Tai Jingnong, 12 February 1933, Lu Xun shuxinji (Collected Correspondence of Lu Xun) (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1976), Vol. 1, p. 354; Zou Taofen, Taofen wenji (Collected Works of Taofen) (Hong Kong: Joint Publishing Co. Ltd., 1957), Vol. 1, p. 73.<br />
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《鲁迅致台静农》，1933年2月12日，鲁迅书信集（鲁迅合集）（北京：人民文学出版社，1976），第1卷，第354页；邹韬奋文集（韬奋合集）（香港：联合出版社集团，1957），第1卷，第73页。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 08:51, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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《鲁迅致台静农》，1933年2月12日，徐迅书信集（鲁迅合集）（北京：人民文学出版社，1976），第一卷，第354页；邹韬奋，韬奋文集（韬奋合集）（香港：联合出版有限公司，1957），第一卷。第73页。--[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:26, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
'''华德焚书异同论''' <br />
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孺牛<br />
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德国的希特拉先生们一烧书，中国和日本的论者们都比之于秦始皇。然而秦始皇实在冤枉得很，他的吃亏是在二世而亡，一班帮闲们都替新主子去讲他的坏话了。<br />
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==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
不错，秦始皇烧过书，烧书是为了统一思想。但他没有烧掉农书和医书；他收罗许多别国的“客卿”，并不专重“秦的思想”，倒是博采各种的思想的。<br />
Exactly, First Emperor of Qin had burned books to unify thoughts. Yet, books for agriculture and medicine were saved; he had embraced many guest officials from other states and was open to all kinds of ideas without only holding "thought's in Qin State" as highly esteemed.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:51, 13 November 2020 (UTC) Xu Mengdie<br />
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It is true that Qin Shihuang burned books to unify his thoughts. But he did not burn down agricultural and medical books; he collected many "alienministers" from other countries, and did not focus exclusively on "Qin's thoughts", but collected various ideas.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 07:40, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
秦人重小儿；始皇之母，赵女也，赵重妇人，所以我们从“剧秦”的遗文中，也看不见轻贱女人的痕迹。<br />
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People in the state of Qin attached great importance to children, while the state of Zhao emphasized women. And the mother of First Emperor of Qin is a woman from country Zhao. Therefore, we see no trace of contempt for women even in literature which depreciated Qin.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:22, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
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==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
希特拉先生们却不同了，他所烧的首先是“非德国思想”的书，没有容纳客卿的魄力；其次是关于性的书，这就是毁灭以科学来研究性道德的解放，结果必将使妇 人和小儿沉沦在往古的地位，见不到光明。而可比于秦始皇的车同轨，书同文……之类的大事业，他们一点也做不到。<br />
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Hitler, however, was different. The books he chose to burn first were “non-German thought”; next were the books about sex, which destroyed the research of sex in a scientific way, leading to a lower status of women and children. Compare to Qin Shi Huang, he was not enough. --[[User:Yang chenting|Yang chenting]] ([[User talk:Yang chenting|talk]]) 03:21, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting<br />
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==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
阿剌伯人攻陷亚历山德府的时候，就烧掉了那里的图书馆，那理论是：如果那些书籍所讲的道理，和《可兰经》相同，则已有《可兰经》，无须留了；倘使不同，则是异端，不该留了。这才是希特拉先生们的嫡派祖师——虽然阿剌伯人也是“非德国的”——和秦的烧书，是不能比较的。<br />
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When the Arabo people captured Alexandria House, they burned down the library there. The theory is: if the truths of those books are the same as the Koran, then there is already the Koran, and there is no need to keep those books. ; If it is different, it is a heresy and should not stay. This is the direct ancestor of the Hitlers-although the Arabo people are also "non-German"-and burning of books in Qin Dynasty is incomparable.--[[User:Yang Hairong|Yang Hairong]] ([[User talk:Yang Hairong|talk]]) 12:10, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
但是结果往往和英雄们的豫算不同。始皇想皇帝传至万世，而偏偏二世而亡，赦免了农书和医书，而秦以前的这一类书，现在却偏偏一部也不剩。<br />
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But the results are often different from those of the heroes.The first emperor wanted the emperor to pass on to the world, but the second died, pardoning the books of agriculture and medicine, and the former books of the Qin Dynasty had no one left--[[User:YangHui|YangHui]] ([[User talk:YangHui|talk]]) 05:53, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
希特拉先生一上台，烧书，打犹太人，不可一世，连这里的黄脸干儿们，也听得兴高彩烈，向被压迫者大加嘲笑，对讽刺文字放出讽刺的冷箭来——到 底还明白的冷冷的讯问道：你们究竟要自由不要？不自由，无宁死。现在你们为什么不去拚死呢？<br />
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==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
这回是不必二世，只有半年，希特拉先生的门徒 们在奥国一被禁止，连党徽也改成三色玫瑰了。最有趣的是因为不准叫口号，大家就以手遮嘴，用了“掩口式”。<br />
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This time there is no need for the second king, is only half a year. Mr. Hitler’s disciples were banned in Austria, and even the party emblem was changed to a three-color rose. The most interesting thing is that because slogans are not allowed to be called, everyone covers their mouths with their hands and uses the "mouth cover".--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 09:16, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
这真是一个大讽刺。刺的是谁，不问也 罢，但可见讽刺也还不是“梦呓”，质之黄脸干儿们，不知以为何如？六月二十八日。<br />
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==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
When we define an academic category like "Chinese studies", we pay respect to the fact that the world historically has developed differently in different regions. Of course the world was far less connected than today, with slow carriers like horses and ships and often bad or risky infrastructure like roads.<br />
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在定义诸如“中国研究”之类的学术类别时，我们要尊重这一事实：从历史上看，全球不同地区发展轨迹不同。当然，那是马匹和船只等运输工具速度慢，马路等基础设施经常是破烂不堪或有造成事故的风险，当时世界的联系远比现在低。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:54, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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<br />
在定义诸如“中国研究”之类的学术类别时，我们要尊重这一事实：从历史上看，全球不同地区发展轨迹不同。当然，那是马匹和船只等运输工具速度慢，马路等基础设施经常是破烂不堪或有造成事故的风险，当时世界的联系远没有现在紧密。--[[User:Wu Xiang|Wu Xiang]] ([[User talk:Wu Xiang|talk]]) 15:20, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
Therefore it appears on first sight that these regions have developed their culture, their civilization and even first written languages on their own, independently. The oldest evidence of written civilizations, dating back around 3500 years BC, we find in the fertile crescent Mesopotamia with the clay tablets of the Sumerer. A little bit later there is evidence in Ancient Egypt, then in Proto-India and finally also in China.<br />
因此，乍一看这些地区独立地发展了自己的文化、文明甚至最早的文字。最古老的文字文明的证据，可以追溯到公元前3500年左右，我们在美索不达米亚肥沃的新月地带发现了苏美尔人的泥板。不久后，人们在古埃及发现了佐证，然后是在原始印度，最后在中国也出现了一些证据。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:18, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
But the more we explore history, the more fascinating evidence comes to light that these seemingly independently developing regions have had more trade relations and exchange of ideas than seems likely bearing in mind mobility: The Silk Road is not only rediscovered and reevaluated historically, but also rebuilt as a political agenda today.<br />
但是，我们探究历史探究得越多，就会有显露更多振奋人心的证据，证明这些看似独立发展的区域，其实早有过贸易交往与思想交流，而且比我们以为的流动性大得多：从历史的角度来看，今天不仅是重新发现与重估了丝绸之路，并且将其重建为政治议程。--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 07:04, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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但随着对历史探究的深入，有更多振奋人心的证据表明，这些看似独立发展的地区拥有的贸易关系和思想交流远比我们以为的流动性大得多。丝绸之路不仅是在历史上被重新发现和重新定位，而且如今已作为政治议程进行了重建。--[[User:Lin Xin|Lin Xin]] ([[User talk:Lin Xin|talk]]) 13:14, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
We today find early evidence of European civilizations in America and Asia as well as the Chinese civilization also in America and Europe.<br />
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Cultural Science is more influenced by its subject than other sciences, since we are part of it and cannot leave it to examine it. The history of cultural science has developed from the first times of intercultural encounters to today’s life, in which cultures are mixed and people understand each other as being part of different cultures simultaneously.<br />
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今天，我们发现了美洲和亚洲欧洲文明以及美洲和欧洲中华文明的早期证据。<br />
与其他科学相比，文化科学受其学科影响更大，因为我们是文化科学的一部分，便不能利用它去研究其本身。文化科学的历史已经从第一次跨文化的相遇发展到今天的生活，在这种文化中，文化是混杂的，彼此理解的人们同时又是不同文化的一部分。--[[User:Yi Zichu|Yi Zichu]] ([[User talk:Yi Zichu|talk]]) 03:22, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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今天，我们发现了美洲和亚洲欧洲文明以及美洲和欧洲中华文明存在的早期证据。<br />
与其他科学相比，文化科学受其学科影响更大。作为文化科学的一部分，我们不能利用它去研究其本身。文化科学的历史已经从第一次跨文化的相遇发展到今天的生活，在这种文化中，文化是混杂的，彼此理解的人们同时又是不同文化的一部分。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:27, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
However, there will always be differentiation between cultures, simply because the trends of integration and separation occur at the same time.<br />
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When there is different cultures, there is an interest in comparing these. This medal has two sides. As soon as you start to compare, you may value. Cultural encounters happened before there were experts or a whole discipline.<br />
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然而文化之间总是会有差异的，因为融合和分离的趋势是同时发生的。<br />
当存在不同的文化时，比较这些文化是有意义的。这个奖牌有两面。一旦你开始比较，你可能会珍惜。文化交流发生在专家或整个学科出现之前。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:41, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，文化之间总是存在差异，只是因为融合和分离的趋势同时出现。<br />
当存在不同的文化时，将这些文化做对比是有意义的。这枚奖牌有两面性。一旦你开始比较，你可能会重视。在文化专家或整个学科出现之前，文化交流就已经发生了。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:20, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，文化之间总是存在差异，仅仅是因为融合和分离的趋势同时出现。<br />
当存在不同的文化时，将这些文化做对比是有意义的。这枚奖牌有两面性。一旦你开始比较，你可能会重视。在文化专家或整个学科出现之前，文化交流就已经发生了。--[[User:Li Lingyue|Li Lingyue]] ([[User talk:Li Lingyue|talk]]) 04:34, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
So the first comparisons between cultures were ethnocentric: You compared whatever you encountered as “other”, “foreign” or “alien”, to your own culture. This was often accompanied with feelings. There was both, the feeling of fear of the unknown and curiosness in the exotic.<br />
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因此，第一次文化间的比较是种族中心主义的：你把你遇到的“其他的”、“外国的”或“异族的”文化与你自己的文化进行比较。这常常伴随着感情。既有对未知事物的恐惧感，又有异国风情中的好奇。--[[User:Yu Ni|Yu Ni]] ([[User talk:Yu Ni|talk]]) 13:16, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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因此，第一次文化比较是一种民族中心主义的体现：人们把所有认为是“其他的”、“外来的”或者“异域的”与本民族文化作比较。这种行为通常着伴随着两种感情，对未知的恐惧和对异族的好奇。--[[User:Wei Honglang|Wei Honglang]] ([[User talk:Wei Honglang|talk]]) 14:20, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
You may categorize civilizations into so-called “high civilizations” and “low civilizations”, into “developed” and “underdeveloped” cultures. This was an ethnocentric approach in the age of cultural relativism. Today in the age of post-growth economy and after tragic experiences of colonialization and missionization, we know that each culture is equal and cannot be ranked to be higher or lower, of more or less value than the other.<br />
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你可以把各种文明分为“高等文明”、“低等文明”、“发达文明”和“不发达文明”。这是文化相对主义时代的一种民族中心主义方法。在经济后增长的今天，在经历了殖民和传教的悲惨经历之后，我们知道，每一种文化都是平等的，不能比较，没有一种文化文化比另一种文化更高级或更低级、更具价值或更少价值。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:00, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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你可以将文明划分为“高等文明”、“低等文明”、“发达文明”和“不发达文明”。这是文化相对主义时代民族中心主义的分法。人类在经历了殖民和传教的悲惨经历之后，在经济后增长的今天，我们知道，每一种文化都是平等的，没有高低贵贱之分。--[[User:Tan Yuanyuan|Tan Yuanyuan]] ([[User talk:Tan Yuanyuan|talk]]) 12:42, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
While very early there were historians collecting knowledge from travel reports or official delegations visiting foreign cultures, in the middle ages handbooks collected the knowledge to describe different cultures. Even the Romans had words for the Chinese (Seres in the North and Sinae in the South) and attributed to Asian-looking people certain characteristics of behaviour, attitudes, value systems, beliefs, morals and character.<br />
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虽然很早以前，有历史学家从旅行报告中或者从政府代表团造访异域文化时候汲取知识，但是中世纪的时候指南书籍都是到处搜集知识来描述不同文化的。哪怕是罗马人也有描述中国人的词语（罗马北方称为Sere，南方称为Sinae），他们还把行为、态度、价值体系、信仰、道德和性格这些特定特征与长有亚洲外貌的人联系在一起。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:08, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
The first in-depth analysis of the Chinese culture through Western people came not with the merchants, but with the Jesuits. How few was known about China can be seen from the fact, that only the Jesuits managed to clarify, that the myth of the two empires, Tartary and Kitai/Cathay, in fact both were the same (China).<br />
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首次通过西方人来深入分析中国文化，不是由商人发起的，而是耶稣会。过去鲜少有人真正了解中国，只有耶稣会设法澄清关于两个帝国的神话，实际上，鞑靼和契丹所指一样，都是指的中国。<br />
--[[User:Yuan Yuchen|Yuan Yuchen]] ([[User talk:Yuan Yuchen|talk]]) 09:02, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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首次深入分析中国文化的西方人不是商人，而是耶稣信徒。了解中国的人有多么少，我们可以从这个事实中看出来：只有耶稣信徒能够分清鞑靼和契丹这两大帝国的神话。实际上这两者都是指中国。--[[User:Yuan Tianyi|Yuan Tianyi]] ([[User talk:Yuan Tianyi|talk]]) 10:43, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
However, the Jesuit’s approach was still ethnocentric and cultural relativist, because by portraying (like Du Halde) China as a seemingly ideal state suitable for mission work, they contributed to subjective views on China.<br />
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然而，耶稣会的分析方法仍然带有种族中心主义和文化相对论的思想。因为通过将中国描绘成一个看起来像是适合进行宣教工作的理想国家（比如杜赫德神父的作品），他们对中国的观点带有主观色彩。--[[User:Zeng Fangyuan|Zeng Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Fangyuan|talk]]) 10:43, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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然而，耶稣会士的分析方法仍然带有种族中心主义和文化相对主义的思想。因为他们带着主观色彩看待中国，所以将中国描绘成一个看似适合进行宣教的理想国度（比如杜赫德神父的作品）。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:18, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
然而，耶稣会的分析方法仍然带有种族中心主义和文化相对论的思想。这是因为他们通过将中国描绘成一个看似适合进行传教工作的理想国度（如杜赫德神父），以至于对中国的观点往往带有主观的色彩。--[[User:Chen Jiangning|Chen Jiangning]] ([[User talk:Chen Jiangning|talk]]) 08:13, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
Around 1720 presumably the French Jesuit Jean-François Noëlas even translated the Dao de jing into Latin.[ Collani, Claudia von, Harald Holz, Konrad Wegmann eds. Uroffenbarung und Daoismus: jesuitische Missionshermeneutik des Daoismus. Europ. University Press, 2008. [Partial retranslation Chinese-Latin-German.]] The translation turns out to deviate from the original in the way that we suddenly find the Christian trinity god in it.<br />
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大约在1720年法国人让·弗朗索瓦·诺埃拉斯甚至将《道德经》翻译为拉丁语。结果证明，译文背离了原文，我们突然在其中发现基督教三位一体的上帝。--[[User:Zeng Liang|Zeng Liang]] ([[User talk:Zeng Liang|talk]]) 09:14, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1720年左右，一位名叫让·弗朗索瓦·诺埃拉斯的法国人甚至将《道德经》翻译成了拉丁文。但他的翻译背离了原文，因为我们突然发现译文中出现了基督教三位一体的上帝。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 14:03, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
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==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
This is the starting point of an ethnocentric tradition to read the self and the own into the other and the alien, instead of respecting the other as a value by itself and allowing it to even challenge the own beliefs. Even the German Christian missionary and sinologist Richard Wilhelm used a Christian language (belief, heavens’ doors, life after death etc.) in his influential 1919 Taoteking translation and in 1925 he translated “god” into the Analects of Confucius.<br />
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这就是种族中心主义的起点，即把自身文化强加于其他文化及外国文化，而非尊重其他文化自身价值，甚至允许其他文化挑战自身信仰。甚至于德国基督教传教士及汉学家理查德•威廉，在其1919年具有影响力的《道德经》译本中使用了基督教语言（信仰、天堂之门、永生等），在1925年在翻译《论语》时加入“上帝”一词。--[[User:Zeng Xinyuan|Zeng Xinyuan]] ([[User talk:Zeng Xinyuan|talk]]) 09:07, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
The missionaries baptized the seemingly “backward” aborigines in several continents, sometimes supported by the sword. A lot of cultures, considered less “developed”, were heavily influenced or even destroyed and extinguished. Earlier, the “Warriors of the Cross” even fought wars and devastated complete regions.<br />
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传教士在一些大洲为看似“落后”的原住民洗礼，有时是因为武力的加持。 许多被认为不那么“发达”的文化受到了严重的影响，甚至被摧毁和灭绝。早些时候，“穿越勇士们”甚至进行了战争，摧毁了整个地区。--[[User:Fancy|Fancy]] ([[User talk:Fancy|talk]]) 08:43, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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传教士在一些大洲为看似“落后”的原住民洗礼，有时还得到武力支持。 许多被认为不那么“发达”的文化受到了严重影响，甚至被摧毁和灭绝。 早些时候，“十字架上的战士”甚至进行了战争，摧毁了整个地区。--[[User:Yang Yue|Yang Yue]] ([[User talk:Yang Yue|talk]]) 09:23, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
The other aspect, the exotization of the other was expressed by the way the first Chinese people who came to Europe were received: They were passed on at tea meetings and gazed at like animals. Soon Chinese goods became the symbol of the exotic. Chinese porcellain and nick-nacks, even Chinese-style buildings were recreated in Europe. <br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
The fever-like admiration of a China image, which certainly was not the true China, is called Chinoiserie. The Chinoiserie even involved European philosophers like Voltaire and Leibniz, who compared China to an ideal country without religion and still moral values, represented by a wise emperor.<br />
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对中国形象的狂热崇拜，当然不是真正的中国，被称为中国风。 中国艺术甚至与伏尔泰和莱布尼兹（Leibniz）之类的欧洲哲学家相提并论，他们将中国比作一个没有宗教信仰和道德价值观的理想国家，以一个明智的皇帝为代表。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:46, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对中国形象的狂热崇拜被称为“中国风”,这当然不是真正的中国。甚至连伏尔泰和莱布尼茨这样的欧洲哲学家也认同这种中国风这种观念，他们把中国比作一个没有宗教和道德价值观的理想国家，由一个明智的皇帝代表。--[[User:You Yuting|You Yuting]] ([[User talk:You Yuting|talk]]) 13:44, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对中国形象的狂热崇拜被称为“中国风”,当然这并不是真正的中国。甚至连伏尔泰和莱布尼茨这样的欧洲哲学家也追逐中国风，他们把中国比作一个没有宗教信仰和道德价值，只以开明君主为代表的理想国度。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 09:27, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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对中国形象的狂热崇拜，当然不是真正的中国，被称为中国风。像伏尔泰和莱布尼茨这样的欧洲哲学家也认同这种中国风这种观念，他们把中国比作一个没有宗教和道德价值观的理想国家，由一个明智的皇帝代表。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 12:29, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
In Europe, the first experts on Chinese culture were entrusted with the task to explain the Chinese culture no longer from the ethnocentric viewpoint, but from a scientific one: Professorships at universities were established. Their early translations show traces of admiration of the exotic. Chinoiserie was also countered by Européerie in China. However, this phase did only last as long as it fit to European politics.<br />
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在欧洲，第一批研究中国文化的专家被委以重任，不再从民族中心主义的观点来解释中国文化，而是从科学的角度来解释: 大学里设立了教授职位。他们早期的翻译显示出对异国情调的赞赏。在中国的欧洲人也反对“中国风”。然而，这一阶段只会在符合欧洲政治的情况下持续。 --[[User:Zhang Ling|Zhang Ling]] ([[User talk:Zhang Ling|talk]]) 14:12, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在欧洲，第一批研究中国文化的专家被委以重任，她们开始不再从民族中心主义的观点，而是从科学的角度来解释中国文化：在大学里设立了教授职位。他们早期的翻译显示出对异国情调的赞赏。在中国的欧洲人也反对“中国风”。然而，这一阶段只会在符合欧洲政治的情况下持续。--[[User:Yao Cheng|Yao Cheng]] ([[User talk:Yao Cheng|talk]]) 14:58, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在欧洲，第一批研究中国文化的专家被委以重任，不再从民族中心的角度解释中国文化，而是从科学的角度解释中国文化：大学教授职位的设立。他们早期的翻译表现出对异国风情的赞赏。在中国的欧洲人也反对“中国风”。然而，这一阶段只会在它适合欧洲政治时持续。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 12:15, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
As soon as the import of colonial goods (and resources) became an economic factor, the (wrong) image of the ideal China changed into a negative one (similarly wrong). Not only mission and belief were motifs to look down on the Chinese culture, but also the comparison of economic development and living standards.<br />
把进口殖民商品作为经济来源会有损中国的积极形象使命和信仰会蔑视中国文化，也是比较经济发展和生活水平的动机。人们不仅会看不起中国文化所弘扬的理念和信仰，也会嘲笑中国人生活水平跟不上经济发展。--[[User:Zhang Peiwen|Zhang Peiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhang Peiwen|talk]]) 12:25, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
一旦殖民商品(和资源)的进口成为一个经济因素，(错误的)理想中国形象就变成了一个负面形象(同样错误的)。使命和信仰不仅是蔑视中国文化的理由，也是比较经济发展和生活水平的依据。--[[User:Yao Jia|Yao Jia]] ([[User talk:Yao Jia|talk]]) 00:19, 16 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
Hegel continued the ethnocentric view on China with his ranking of cultures. Although Confucius already had developed a “Golden Rule” principle comparable to Kant’s “Categorical Imperative”, Hegel declared Chinese philosophy as inferior to European philosophy, and even saw a geographical step by step development from Confucius over Buddha, Zarathustra, the ancient Greek and the Roman philosophy, leading to the European philosophy.<br />
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黑格尔通过其文化排名继续保持对中国的民族主义观点。尽管孔子已经制定了可与康德的“绝对命令”相媲美的“黄金法则”原则，但黑格尔却宣称中国哲学不如欧洲哲学，即使看到孔子和佛陀，扎拉特胡斯特拉，古希腊和古罗马哲学这些促进欧洲哲学发展的逐步发展。--[[User:Zhangqi|Zhangqi]] ([[User talk:Zhangqi|talk]]) 15:31, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
A ladder only second by the Arab philosophy. At the turn from the 19th to the 20th century, China was suddenly considered as static, as “the sick man of Asia”. Actually semi-colonialism in China helped to hinder development there.<br />
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这一阶梯仅次于阿拉伯哲学。19世纪到20世纪之交，人们认为中国一时停滞了，是 "东亚病夫"。但其实中国的半殖民主义进一步阻碍了其发展。<br />
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==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==<br />
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Rereading the reviews of Chinese literature in contemporary Western journals, it is astonishing, how disrespectful even men of letters treated Chinese literature, even during a time, when it was not yet available in translation, so that it is save to say that ethnocentric attitude prevailed over knowledge.<br />
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重读当代西方期刊上关于中国文学的评论，令人吃惊的是，即使是在还没有译文的时期，就连文学家都对中国文学充满了不尊重，可以说民族优越感压倒了知识。--[[User:Zhang Xueyi|Zhang Xueyi]] ([[User talk:Zhang Xueyi|talk]]) 13:32, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
This can be proven by the many mistakes you can find in the reviews (Morrison: the book was of low literary quality, but written in Peking dialect and therefore useful as language learning material; Gützlaff: the protagonist Baoyu is a petulant woman; Giles: the words “Red Chamber Dreams do not appear in the book” etc.). Also, the tradition of the title translation as “Dream of the Red Chamber” can be traced back to the origins of the better translation as “Red Chamber Dreams”, sacrificed by Francis Davis finally in favor of the powerful tool of Morrison’s dictionary calling it “Dream of the Red Chamber”.<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
Here, the exotic was used to make fun of China. Barrow introduces an excerpt, describing the outward appearance of Baoyu and Xifeng, translated by Francis Davis into English, explicitely for the reason to “amuse the beaux and belles”. Francis Davis himself picks two poems from the novel for translation, but not for its own sake, but to use them as a proof for his own (minority) opinion that the Chinese poetry knew a certain, “descriptive” function of poems in novels.<br />
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在这里，这种异域文化常用来取笑中国。巴罗引用了一段描述宝玉和熙凤外貌的文本，弗朗西斯·戴维斯将其翻译成英文版本，很明显其意图是取笑书中的“美人”。弗朗西斯·戴维斯从小说中选了两首诗进行翻译，但他不仅仅是为了这两首诗，而是为了用这两首诗证明自己（少数人）的观点，他认为我们对中国诗有一定了解之后，我们就自然会了解诗歌在小说中的描述性作用。--[[User:Zhang Yu|Zhang Yu]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yu|talk]]) 13:01, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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在这里，异国情调被用来取笑中国。巴罗引用了一段描述宝玉和熙凤外表的片段，由弗朗西斯·戴维斯翻译成英文，显然是为了取笑“书中的美人”。弗朗西斯·戴维斯本人从小说中挑选了两首诗进行翻译，但不是为了诗本身，而是为了证明他自己(少数人)的观点，即他认为我们对中国诗深入了解之后，我们一定会发现中国诗歌在小说中的某种“描写”功能。--[[User:Xiao yining|Xiao yining]] ([[User talk:Xiao yining|talk]]) 06:54, 15 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining<br />
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==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
In 1815 Macao Reverend Robert Morrison (1782-1834) coined the Western translation of the novel’s title by mentioning it in his Dictionary of the Chinese Language as “dreams of the red chamber.”[ He explained the character “妙” as in the novel’s character “妙玉 Meaou yǔh [Miao Yu]” as “the admirable gem, name of one of the female characters in the novel called 紅樓夢 the dreams of the red chamber”, see Robert Morrison: A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts, Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I., 930 pp., here p. 614, left column. 24 years after the print edition was published, this is the first mention and translation of the novel’s title into a Western language known so far. If no earlier occurrence is found it means that Morrison created a translation which has lasted until today almost unchanged.]<br />
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1815年，澳门神父罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison，1782-1834年）在《中国词典》中将《红楼梦》的标题译为“dreams of the red chamber”，这是《红楼梦》小说标题的第一个英译版本。他解释了“妙”字，认为小说中人物“妙玉Meaouyǔh[Miao Yu]意为“令人敬佩的宝石，这是《红楼梦》小说中的一个女性人物的名字”。罗伯特·莫里森的词典分三个部分介绍了中国语言，澳门：东印度公司出版社1815年，第一卷。 I.，930 pp。，此处p。 614，左栏。 印刷版出版24年后，出现了迄今已知的最早的对红楼梦标题的西译版本。 如果未发现更早的记录，则意味着莫里森创造了一直持续到今天几乎不变的对《红楼梦》标题的英译方法。--[[User:Zhang Yujie|Zhang Yujie]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yujie|talk]]) 09:13, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1815年，澳门神父罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison，1782-1834年）在《中国词典》中将《红楼梦》的标题译为“dreams of the red chamber”，这是《红楼梦》小说标题的第一个英译版本。他解释了“妙”字，认为小说中人物“妙玉Meaouyǔh[Miao Yu]意为“令人敬佩的宝石，这是小说《紅樓夢》中一个女性人物的名字”。罗伯特·莫里森的词典分三个部分介绍了中国语言，澳门：东印度公司出版社1815年，第一卷。 I.，930页，此处614页，左栏。 印刷版出版24年后，出现了迄今已知的最早的对红楼梦标题的西译版本。 如果未发现更早的记录，则意味着莫里森创造性地翻译了《红楼梦》标题，且直到今天也几乎未变。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 02:53, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
In 1815 Macao Reverend Robert Morrison (1782-1834) coined the Western translation of the novel’s title by mentioning it in his Dictionary of the Chinese Language as “dreams of the red chamber.”[ He explained the character “妙” as in the novel’s character “妙玉 Meaou yǔh [Miao Yu]” as “the admirable gem, name of one of the female characters in the novel called 紅樓夢 the dreams of the red chamber”, see Robert Morrison: A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts, Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I., 930 pp., here p. 614, left column. 24 years after the print edition was published, this is the first mention and translation of the novel’s title into a Western language known so far. If no earlier occurrence is found it means that Morrison created a translation which has lasted until today almost unchanged.] He chose the plural, which was quite reasonable as there are many dreams in the novel. It appears that 27 years later the plural “dreams” was turned into the singular “dream,” which sounds a bit more general and is therefore also a reasonable translation. Red Chamber Dreams is the most common translation in English and, in its variations, in all Western languages so far.<br />
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1815年，澳门神父罗伯特·莫里森（Robert Morrison，1782-1834年）在《中国词典》中将《红楼梦》的标题译为“dreams of the red chamber”，这是《红楼梦》小说标题的第一个英译版本。他解释了“妙”字，认为小说中人物“妙玉Meaouyǔh[Miao Yu]意为“令人敬佩的宝石，这是小说《紅樓夢》小说中一个女性人物的名字”。罗伯特·莫里森的词典分三个部分介绍了中国语言，澳门：东印度公司出版社1815年，第一卷。 I.，930页，此处614页，左栏。 印刷版出版24年后，出现了迄今已知的最早的对红楼梦标题的西译版本。 如果未发现更早的记录，则意味着莫里森创造性地翻译了《红楼梦》标题，且直到今天也几乎未变。他选择比较合理的复数形式，因为小说中有很多梦。 27年后，复数形式“dreams”变成了单数形式“dream”，比较笼统，故也是合理的。''Red Chamber Dreams''是迄今为止最常见的英文译本，其变体，即''Red Chamber Dream''，也是西方语言中最常见的译本。--[[User:Zhang Yuxing|Zhang Yuxing]] ([[User talk:Zhang Yuxing|talk]]) 02:52, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
He chose the plural, which was quite reasonable as there are many dreams in the novel. It appears that 27 years later the plural “dreams” was turned into the singular “dream,” which sounds a bit more general and is therefore also a reasonable translation. Red Chamber Dreams is the most common translation in English and, in its variations, in all Western languages so far.<br />
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他选择了复数，这是非常合情合理的，因为在小说中有很多的梦想。似乎27年后，复数的“梦想(dreams)”变成了单数的“梦想(dream)”，这听起来更加笼统，因此也是个合理的翻译。在英文中，在所有的变体中，在所有的西方语言中，“Red Chamber Dreams（《红楼梦》）”是迄今为止最常见译本。--[[User:Zhao Xi|Zhao Xi]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xi|talk]]) 01:27, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他选择了复数，因为在小说中有很多梦境，这是很合理的。似乎在27年后，复数“dreams”变成了单数“dream”，这听起来更笼统一些，因此也是一个合理的翻译。“Red Chamber Dreams” 是迄今为止在所有西方语言中，在所有的译本中，最常见的英文译本。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:29, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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他选择了复数形式是很合理的，因为小说中有很多的梦。似乎在27年后，复数的“梦”变成了单数的“梦”，听起来更笼统，因此也是一种合理的翻译。“Red Chamber Dreams”（《红楼梦》）是迄今为止英语中最常见的翻译版本，是所有西方语言的变体形式。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 02:37, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
In 1817 Rev. Robert Morrison published a book for studying Chinese,[ Robert Morrison, A view of China for philological purposes: containing a sketch of Chinese Chronology, Geography, Government, Religion & Customs, designed for the use of persons who study the Chinese language, Macao: East Asia Company Press, 1817, 141 S., hier S. 120-121.] in which he recommended “Dreams of the Red Chamber” as beginner readings, together with the novel Hao qiu zhuan, which was available mostly in English and partly in Portuguese by 1719, and fully in English by 1761. Both were written in colloquial style.<br />
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1817年，罗伯特·莫里森牧师出版了一本研究汉语的书，[罗伯特·莫里森，从语言学的角度看中国：包含中国年表，地理，政府，宗教和习俗的梗概，旨在供学习汉语的人使用。 澳门：东亚公司出版社，1817年，141 S.，hier S. 120-121。]，其中他推荐《红楼梦》作为初学者阅读，包括小说《好逑传》，这本小说到1719年大部分都是用英语撰写，部分用葡萄牙语撰写，到1761年全部变成了英文版。两种语言都是口语化的。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 07:33, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1817年，启罗伯特·莫里森牧师出版了一本学习中文的书,[罗伯特·莫里森,从语言学的角度看中国:包含中国年表、地理、政府、宗教和习俗,旨在供学习汉语的人使用,澳门:东亚公司出版社,1817年,141 S., hier S. 120-121.] 在这本书中，他推荐《红楼梦》和小说《好逑传》作为初学者读物。到1719年，《好逑传》主要以英文出版，部分以葡萄牙文出版，到1761年完全以英文出版。两者都是用口语化的。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:53, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
Morrison claims that Dream was written in Peking dialect. This does not hold true, since the author’s family Cao came from the South and many people in the novel have Nanking dialect sprinkles. In fact, the highly artful and intentional switch of dialects and sociolects contributed to the later fame of the novel. Morrison’s mistake developed its own tradition.[ Even in 1995, you could read that the Dreams is written in Peking dialect, cf. Shu Changshan, Die Rezeption Thomas Manns in China, 1995, Frankfurt: Lang, 326 pp. At least Tong Yao, Die Vielfältigkeit der Literatur, 2006 mentions both Peking and Nanking dialects.]<br />
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莫里森声称《梦》是用北京方言写成的。但事实并非如此，因为作者曹家来自南方，小说中的许多人物都有南京方言的点缀。事实上，方言和社会语的高度巧妙和有意的转换为这部小说后来的名声做出了贡献。莫里森的错误发展了自己的传统。[即使在1995年，大家也可以读到“《梦》是用北京方言写的”，参见舒长山、托马斯·曼斯的《中国的梦》（1995），法兰克福:朗，326页。至少佟耀《文学之声》（2006）同时提到了北京方言和南京方言。]--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 05:23, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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莫里森声称《红楼梦》是用北京方言写的，但事实并非如此。因为作者所在的曹氏家族来自南方，而小说中许多人物也都夹杂了一些零碎的南京方言。事实上，后来这部小说名声大噪，也都离不开小说中方言与社会语言之间及其巧妙而又有意为之的语言转换。而莫里森的错误也延续下来形成传统了。[甚至在1995年，我们仍会读到说《红楼梦》是用北京方言写的。参见舒长山、托马斯•曼斯的《中国的梦》（1995），法兰克福：朗，326页。至少佟耀《文学之声》(2006)则同时提及了北京方言和南京方言。]--[[User:Yi Huan|Yi Huan]] ([[User talk:Yi Huan|talk]]) 07:54, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
Barrow mentioned the title “[...] a Chinese novel called Hung-low-Mung, or, The Red Chamber Dreams” on June 4, 1819, in the Quarterly Review. He inserted this reference into a review[ My own findings, so far not discussed in 20th century hongxue, and published first in October 2010. John Barrow, “Art. IV Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited. By Clarke Abel F.L.S. London 1818”, in: William Gifford ed., Quarterly Review 21:41 (January 1819) S. 67-91, hier S. 79-80. This edition appeared (only by) June 4, 1819 with 13,000 copies. The author follows here the argumentation of the assignment to the author Barrow due to the following indications: “Gentleman's Magazine (Mar. 1844), 246-47. The article's author refers to #415 and #438 (including a specific reference), both of which are on the same topic and are by Barrow. Cf. also the discussion of infanticide (p. 76) and Raffles's account of Java reviewed by Barrow in #422. In his Q[uarterly] R[eview] articles, it was Barrow's signature practice to refer to his own works, see “Quarterly Review Archive” http://www.rc.umd.edu/ reference/qr/index/41.html, last visited March 10, 2018.] of Clarke Abel’s report of a journey through China.[ Clarke Abel, Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited, F.L.S. London 1818.]<br />
<br />
巴罗提到书名“[……《红楼梦》，1819年6月4日在《季刊》上发表的。他在一篇评论中引用了这篇文章 [ 我自己的发现，到目前为止还没有在20世纪的红学中讨论过，并于2010年10月首次发表。约翰·巴罗《艺术》四系列中关于一八一六年和一八一七年在中国内地的旅行和往返中国的航行的叙述;其中记载了阿默斯特勋爵派往北京朝廷的最有趣的事务，以及他访问过的国家的观察。By Clarke Abel F.L.S. London 1818”, in: William Gifford ed., Quarterly Review 21:41 (January 1819) S. 67-91, hier S. 79-80. 这个版本出版(到1819年6月4日)有13000册。以下是作者对指派给作者巴罗的任务的论证，理由如下:“绅士杂志(1844年3月)，246-47。本文作者引用了#415和#438(包括一个特定的引用)，它们都是关于同一个主题，都是巴罗写的。另外巴罗在第422页评论了关于杀婴的讨论和莱佛士对爪哇的描述。在他的文章中，巴罗的标志性做法是提及自己的作品，参见“季度评论档案”http://www.rc.umd.edu/ reference/qr/index/41。html，上次访问于2018年3月10日中克拉克·阿贝尔关于中国之旅的报道。[克拉克·阿贝尔，《1816年和1817年在中国内地的一次旅行和一次往返中国的航行》;书中记述了阿默斯特勋爵派往北京朝廷的一些最有趣的事务，以及访问过的一些国家的见闻，载于1818年伦敦《F.L.S.》。--[[User:Zhou Luoping|Zhou Luoping]] ([[User talk:Zhou Luoping|talk]]) 02:11, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
He interrupted his review with an excursus on the uniform appearance and static nature of the Chinese, in line with the contemporary China-bashing of Herder and Hegel. For contemporary Europeans, the Chinese appeared abnormally uniform and simple in their clothes and appearance. <br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
They would not be subordinated to the tyranny of fashion; their culture was static. In order to entertain the “belles and beaux of Great Britain,” Barrow provides a foil to this general impression by quoting the descriptions of the garments and anatomy of two characters, Wang Xifeng and Jia Baoyu, from chapter 3 of J. Davis’ translation of Dream.<br />
<br />
他们不会服从时尚专制，他们的文化是静态的。 为了娱乐“不列颠的淑女和绅士”，巴罗通过引用戴维斯的《梦》译本第3章中对两个角色王熙凤和贾宝玉的服装与解剖学的描述，为这种总体印象锦上添花。--[[User:Zhou Shuyao|Zhou Shuyao]] ([[User talk:Zhou Shuyao|talk]]) 02:27, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
他们不会屈从于时尚专制，他们的文化是静止的。为了满足“英国淑女和绅士”，约翰•巴罗引用了约翰•弗朗西斯•戴维斯《红楼梦》翻译的第三回里面小说人物王熙凤和贾宝玉的着装和相貌描写,为衬托这种一般印象。--[[User:Tan Xinjie|Tan Xinjie]] ([[User talk:Tan Xinjie|talk]]) 11:55, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
In fact the graphic comparisons given in these descriptions were simply strange to Europeans of that time, since they apparently did not correspond to the European’s own ideal of beauty.<br />
Even in 1842 Gützlaff criticized: “the author [makes] many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] the style is without any art […] whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage”[ “Amongst the novels of the Chinese, this work holds a decidedly high rank. The author, after making many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] Having brought this tedious story to a conclusion, in expressing our opinion about the literary merits of the performance, we may say that the style is without any art, being literally the spoken language of the higher classes in the northern provinces. Some words that are used in a sense different from that in ordinary writings, and others are formed for the occasion, to express provincial sounds. But after reading one volume the sense is easily understood, and whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage.” ibid., p. 273.]<br />
事实上，这些描述中的形象对比对当时的欧洲人来说很奇怪，因为它们显然不符合欧洲人自己对美的理想。<br />
甚至1842年吉士笠批评道:“作者(使)许多人抗议说他不能做正义的主题,这是在书中唯一的真理[…]这风格没有任何艺术[…]凡希望熟悉法院北部方言说话口气的人,可以详细考察这个有优势的作品”(“在中国的小说,这作品绝对排名靠前。作者在许多人抗议说他不能公平对待之后,这确实是在书中唯一的真理[…]总结一下这个乏味的故事，关于文学价值表现表达我们的意见,我们可以说风格即没有任何艺术,是北部省份字面上更高的口语层次。有些词在某种意义上不同于普通文字，有些词则是为了表达地方的声音而专门造出来的。但是，读完一卷之后，这种意义就很容易理解了，任何想熟悉北方宫廷方言的人，都可以读一下这本书，从中获益。"同上，第273页。]--[[User:Zhou Siqing|Zhou Siqing]] ([[User talk:Zhou Siqing|talk]]) 11:34, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
In 1867, 78 years after the first Chinese printed edition, we find a first real in-depth review of two pages by William Frederick Mayers:[ William Frederick Mayers, in: Notes and Queries (Dec 31, 1867) pp. 167-168, here p. 167. Mayers was Chinese secretary of the British Legation at Peking. He gives also short extracts in translation: <br />
“Vast as is Heaven above or Earth below –<br />
Sighs may such limits fill for passion vainly past <br />
Grieve for the senseless youth, the hapless maiden’s woe ! <br />
Not oft is love’s light pledge redeem’ed at last ! ” (p. 167) […] <br />
Vain to be soft in temper, mild in ways, <br />
Fair as the fairest … (p. 168) <br />
[…] <br />
Not often shines <br />
thy longings too are vain ! ” (p. 168)].]<br />
<br />
在1867年，也就是第一本中文版出版78年后，我们发现了威廉·弗雷德里克·迈尔斯第一次真正深入的评论，有两页纸那么长。（《备忘和查询》（1867，12月31）中记载，迈尔斯是英国驻北京公使馆的中国秘书。他还摘录了一些简短的译文:<br />
“苍苍穹苍，茫茫大地——<br />
但愿这无限的叹息填满激情的往昔，<br />
为无谓的青春悲叹，为不幸少女悲哀!”<br />
爱情的轻誓终不能兑现!“(167页)[……]<br />
性情温和，行为温顺，美如天至，都是枉然……(168页)<br />
[……]<br />
你的渴望并非时常闪耀，也枉然!”(168页)]。)--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:00, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
“If it be lawful to avow a feeling approaching to enthusiasm for any Chinese production, The Hung Low Mêng 紅樓夢 or ‘Dreams of the Red Chamber’ is beyond possibility of cavil the work for which genuine admiration may be expressed. What, in English literature, the writings of Thackeray and Bulwer are in comparison with the wearisome and unskilful productions of previous generations, such is the Hung Low Mêng when compared with the works of fiction that have emanated from other Chinese authors.<br />
<br />
如果能够依法公开宣布我们对于任何一部中国作品近乎狂热的喜爱，红楼梦将无可挑剔地成为一部最值得对其倾诉真挚仰慕之情的作品。英国文学中，萨克雷和布尔沃的之前的作品与萨克雷和沃尔本人的作品相比显得乏味而笨拙，中国其他作家的作品和《红楼梦》相比也是如此。--[[User:Zhou Yuanqu|Zhou Yuanqu]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yuanqu|talk]]) 09:29, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
manated from other Chinese authors. Human character in its complex variety of shades, the intricacies of family relations, the force of passion and the torture of disappointed yearnings after love are pourtrayed with a degree of skill and knowledge such as in truth suggests a resemblance with the two great master-spirits of English romance; whilst, as in Nature's own drama of existence, the reflections of storm and sunshine are closely interlaced, and the lighter thread of comedy runs side by side with the dark main-strand of a story which opens with the omens of sorrow and is conducted to a tearful end. If, at the same time, a faint – a very faint – tinge of the supernatural is allowed to show itself in the conception of the tale, this is not only in full accord with the inclinations of the people for whom the work is written, but is also far less obtrusive than the similar element which pervades more than one of our own most celebrated fictions. […]”<br />
Reading through almost 80 years of reviews, during which more and more chapters of the novel became available, the ethnocentric attitude gradually changes to the scientific one and finally, with Mayr’s review of 1867 to a dialectic one, not only admitting that the Chinese novel was a piece of world literature, but even leaving open the possibility that it surpassed literary achievements of the own culture. This process certainly has been brought to a good end with the establishment of further diversified Chinese Studies in Europe and the USA, with the role of overseas Chinese at American universities, with further translations especially through Franz Kuhn in the 1930s and with the establishment of the German China Association in the 1950s.<br />
由其他中国作家授权。人性具有多种多样的色调，复杂的家庭关系，激情的力量以及对恋爱后的失望和所受的折磨，都带有一定程度的技能和知识，诸如英国浪漫史，实际上暗示着这两种伟大的大师精神的相似之处 ；同时，就像自然界存在自身的戏剧一样，暴风雨和阳光的反映紧密交织在一起，喜剧的轻松线索与故事的黑暗主线并肩而行，故事以悲伤的征兆开始，并以泪收场。如果同时允许在故事的概念中表现出淡淡的（极其淡的）超自然色彩，这不仅完全符合这本书所面向的读者的喜好，而且也远没有我们自己的一部最著名的小说中普遍存在的类似元素那么引人注目。<br />
[…]””<br />
阅读80年的大多数评论,在此期间,越来越多的小说章节可供借鉴,民族中心主义的态度最终逐渐改变为科学,梅尔（Mayr）对1867年的评论是一种辩证法，它不仅承认中国小说是世界文学作品中的一部分，而且甚至没有公开其超越自身文化的文学成就的可能性。随着在欧洲和美国建立更多多元化的中文研究，在美国大学中扮演海外华人的角色，特别是在1930年代通过Franz Kuhn进行的进一步翻译以及 1950年代的中德协会的建立。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 12:27, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
During its 60 years of history, the German China Association (next to the developing chairs of Chinese Studies at universities and next to other organizations dealing with China like friendship associations and Confucius Institutes) has helped to overcome prejudices, cultural relativism with diversity and tolerance. This is especially challenging, because the cultures and languages are quite distant and German media and internet community tends to bash China.<br />
<br />
在60多年的历史中，德中协会（次于正在发展中的大学里的中国研究主席，也次于其他与中国共事的组织，如友谊协会和孔子学院）帮助克服了偏见，具有多样性和宽容性的文化相对论。 这尤其具有挑战性，因为文化和语言相距遥远，而且德国媒体和互联网社区倾向于抨击中国。--[[User:Zhumeimei|Zhumeimei]] ([[User talk:Zhumeimei|talk]]) 15:50, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
During the last 20 years, the German China Association was shaped through its prolific president, Gregor Paul, who has shaped the prestige of the Association with his sharp and precise analysis of a common logic in China and the West as well as universal values, including human rights, worth to strive for both in the West and in China. His entertaining and informative lectures used a rhethoric often referring to persuasive conventional wisdom, e.g. that differences often come from different opinions instead of a difference of the nature of the things, as can be seen from a quarrel with his wife about what both remembered had happened the day before.<br />
<br />
在过去20年间，德中协会是由其多产的主席格雷戈·保罗所塑造，他通过尖锐又精准地分析中西方的共同逻辑，以及分析包括中西方都值得为之奋斗的人权在内的普世价值，从而树立了协会的威望。他运用修辞手法进行寓教于乐的演讲，往往是关于一些具有说服力的传统大智慧。比如，分歧往往源于观点的不同而非事物性质的不同，这点从保罗和其妻子关于昨天发生之事的争论中可看出。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 12:37, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
在过去的20年里，德中协会是由其多产的主席格雷戈·保罗所塑造，他通过尖锐又精准地分析中西方的共同逻辑，以及分析包括中西方都值得为之奋斗的包括人权在内的普世价值，从而树立了协会的威望。他运用修辞手法进行寓教于乐的演讲，往往是关于一些具有说服力的传统大智慧。比如，分歧往往源于观点的不同而非事物性质的不同，我们可以从保罗和他妻子关于昨天发生之事的对话中可看出。--[[User:ZHOUYUJUAN|ZHOUYUJUAN]] ([[User talk:ZHOUYUJUAN|talk]]) 12:30, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
Paul is a consequent logician and a real universalist and he has added to Germany’s international reputation as “the land of poets and thinkers”.<br />
The process of doing more justice to China today culminates in the cooperation between Chinese and Western scholars at international conferences, in research projects or international book projects like A New Literary History of Modern China, Harvard University Press 2017.<br />
<br />
保尔是一位相应的逻辑学家，也是一位真正的普世主义者，他为德国 "诗人和思想家的国度 "的国际声誉添砖加瓦。这个过程中，对待当代中国也变得更加公正了，这激励着中西方的学者在国际会议中合作，在研究项目或国际图书项目中的合作，如2017年哈佛大学出版的《新编中国现代文学史》。--[[User:Zhu Xu|Zhu Xu]] ([[User talk:Zhu Xu|talk]]) 14:45, 15 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Europeans (and later US-Americans) have made a contribution to Chinese Studies in general. They were influenced heavily by the idealizers (Jesuits, European philosophers of the enlightenment) and by China-bashers (Hegel, the German emperor...). It took 100 years for a Chinese piece of world literature to be recognized as such in Europe. But today, Chinese literature and culture is recognized with the Nobel Prize and Confucius Institutes do successful work in the whole work promoting and exporting Chinese culture abroad.<br />
<br />
总体而言，欧洲人（以及后来的美国人）为“中国学”做出了贡献。 “中国学”曾受到理想主义者（耶稣会士，欧洲启蒙哲学家）和批判中国以赢取政治筹码者（黑格尔，德国皇帝……）的严重影响，中国的一部世界文学历时百年才被欧洲认可。但是今天，中国文学和文化获得了诺贝尔奖，孔子学院在促进向外传播中国文化的工作中取得了成功。--[[User:Zou Xinyu2|Zou Xinyu2]] ([[User talk:Zou Xinyu2|talk]]) 09:37, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Zou Xinyu<br />
<br />
总体而言，欧洲人（以及后来的美国人）为“汉学”做出了贡献。 “汉学”曾受到理想主义者（如耶稣会成员，欧洲启蒙哲学家）和中国抨击者（如黑格尔，德国皇帝……）的严重<br />
影响，一部世界文学中的中国作品需要历时百年才被欧洲认可。但是今天，中国文学和文化获得了诺贝尔奖的认可，孔子学院在促进向外传播中国文化的工作中也取得了成功。<br />
--[[User:Zhou Yiwen|Zhou Yiwen]] ([[User talk:Zhou Yiwen|talk]]) 11:14, 14 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Volunteer==<br />
However, we should not overestimate the European contribution. There are still examples of ethnocentrism, even of religiously motivated reading of things into Chinese literature. One of these examples is the 10 volume History of Chinese Literature published in Bonn. In two volumes, the one about the origins of Chinese literature and the one on Chinese poetry, a German sinologist, who formerly was a priest, defines, that the origin of Chinese literature lies in the dialogue of the author with god.<br />
<br />
然而，我们不应高估欧洲的贡献。现在仍然有民族中心主义的例子，甚至是出于宗教动机对中国文学作品的解读。在波恩出版的10卷《中国文学史》就是其中之一。德国汉学家在《中国文学起源论》和《中国诗歌论》两卷中，曾任神父的汉学家对中国文学的起源进行了界定:中国文学的起源在于作者与上帝的对话。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 05:27, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Volunteer==<br />
This reminds us again of the Jesuit reading of things into Chinese texts, it reminds us of the attempts, to impose your own culture on other seemingly backward cultures, in this case even the try to impose the Western god on the Chinese culture of a time, when China had a totally different understanding of the world and of heaven than that of a Christian god. The emergence of Chinese literature comes from songs, speeches and paintings, from the wish to document events, family etc., but not from an encounter with god.<br />
<br />
这再次让我们想起耶稣会会士对于中国经文的解读；想起我们试图强加自身的文化于其他看似落后的文化上，当时中国对世界和天堂的理解完全不同于基督教的上帝，在这种情况下我们甚至试图把西方的上帝强加于一个时代的中国文化上。中国文学起源于歌曲，演说和画作；源于期望记录事件，家庭等，而非起源于与上帝的邂逅。--[[User:Zhu Suyao|Zhu Suyao]] ([[User talk:Zhu Suyao|talk]]) 14:33, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Volunteer==<br />
The same German sinologist retranslated the Analects, attributed to Confucius, and translated some of the more than 50 occurrences of “heaven” or “demon/ghost” with the term “god”.[ Here Wolfgang Kubin stands in the tradition of Jean-François Noëlas 1720 and Richard Wilhelm 1925, see: Konfuzius: Gespräche. Transl. Richard Wilhelm. In Kubin’s commentary in the beginning of his identically titled book (Konfuzius: Gespräche Diederichs 2011), he justifies his reading of god into the Analects (p. 10). He translates “shen” as “gods” (p. 215) and claims, Confucius was sacrificing to the gods (p. 30), he understands „guishen“ as „demon and god“ or „spirit and god“ and “tian” as “god of heaven”, “supreme god”, (p. 213).] <br />
<br />
==Volunteer==<br />
Experts on Confucius also quote the few passages, where Confucius addresses the question of the supranatural like ghosts etc. and analyze that Confucius may have been at best not interested or even negative about the belief in ghosts, while he was positive about the social stability and peace rituals brought for the people.<br />
<br />
This reminds us of the fact, that it is to us to make sure that ethnocentrism is still existing today and that science is a field that needs to be aware of and cautious about it. And it needs courage to speak out against it.<br />
<br />
孔子专家也引用了一些段落,在这些段落中孔子探讨了像是鬼魂之类的超自然的问题。专家们分析认为孔子充其量可能是不感兴趣,甚至对鬼魂的存在持否定态度，尽管他对仪式给人们带来的社会稳定和和平持积极态度。<br />
<br />
这提醒我们一个事实：我们十分确信种族中心主义在今天仍然存在并且科学是需要注意和谨慎的领域，而公开反对它需要勇气。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:12, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
孔子专家也引用了几段话，其中孔子谈到了像鬼这样的超自然问题。并分析说，孔子对鬼神信仰顶多是不感兴趣，甚至是消极的，尽管他对社会稳定和为人民带来的和平仪式是积极的。<br />
这提醒了我们一个事实，那就是，我们要确保种族中心主义在今天仍然存在，科学是一个需要意识到并谨慎对待的领域。公开反对它需要勇气。--[[User:Hu Jin|Hu Jin]] ([[User talk:Hu Jin|talk]]) 04:15, 14 November 2020 (UTC)</div>Xu Jing2https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=20201116_trans&diff=10414420201116 trans2020-11-13T08:51:13Z<p>Xu Jing2: /* Xu Jing 许晶 */</p>
<hr />
<div>==Cao Runxin 曹润鑫==<br />
'''WOESLER, Martin'''<br />
<br />
'''Prof. Dr. Martin Woesler (University Rome III/Witten University)'''<br />
<br />
'''The Waves of the Stone –''' <br />
<br />
'''Early Reception Between Instrumentalization and Exoticization'''<br />
<br />
'''Abstract'''<br />
<br />
The fame of the ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' spread quickly not across Asia, but also to Europe and the USA. This paper introduces the roles and motifs of different actors in the early distribution, like merchants, Western embassies, Chinese teachers of Western missionaries, missionaries themselves, translators, early Sinologists as well as literary critics. I introduce judgements on the novel before it was available in translation.<br />
<br />
==Chang Huiyue 常慧月==<br />
<br />
As motifs I identify exoticization (joy of otherness of fashion and dressing, customs), universalization (world literature), the instrumentalization of the novel as evidence for own hypotheses on literature (Davis’ poetry), the instrumentalization for language learning etc. I show a change of motifs over time from exoticization and instrumentalization for proving inferiority to Western novels to accepting the novel as part of world literature and a masterpiece of Chinese culture with a special value in documenting Chinese society. Of special interest are misunderstandings (Gützlaff) and deviations from the original (Kuhn, Minford).<br />
<br />
==Chen Han 陈涵==<br />
<br />
'''Key words'''<br />
<br />
Dream of the Red Chamber, Western translation, Western dissemination, Western reception, instrumentalization, exotization, deviation<br />
<br />
'''First (unproven) experiences of young Cao Xueqin with foreign literature'''<br />
<br />
In 1947 the graduate student Huang Long from then Jinling University quoted the following passage from the book Dragon's Imperial Kingdom, which he claimed to have borrowed from the Central Library (today’s Nanking Library), in which William Winston ‘remembers’ an encounter of his grandfather Philip Winston with Cao Xueqin:<br />
<br />
==Chen Hui 陈惠==<br />
<br />
"The imperial kingdom was symbolized by a five-clawed golden dragon, a legendary reptile nonexistent since Creation. Of her indigenous produces shantung commanded the broadest popularity. This rendered her to merit the credit ‚Land of Silk’ in the Orient. There has been cherished as our precious heirloom a piece of home-spun fabric with an ornamental pattern of "dragon and phoenix" manufactured at Kiangning Textile Mill. It survived fires and swords. During my grandfather Philip's sojourn in China for trade in textiles, he contracted an acquaintance with Mr. Tsao Fu, the then Superintendent of Kiangning Textile Mill, and at the latter's request served as an initiator of textile technology.<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiangning 陈江宁==<br />
<br />
The host was hospitality incarnate and oftentimes indited extempore verses in token of rapport. As a reply, my grandfather delivered Biblical sermons and gave a graphic narration of Shakespeare's dramas. For audience he had merely those other than the juvenile and feminine. On the score of eavesdropping, Tsao’s pampered son suffered a lashing and castigation".[ Philip Winston: Dragon's Imperial Kingdom, Douglas 1874, p. 53. Quoted from: 吴新雷, 黄进德《曹雪芹江南家世考》，福建人民出版社, 1983, 304 pp., here pp. 103-104. See also:馬幼垣（Yau-Woon Ma）《實事與構想: 中國小說史論釋》，聯經出版事業股份有限公司, 2007年，384页。See also: 周汝昌《曹雪芹新传》外文出版社(1992)²1997, 353pp., here p. 101.]<br />
<br />
==Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣==<br />
<br />
If this encounter has been made up, it shows how much effort Redology invested to come to new findings, if not, it may explain some of the special characteristics of the novel never seen in Chinese literature before.<br />
<br />
'''Status of the book before its publication'''<br />
<br />
Between 1754 and 1771 we have one new manuscript version per year in average and almost each manuscript carries new comments mostly from 脂砚斋 or from 畸笏叟. The author died on Feb 1, 1764, which did not end the commenting on the manuscripts.<br />
<br />
==Chen Jingjing 陈静静==<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The book was not officially published, but that did not prevented it from dissemination, as manuscript fragments were handed around since the 1750s and the novel was known to many scholars before its publication in 1791.<br />
<br />
The preface to the 2nd edition in 1792 also points to the fact, that there had been a “long” tradition of scholarly research of the book and comments. These comments had not been taken over for the 1st and 2nd edition.<br />
<br />
==Chen Sha 陈莎==<br />
<br />
'''From inofficial manuscript versions to the printed book'''<br />
<br />
One of the reasons why the book was not printed was that it was (wrongly) considered either sexually explicite literature (淫书) or against Confucianism, which could only passed on in manuscript versions. <br />
<br />
Gao E claims in his preface of 1791, that he had heared before 1771 from this novel and that he checked whether it was against Confucianism, but could not find anything like this in it, so that it could be published.<br />
<br />
==Chen Sunfu 谌孙福==<br />
<br />
“One of the best works of fiction in Chinese literature was supposed to have been written by a member of this sect, and was suppressed by the Emperor because of offensive references to the reigning family contained in it. It was called the ‘Hung Lou Meng,’ or ‘Dream of the Red Chamber,’ and it resembles a large number of fairy tales threaded together rather than a modern novel. By an ingenious substitution of false characters, words, occasionally throughout certain portions of the work—something like incorrect spelling —the imperial interdict was evaded, and it has continued in print and popularity down to the present day. Foreign students of Chinese commonly read a portion of it, the smooth and excellent style making it an invaluable text-book.”[ See: He Tianyue 何天爵: ''The real Chinese question'' (真正的中国问题), New York: Dodd，Mead & Co. 1900, 386 pp., here p. 109.]<br />
<br />
==Chen Yongxiang 陈永相==<br />
<br />
'''Preparations of the 1st book edition'''<br />
<br />
Gao E worked with Cheng Weiyuan, who ran the publishing house Suzhou Cuiwen Press (苏州萃文书屋). <br />
<br />
According to the preface to the 1791 edition by Cheng Weiyuan, different 80 chapter manuscript versions were already circulating, some were sold for a high price at the Temple Market, others were copied by readers. Since the 80 chapter manuscript versions already contained content lists with 120 chapter headlines, he searched for and found (as he pretended) the 120 chapters.<br />
<br />
==Cheng Yusi 成于思==<br />
<br />
In the preface to the first printed edition he already refers to an existing number of readers, who share the love of the book with him. Also his description that some readers took over the effort to copy the book by handwriting shows that an early fan culture existed even before the printed version appeared.<br />
<br />
Also, Cheng Weiyuan keeps the question of the authorship open, but points directly to Cao Xueqin, who claimed to have worked 10 years on the novel and rewritten it five times. The rewriting may refer to the production of new manuscript versions reflecting the ideas of the commentators.<br />
<br />
==Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞==<br />
<br />
'''1st Book edition 1791:''' 程甲本 Cheng A edition<br />
<br />
According to the preface to the 2nd edition 1792, these early fans were called collectors and the 1st edition was produced with movable characters, which was faster than the woodblock print. The book contained 99 illustrations and more than 100 copies were printed. The first edition might have been printed in Peking at the end of 1791, the 2nd in early 1792 in Suzhou, leaving 72 days between the two editions, which may show that the Peking edition was sold out immediately. The 1791 edition was also soon translated into Mongolian: 蒙古王府本 Menggu ben.<br />
<br />
'''1791年第一版:''' 程甲本 <br />
<br />
根据1792年第二版的序言，这些早期的粉丝被称为收藏家。第一版采用可移动的字符制作，这比木刻版画要快。 该书包含99幅插图，被印刷了一百多本。 第一版可能于1791年底在北京印刷，第二版于1792年初在苏州印刷。两版之间相隔72天，这或许表明北京印刷版立即被抢购一空。 1791年版也很快被译成蒙古文：蒙古王府本。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:18, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
'''1791年第一版:''' 程甲本 <br />
<br />
根据1792年第二版的序言，这些早期的粉丝被称为收藏家。第一版采用活字印刷制作，这比木刻印刷要快。 该书包含99幅插图，印刷了一百多本。 第一版可能于1791年底在北京印刷，第二版于1792年初在苏州印刷。两版之间相隔72天，这或许表明北京的这一版一经印刷立即被抢购一空。 1791年版也很快被译成蒙古文：蒙古王府本。--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:32, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Ding Daifeng 丁代凤==<br />
<br />
'''2nd Book edition in 1792:''' 程乙本 Cheng B edition<br />
<br />
A second edition, with ‘corrections’ some consider mistakes today, was published in 1792 in Suzhou and sold well too. The 2nd edition claims to have removed many mistakes of the 1st edition.[ For an overview of the comparison of the two editions please refer to: 《《红楼梦》程乙本版本研究综述》，王丽敏，河南教育学院学报 (哲学社会科学版) Vol．33.] One of the differences is that the 程乙本 Cheng B edition changed expressions in ancient wenyan to more contemporary ones, like “索” was turned into “要”, “趁” into “赶”, “题” into “写”, “端” into “头”, “闻得” into “听见”, “记挂” into “惦记”, “殊不知” into “那里知道” etc., but not in every case. Altogether they changed roughly 20,000 characters.<br />
<br />
1792年第二版：程乙本<br />
<br />
第二版于1792年在苏州出版，也取得了很好的销量。在第二版当中，做出了一些修正，尽管这些修正在如今被认为是错误的。第二版声称修正了第一版中的诸多错误。[关于两个版本比较的概述，请参阅：《《红楼梦》程乙本版本研究综述》，王丽敏，河南教育学院学报 (哲学社会科学版) Vol．33.]不同点之一是程乙本将一些古文言文表达转化为了更为现代的表达，比如将“索”改成了“要”，“趁”改成了“赶”，“题”改成了“写”，“端”改成了“头”，“闻得”改成了“听见”，“记挂”改成了“惦记”，“殊不知”改成了“那里知道”等,但它并没有对所有的表达进行修改。修改字数总计约达20000。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 06:40, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Fang Jieling 方洁玲==<br />
<br />
There is also a change of the list of confiscated goods. What might have been the reason in this particular case to change the list of confiscated goods for the Cheng B edition? The list in the Jiaben is a documentation of richness and therefore lets the confiscation seem to be justified because of unjustified enrichment. In the Yiben, the list starts with mostly religious items like, Buddha statues, this lets the confiscation appear unjustified and shifts the sympathies of the reader towards the family. In the late 18th century, there was a turn towards Buddhism.<br />
<br />
==Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉==<br />
<br />
Many umlegitimized copies appeared. The book was delivered to Korea and shipped to Japan, where it was read in its original language.<br />
<br />
The novel created a wave of interest in China comparable to the one of ''The Sorrows of the Young Werther'' in Europe since 1774. The first edition, printed in 1791 in Peking in a small number of copies (estimates range between 4 and 400) was soon sold out.<br />
<br />
==Gao Mingzhu 高明珠==<br />
<br />
Some scholars assume a suicide wave among readers who identified with Lin Daiyu. Many readers discussed whether they identified more with Lin Daiyu or with Xue Baochai, a discussion that lasts until today. <br />
<br />
==Gong Yumian 龚钰冕==<br />
<br />
'''Spreading to Japan and Korea'''<br />
<br />
Captain王开泰 Wang Kaitai delivered 18 copies of a 9-volume edition of the Dream on December 9, 1793 to Japan, as we can prove in a store list of a Nanking ship arriving in长崎港Nagasaki (which started on November 3 in 乍浦 Zhapu): „红楼梦 九部十八套“.[ From 发货账本, quoted from: 《红楼梦 》在日本.] We know of an early mentioning of the Dream by the Korean author ''Lee'', ''Kyu-Kyung''李圭景 ( 1788- ? 李圭景(이규경)) in the 1830s.[ From 《五洲衍文长笺散稿》卷七《小说 辩证说》, quoted from: 《红楼梦》在韩国的流传和翻译.]<br />
<br />
There were early (partial) translations of the novel into Manchurian.<br />
<br />
==Gu Dongfang 顾东方==<br />
<br />
'''Early Western notions of the book'''<br />
<br />
The novel also caught the attention of Europeans living in China, like the missionaries, who started to translate parts of it into Western languages, as well as the British embassies to China, who collected also Chinese literature, brought it back to Europe or engaged in translation or dissemination. <br />
<br />
==Guan Qinqing 管钦清==<br />
<br />
The book seems to have run out of stock often and needed to be purchased from other cities, whereever it was available, like in about 1812 in Canton: Robert Morrison, a missionary who worked in Macao, may have been pointed by his Chinese tutor to the novel. In 1816 he published a dialogue between a student (maybe himself) and his Chinese tutor pointing to the time before December 1812, when he translated parts of the novel and therefore had a copy: <br />
<br />
==Gui Yizhi 桂一枝==<br />
<br />
Student: “What is the best book for students to read?” – [...suggestion of ''Daxue''.] Tutor: [...] to read the Hung-low-mung will do very well. – Student: I have not seen the Hung-low-mung, have you seen it? – Tutor: I have not brought it with me, but if you wish to see it, I will write to Canton, and present it to you. Student: “Very good. I will trouble you to write for it.” – Tutor: “I will do so.” – Student: “How many volumes are there in the Hung-low-mung?” – Tutor: “Twenty volumes in all. In this book, the phraseology is entirely that of Peking.”[ From: “Dialogue V”, in: 《中文对话与单句》''Dialogues and Detached Sentences in the Chinese Language, with a free and verbal translation in English, collected from various sources'', Macao: East India Company Press 1816. [Chinese parts left out in this quotation.]] <br />
<br />
==Guo Lu 郭露==<br />
<br />
Between December 1812 and February 1813, Robert Morrison translated parts of chapter 4 and send it to Great Britain. He published entries about the Dream in his dictionary, of which the first volume appeared in 1815[ 《华英字典》''A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts'', Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I 930 pp., the novel title is mentioned in volume I:614.] and more translation excerpts, e.g. from chapters 4 and 39, in his 1816 textbook edition.[ 《中文对话与单句》''Dialogues and Detached Sentences in the Chinese Language, with a free and verbal translation in English, collected from various sources'', Macao: East India Company Press 1816, e.g. pp. 194-200.] <br />
<br />
==Han Haiyang 韩海洋==<br />
<br />
Only 23 years of its publication, the novel already was part of the canonized Chinese literature of fiction and Robert Morrison used excerpts of it for his text books to teach Westerners Chinese, as well as expressions from it for his dictionary and sent letters with excerpt translations to Europe, for an intended 2nd vol. of his ''Horæ Sinicæ'' which never was realized.<br />
<br />
The first British Embassies to China (among them especially Charles Bowra, John Francis Davies) also collected literature and among it the ''Dream of the Red Chamber''. <br />
<br />
==Han Wanzhen 韩宛真==<br />
<br />
'''Early translation history in the West'''<br />
<br />
In 1819, the first excerpt translations were published in Europe, in English (by John Francis Davis) and in French (by Davis, further translated by Bruguière). Significantly, they were published hidden in other larger works, in the English case, it was a Travel Report by Clarke Abel,[ 约翰．巴罗（John Barrow）：“Art. IV Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Peking, and Observations on the Countries which it visited. By Clarke Abel F.L.S. London 1818”，见：William Gifford（主编）, Quarterly Review 21:41 (1819年1月) 见第67-91页，特见第79-80页。这份期刊于1819年6月4号发行，总发行量13000份。笔者在这里参照了以下的索引并最终确定作者: „Gentleman's Magazine (Mar. 1844), 246-47. The article's author refers to #415 and #438 (including a specific reference), both of which are on the same topic and are by Barrow. Cf. also the discussion of infanticide (p. 76) and Raffles's account of Java reviewed by Barrow in #422. In his QR articles, it was Barrow's signature practice to refer to his own works.“, 参考„Quarterly Review Archive“ http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/41.html。] and in the French case, it was a Chinese drama, La-song-euil.[ “Rêves de la Chambre rouge”, 见：»Avant-propos du traducteur francais«, 见: 安托萬．安德烈．包儒略(Antoine-André Bruguière), ''Lao-seng-eul'' [老生兒], ''Comédie Chinoise, suivie de San-iu-leou, ou Les trois étages consacrés, conte moral ; Traduits du chinois en anglais, par J. F. Davis de la factorerie de Canlon ; et de l'anglais en français, par A. Bruguière de Sorsum; avec additions du traducteur'', 巴黎: Rey et Gravier / 伦敦 A. B. Dulau & Co. 1819 年, 227 页, 第141-164页, 见第150-151页。]<br />
<br />
==He Changqi 何长琦==<br />
<br />
These excerpt translations were done by John Francis Davis, he translated excerpts from chapter 3 and they were published by John Barrow in Great Britain and by Bruguière in France, both in 1819. Further translations were in 1846 by Robert Thom, excerpts of chapter 6, in 1868-69 Edward Charles Bowra chapters 1-8, in 1892-93 Henry Bencraft Joly chapters 1-56, in 1927 Liang-Chih Wang chapters 1-95, in 1929/1958 Wang Chi-chen an abridged full version, in 1958 Florence McHugh & Isabel McHugh a further translation from the abridged German version of 1938 by Franz Kuhn. <br />
<br />
==Hu Baihui 胡百辉==<br />
<br />
Regarding these translations, both the translation quality as well as the quality of the English used did not reach the status of world literature. Regarding full translations, we have in the 1960s Bramwell Seaton Bonsall, in 1973-1986 Hawkes/Minford and in 1978-1980 Yang/Yang. Among all the translators who embarked on this endeavour, only Hawkes (1923-2009) and Minford (1946-) achieved the goal to produce a translation which clearly falls into the categorization of world literature, the others, as Gladys Yang stated, “were a poor shadow of the original”.[ Yang 1980 3:621-622.]<br />
<br />
==Hu Huifang 胡慧芳==<br />
<br />
'''Early Misunderstandings'''<br />
<br />
Before the novel was available in translation, we find a lot of misunderstandings and negative judgements on the novel: Morrison considered the novel to have been written in “Peking Dialect”, this mistake developed its own tradition.[ Even in 1995, you could read that the Dreams is written in Peking dialect, cf. Shu Changshan, Die Rezeption Thomas Manns in China, 1995, Frankfurt: Lang, 326 pp. At least Tong Yao, Die Vielfältigkeit der Literatur, 2006 mentions both Peking and Nanking dialects.] In 1842 Gützlaff[ “''Dreams in the Red Chamber''”, Friedrich August Gützlaff (1803-1851), “《紅樓夢》Hung Lau Mung, or Dreams in the Red Chamber; a novel. 20 vols. Noticed by a Correspondent”, in: ''Chinese Repository'', issue 11 (1842) 266-273.] introduced the protagonist as „the lady Páuyu“ (p. 268), even “a very petulant woman” (p. 270) and “busy lady” (p. 272), and took Jia Yucun贾雨村 (instead of Jia Zheng 贾政) as Baoyu’s father.<br />
<br />
==Hu Jin 胡瑾==<br />
<br />
Also his overall judgement is “in expressing our opinion about the literary merits of the performance, we may say that the style is without any art, being literally the spoken language of the higher classes in the northern provinces.” and he recommends it for language learning (p. 273). Even in 1900, Herbert Allen Giles introduced the novel as have been written in “Peking dialect” and attributed to Cao Xueqin “of the 17th cent.”[ “HUNG-LOU-MENG: 紅樓夢 A famous Chinese novel in the Peking dialect, popularly known as the Dream of the Red Chamber, dealing chiefly with events of domestic life which are very graphically described, and attributed to Ts'ao Hsiieh-ch'in of the 17th cent.” See: Herbert Allen Giles, ''A glossary of reference on subjects connected with the Far East'', 1900, pp. 127-128]<br />
<br />
==Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜==<br />
<br />
Also he claimed that the title “红楼梦” would be “a term which is not found anywhere in the text”,[ Giles 1885.] therefore was figurative and should be translated as “A Vision of Wealth and Power”. Actually the expression is found several times in the text, even in the title of chapter 25 and Baoyu actually very often falls asleep and dreams in the red bed-chambers of his female relatives and friends.<br />
<br />
==Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪==<br />
<br />
'''Early Reception of the novel in the West'''<br />
<br />
We first must credit pioneers like J. Davis, who not only tried to systematize Chinese poetry with examples from the ''Red Chamber Dreams'', but also sent the first translations of the novel out in the world and made it known in America and Europe just a decade after it has been published in China. Some sinologists used the story simply as a good example for learning Chinese (Morrison, Thom).<br />
<br />
==Jiang Hao 姜好==<br />
<br />
One can conclude that the ''Red Chamber Dreams'' transported a differentiated image of China, of fashion, of hair and clothes (Barrow, Bruguière, Goldsmith), of human relations (Goldsmith), and of a highly developed language. In this language, some poetical expressions were only understandable to those who had a broad knowledge of Chinese culture. The finesse of the differentiated use of the dialects according to the respective characters in the novel was simply overlooked (Morrison, Gützlaff, Thom) and only discovered much later. <br />
<br />
==Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮==<br />
<br />
The first phase of the Western reception was ethnocentric, partially due to the China-bashing of philosophers like Montesquieu, Herder, Hegel and to the imperialist spirit of contemporary Europe. The judgments on the novel are mostly driven by argumentation strategies; that is, the novel is used as a tool to prove one’s own existing attitudes. The novel is exploited to argue for: <br />
<br />
==Kang Haoyu 康浩宇==<br />
<br />
- exoticism (J. Davis, Barrow, Bruguière)<br />
<br />
- the inferiority of Chinese literature (Gützlaff, Langdon Davies, Harte, Giles, Headland)<br />
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- polarization by confronting opposite conceptions like ideal of beauty etc. (Goldsmith)<br />
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- to proof own hypotheses, like a self-made categorization of Chinese poetry (J. Davis)<br />
<br />
<br />
In this beginning phase, most comparisons were done within Chinese literature (Gützlaff: best of Chinese literature but inferior to Western literature, later: best of Chinese literature). <br />
<br />
==Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤==<br />
<br />
However, when Herder revised his China perception, and when the still inadequate perception of China called for a more differentiated image, the first translated extracts of this rich novel of manners helped to change the perception of China.<br />
<br />
Finally ''Dream'' was compared to Western literature (Erkes, Wilhelm), was enshrined in the temple of world literature and was assigned attributes that added value to the Western reading experience (Clemons: “slowing down”).<br />
<br />
==Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧==<br />
<br />
'''Motifs for judgements'''<br />
<br />
As motifs for the early judgements mentioned above, I identify exoticization (joy of otherness of fashion and dressing, customs), universalization (world literature), the instrumentalization of the novel as evidence for own hypotheses on literature (Davis’ poetry), the instrumentalization for language learning etc.<br />
<br />
There is a change of motifs over time from exoticization and instrumentalization for proving inferiority to Western novels to accepting the novel as part of world literature and a masterpiece of Chinese culture with a special value in documenting Chinese society. <br />
<br />
==Kong Yanan 孔亚楠==<br />
<br />
'''The novel title'''<br />
<br />
The book title changed from the first translations as “Red Chamber Dreams” to singular “Dream” in 1843 by德明 (А. И. Коваńко / A. I. Kovańko)[ „Traumgesicht auf dem rothen Thurm“, see> 德明 А. И. Коваńко (1808-1870, trans.): „''Chun-lou-men'' (‚Traumgesicht auf dem rothen Thurm‘) oder ‚Geschichte des Steins‘（《石头记》）. Tschen-schi-in erfährt im Traume die Wiederbelebung des Steins; Zja-jui-zun verliebt sich in seiner Armuth in eine schöne Magd.“ , in: ''Das Ausland'', Munich 26 (1843) 198-199, 201-203.] and in 1846 by Robert Thom[ Robert Thom 羅伯聃, “Extract from the Hung-low-mung, chapter VI”, in: Robert Thom, 《正音撮要》 The Chinese speaker. Extracts from works written in the Mandarin language, as spoken at Peking. Compiled for the use of students, by Robert Thom, Esq., H. M. Consul at Ningpo. Part I, Ningpo: Presbyterian Mission Press 1846, pp. 62-89].<br />
<br />
==Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆==<br />
<br />
Many scholars have discussed the question if it was more appropriate to call the novel “Story of the Stone” instead of “Dream of the Red Chamber”. Arguments for the latter are that the first printed edition and most of the printed editions afterwards carried this title, so that it reached its fame and was read under this title until today, there was also at least one 120-chapter manuscript copy, the 《乾隆抄本百二十回紅樓夢》Qianlong 120 chapter manuscript; with this title circulating before. However, e.g. the Hawkes/Minford translation and the German Schwarz/Woesler translation use both titles with “also called” in between.<br />
<br />
许多学者都讨论过这样一个问题，即这部小说是否应该叫 "石头的故事 "而不是 "红楼梦 "更合适。支持后者的论点是，第一版印刷版和之后的大部分印刷版都使用这个书名，所以它有了自己的名气，直到今天还用这个书名，至少还有一个120章的手抄本，即乾隆抄本百二十回红楼梦；之前流传着这个书名。不过，如霍克斯/明福译本和德国施瓦兹/沃斯勒译本都使用这两个书名，中间有 "也叫"。--[[User:Lei Fangyuan|Lei Fangyuan]] ([[User talk:Lei Fangyuan|talk]]) 07:02, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪==<br />
<br />
Some scholars argue that the German title ''Traum der Roten Kammer'' was grammatically and logically not correct in German, but you need more than a grammar teacher’s imagination to find the answer why this title prevailed: A book title, especially a poetic one of a work of literature, does not at all have to be grammatically correct or logical, the title is simply assigned with the first translations and translators and then naturally develops in the cultural field over time.<br />
<br />
一些学者认为,德译版本《红楼梦》的标题“Traum der Roten Kammer”在德语中的语法和逻辑不正确,但是要找到这个标题为什么盛行，光靠语法老师的想象力是不够的:书名,尤其是像诗歌文学作品,并不需要一定在语法或逻辑上正确,标题只是简单地由最初翻译版本和译者指定的，然后随着时间的推移自然地在文化领域发展。--[[User:Lei kuangxi|Lei kuangxi]] ([[User talk:Lei kuangxi|talk]]) 03:50, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi<br />
<br />
一些学者认为，《红楼梦》标题的德版译文Traum der Roten Kammer在德语的语法和逻辑上是不正确的，但想到找到这个标题为什么流行的答案，光拥有跟语法老师一样的想象力是不够的:书名，尤其是文学作品充满诗意的书名，根本不需要语法正确或有逻辑，标题只是简单地由最初的译文和译者定下来，然后自然而然地随着时间的推移在文化领域发展。--[[User:Ding Daifeng|Ding Daifeng]] ([[User talk:Ding Daifeng|talk]]) 07:05, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Li Haiquan 李海泉==<br />
<br />
Language development exactly works like this: New, seemingly incorrect forms of expressions come into existence, and become correct and a part of language simply because they are used. All translation decisions need to be balanced: They do not have to adhere only to a word-by-word translation, or to logic or grammar, but to what is a common expression or broadly accepted. <br />
<br />
==Li Lili 李丽丽==<br />
<br />
There are historical settings which influence these historical decisions, like the existence of the English translation title “Dream of the Red Chamber” at that time. Other reasons are that “Traum der” is simply shorter than “Träume im/vom roten Anwesen”, while the reader will still associate the logically correct meaning behind it. The word “Kammer” at the time when the novel was first published in Chinese was linked to luxurious rooms e.g. in castles, so very much appropriate. And the “red” is a leitmotiv. <br />
<br />
==Li Lingyue 李凌月==<br />
<br />
To pay tribute to historical developments of becoming a well-known expression, in the German edition, the mentioning of “rote Kammer” was capitalized into “Rote Kammer” in the new edition, very much alike “Red Chamber” in English at the very beginning of the English translation history.<br />
<br />
==Li Liqin 李丽琴==<br />
<br />
'''80 or 120 chapters'''<br />
<br />
The First European Conference on the Dream of the Red Chamber in Bonn 1992 agreed that the 120 chapter version was the authoritative one because it was simply the version under which the novel reached its fame and is best known among readers. Publishing houses argue that a fragment is harder to sell. Also, the part of Cao Xueqin in the last 40 chapters is not finally enligthened, and I always recommend to stick to the editors claims until falsification, therefore we should at least assume Cao’s authorship of the last 40 chapter titles and maybe even some parts of the text.<br />
<br />
==Li Luyi 李璐伊==<br />
<br />
How far other contributors have come close to or deviated from Cao’s original intent for the last 40 chapters may stay object of research. However, they seem to have been successful, because the 120-chapter has prevailed historically, also in its translations, and found the acceptance of the readership.<br />
<br />
'''Deviations from the original'''<br />
<br />
Kuhn, successful and critizised, with his Adapting and Foreignizing, very pleasing but ever-the-same-style translations of so different novels like Shuihuzhuan, Xiyouji and Hongloumeng is history and today one among many translations and more and more readers are able to read the Hongloumeng in other languages like English or even in Chinese.<br />
<br />
==Li Meng 李梦==<br />
<br />
Kuhn mentions to have used two specific copies of the original work. There are scholars who doubted that he really used the copies he indicated, because they could not be found. I see no reason to doubt Kuhn’s statement, it is more likely that he used grey editions which are not registered and maybe cannot be found any more.<br />
<br />
'''1st deviation by Minford: The explicit episode about the human-ghostly intercourse, chapter 102'''<br />
<br />
This episode is a black humour one, where Wu Gui’s wife has “a little bit a cold”, takes the wrong medicine and dies.<br />
<br />
==Li Yongshan 李泳珊==<br />
<br />
At this passage, it looks like we have the opposite case as in the second example: In the Chinese original the whole sentence “enjoyed her at inordinate length” is missing.<br />
<br />
程甲本: 那媳妇子本有些感冒着了，日间吃错了药，晚上吴贵到家，已死在炕上。外面的人因那媳妇子不妥当，便都说妖怪爬过墙吸了精去死的。<br />
<br />
程乙本: 那媳妇子本有些感冒着了，日间吃错了药，晚上吴贵到家，已死在炕上。外面的人因那媳妇子不大妥当，便说妖怪爬过墙来吸了精去死的。<br />
<br />
Minford: Because of her reputation for promiscuity, other members of the household staff concluded that a spirit must have climbed over the Garden wall, enjoyed her at inordinate length, and finally sucked the sap' out of her.<br />
<br />
==Li Yu 李玉==<br />
<br />
The sentence seems to be made up by John Minford. It is the explicit report of a sexual intercourse between a ghost and a woman, which ended, when the ghost sucked the lifeblood out of her. Minford does not only extend this brief report about the death of a woman by adding a sexual intercourse between a human and a non-human, which is inappropriate or abnormal by itself, but stresses the abnormality even by characterizing this intercourse in more detail, as taking “inordinate” long. <br />
<br />
==Lin Min 林敏==<br />
<br />
Originally, Cao/Gao had only very briefly reported on Wu Gui’s wife’s death. They mentioned the natural cause of death, that she had taken the wrong medicine. However, since most of the strokes of fate in this novel are explained as to be motivated through moral retaliation, Cao/Gao describe her as “promiscuous”. In the logic of moral retaliation, she earns to die. The ghost then would be the executor. But still he only is described as climbing over the wall and sucking the lifeblood out of her.<br />
<br />
==Lin Xin 林鑫==<br />
<br />
Minford adds an action, which leads further than Cao/Gao wrote. This action still is connected to the story, it even drives its authority from Wu Gui’s wife’s promiscuous way of living. The scene might have stimulated the readers’ fantasy, but not necessarily in the direction of Minfords account. Did Minford simply give his fancy full scope? He might also have been encouraged to interpret this scene the way he did because of the parallel scene with the mirror in chapter 12, where Jia Rui also has inordinate often sexual intercourse with the ghost of Xifeng, and gradually loses his lifeblood until he dies on a large patch of semen.<br />
<br />
==Ling Zijin 凌子瑾==<br />
<br />
After Minford had altered the original, the original ending of that scene did not fit any more: The action of killing her by sucking the lifeblood out of her comes too abrupt. In one subordinate clause they enjoy their sex and even inappropriately long, and in the next he kills her, which is by itself also outrageous. So Minford had to step into the original text sentence and add the adverb “finally” in order to bring it into a chronological and resultative relation.<br />
<br />
==Liu Bo 刘博==<br />
<br />
Kuhn and Schwartz/Woesler have translated this passage without these additions and did not elaborate possible fantasies.<br />
<br />
The effect of Minfords addition is, that the episode becomes more interesting, scandalous and sexually explicit.<br />
<br />
In order to find out, what made Minford add this information, we should consider not only the original, but also a then existing translation. Minford in his preface thanked Yang Xianyi for his help with his own translation Hawkes/Minford 4:30. When we look at the Yang/Yang translation, we find the adding already there: <br />
<br />
==Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦==<br />
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Yang/Yang: Outsiders, knowing her bad reputation, claimed that a monster had climbed over the wall to enjoy her until she died of exhaustion.<br />
<br />
This translation in many respects is not so accurate. The couple Yang/Yang uses more general words, leaving out the causal conjunction “because” [she was known for promiscuity]. For 不[大]妥当 (promiscuity) they even use the more general “bad reputation”, and maybe in order to compensate for the lacking sexual connotation in this, they added “to enjoy her”, which we do not find in the Chinese original text.<br />
<br />
==Liu Liu 刘柳==<br />
<br />
And they already prepare the way for Minford’s “finally” by adding the “until”. As the whole Yang/Yang translation uses simpler words, 妖怪 is translated as “monster” instead of “ghost”. Since immediately before this episode the garden is described as being the home of ghosts, he latter might have been the better expression. Also the “death of exhaustion” is an interpretation, the Chinese text only reads “sucked the lifeblood out of her”.<br />
<br />
==Liu Ou 刘欧==<br />
<br />
So it seems that Minford has decided to keep the deviation of Yang/Yang, which is disloyal to the original and therefore falls under category c. However it may protect the Yang/Yang translation from discovery of its same deviation, since only people fluent in both languages will be able to discover it. Was Minford’s disloyalty to the original and his loyalty to his fellow translators a conspiracy? Or did Minford not directly translate from the Chinese, but simply improve the Yang/Yang translation? Since he uses “spirit” instead of “monster”, he still seems to have been conscious about everything and seems to have consciously decided to keep the Yang/Yang deviation for the mentioned possible reasons.<br />
<br />
==Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺==<br />
<br />
'''2nd deviation by Minford: The explicit episode on the first attempt of the rape of the nun Miaoyu, chapter 111'''<br />
<br />
In chapter 111, we find another anecdote, where thieves invade Rongguofu and steal chests of treasures. On their way, they discover the appealing nun Miaoyu and start a first attempt to rape her. The exact passage reads in both editions:<br />
<br />
程甲本and程乙本: 又欺上屋俱是女人，且又畏惧，正要踹进门去，因听外面有人进来追赶，所以贼众上房。<br />
<br />
==Liu Yi 刘艺==<br />
<br />
Yang/Yang: The thieves had known that there were no men in the house. While in Hsi-Chun’s courtyard they had peeped through the window and been inflamed by the sight of a ravishing nun. As there were only terrified women inside, they were about to kick down the door when they heard the night-watch rushing in after them and promptly climbed up the roof.<br />
<br />
Minford: After the main part of their mission was accomplished, the thieves, knowing how unprotected the Jia mansion was, had been casually snooping around in Xi-chun's courtyard, and had caught a glimpse there of a very attractive young nun, which had put all sorts of mischievous ideas into their heads.<br />
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杨/阳:贼人早知屋内没有男人。在熙春的院子里时，他们曾从窗外偷看，看到一个淫荡的尼姑，就被激怒了。由于里面只有被吓坏的女人，他们正要踹门，却听到守夜人跟着冲进来，于是立即爬上屋顶。<br />
<br />
明福:在完成了主要部分的任务后，盗贼们知道贾府是多么的没有防范，就在熙春的院子里随意地窥探，在那里瞥见了一个很有魅力的年轻尼姑，这让他们产生了各种恶作剧的想法。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:02, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜==<br />
<br />
They knew that the apartment was unguarded save by a handful of scared old women, and were about to kick the door in and put an abrupt end to Adamantina's meditations when they heard the sound of footsteps corning from outside and escaped onto the roof-top.<br />
<br />
Minford has added a sentence here. We see that the original did not contain this sexually explicit clause, therefore the deviation does not fall under category a. We can also exclude the possibility that Minford used an earlier edition which might have been censored in the more prudish socialist era, since we have the original Cheng-Gao edition from 1791/1792.<br />
<br />
==Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟==<br />
<br />
Minford’s extra sentence also does not exist in the translations Yang/Yang, Kuhn, nor in the later Schwartz/Woesler.<br />
<br />
In the Chinese original, the emerging sexual tension, stimulating the readers fantasy of a rape, is stopped immediately, when the kicking in of the door already at the beginning of this sentence is relieved by the wording “正要” were just about to… <br />
<br />
We can also exclude the category b. here, because it is not possible to read one subordinate clause more into the original.<br />
<br />
==Lou Cancan 娄灿灿==<br />
<br />
Might it have been a necessary explanation, which Minford did not want to explain in an annotation and therefore had to integrate into the text? This, we can also exclude, since from the context it is explicitly clear why they wanted to kick in the door. <br />
<br />
In order to understand Minford’s intention, we should ask what effect this wilful addition of this sentence has on the reader? First, this sexually arousing scene becomes longer. This gives the reader more time to develop fantasies, what might happen. Minford adds a sentence which expresses exactly these fantasies: When the men enter the room, Miaoyu will stop her meditation.<br />
<br />
==Luo Weijia 罗维嘉==<br />
<br />
The shifting of the perspective to the woman adds to the sexual tension. Both, the active men and the so far passive woman are now mentioned and can act in the fantasies of the reader. Even the end of passivity of the woman is associated, when Minford explicitly states that the meditation will end. And he stresses again the brutal aspect of this scene, using the word “abrupt”.<br />
<br />
The novel is mostly very implicit and connotative, it uses metaphors like “wind and rain game” for describing sexual intercourse. Having explored the effects, Minford achieved with his deviation, one might guess, that the intention was to make this episode more explicit, to sexually arouse the readers.<br />
<br />
==Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴==<br />
<br />
This can be seen as disloyal to the original and its author, and it maybe seen as loyal to the profit of the press and the royalties.<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Sequels'''<br />
<br />
Many other authors also were inspired by the author and wrote a sequel to the novel. Soon, the novel was broadly accepted as another novel of the format of “四大奇书 Si da qi shu” and, since times became more strict regarding pornographic literature, replaced the ''Jin Ping Mei''. Already three years after the appearance, the Suoyin-School was founded and speculations began about the author and if the story had a real background. Please refer to the table of sequels in the attachment.<br />
<br />
==Ma Juan 马娟==<br />
<br />
'''Spreading of the novel to Russia'''<br />
<br />
In 1832, a member of the Russian Orthodox Mission in China (俄国驻北京宗教使团学员) brought a manuscript copy of the Story of the Stone back to Russia. It had 35 vols. (currently in the St. Petersburg branch of the Russian Scientific Oriental Institute). Another member of the Mission, А. И. Коваńко, used the pen name 德明 to introduce part of the first chapter to the West. <br />
<br />
'''Reevaluation in Late Qing and status in the Cultural Revolution'''<br />
<br />
==Ma Shuya 马淑雅==<br />
<br />
Wang Guowei improved the status of the novel since 1885, he saw it as one of the most important pieces of Chinese literature, and the discussions of Hu Shi and Yu Pingbo. <br />
<br />
During the Cultural Revolution, the Dream of the Red Chamber was forbidden again.<br />
<br />
'''Spreading in Germany'''<br />
<br />
The total number of copies published between 1932 and 1977 is 89335 volumes, the ''Jin Ping Mei'' 《金瓶梅》 reached between 1930 and 1977 175000 vols. Der Traum der Roten Kammer rangiert auf Platz 4 der Welt-Bestsellerliste. <br />
<br />
'''References'''<br />
<br />
[Please refer to the full bibliographic references in the footnotes for now.]<br />
<br />
==Ma Zhixing 马智星==<br />
<br />
'''Report'''<br />
<br />
'''3rd International Dream of the Red Chamber Conference in Europe'''<br />
<br />
''Martin Woesler''<br />
<br />
On November 7-8, 2015, the in¬ter¬national conference “Celebrating Cao Xue¬qin’s 300th anniversary - 3rd International ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' Conference Europe” was hosted at Folkwang University of Arts, Essen/Germany and organized by Martin Woesler. The Cao Xueqin Society (Peking) and the European Dream of the Red Chamber Society (Bochum) invited 30 speakers from the USA, Australia, Asia (Hong Kong, Taiwan, Korea), Europe (Germany, Hungary, Norway, Slovakia, Switzerland) and China (from the cities of Peking, Shanghai, Chengdu). Sponsor was the Beijing Cao Xueqin Culture Development Foundation. <br />
<br />
==Meng Ying 孟莹==<br />
<br />
In the greetings, Cultural Attaché Chinese Embassy Berlin Chen Ping, Essen Folkwang University of Arts’ chancellor Michael Fricke and Essen mayor Thomas Kufen expressed their gratitude and their feelings of great honor to host this 3rd international conference in Europe on Cao and his novel after the first two conferences in Bonn/Germany 1992 and Olomouc/Czech Republic 2014. Vice Minister Hu Deping, president of the Peking Cao Xueqin Society, said this conference offered the rare opportunity of sharing findings among experts from China and experts from the rest of the world, opening opportunities for further cooperation.<br />
<br />
==Mo Ling 莫玲==<br />
<br />
Martin Woesler welcomed the participants in his function as president of the European Dream of the Red Chamber Society. He expressed his satisfaction with the high quality of the contributions submitted from all over the world, including 10 written contributions, a selection of which would be published in the ''European Journal of Sinology''. Duan Jiangli announced that a selection of the Chinese papers will be published in the ''Cao Xueqin Research''.<br />
<br />
作为欧洲红学会的主席，吴漠汀热烈欢迎所有参会者。他非常满意对来自世界各地的10篇高质量的书面稿件，其中一部分将在《欧洲汉学杂志》上发表。段江力宣布，中国论文选集将在《曹雪芹研究》上发表。--[[User:Mo Ling|Mo Ling]] ([[User talk:Mo Ling|talk]]) 07:26, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling<br />
<br />
==Mo Nan 莫南==<br />
<br />
Hu Deping opened the first panel on studies on the author (Caoxue) with a discussion of the banner identity of Cao Xueqin, he stressed the imperial proximity of his even plain white banner and his high social status. Hu sees descriptions of Cao asking to put drinks on his tab as a proof of his trustworthiness due to his steady imperial stipend. Fan Zhibin in his contribution interpreted Cao’s status lower. Hu Deping expressed his skepticism towards the authenticity of any findings of cultural relicts after the 1970s attributed to Cao. But he pointed at the fact, that two places in the Old Summer Palace are called like the Daguan yuan itself (‘Daguan’) or like a place in it.<br />
<br />
==Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼==<br />
<br />
Ellen B. Widmer (Wellesley College) analyzed the characterization of Cao as a dramatic character in the sequel ''Hou Honglou meng''. Zhang Shucai (Peking) explained further the findings on social status of aristocratic families and banner people close to the imperial court, with an analysis of the Han and Manchu heritages. Zhan Song (Peking) also reflected on the ethnic identity, when he introduced ''Honglou meng''-critics among Qing Eight Banner people. Duan Qiming (Peking) approached the family history from Cao Yin’s “''Beihong fuji''”, showing connections to author and novel. <br />
<br />
==Ou Rong 欧蓉==<br />
<br />
Ling Hon Lam (Berkeley) opened the 2nd panel “Studies on the novel” with an analysis of the difference of the reading culture in the novel and its sequels. Since the habit of ‘reading silently’ changed at the beginning of Qing to ‘reading aloud’, the silent reading is prominent in the novel and the out loud reading is prominent in the sequels as well as in the last 40 chapters. Duan Jiangli (Peking) introduced the different handwritten comments in the manuscript versions and stressed the importance of the early Zhi Yanzhai commentary. Zhou Wenye (Peking) presented a tool to compare and analyze the different manuscript versions including comments and the different print versions of the novel.<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰==<br />
<br />
Up to three versions can be displayed simultaneously with the differences highlighted. He demonstrated how to prove which kind of relation certain versions had and what suggested that, in certain cases, there must still exist a missing edition. He favored the Cheng B edition over the Cheng A edition, since the corrections were mostly improvements. He also argued that there were many intermediate editions, even between Cheng A and B, since all surplus printed pages were used for later editions. Zhang Hui (Hong Kong) introduced the novel in a different media form, the drama, focusing on one example of a drama adaption.<br />
<br />
==Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲==<br />
<br />
Marina Čarnogurská (Slovakia), translator of the Slovakian full translation, argued that the last 40 chapters were authored not by Gao E, but maybe even by Cao Xueqin. General consent among the participants was that Gao might have had a more editorial function and some parts of the last 40 chapters might have been written by Cao.<br />
<br />
In the 3rd panel “Interdisciplinary/Intertextual Approaches”, Shang Wei (Columbia University/USA) presented insights into visual culture in Qing dynasty and argued that there was a strong European influence in the Manchu court, which is traceable in the novel and influenced Cao Xueqin.<br />
<br />
玛丽娜·乔阿诺古尔斯卡（斯洛伐克）是斯洛伐克语译本的译者，她认为书的后四十章的作者不是高鹗，而是曹雪芹。参会人员也一致同意，高鹗更多的只是负责编写，后四十章的创作实际是曹雪芹完成的。<br />
<br />
在第三场主题为“跨学科/跨文本方法”的座谈会上，尚伟（美国哥伦比亚大学）提出了关于清朝时期视觉文化的一些观点，他认为满洲朝廷受欧洲文化影响颇深，这种影响在曹雪芹的小说中也有迹可循。--[[User:Ouyang Ling|Ouyang Ling]] ([[User talk:Ouyang Ling|talk]]) 06:27, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Ouyang Ling<br />
<br />
玛丽娜·乔阿诺古尔斯卡Marina Čarnogurská(斯洛伐克)认为，最后40章的作者不是高鄂，甚至可能是曹雪芹。与会代表普遍认为，高娥可能有更多的编辑功能，最后40章的部分内容可能是曹雪芹写的。<br />
<br />
在第三板块 "跨学科/跨文本方法 "中，尚伟（美国哥伦比亚大学）提出了对清代视觉文化的见解，认为满族宫廷中存在着强烈的欧洲影响，这在小说中是有迹可循的，并影响了曹雪芹。--[[User:Liu Yi|Liu Yi]] ([[User talk:Liu Yi|talk]]) 08:04, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Peng Dan 彭丹==<br />
<br />
Kam Louie (Hong Kong) compared the novel with Three Kingdoms in regard to masculinity, homo-sociality and class, arguing how Jia Baoyu’s homo-erotic friendships were perceived differently depending on times and lenses. Louise P. Edwards (Australia) explored an aestheticized masculinity in clothing, dress and decoration as described in the novel. Karl-Heinz Pohl (Trier/Ger¬many) analyzed Buddhist thoughts in the novel with the example of several wisdoms from the “Heart Sutra”, he showed pro¬xi¬mi¬ty between Buddhist and Daoist thoughts. Harro von Senger (Frei¬burg/ Ger¬¬many) compared supraplanning (in China traditionally ‘''moulüe''’) in the novel and the German family tragedy ‘Nibelun¬gen¬lied’.<br />
<br />
==Peng Juan 彭娟==<br />
<br />
Zhu Ping (Peking) introduced the historical background of drama culture at the time of Kangxi, Yongzheng (the time the novel was written), and Qianlong. Kristina Schröder (Zurich/Switzerland) ex¬plained references of early illustrations of the novel with the ‘Romance of the West Chamber’ with the example of Wang Xilian ordering flowers to blossom. Stefan Mess¬mann (Budapest/Hungary) asked from the legal perspective, if the Marxist dream of equality had been achieved. Laura Bing Han (Trier) compared the novel and the ‘Buddenbrooks’ regarding philosophical dua¬lism.<br />
<br />
==Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏==<br />
<br />
Panel 4 introduced the novel’s in¬ter¬national dissemination, and here Martin Woesler (Witten/Germany, Rome/Italy) ana¬lyzed the changing reception of the novel by early Western translators and recipients. The novel was instrumentalized (e.g. for language learning) and exoticized. Wu Wei (Oslo/Norway, Heidelberg/Ger¬many) explored the color symbolism of ‘redness’ in novel. <br />
<br />
The translations were dealt with in panel 5, Daniela Zhang Cziráková (Slovakia) in-tro¬duced the Czech and Slovak translations of the novel. He Jun (Chengdu) introduced German excerpt translations before Franz Kuhn and Khoo An Ny (Fudan Shanghai) the state of translations in Malaysia.<br />
<br />
==Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲==<br />
<br />
General consent of the participants was that the 120 chapter version was the most authoritative one and that the title ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' was more common than its alternative title ''Story of the Stone''.<br />
<br />
Wei Lingzhi (Peking) introduced results of a 2015 representative survey among Chinese readers about the novel and the author proving its unbroken popularity and high esteem. Regarding translations, the Hawkes/Minford translation was preferred over Yang/Yang.<br />
<br />
==Peng Yongliang 彭永亮==<br />
<br />
All participants praised the importance of the recently published full translations in German and other languages and welcomed the opportunity to share their findings especially between Chinese and non-Chinese scholars. The choreographer Shen Fang-yu and the dramaturg Martin Woesler also presented a taping of the Folkwang Dance Studio Performance “REDCHAMBERDREAM”. <br />
<br />
For further information please refer to the conference website http://china-studies. com.<br />
<br />
'''World Citizen Lu Xun:''' <br />
<br />
'''Critical reception of European Culture by Lu Xun with the examples of Nazi cultural politics and of the Nobel Prize'''<br />
<br />
'''世界公民魯迅：魯迅批判性地接受歐洲文化——以納粹文化政治與諾貝爾獎為例'''<br />
<br />
'''''Martin Woesler 吳漠汀'''''<br />
<br />
Witten/Herdecke University 北京師範大學<br />
<br />
==Peng Yuzhi 彭育志==<br />
<br />
Abstract<br />
<br />
Lu Xun was well aware of global politics in culture, as proven by documents discovered a few years ago. Three days after the book burning in Berlin on May 10, 1933, Lu Xun, as a Member of the Executive Board of the “China League for Civil Rights,” protested the “brutal terror and reaction” of Nazi Germany. Lu Xun took action and submitted an official protest to the German Consulate in Shanghai, which was taken seriously by the Nazi diplomats. He protested the racist suppression of Jewish authors while his own piece of world literature, “A Madman’s Diary” (1918), would have been considered “degenerate art” if published in Germany. In June 1933, he proved his in-depth understanding of Nazi crimes, especially the book-burning, humiliation and deportation of writers, in two essays. <br />
<br />
==Qi Kai 漆凯==<br />
<br />
因近年来所新发现的文物资料，鲁迅很深刻的意識到和瞭解了全球文化政治。柏林焚书案（1933年5月10日）发生的第三天，鲁迅做为“中国民权保障同盟”委员会成员，抗议德国纳粹“残忍的恐怖行径”。鲁迅立刻展开行动，向德国驻上海使领馆提出抗议（当时该处已经由德国纳粹接管）。他抗议纳粹对犹太作家的压制，当时他自己的世界文学作品“狂人日记”在德国也被看作是“变态艺术”。1933年6月，他通过2篇杂文，深刻论证了德国纳粹的罪行，特别是焚烧书籍、羞辱和驱逐作家等。<br />
<br />
In an earlier incident, when he was asked to accept a nomination for the Nobel Prize of Literature in 1927, he refused, not only out of personal modesty, but also because of global political considerations. <br />
<br />
他曾于1927年被提名为诺贝尔文学奖的候选人，但是他拒绝了，不仅是个人的谦逊，也是考量到当时的全球政治环境。<br />
<br />
==Qu Miao 瞿淼==<br />
<br />
Both cases show a different side of Lu Xun’s Reception of European Culture: He was not just an admiring, importing, translator of European culture who was influenced by it (as seen in his own life and work). Instead, his reception was more complex and critical; he applied universal moral standards, as defined by civil and human rights, which he referred to.<br />
<br />
两个例子展现了鲁迅对于欧洲文化接受的不同面：他不仅是一位令人尊敬、重要的受欧洲文化影响的翻译者（参见他的生平和作品）。另一方面，他对西方文化的接受也是复杂而批判性的；他遵循普世价值观，如他所定义的公民权利和人权。<br />
<br />
This makes Lu Xun a world citizen, one who cannot simply be claimed by certain parties or nations.<br />
<br />
综上所述，鲁迅是一位世界公民，这不是哪个政党或者民族可以对他简简单单下定论的。<br />
<br />
==Quan Meixin 全美欣==<br />
<br />
'''Introduction''''''简介'''<br />
<br />
Beginning with his earliest student years in 1902-1903, Lu Xun became an important translator of foreign literature (Jules Verne: ''Journey to the Moon, Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea''). In March 1906, he decided to give up the study of Western medicine in order to become a writer; to cure the Chinese people’s minds instead of their physical illnesses. During his lifetime, Lu Xun was torn between his hope that he could turn Chinese people’s lives to the better and his disappointment that a writer’s works alone were not powerful enough to actually change things or to instigate people to change them. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Sagara Seydou ==<br />
<br />
In 1917, when his friend Qian Xuantong asked him to contribute to the new radical magazine ''New Youth'' (founded by Chen Duxiu), Lu Xun responded: "Imagine an iron house: without windows or doors, utterly indestructible, and full of sound sleepers – all about to suffocate to death. Let them die in their sleep, and they will feel nothing. Is it right to cry out, to rouse the light sleepers among them, causing them inconsolable agony before they die?" In spite of this opinion, in 1918 he still wrote his first story published under his name; “A Madman’s Diary.”<br />
<br />
==Shi Diwen 石迪文==<br />
<br />
It was a social-critical short story which reached world literature level, with one fictional element placed in a realistic setting (influenced by Gogol and parallel to Kafka’s stories using a similar technique). He placed his hopes on the next generation, as we know from the last lines “A Madman’s Diary:” “Save the children....” We also know that Lu Xun engaged in political activities, starting, perhaps, with his support of the Tongmenghui in Japan and by developing plans to educate politically active students etc.<br />
<br />
==Shi Haiyao 石海瑶==<br />
<br />
So while Lu Xun was at first concerned with China, he understood the signs of the times and was anxious to get additional education in Western sciences. He absorbed Western knowledge, learned several European languages and was an important translator of Western literature, e.g. in 1909 he published a book with translated Eastern European stories in Japan. While Lu Xun’s target was the Chinese people, he was very well aware that backwardness in China could only be overcome by learning from the West, especially from Europe. <br />
<br />
==Si Yu 司妤==<br />
<br />
Because of Lu Xun’s extremely critical attitude and his concern for China, the Communist Party and patriots in China claimed to have him in their “pocket.” However, although Lu Xun’s target was China, his measurement scale and means were international universal principles and he was too fierce a protester to be in anyone’s “pocket.” He was active in different political initiatives – such as the China League for Civil Rights (中國民權保障同盟) and the later Leagues of Left-Wing Writers (although some members accused him of being a Right-Wing writer). <br />
<br />
==Song Jianru 宋建茹==<br />
<br />
He did not become a member of the Chinese Communist Party, but instead quarrelled with Communists ideologists. In 1935, he declined to write a pro-Communist novel. Shortly before his death, he wrote: “Forget about me, and care about your own life – you're a fool if you don't.” In spite of this, the Party posthumously made him a Communist Party Member and Mao Zedong wrote the calligraphy above his tomb.<br />
<br />
Denton, Kirk (2002), Lu Xun Biography, MCLC Resource Center.<br />
<br />
==Su Lin 苏琳==<br />
<br />
'''Westernization?'''<br />
<br />
Did Lu Xun trough his Western education and translations of Western literature simply fully supported a ‘Westernization’ of China (全盤西化)? This can be disproven with the following examples: his criticism of Nazi crimes and his decline of the Nobel Prize. His critical mind and intellectual capacities did not allow him simple answers to complex questions.<br />
<br />
Only three days after the book burning in Berlin (May 10, 1933), Lu Xun protested at the Shanghai Consulate against Nazi Germany. This shows his extreme awareness of international politics and the nature of societies. <br />
<br />
==Tan Xingyue 谭星越==<br />
<br />
The reaction of the Vice General Consul in his report to the German Embassy in Peking shows that the German Consulate engaged in counter propaganda and denied the allegations, referring even to their support of the Jewish community in Shanghai. While the world was still asleep, Lu Xun already understood and criticized Nazi anti-writer politics in Germany. It took the rest of the world almost a decade more to “wake up.” Even Nazi Germany’s invasion of Poland in 1939 did not “wake up” other countries, enabling Nazi Germany to conduct further surprise attacks (blitzkrieg) in Western Europe (Netherlands, Belgium, France etc.).<br />
<br />
==Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun was well able to distinguish between positive and negative parts of European culture, which leads to the question: which moral standards did he actually live up to? The thesis of this paper is that he oriented himself to abstract universal human values and morals. As proof, the following details of Lu Xun’s protests are examined.鲁迅对于欧洲文化的态度究竟是积极还是消极的呢？这也引出另一个问题：他到底遵循哪一种道德价值观？本文将论证，鲁迅遵循的是普世价值观。<br />
鲁迅能够很好地区分欧洲文化中积极和消极的部分，这就引出了一个问题：他究竟遵循的是哪些道德标准？本文将论证：鲁迅遵循的是抽象的人类普世价值和道德。本文将从鲁迅的抗议宣言中分析论证。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 03:09, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
==Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛==<br />
<br />
'''Lu Xun’s in-depth and early understanding of Nazi crimes'''<br />
<br />
On July 11 and 16, 1933, Lu Xun (using his pseudonyms) published two essays against Nazi crimes – about the book burning in China and Germany. As shown by this immediate response, Lu Xun was quick to retrieve information and form a judgment – independent of regionalism and dependent only upon universal moral values.<br />
<br />
Lovell, Julia. "Introduction". In ''Lu Xun: The Real story of Ah-Q and Other Tales of China, The Complete Fiction of Lu Xun''. England: Penguin Classics. 2009. ISBN 978-0-140-45548-9, here pp. xxx.<br />
<br />
Silvia Kettelhut: G''eschäfte übernommen: Deutsches Konsulat, Shanghai, Impressionen aus 150 Jahren,'' Shanghai 2006.<br />
<br />
==Tang Bei 汤蓓==<br />
<br />
In his essay “The Book burning in China and Germany” (dated June 28 and published July 11, 1933), Lu Xun, under the penname Ru Niu, compares Qin Shihuangdi’s book burning with the one by Hitler. He points out that the emperor did not burn books on agriculture and medicine and instead still accepted pluralism. Polemically he criticizes his Chinese colleagues for not understanding that the threat by Hitler is a threat to freedom in general. Lu Xun directly addresses the German dictator Hitler as “Mr. Hitler.”<br />
<br />
==Tang Ming 唐铭==<br />
<br />
In the second essay, “Surplus of Knowledge” (dated July 12 and published July 16, 1933) he compares a recent agricultural crisis in China following a “harvest surplus” and the demand to abandon the learning of theories in favor of learning practical things with the demand in Nazi Germany to abandon liberal and pluralistic education. Polemically he calls the German imprisonment of students in labor camps a “solution to the unemployment problem.” He demands that China get rid of knowledge, insisting that people should become fatalist and opportunist. <br />
<br />
==Tang Yiran 汤伊然==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun early had studied the German philosopher Nietzsche, who was also pocketed by the Nazis, and wanted to study abroad in Germany. His critical reflection of Nazi German situation shows that he could also be extremely critical against Germany and was able to judge it according to universal values.他对纳粹德国现状的批判显示，他有能力根据普世价值来对纳粹德国做出评判。<br />
<br />
==Tao Ye 陶冶==<br />
<br />
'''The China League for Civil Rights'''<br />
<br />
The China League for Civil Rights was established with the outspoken goal to free prisoners from Guomindang (GMD) imprisonment. Prominent among members of the League was Song Qingling (left-wing GMD), the widow of Sun Yat-sen, who broke with Qiang Kai-shek in 1927 – when the GMD turned more and more repressive. The Communists also had massive losses after 1927 and went underground. Lu Xun was the most prolific member of the League.<br />
<br />
==Wang Meiling 王美玲==<br />
<br />
In 1931, Song Qingling returned to Shanghai from Europe and headed a campaign to rescue a foreign couple detained without trial by the GMD. I did not find evidence that she knew that the couple were Comintern agents; the campaign did not address their identity. It concentrated on the legal aspects of the detainment.<br />
<br />
==Wang Xuan 王轩==<br />
<br />
An early stage of this part of the study including the translation of the two essays into German has been published as “Der Protest des chinesischen Intellektuellen Lu Xun gegen Nazi-Verbrechen”, in: ''Bulletin of the German China Association'' 54 (2010) 119 pp., pp. 53-58, ISSN 1436-8048. This first essay was published as Ru Niu 孺牛 [Lu Xun]: 华德焚书异同论 (Discussion of Parellels and Differences of the Book Burning in China and Germany), July 11, 1933, 申报 Shen Bao, 自由谈 (Free Talks), German translation by Martin Woesler as “ Die Bücherverbrennungen in China und Deutschland Diskussion der Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede ” in: ''Bulletin of the German China Association'' 54 (2010) 53-55.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yu 王煜==<br />
<br />
This second essay was published as Yu Ming 虞明 [Lu Xun]: “智识过剩 (Surplus of Knowledge)“, dated July 12, 1933, ''Shen Bao'' am 16.7.1933, English translation in: ''Lu Xun, Selected Works'', Übers. Yang Xianyi, Gladys Yang, Bd. 3, S. 324f., 1st ed 1959/1960, 2nd ed. 1964 p. 289-290, 3rd ed. 1980 p. 324 f., 4th ed. 2003 (Peking: Foreign Languages Press), German translation by Martin Woesler as “Wissensüberschuss” in: ''Bulletin of the German China Association 54'' (2010) 56-58.<br />
<br />
==Wang Yuan 王源==<br />
<br />
The couple Paul and Gertrud Ruegg is also known as Mr. and Mrs. Hilaire Noulens. Ruegg's public role was secretary-general of the Pan-Pacific Trade Union, an international agent for organizing the Chinese labour movement. His secret role was secretary of the Comintern's Far Eastern Bureau in Shanghai. In June 1930, the couple was first arrested by the police in the International Settlement, and then turned over to GMD authorities. See: Jinxing Chen: “The Rise and Fall of the China League for Civil Rights”, in: ''China Review'' Vol. 6, No. 2, Special Issue on: WTO and China's Financial Development (Fall 2006), pp. 121-147.<br />
<br />
Bruun, Ole, and Michael Jacobsen. ''Human rights and Asian values: Contesting national identities and cultural representations in Asia''. Vol. 6. Psychology Press, 2000.<br />
<br />
==Wei Honglang 韦洪朗==<br />
<br />
In the League’s press conference in Shanghai, on 30 December 1932, Cai Yuanpei referred to J. J. Rousseau and said that the League would not be placed in the pocket of any political party. The League was very active in publishing statements, sending telegrams to foreign governments in about half a dozen cases and seeing government officials on behalf of the imprisonment of intellectuals out of political reasons.<br />
<br />
On May 13, 1933, Ms. Song Qingling announced her visit to the German Vice General Consul, Richard Behrend, in Shanghai, and representatives of the League – including its president Song Qingling, Cai Yuanpei, Lu Xun, Yang Xing¬fo (Yang Quan) – submitted the following protest note. <br />
<br />
==Wei Yafei 魏亚菲==<br />
<br />
Transcription, from Kettelhut 2006 pp. 155-158. Source: PA AA (Political Archive of the Foreign Office / Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes) R 98440.<br />
<br />
Submission of the protest note to Vice General Consulate Behrend by the Board of the China League of Civil Rights, including the widow of Sun Yat-sen, Song Qingling, the president of Academia Si¬ni¬ca, Cai Yuanpei, Lu Xun and the Vice President of Academia Sinica, Yang Xing¬fo (Yang Quan). Wood block print by Zhao Yannian 趙延年 (born 1924) 1956. Not displayed in the wood block print are the writers Lin Yutang, Agnes Smedley und Harold Isaacs, which, according to the report of the Consulate, were also present. Lin Yutang was also not mentioned by the Chinese press. <br />
<br />
<br />
==Wen Sixing 文偲荇==<br />
<br />
The vice consul took the protest seriously and submitted the letter to Peking, accompanied with a report in which he described Ms Song Qingling as the head of the League and listed Lu Xun as “the famous writer” and leading fighter for the “New Chinese Language Movement.” <br />
<br />
Song Qingling, about a month after the visit at the Consulate, on June 17, 1933 sent a telegram to “Chancellor Hitler” demanding the immediate release of political prisoners.<br />
<br />
For the involvement of foreigners in the League see Chen Jinxing 2006 and others.<br />
<br />
Report by Behrendt for the German Embassy Peking dated May 15, 1933, see Kettelhut 2006.<br />
<br />
==Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺==<br />
<br />
The reaction from Berlin was that they should try to influence Song Qingling. The reply from the German diplomats in China was that it had been tried earlier and another attempt would probably be counter-productive since Ms. Song was close to the Communists.<br />
<br />
The League did not survive long. Hu Shi won the leadership of the Peking arm of the League. His critical review of a prison report led to some tensions within the League, leading to the dissolvement of the Peking arm. In the end, Yang Quan, the Secretary General, was assassinated by GMD, while Song Qingling received a letter with a bullet in it – forcing her to hide. All of this combined into a fatal blow to the League. Chen Jinxing (2006), however, suspects that tensions within the League (e.g. with Hu Shi) helped its dissolution. <br />
<br />
==Wu Kai 吴恺==<br />
<br />
As the most prolific member of the league, Lu Xun’s active, and prominent, participation in the League’s protests shows his devotion to the principles of universal human rights – reaching beyond concern only for his countrymen.鲁迅的抗议显示了他普世人权的原则。<br />
<br />
Price, Ruth. ''The Lives of Agnes Smedley''. OUP USA, 2005.<br />
<br />
Chen, Jinxing: “The Rise and Fall of the China League for Civil Rights”, in: ''China Review'' Vol. 6, No. 2, Special Issue on: WTO and China's Financial Development (Fall 2006), pp. 121-147.<br />
<br />
==Wu Qi 吴琪==<br />
<br />
'''The Nobel Prize of Literature'''<br />
<br />
In 1926, “The True Story of Ah Q” was translated by Jing Yinyu into French. In September 1927, Peking University Professor Liu Bannong suggested to Sven Hedish (member of the Swedish Academy) that Lu Xun be considered for laureateship. Nobel Prize Laureate Kenzaburō Ōe called Lu Xun "The greatest writer Asia produced in the twentieth century." In the 1920s, 1915 Nobel Laureate Romain Rolland introduced Chinese literature to the world. In 1927, he especially recommended Lu Xun and his story “Ah Q.”<br />
<br />
<br />
==Wu Qiong 吴琼==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun rejected the nomination in a letter to his former student and confidante, Tai Jingnong, with the following reasoning: “There are a lot of better writers than me in the world and they can’t get it.” He further said “I think there is nobody truly deserving the Nobel Prize in China. It would be better for Sweden to ignore us. It would only encourage Chinese egotism, causing them to believe they could really parallel those great foreign writers if yellow-skinned people were given preferential consideration. The result would not be good at all.” (Eventually, the prize was awarded to Sinclair Lewis.) <br />
<br />
==Wu Xiang 邬香==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun was well acquainted with many famous foreign writers. During these days, he personally met several, such as Agnes Smedley, Harold Isaacs, and Bernhard Shaw. Therefore, Lu Xun had an understanding of the domestic political implications of the Nobel Prize; of awarding such a prize to a national literature which was still under development and had not yet reached a satisfying level. He understood that the effect of such an award would be to increase Chinese egotism. So he sacrificed his own honor in order not to send the wrong signal; in order to not discourage Chinese literature by receiving mercy from the international community, but instead to encourage its further development so that it might eventually reach the level of the “great foreign writers.”<br />
<br />
==Wu Yilu 吴一露==<br />
<br />
Biography of Sven Hedin (1865-1952), see George Kish, ''To the Heart of Asia: The Life of Sven Hedin'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984). Hedin was in Beijing in late 1926 and early 1927 seeking government permission for an exploration to Mongolia (''ibid.'', p. 114). Quoted after: Wang, B. [汪宝荣]. (2011). Lu Xun's fiction in English translation: the early years. (Thesis). University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.5353/th_b4696908 (in the following: Wang 2011).<br />
<br />
斯文·赫丁传见诸于乔治·基什撰写的《亚洲的心脏：斯文·赫丁的一生》（阿安伯：密歇根大学出版社，1984）。1926年年末以及1927年年初，赫丁在北京为得到可以让他蒙古进行勘探的政治许可（同上，第114页）。引用：Wang，B.[王宝荣].（2011）。鲁迅小说英文版：早年。（论文）香港特别行政区波克富兰大学。引用于 http://dx.doi.org/10.5353/th_b4696908 （如下：王，2011）。--[[User:Wu Yilu|Wu Yilu]] ([[User talk:Wu Yilu|talk]]) 08:42, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Wu Zijia 吴子佳==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun 鲁迅, “Zhi Tai Jingnong” 致台静农, 25 Sept. 1927, rpt. in ''LXQJ'' 12: 73-74. See a penetrating discussion of Lu Xun’s international stature and Nobel candidacy in Paul B. Foster, “The Ironic Inflation of Chinese National Character: Lu Xun’s International Reputation, Romain Rolland’s Critique of ‘The True Story of Ah Q,’ and the Nobel Prize”, ''Modern Chinese Literature and Culture'', 13.1 (Spring, 2001): 140-168. Interestingly, Foster suggests that Lu Xun may have contributed to the publicity which eventually led to the suggestion that he be nominated for a Nobel Prize. Quoted after: Wang 2011.<br />
<br />
==Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲==<br />
<br />
This shows that Lu Xun was modest and aware of the global position of Chinese literature, and that he had a vision for its development.这些显示鲁迅很谦逊，其在中国文学的得到世界的认可，同时，他的视野也促进了中国文学的发展。 Who would decline a Nobel Prize? Only someone with principles more important than the Nobel Prize. Lu Xun firmly believed in universal values, against which even the Nobel Prize had to step back. 鲁迅相信普世价值观，为此甚至可以拒绝诺贝尔奖。These principles were universal values, with the aim to lead Chinese literature, as a whole, to world level instead of singling out anybody to let the people further “sleep in their iron house.”<br />
<br />
==Xiao Ting 肖婷==<br />
<br />
Several researchers have also interpreted the incident. Foster (2001) pointed to Romain Rolland’s role. Wang (2011) blames the bad quality of the French translation of “Ah Q” by Jing Yinyu as contributing to the fact that Lu Xun was not awarded the Nobel Prize. However, Romain Rolland, 1915 Nobel Prize Laureate, praised this French translation and also supported a Nobel Prize for Lu Xun. Gloria Davies recounts further incidents around this matter.<br />
<br />
一些研究人员也对该事件进行了解释。福斯特（2001）指出罗曼-罗兰德的作用。王晓东（2011）称景印宇的《阿Q正传》法译本质量不过关，是导致鲁迅没有获得诺贝尔奖的原因。然而，1915年诺贝尔奖获得者罗曼-罗兰德对这一法译本大加赞赏，也支持为鲁迅设立诺贝尔奖。格洛丽亚-戴维斯还讲述了与此事相关的其他事件。--[[User:Xiao Ting|Xiao Ting]] ([[User talk:Xiao Ting|talk]]) 03:01, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting<br />
<br />
<br />
一些研究人员也对此事进行了解释。福斯特（2001）指出罗曼·罗兰（Romain Rolland）在其中的作用。 王晓东（2011）认为景印宇的《阿Q正传》法译本质量不过关，导致鲁迅未获得诺贝尔奖。 然而，1915年诺贝尔奖获得者罗曼·罗兰（Romain Rolland）对这一法译本大加赞赏，并支持鲁迅获得诺贝尔奖。 格洛丽亚·戴维斯（Gloria Davies）讲述了有关此事的后续事件。--[[User:Deng Jinxia|Deng Jinxia]] ([[User talk:Deng Jinxia|talk]]) 05:41, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xiao Xi 肖茜==<br />
<br />
'''Conclusion: Universalism'''<br />
<br />
Lu Xun was very much involved in daily politics in China and fought several fights with other intellectuals and even the Communist Party publically by the means of ''zawen'' (critical essays). For us today, these fights about small and sometimes strange issues seem to characterize its actors as caught in provinciality. However, he was universal – both in his political understanding (recognizing German domestic suppression much earlier than many others and suspecting that even the Nobel Prize could be understood as a tool of mercy towards the underdeveloped nation of China) as well as in his literature. While he wrote literary pieces of the same level as Franz Kafka, he was producing world literature in a climate which was – despite all daily chaos – freer than the one in Germany. <br />
<br />
==Xiao Yining 肖伊宁==<br />
<br />
Criticism of suspected political motifs behind a Noble Prize for him and of the human rights violations in Germany show that Lu Xun was neither an advocate of total westernization nor that he oriented himself towards the West as a contrast foil for China. He placed nothing less than universal values as the contrast foil to China. True, also the League of Left-wing Writers was a short-lived daily-policy tool within China (Lu Xun himself said, it “may not last long”), but it represented universal values. He also referred to the children. This was another way of distancing himself from daily politics as he pointed to existential and universal ideals like future, hope, another chance and new people who are innocent; not pre-educated and burdened with the past.<br />
<br />
==Xie Fan 解帆==<br />
<br />
Paul B. Foster, “The Ironic Inflation of Chinese National Character: Lu Xun’s International Reputation, Romain Rolland’s Critique of ‘The True Story of Ah Q,’ and the Nobel Prize”, ''Modern Chinese Literature and Culture'', 13.1 (Spring, 2001): 141.<br />
<br />
Jeffrey Wasserstrom: “All I see Around Me is the Same Old Darkness: Gloria Davies on Lu Xun”, Nov 4, 2013, https://goo.gl/HgqmCe. See also Gloria Davies, ''Lu Xun’s Revolution'', Harvard University Press 2012.<br />
<br />
<br />
==Xie Ziyi 谢子熠==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun’s reception of Western culture was not uncritical; he was shaped by both his heritage education and his Western education, applying universal standards to the Chinese development - a Chinese man with universal values – a true citizen of the world.鲁迅并非“全盘西化”，他的价值观受到传统教育和西方教育的影响，用普世价值来判斷中国发展——一个具有普世价值的中国人——一个真正的世界公民。<br />
<br />
==Xu Jia 徐佳==<br />
<br />
'''Appendix: Lu Xun’s two essays in Chinese<br />
<br />
智识过剩'''<br />
虞明<br />
<br />
世界因为生产过剩，所以闹经济恐慌。虽然同时有三千万以上的工人挨饿，但 是粮食过剩仍旧是“客观现实”，否则美国不会赊借麦粉给我们，我们也不会 “丰收成灾”。<br />
然而智识也会过剩的，智识过剩，恐慌就更大了。据说中国现行教育在乡间提 倡愈甚，则农村之破产愈速。这大概是智识的丰收成灾了。美国因为棉花 贱，所以在铲棉田了。中国却应当铲智识。这是西洋传来的妙法。<br />
西洋人是能干的。五六年前，德国就嚷着大学生太多了，一些政治家和教育 家，大声疾呼的劝告青年不要进大学。现在德国是不但劝告，而且实行铲除智识 了：例如放火烧毁一些书籍，叫作家把自己的文稿吞进肚子去，还有，就是把一群 群的大学生关在营房里做苦工，这叫做“解决失业问题”。<br />
中国不是也嚷着文法科的大学生过剩吗？其实何止文法科。<br />
就是中学生也太多了。要用“严厉的”会考制度，像铁扫帚似的——刷， 刷，刷，把大多数的智识青年刷回“民间”去。<br />
智识过剩何以会闹恐慌？中国不是百分之八九十的人还不识字吗？然而智识过 剩始终是“客观现实”，而由此而来的恐慌，也是“客观现实”。智识太多了，不是心 活，就是心软。<br />
心活就会胡思乱想，心软就不肯下辣手。结果，不是自己不镇静，就是妨害别 人的镇静。于是灾祸就来了。所以智识非铲除不可。<br />
然而单是铲除还是不够的。必须予以适合实用之教育，第一，是命理学——要乐 天知命，命虽然苦，但还是应当乐。第二，是识相学——要“识相点”，知道点近代武 器的利害。至少，这两种适合实用的学问是要赶快提倡的。<br />
提倡的方法很简单：—— 古代一个哲学家反驳唯心论，他说，你要是怀疑这碗麦饭的物质是否存在，那最好 请你吃下去，看饱不饱。现在譬如说罢，要叫人懂得电学，最好是使他触电，看痛 不痛；要叫人知道飞机等类的效用，最好是在他头上驾起飞机，掷下炸弹，看死不死 ……<br />
<br />
有了这样的实用教育，智识就不过剩了。亚门！<br />
<br />
七月十二日。<br />
<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许晶==<br />
<br />
Lu Xun to Tai Jingnong, 12 February 1933, Lu Xun shuxinji (Collected Correspondence of Lu Xun) (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1976), Vol. 1, p. 354; Zou Taofen, Taofen wenji (Collected Works of Taofen) (Hong Kong: Joint Publishing Co. Ltd., 1957), Vol. 1, p. 73.<br />
<br />
《鲁迅致台静农》，1933年2月12日，鲁迅书信集（鲁迅合集）（北京：人民文学出版社，1976），第1卷，第354页；邹韬奋文集（韬奋合集）（香港：联合出版社集团，1957），第1卷，第73页。--[[User:Xu Jing2|Xu Jing2]] ([[User talk:Xu Jing2|talk]]) 08:51, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Jing 许静==<br />
'''华德焚书异同论''' <br />
<br />
孺牛<br />
<br />
德国的希特拉先生们一烧书，中国和日本的论者们都比之于秦始皇。然而秦始皇实在冤枉得很，他的吃亏是在二世而亡，一班帮闲们都替新主子去讲他的坏话了。<br />
<br />
==Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶==<br />
不错，秦始皇烧过书，烧书是为了统一思想。但他没有烧掉农书和医书；他收罗许多别国的“客卿”，并不专重“秦的思想”，倒是博采各种的思想的。<br />
Exactly, First Emperor of Qin had burned books to unify thoughts. Yet, books for agriculture and medicine were saved; he had embraced many guest officials from other states and was open to all kinds of ideas without only holding "thought's in Qin State" as highly esteemed.--[[User:Xu Mengdie|Xu Mengdie]] ([[User talk:Xu Mengdie|talk]]) 02:51, 13 November 2020 (UTC) Xu Mengdie<br />
<br />
It is true that Qin Shihuang burned books to unify his thoughts. But he did not burn down agricultural and medical books; he collected many "alienministers" from other countries, and did not focus exclusively on "Qin's thoughts", but collected various ideas.--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 07:40, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞==<br />
秦人重小儿；始皇之母，赵女也，赵重妇人，所以我们从“剧秦”的遗文中，也看不见轻贱女人的痕迹。<br />
<br />
People in the state of Qin attached great importance to children, while the state of Zhao emphasized women. And the mother of First Emperor of Qin is a woman from country Zhao. Therefore, we see no trace of contempt for women even in literature which depreciated Qin.--[[User:Xu Pengfei|Xu Pengfei]] ([[User talk:Xu Pengfei|talk]]) 05:22, 13 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei<br />
<br />
==Yang Chenting 杨晨婷==<br />
希特拉先生们却不同了，他所烧的首先是“非德国思想”的书，没有容纳客卿的魄力；其次是关于性的书，这就是毁灭以科学来研究性道德的解放，结果必将使妇 人和小儿沉沦在往古的地位，见不到光明。而可比于秦始皇的车同轨，书同文……之类的大事业，他们一点也做不到。<br />
<br />
==Yang Hairong 杨海容==<br />
阿剌伯人攻陷亚历山德府的时 候，就烧掉了那里的图书馆，那理论是：如果那些书籍所讲的道理，和《可兰经》相同，则已有《可兰经》，无须留了；倘使不同，则是异端，不该留了。这 才是希特拉先生们的嫡派祖师——虽然阿剌伯人也是“非德国的”——和秦的烧书，是不能比较的。<br />
<br />
==Yang Hui 阳慧==<br />
但是结果往往和英雄们的豫算不同。始皇想皇帝传至万世，而偏偏二世而亡，赦免了农书和医书，而秦以前的这一类书，现在却偏偏一部也不剩。<br />
<br />
==Yang Yi 杨逸==<br />
希特拉先生一上台，烧书，打犹太人，不可一世，连这里的黄脸干儿们，也听得兴高彩烈，向被压迫者大加嘲笑，对讽刺文字放出讽刺的冷箭来——到 底还明白的冷冷的讯问道：你们究竟要自由不要？不自由，无宁死。现在你们为什么不去拚死呢？<br />
<br />
==Yang Yue 杨悦==<br />
这回是不必二世，只有半年，希特拉先生的门徒 们在奥国一被禁止，连党徽也改成三色玫瑰了。最有趣的是因为不准叫口号，大家就以手遮嘴，用了“掩口式”。<br />
<br />
==Yang Ziling 杨子泠==<br />
这真是一个大讽刺。刺的是谁，不问也 罢，但可见讽刺也还不是“梦呓”，质之黄脸干儿们，不知以为何如？六月二十八日。<br />
<br />
==Yao Cheng 姚诚==<br />
When we define an academic category like "Chinese studies", we pay respect to the fact that the world historically has developed differently in different regions. Of course the world was far less connected than today, with slow carriers like horses and ships and often bad or risky infrastructure like roads.<br />
<br />
==Yao Jia 姚佳==<br />
Therefore it appears on first sight that these regions have developed their culture, their civilization and even first written languages on their own, independently. The oldest evidence of written civilizations, dating back around 3500 years BC, we find in the fertile crescent Mesopotamia with the clay tablets of the Sumerer. A little bit later there is evidence in Ancient Egypt, then in Proto-India and finally also in China.<br />
<br />
==Yi Huan 易欢==<br />
But the more we explore history, the more fascinating evidence comes to light that these seemingly independently developing regions have had more trade relations and exchange of ideas than seems likely bearing in mind mobility: The Silk Road is not only rediscovered and reevaluated historically, but also rebuilt as a political agenda today.<br />
<br />
==Yi Zichu 义子楚==<br />
We today find early evidence of European civilizations in America and Asia as well as the Chinese civilization also in America and Europe.<br />
<br />
Cultural Science is more influenced by its subject than other sciences, since we are part of it and cannot leave it to examine it. The history of cultural science has developed from the first times of intercultural encounters to today’s life, in which cultures are mixed and people understand each other as being part of different cultures simultaneously.<br />
<br />
==You Yuting 游雨婷==<br />
However, there will always be differentiation between cultures, simply because the trends of integration and separation occur at the same time.<br />
<br />
When there is different cultures, there is an interest in comparing these. This medal has two sides. As soon as you start to compare, you may value. Cultural encounters happened before there were experts or a whole discipline.<br />
<br />
==Yu Ni 余妮==<br />
So the first comparisons between cultures were ethnocentric: You compared whatever you encountered as “other”, “foreign” or “alien”, to your own culture. This was often accompanied with feelings. There was both, the feeling of fear of the unknown and curiosness in the exotic.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦==<br />
You may categorize civilizations into so-called “high civilizations” and “low civilizations”, into “developed” and “underdeveloped” cultures. This was an ethnocentric approach in the age of cultural relativism. Today in the age of post-growth economy and after tragic experiences of colonialization and missionization, we know that each culture is equal and cannot be ranked to be higher or lower, of more or less value than the other.<br />
<br />
你可以把各种文明分为“高等文明”、“低等文明”、“发达文明”和“不发达文明”。这是文化相对主义时代的一种民族中心主义方法。在经济后增长的今天，在经历了殖民和传教的悲惨经历之后，我们知道，每一种文化都是平等的，不能比较，没有一种文化文化比另一种文化更高级或更低级、更具价值或更少价值。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:00, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼==<br />
While very early there were historians collecting knowledge from travel reports or official delegations visiting foreign cultures, in the middle ages handbooks collected the knowledge to describe different cultures. Even the Romans had words for the Chinese (Seres in the North and Sinae in the South) and attributed to Asian-looking people certain characteristics of behaviour, attitudes, value systems, beliefs, morals and character.<br />
<br />
==Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨==<br />
The first in-depth analysis of the Chinese culture through Western people came not with the merchants, but with the Jesuits. How few was known about China can be seen from the fact, that only the Jesuits managed to clarify, that the myth of the two empires, Tartary and Kitai/Cathay, in fact both were the same (China).<br />
<br />
==Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘==<br />
However, the Jesuit’s approach was still ethnocentric and cultural relativist, because by portraying (like Du Halde) China as a seemingly ideal state suitable for mission work, they contributed to subjective views on China. <br />
==Zeng Liang 曾良==<br />
Around 1720 presumably the French Jesuit Jean-François Noëlas even translated the Dao de jing into Latin.[ Collani, Claudia von, Harald Holz, Konrad Wegmann eds. Uroffenbarung und Daoismus: jesuitische Missionshermeneutik des Daoismus. Europ. University Press, 2008. [Partial retranslation Chinese-Latin-German.]] The translation turns out to deviate from the original in the way that we suddenly find the Christian trinity god in it.<br />
==Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛==<br />
This is the starting point of an ethnocentric tradition to read the self and the own into the other and the alien, instead of respecting the other as a value by itself and allowing it to even challenge the own beliefs. Even the German Christian missionary and sinologist Richard Wilhelm used a Christian language (belief, heavens’ doors, life after death etc.) in his influential 1919 Taoteking translation and in 1925 he translated “god” into the Analects of Confucius.<br />
==Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖==<br />
The missionaries baptized the seemingly “backward” aborigines in several continents, sometimes supported by the sword. A lot of cultures, considered less “developed”, were heavily influenced or even destroyed and extinguished. Earlier, the “Warriors of the Cross” even fought wars and devastated complete regions.<br />
==Zhang Hu 张虎==<br />
The other aspect, the exotization of the other was expressed by the way the first Chinese people who came to Europe were received: They were passed on at tea meetings and gazed at like animals. Soon Chinese goods became the symbol of the exotic. Chinese porcellain and nick-nacks, even Chinese-style buildings were recreated in Europe. <br />
==Zhang Hui 张慧==<br />
The fever-like admiration of a China image, which certainly was not the true China, is called Chinoiserie. The Chinoiserie even involved European philosophers like Voltaire and Leibniz, who compared China to an ideal country without religion and still moral values, represented by a wise emperor.<br />
<br />
对中国形象的狂热崇拜，当然不是真正的中国，被称为中国风。 中国艺术甚至与伏尔泰和莱布尼兹（Leibniz）之类的欧洲哲学家相提并论，他们将中国比作一个没有宗教信仰和道德价值观的理想国家，以一个明智的皇帝为代表。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:46, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
<br />
==Zhang Ling 张玲==<br />
In Europe, the first experts on Chinese culture were entrusted with the task to explain the Chinese culture no longer from the ethnocentric viewpoint, but from a scientific one: Professorships at universities were established. Their early translations show traces of admiration of the exotic. Chinoiserie was also countered by Européerie in China. However, this phase did only last as long as it fit to European politics.<br />
==Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻==<br />
As soon as the import of colonial goods (and resources) became an economic factor, the (wrong) image of the ideal China changed into a negative one (similarly wrong). Not only mission and belief were motifs to look down on the Chinese culture, but also the comparison of economic development and living standards. <br />
==Zhang Qi 张琪==<br />
Hegel continued the ethnocentric view on China with his ranking of cultures. Although Confucius already had developed a “Golden Rule” principle comparable to Kant’s “Categorical Imperative”, Hegel declared Chinese philosophy as inferior to European philosophy, and even saw a geographical step by step development from Confucius over Buddha, Zarathustra, the ancient Greek and the Roman philosophy, leading to the European philosophy. <br />
==Zhang Weihong 张维虹==<br />
A ladder only second by the Arab philosophy. At the turn from the 19th to the 20th century, China was suddenly considered as static, as “the sick man of Asia”. Actually semi-colonialism in China helped to hinder development there. <br />
==Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪==Rereading the reviews of Chinese literature in contemporary Western journals, it is astonishing, how disrespectful even men of letters treated Chinese literature, even during a time, when it was not yet available in translation, so that it is save to say that ethnocentric attitude prevailed over knowledge. <br />
<br />
==Zhang Yinliu 张银柳==<br />
This can be proven by the many mistakes you can find in the reviews (Morrison: the book was of low literary quality, but written in Peking dialect and therefore useful as language learning material; Gützlaff: the protagonist Baoyu is a petulant woman; Giles: the words “Red Chamber Dreams do not appear in the book” etc.). Also, the tradition of the title translation as “Dream of the Red Chamber” can be traced back to the origins of the better translation as “Red Chamber Dreams”, sacrificed by Francis Davis finally in favor of the powerful tool of Morrison’s dictionary calling it “Dream of the Red Chamber”.<br />
==Zhang Yu 张瑜==<br />
Here, the exotic was used to make fun of China. Barrow introduces an excerpt, describing the outward appearance of Baoyu and Xifeng, translated by Francis Davis into English, explicitely for the reason to “amuse the beaux and belles”. Francis Davis himself picks two poems from the novel for translation, but not for its own sake, but to use them as a proof for his own (minority) opinion that the Chinese poetry knew a certain, “descriptive” function of poems in novels.<br />
==Zhang Yujie 张毓婕==<br />
In 1815 Macao Reverend Robert Morrison (1782-1834) coined the Western translation of the novel’s title by mentioning it in his Dictionary of the Chinese Language as “dreams of the red chamber.”[ He explained the character “妙” as in the novel’s character “妙玉 Meaou yǔh [Miao Yu]” as “the admirable gem, name of one of the female characters in the novel called 紅樓夢 the dreams of the red chamber”, see Robert Morrison: A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts, Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I., 930 pp., here p. 614, left column. 24 years after the print edition was published, this is the first mention and translation of the novel’s title into a Western language known so far. If no earlier occurrence is found it means that Morrison created a translation which has lasted until today almost unchanged.] <br />
==Zhang Yuxing 张宇星==<br />
In 1815 Macao Reverend Robert Morrison (1782-1834) coined the Western translation of the novel’s title by mentioning it in his Dictionary of the Chinese Language as “dreams of the red chamber.”[ He explained the character “妙” as in the novel’s character “妙玉 Meaou yǔh [Miao Yu]” as “the admirable gem, name of one of the female characters in the novel called 紅樓夢 the dreams of the red chamber”, see Robert Morrison: A Dictionary of the Chinese language in three parts, Macao: East India Company Press 1815, vol. I., 930 pp., here p. 614, left column. 24 years after the print edition was published, this is the first mention and translation of the novel’s title into a Western language known so far. If no earlier occurrence is found it means that Morrison created a translation which has lasted until today almost unchanged.] He chose the plural, which was quite reasonable as there are many dreams in the novel. It appears that 27 years later the plural “dreams” was turned into the singular “dream,” which sounds a bit more general and is therefore also a reasonable translation. Red Chamber Dreams is the most common translation in English and, in its variations, in all Western languages so far.<br />
==Zhao Xi 赵茜==<br />
He chose the plural, which was quite reasonable as there are many dreams in the novel. It appears that 27 years later the plural “dreams” was turned into the singular “dream,” which sounds a bit more general and is therefore also a reasonable translation. Red Chamber Dreams is the most common translation in English and, in its variations, in all Western languages so far.<br />
==Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕==<br />
In 1817 Rev. Robert Morrison published a book for studying Chinese,[ Robert Morrison, A view of China for philological purposes: containing a sketch of Chinese Chronology, Geography, Government, Religion & Customs, designed for the use of persons who study the Chinese language, Macao: East Asia Company Press, 1817, 141 S., hier S. 120-121.] in which he recommended “Dreams of the Red Chamber” as beginner readings, together with the novel Hao qiu zhuan, which was available mostly in English and partly in Portuguese by 1719, and fully in English by 1761. Both were written in colloquial style.<br />
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1817年，罗伯特·莫里森牧师出版了一本研究汉语的书，[罗伯特·莫里森，从语言学的角度看中国：包含中国年表，地理，政府，宗教和习俗的梗概，旨在供学习汉语的人使用。 澳门：东亚公司出版社，1817年，141 S.，hier S. 120-121。]，其中他推荐《红楼梦》作为初学者阅读，包括小说《好逑传》，这本小说到1719年大部分都是用英语撰写，部分用葡萄牙语撰写，到1761年全部变成了英文版。两种语言都是口语化的。--[[User:Zhao Xiaoyan|Zhao Xiaoyan]] ([[User talk:Zhao Xiaoyan|talk]]) 07:33, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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1817年，启罗伯特·莫里森牧师出版了一本学习中文的书,[罗伯特·莫里森,从语言学的角度看中国:包含中国年表、地理、政府、宗教和习俗,旨在供学习汉语的人使用,澳门:东亚公司出版社,1817年,141 S., hier S. 120-121.] 在这本书中，他推荐《红楼梦》和小说《好逑传》作为初学者读物。到1719年，《好逑传》主要以英文出版，部分以葡萄牙文出版，到1761年完全以英文出版。两者都是用口语化的。--[[User:Zhang Hui|Zhang Hui]] ([[User talk:Zhang Hui|talk]]) 07:53, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zheng Huajun 郑华君==<br />
Morrison claims that Dream was written in Peking dialect. This does not hold true, since the author’s family Cao came from the South and many people in the novel have Nanking dialect sprinkles. In fact, the highly artful and intentional switch of dialects and sociolects contributed to the later fame of the novel. Morrison’s mistake developed its own tradition.[ Even in 1995, you could read that the Dreams is written in Peking dialect, cf. Shu Changshan, Die Rezeption Thomas Manns in China, 1995, Frankfurt: Lang, 326 pp. At least Tong Yao, Die Vielfältigkeit der Literatur, 2006 mentions both Peking and Nanking dialects.]<br />
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莫里森声称《梦》是用北京方言写成的。但事实并非如此，因为作者曹家来自南方，小说中的许多人物都有南京方言的点缀。事实上，方言和社会语的高度巧妙和有意的转换为这部小说后来的名声做出了贡献。莫里森的错误发展了自己的传统。[即使在1995年，大家也可以读到“《梦》是用北京方言写的”，参见舒长山、托马斯·曼斯的《中国的梦》（1995），法兰克福:朗，326页。至少佟耀《文学之声》（2006）同时提到了北京方言和南京方言。]--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 05:23, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Zhou Luoping 周罗平==<br />
Barrow mentioned the title “[...] a Chinese novel called Hung-low-Mung, or, The Red Chamber Dreams” on June 4, 1819, in the Quarterly Review. He inserted this reference into a review[ My own findings, so far not discussed in 20th century hongxue, and published first in October 2010. John Barrow, “Art. IV Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited. By Clarke Abel F.L.S. London 1818”, in: William Gifford ed., Quarterly Review 21:41 (January 1819) S. 67-91, hier S. 79-80. This edition appeared (only by) June 4, 1819 with 13,000 copies. The author follows here the argumentation of the assignment to the author Barrow due to the following indications: “Gentleman's Magazine (Mar. 1844), 246-47. The article's author refers to #415 and #438 (including a specific reference), both of which are on the same topic and are by Barrow. Cf. also the discussion of infanticide (p. 76) and Raffles's account of Java reviewed by Barrow in #422. In his Q[uarterly] R[eview] articles, it was Barrow's signature practice to refer to his own works, see “Quarterly Review Archive” http://www.rc.umd.edu/ reference/qr/index/41.html, last visited March 10, 2018.] of Clarke Abel’s report of a journey through China.[ Clarke Abel, Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817; containing an Account of the most interesting Transactions of Lord Amherst's Embassy to the Court of Pekin, and Observations on the Countries which it visited, F.L.S. London 1818.] <br />
==Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿==<br />
He interrupted his review with an excursus on the uniform appearance and static nature of the Chinese, in line with the contemporary China-bashing of Herder and Hegel. For contemporary Europeans, the Chinese appeared abnormally uniform and simple in their clothes and appearance. <br />
==Zhou Shuyao 周书尧==<br />
They would not be subordinated to the tyranny of fashion; their culture was static. In order to entertain the “belles and beaux of Great Britain,” Barrow provides a foil to this general impression by quoting the descriptions of the garments and anatomy of two characters, Wang Xifeng and Jia Baoyu, from chapter 3 of J. Davis’ translation of Dream. <br />
==Zhou Siqing 周思庆==<br />
In fact the graphic comparisons given in these descriptions were simply strange to Europeans of that time, since they apparently did not correspond to the European’s own ideal of beauty.<br />
Even in 1842 Gützlaff criticized: “the author [makes] many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] the style is without any art […] whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage”[ “Amongst the novels of the Chinese, this work holds a decidedly high rank. The author, after making many protestations of his inability to do justice to the subject, which indeed is the only truth in the book […] Having brought this tedious story to a conclusion, in expressing our opinion about the literary merits of the performance, we may say that the style is without any art, being literally the spoken language of the higher classes in the northern provinces. Some words that are used in a sense different from that in ordinary writings, and others are formed for the occasion, to express provincial sounds. But after reading one volume the sense is easily understood, and whosoever wishes to familiarize himself with the manner of speaking the northern court dialect, may peruse this work with advantage.” ibid., p. 273.]<br />
==Zhou Yiwen 周艺文==<br />
In 1867, 78 years after the first Chinese printed edition, we find a first real in-depth review of two pages by William Frederick Mayers:[ William Frederick Mayers, in: Notes and Queries (Dec 31, 1867) pp. 167-168, here p. 167. Mayers was Chinese secretary of the British Legation at Peking. He gives also short extracts in translation: <br />
“Vast as is Heaven above or Earth below –<br />
Sighs may such limits fill for passion vainly past <br />
Grieve for the senseless youth, the hapless maiden’s woe ! <br />
Not oft is love’s light pledge redeem’ed at last ! ” (p. 167) […] <br />
Vain to be soft in temper, mild in ways, <br />
Fair as the fairest … (p. 168) <br />
[…] <br />
Not often shines <br />
thy longings too are vain ! ” (p. 168)].]<br />
==Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲==<br />
“If it be lawful to avow a feeling approaching to enthusiasm for any Chinese production, The Hung Low Mêng 紅樓夢 or ‘Dreams of the Red Chamber’ is beyond possibility of cavil the work for which genuine admiration may be expressed. What, in English literature, the writings of Thackeray and Bulwer are in comparison with the wearisome and unskilful productions of previous generations, such is the Hung Low Mêng when compared with the works of fiction that have emanated from other Chinese authors. <br />
==Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟==<br />
manated from other Chinese authors. Human character in its complex variety of shades, the intricacies of family relations, the force of passion and the torture of disappointed yearnings after love are pourtrayed with a degree of skill and knowledge such as in truth suggests a resemblance with the two great master-spirits of English romance; whilst, as in Nature's own drama of existence, the reflections of storm and sunshine are closely interlaced, and the lighter thread of comedy runs side by side with the dark main-strand of a story which opens with the omens of sorrow and is conducted to a tearful end. If, at the same time, a faint – a very faint – tinge of the supernatural is allowed to show itself in the conception of the tale, this is not only in full accord with the inclinations of the people for whom the work is written, but is also far less obtrusive than the similar element which pervades more than one of our own most celebrated fictions. […]”<br />
Reading through almost 80 years of reviews, during which more and more chapters of the novel became available, the ethnocentric attitude gradually changes to the scientific one and finally, with Mayr’s review of 1867 to a dialectic one, not only admitting that the Chinese novel was a piece of world literature, but even leaving open the possibility that it surpassed literary achievements of the own culture. This process certainly has been brought to a good end with the establishment of further diversified Chinese Studies in Europe and the USA, with the role of overseas Chinese at American universities, with further translations especially through Franz Kuhn in the 1930s and with the establishment of the German China Association in the 1950s. <br />
==Zhu Meimei 祝美梅==<br />
During its 60 years of history, the German China Association (next to the developing chairs of Chinese Studies at universities and next to other organizations dealing with China like friendship associations and Confucius Institutes) has helped to overcome prejudices, cultural relativism with diversity and tolerance. This is especially challenging, because the cultures and languages are quite distant and German media and internet community tends to bash China.<br />
==Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶==<br />
During the last 20 years, the German China Association was shaped through its prolific president, Gregor Paul, who has shaped the prestige of the Association with his sharp and precise analysis of a common logic in China and the West as well as universal values, including human rights, worth to strive for both in the West and in China. His entertaining and informative lectures used a rhethoric often referring to persuasive conventional wisdom, e.g. that differences often come from different opinions instead of a difference of the nature of the things, as can be seen from a quarrel with his wife about what both remembered had happened the day before. <br />
==Zhu Xu 朱旭==<br />
Paul is a consequent logician and a real universalist and he has added to Germany’s international reputation as “the land of poets and thinkers”.<br />
The process of doing more justice to China today culminates in the cooperation between Chinese and Western scholars at international conferences, in research projects or international book projects like A New Literary History of Modern China, Harvard University Press 2017.<br />
==Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨==<br />
Europeans (and later US-Americans) have made a contribution to Chinese Studies in general. They were influenced heavily by the idealizers (Jesuits, European philosophers of the enlightenment) and by China-bashers (Hegel, the German emperor...). It took 100 years for a Chinese piece of world literature to be recognized as such in Europe. But today, Chinese literature and culture is recognized with the Nobel Prize and Confucius Institutes do successful work in the whole work promoting and exporting Chinese culture abroad.<br />
==Volunteer==<br />
However, we should not overestimate the European contribution. There are still examples of ethnocentrism, even of religiously motivated reading of things into Chinese literature. One of these examples is the 10 volume History of Chinese Literature published in Bonn. In two volumes, the one about the origins of Chinese literature and the one on Chinese poetry, a German sinologist, who formerly was a priest, defines, that the origin of Chinese literature lies in the dialogue of the author with god.<br />
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然而，我们不应高估欧洲的贡献。现在仍然有民族中心主义的例子，甚至是出于宗教动机对中国文学作品的解读。在波恩出版的10卷《中国文学史》就是其中之一。德国汉学家在《中国文学起源论》和《中国诗歌论》两卷中，曾任神父的汉学家对中国文学的起源进行了界定:中国文学的起源在于作者与上帝的对话。--[[User:Zheng Huajun|Zheng Huajun]] ([[User talk:Zheng Huajun|talk]]) 05:27, 13 November 2020 (UTC)<br />
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==Volunteer==<br />
This reminds us again of the Jesuit reading of things into Chinese texts, it reminds us of the attempts, to impose your own culture on other seemingly backward cultures, in this case even the try to impose the Western god on the Chinese culture of a time, when China had a totally different understanding of the world and of heaven than that of a Christian god. The emergence of Chinese literature comes from songs, speeches and paintings, from the wish to document events, family etc., but not from an encounter with god.<br />
==Volunteer==<br />
The same German sinologist retranslated the Analects, attributed to Confucius, and translated some of the more than 50 occurrences of “heaven” or “demon/ghost” with the term “god”.[ Here Wolfgang Kubin stands in the tradition of Jean-François Noëlas 1720 and Richard Wilhelm 1925, see: Konfuzius: Gespräche. Transl. Richard Wilhelm. In Kubin’s commentary in the beginning of his identically titled book (Konfuzius: Gespräche Diederichs 2011), he justifies his reading of god into the Analects (p. 10). He translates “shen” as “gods” (p. 215) and claims, Confucius was sacrificing to the gods (p. 30), he understands „guishen“ as „demon and god“ or „spirit and god“ and “tian” as “god of heaven”, “supreme god”, (p. 213).] <br />
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==Volunteer==<br />
Experts on Confucius also quote the few passages, where Confucius addresses the question of the supranatural like ghosts etc. and analyze that Confucius may have been at best not interested or even negative about the belief in ghosts, while he was positive about the social stability and peace rituals brought for the people.<br />
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This reminds us of the fact, that it is to us to make sure that ethnocentrism is still existing today and that science is a field that needs to be aware of and cautious about it. And it needs courage to speak out against it.<br />
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孔子专家也引用了一些段落,在这些段落中孔子探讨了像是鬼魂之类的超自然的问题。专家们分析认为孔子充其量可能是不感兴趣,甚至对鬼魂的存在持否定态度，尽管他对仪式给人们带来的社会稳定和和平持积极态度。<br />
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这提醒我们一个事实：我们十分确信种族中心主义在今天仍然存在并且科学是需要注意和谨慎的领域，而公开反对它需要勇气。--[[User:Yuan SHiqi|Yuan SHiqi]] ([[User talk:Yuan SHiqi|talk]]) 08:12, 13 November 2020 (UTC)</div>Xu Jing2